Low-emission integrated process plants for producing high-performance cement-based products

Abstract

Low-emission integrated systems and methods for producing high-performance cement-based products. An integrated process plant may include a cement production plant, one or more power plants, and a carbon production plant that operates based on biofuel feedstocks. The carbon production plant may include one or more reactors configured to convert one or more biofuel feedstocks, or carbon dioxide recovered from effluents to a plasma based on microwave energy and produces one or more carbon-based materials including three-dimensional graphene carbons (3DG carbons). Hydrogen gas is produced as a byproduct and may be used for emissions abatement. The integrated process plant may include a CO2 gasification plant configured to produce carbon monoxide by gasifying the one or more carbon-based materials. Carbon monoxide may be mixed with hydrogen gas to produce synthesis gas, which may be upgraded to one or more chemicals or fuels.

Description

LOW-EMISSION INTEGRATED PROCESS PLANTS FOR PRODUCING HIGH- PERFORMANCE CEMENT-BASED PRODUCTSRELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This Patent Application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.63 / 762,562 entitled “NEGATIVE EMISSION, LARGE SCALE CARBON CAPTURE FOR BIOFUEL-POWERED CLEAN HYDROGEN GENERATION” and filed on February 24, 2025, to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 971,880 entitled “LOW-EMISSION INTEGRATED PROCESS PLANTS FOR PRODUCING HIGH-PERFORMANCE CEMENT-BASED PRODUCTS” and filed on January 30, 2026, and to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 988,505 entitled “LOW-EMISSION INTEGRATED PROCESS PLANTS FOR PRODUCING HIGH-PERFORMANCE CEMENT-BASED PRODUCTS” and filed on February 23, 2026, all of which arc assigned to the assignee hereof. The disclosures of all prior Applications are considered part of and are incorporated by reference in this Patent Application in each of their respective entireties.TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] This disclosure relates generally to low-emission integrated process plants and methods for producing high-performance cement-based products, and more particularly, to integrated process plants including a cement production plant and a mixed morphology graphene production plant that operate based on biofuel feedstocks.DESCRIPTION OF RELATED ART

[0003] Recent developments in reducing emissions associated with the production and use of cement-based products are focused on replacing ordinary Portland cement with supplementary cementitious materials and other additives. However, further improvements in the process plants and methods associated with the production of cement-based products are desired.SUMMARY

[0004] This Summary is provided to introduce in a simplified form a selection of concepts that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter.

[0005] In some implementations, an integrated process plant may include a cement production plant configured to produce one or more cement-based products and output a first off-gas including carbon dioxide (CO2), a carbon production plant including one or more reactors configured to produce, during a first operation mode, hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three dimensional graphene carbons (“3DG carbons”) by processing a first feedstock including a biofuel gas, and a mixing plant configured to produce one or more high-performance cement -based products by mixing the one or more cementbased products with the first carbon-based material. The high-performance cement-based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products not including the first carbon-based material.

[0006] In some instances, at least some of the one or more reactors may be configured to, during the first operation mode, dissociate the first feedstock including a biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce the hydrogen gas and the first carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated using a microwave energy source coupled to each of the one or more reactors.

[0007] In some implementations, at least some of the one or more reactors may be configured to, during a second operation mode, receive the first off-gas as a second feedstock and dissociate the second feedstock into a second plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons.

[0008] In some implementations, the mixing plant may be further configured to produce the one or more high-performance cement-based products by mixing the one or more cementbased products with one or more of the first carbon-based material or the second carbonbased material. The high-performance cement-based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products.

[0009] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include one or more power plants. In some examples, each of the one or more power plants may be configured to generate electrical energy based on the biofuel gas and supply the electrical energy to a microgrid associated with the integrated process plant. In some other examples,the cement production plant, the carbon production plant, and the mixing plant may each be configured to operate based on electrical energy supplied by the microgrid. In some examples, each of the one or more power plants may be configured to output a first effluent gas including one or more of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur oxides (SOx), or nitrogen oxides (NOX).

[0010] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a CO2 recovery plant configured to recover CO2 from the first effluent gas and produce recovered CO2 and a second effluent gas including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOX.

[0011] In some implementations, the recovered CO2 may be routed to the carbon production plant as a third feedstock. In some examples, at least some of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may be configured to, during a second operation mode, dissociate the third feedstock into a third feedstock plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and the second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons.

[0012] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include an emissions abatement plant configured to treat the second effluent gas. The emissions abatement plant may be configured to receive and utilize the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant as a reducing agent. In some examples, the emissions abatement plant may include a selective catalytic reduction (“SCR”) unit configured to decompose NOXin the second effluent gas to nitrogen and oxygen in the presence of the hydrogen gas. In some other examples, the emissions abatement plant may include an absorption unit configured to trap SOx in the second effluent gas using an absorbent chemical. In some instances, the emissions abatement plant may include a CO decomposition unit configured to decompose CO in the second effluent gas to a carbon waste material.

[0013] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors may include a microwave energy source configured to provide microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors, one or more inlets configured to deliver to the one or more reactors the first feedstock during the first operation mode, or the second feedstock including the first off-gas or the third feedstock including recovered CO2 from the CO2 recovery plant during a second operation mode. In some instances, each of the one or more reactors may include a dissociation chamber coupled to the microwave energy source. The dissociation chamber may be disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets and may be configured to dissociate the first feedstock into a first feedstock plasma based on themicrowave energy and produce hydrogen gas and the first carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during the first operation mode. In some instances, the dissociation chamber may be configured to dissociate one or more of the second feedstock or the recovered CO2 into the second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and the second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during the second operation mode.

[0014] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors may further include one or more outlets configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors.

[0015] In some implementations, an integrated process plant may include one or more power plants, a cement production plant, a carbon production plant including one or more reactors, a carbon dioxide (CO2) recovery plant, and an emissions abatement plant. In some examples, each of the one or more power plants may be configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas and supply the electrical energy to a microgrid. In some other examples, each of the one or more power plants may be configured to output a first effluent gas including one or more of CO, CO2, SOX, or NOX. In some instances, the cement production plant may be configured to produce one or more cement -based products and output a first off-gas including CO2 based on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid. In some other instances, at least some of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may be configured to dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (“3DG carbons”) during a first operation mode. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy provided by the microgrid.

[0016] In some implementations, the CO2 recovery plant may be configured to recover CO2 from the first effluent gas and produce recovered CO2 and a second effluent gas including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOXbased on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid.

[0017] In some implementations, the emissions abatement plant may be configured to treat the second effluent gas based on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid. In some examples, the emissions abatement plant may be configured to utilize the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant as a reactant.

[0018] In some implementations, at least some of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may be configured to dissociate a second feedstock including one or more of the first off-gas or the recovered CO2 into a second plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during a second operation mode. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy provided by the microgrid. In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a solar power plant electrically coupled to the microgrid. The solar power plant may include a battery energy storage system (“BESS”) configured to store electrical energy produced by the solar power plant.

[0019] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a gasification plant configured to produce carbon monoxide (CO) by gasifying one or more of the first carbon-based material or the second carbon-based material using one or more of the first off-gas including CO2 or the recovered CO2. In some instances, the integrated process plant may further include a synthesis gas blending plant configured to produce synthesis gas by mixing the carbon monoxide produced by the gasification plant with the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant.

[0020] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis plant configured to convert the synthesis gas to a liquid fuel. In some instances, the integrated process plant may further include a methanol plant configured to convert the synthesis gas to methanol. In some other instances, the integrated process plant may further include a biomass conversion plant configured to convert biomass to synthesis gas. The synthesis gas may be routed to the synthesis gas blending plant.

[0021] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a mixing plant configured to mix the one or more cement-based products with one or more of the first carbon-based material or the second carbon-based material and produce high-performance cement-based products. The high-performance cement-based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products.

[0022] In some implementations, the graphene associated with the second carbon-based material may include flaky graphene, nodular graphene, graphitic carbon, and amorphous carbon.

[0023] In some implementations, the graphene associated with the second carbon-based material may include one or more surface functional groups including oxygen. In some instances, the one or more surface functional groups may include one or more of epoxide (C-O-C), hydroxyl (-OH), ether (C-O-C), ketone (O-C=O), or carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups.

[0024] In some implementations, the first carbon-based material may include flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon. In some implementations, the first carbonbased material may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56. In some instances, the first carbonbased material may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an DD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7. In some other instances, the first carbon-based material may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56, and an DD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7. In some examples, the first carbon-based material may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio of approximately 0.49 and an LD / IG ratio of approximately 0.68. In some implementations, at least some of the flaky graphene may be fused or covalently coupled to at least some of the nodular graphene.

[0025] In some implementations, the flaky graphene may include a plurality of graphene layers. In some instances, the number of graphene layers in the plurality of graphene layers may be between 5 and 15. In some other instances, the plurality of graphene layers may include one or more of few layer graphene (“FLG”) or many layer graphene (“MLG”). In some examples, the graphene layers may be arranged as one or more stacks connected to each other and defining a three dimensional (“3D”) porous scaffold structure including mesopores. In some other examples, at least some of the flaky graphene may be characterized by a linear dimension of between approximately 50 nm and 200 nm.

[0026] In some implementations, the nodular graphene may include a plurality of carbon nano-onions (“CNOs”). In some instances, the nodular graphene may include porous carbon agglomerates of porous carbon primary nanoparticles. In some other instances, a respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle may include an inner porous shell disposed about a center of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle and enclosing an inner porous carbon region, an outer porous shell enclosing an outer porous carbon region disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell, and an interconnected porousnetwork disposed in and in fluid communication with the inner and outer porous carbon regions. In some other instances, the inner porous carbon region and the outer porous carbon region may be characterized by an average pore size and an average pore density associated with each region. In some other instances, the average pore size may decrease along a radial direction from the center of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle to the outer porous shell of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle. In some examples, a porous carbon primary nanoparticle may further include one or more intermediate porous shells disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle. In some other examples, each of the intermediate porous shells may enclose a corresponding intermediate porous carbon region.

[0027] In some other implementations, an integrated process plant may include one or more power plants, and a carbon production plant including one or more reactors. In some instances, each of the one or more power plants may be configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas and output an effluent gas including one or more of CO, CO2, SOx, or NOx. In some other instances, at least some of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may be configured to dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (“3DG carbons”) during a first operation mode. In some examples, at least some of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may be configured to dissociate a second feedstock including the first effluent gas into a second plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during a second operation mode. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy.

[0028] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may include a microwave energy source configured to provide microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors, and one or more inlets configured to deliver to the one or more reactors the first feedstock during the first operation mode or the second feedstock including the effluent gas during the second operation mode. In some examples, each of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may include a dissociation chamber coupled to the microwave energy source. In some other examples, the dissociation chamber may be disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets and may be configured to dissociate the first feedstock into a firstfeedstock plasma based on the microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas and the first carbon-based material including 3DG carbons during the first operation mode, and dissociate the second feedstock including the effluent gas into a second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during the second operation mode.

[0029] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors may further include one or more outlets configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors.

[0030] Details of one or more implementations of the subject matter described in this disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims. Note that the relative dimensions of the following figures may not be drawn to scale.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0031] Figure 1 A shows a schematic diagram of an integrated process plant for producing high-performance cement-based products, according to some implementations.

[0032] Figure IB shows a schematic diagram depicting one or more valorization processes associated with the integrated process plant of Figure 1A, according to some implementations.

[0033] Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of a microwave plasma reactor, according to some implementations.

[0034] Figure 3A shows a schematic diagram of a cement-based product including a carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (3DG carbons), according to some implementations.

[0035] Figures 3B-3C show scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene, according to some implementations.

[0036] Figures 3D-3G show transmission electron microscopy (TEM) micrographs of 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene, according to some implementations.

[0037] Figure 4 A shows a SEM micrograph of single layer graphene flakes.

[0038] Figure 4B shows a SEM micrograph of 2-dimensional graphene nanoplatelets.

[0039] Figure 5A shows a schematic diagram of flaky graphene in 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0040] Figure 5B shows a diagram depicting nano-confinement of a dopant in the 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0041] Figure 5C shows a diagram of calcium-aluminosilicate hydrates including polymerized fibrous materials supported by 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0042] Figure 6A shows a diagram of a porous primary carbon nanoparticle in nodular graphene associated with 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0043] Figure 6B shows a TEM micrograph of nodular graphene including porous carbon agglomerates of porous primary carbon nanoparticles, according to some implementations.

[0044] Figure 6C shows another TEM micrograph of nodular graphene including agglomerates of porous primary carbon nanoparticles, according to some implementations.

[0045] Figure 7A shows a schematic diagram of another porous primary carbon nanoparticle in nodular graphene, according to some implementations.

[0046] Figure 7B shows a step function associated with pore size distribution representative of a porous carbon primary nanoparticle of Figure 7 A, according to some implementations.

[0047] Figure 8 shows a graph illustrating pore volume distribution of a carbon-based material including 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0048] Figure 9 shows a TEM micrograph of a carbon-based material including flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon, according to some implementations.

[0049] Figures 10A-10B show electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) spectra of a carbon-based material including flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon, according to some implementations.

[0050] Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of another integrated process plant for producing hydrogen and carbon-based materials including 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.

[0051] Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0052] The following description is directed to some example implementations for the purpose of describing the innovative aspects of this disclosure. However, a person having ordinary skill in the art will readily recognize that the teachings herein can be applied in a multitude of different ways. The implementations described herein can be implemented in cement compositions for a variety of applications and may be tailored to compensate for various performance related deficiencies. As such, the disclosed implementations are not to be limited by the examples provided herein, but rather encompass all implementations contemplated by the attached claims. Additionally, well-known elements of the disclosure will not be described in detail or will be omitted so as not to obscure the relevant details of the disclosure.

[0053] Various aspects of the novel compositions and methods are described more fully herein with reference to the accompanying drawings. These aspects are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the disclosure to those skilled in the art. Although some examples and aspects are described herein, many variations and permutations of these examples fall within the scope of the disclosure.Although some benefits and advantages of the various aspects are mentioned, the scope of the disclosure is not intended to be limited to benefits, uses, or objectives. The detailed description and drawings are merely illustrative of the disclosure rather than limiting, the scope of the disclosure being defined by the appended claims and equivalents thereof.

[0054] In this disclosure, cement-based products include one or more of mortar, concrete, quick set cement products, high alumina cements, oil field cements, ready-mix concrete, precast concrete, concrete blocks, concrete paver, concrete pipe, among other similar nonlimiting examples. Ready-mix concrete may account for approximately 50% to 60% of the global market for concrete products.

[0055] Additionally, cementitious materials (also referred to herein as cementitious binders) include hydraulic cements that harden in water and supplementary cementitious materials (“SCM”). An SCM may be defined as “an inorganic material that contributes to the properties of a cementitious mixture through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity, or both.” See, for example, ASTM 2015, Paper FHWA-HIF- 16-001, U.S. Department of Transportation. The type and amount of SCMs may be varied to reduce the amount of Portland cement in concrete (or increase the replacement levels of cement), without sacrificing mechanical strength. SCMs may contribute to the formation of cementitious materials by both hydraulicactivity and pozzolanic activity. SCMs (and cements) that have hydraulic properties, harden during hydration. SCMs with pozzolanic activity require both water and calcium hydroxide (“C-H”) as reactants to form calcium-silicate-hydrates (“C-S-H”). Examples of SCMs include fly ash, blast furnace slag (referred to herein as “slag”), silica fume, natural pozzolans, calcined clay including metakaolin, among other similar non-limiting examples.

[0056] In this disclosure, a “three-dimensional graphene carbons” (also referred to herein as “3DG carbons”) includes flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon. In some examples, a “three-dimensional graphene carbons” includes flaky graphene, nodular graphene, graphitic carbon, and amorphous carbon. In some instances, flaky graphene may include graphitic carbon. Graphitic carbon is characterized by a layered three-dimensional structure including many graphene layers, for example, more than 30 graphene layers. In this disclosure, few layer graphene (“FLG”) includes flaky graphene characterized by 5 to 10 graphene layers, and many layer graphene (“MLG”) includes flaky graphene characterized by 10-to-30-layer graphene layers. As such, the 3DG carbons may be referred to as “mixed morphology” carbons.

[0057] The mixed morphology carbons may include agglomerates of primary carbon nanoparticles. A primary carbon particle may be considered as a spheroidal shaped, non-discreet component of an aggregate that is separable from the aggregate only by fracturing. A plurality of primary carbon nanoparticles may be coalesced or joined to form carbon aggregates including primary carbon nanoparticlcs. An aggregate may be considered as a discrete, colloidal entity that is the smallest dispersible unit composed of coalesced primary carbon nanoparticles. The primary carbon particles may be connected together by one or more of Van der Waals forces, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, metallic bonds, or by other physical or chemical interactions. Additionally, a plurality of carbon aggregates may be considered as carbon agglomerates. Since carbon aggregates of at least 1 pm in size may be considered as agglomerates, the term “carbon aggregates” also includes “carbon agglomerates” in this disclosure.

[0058] The carbon nanoparticles may include three-dimensional (“3D”) mesoporous carbon nanoparticles. As such, the “mixed morphology” carbons may also be referred to herein as 3DG carbons. A mesoporous material, as generally understood and as referred to herein, includes a material containing pores with diameters between 2 nm and 50 nm, according to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (“IUPAC”) nomenclature. For the purposes of comparison, IUPAC defines microporous material as amaterial having pores smaller than 2 nm in diameter and defines macroporous material as a material having pores larger than 50 nm in diameter.

[0059] Those skilled in the art would recognize that “graphene” refers to an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale, hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. The carbon atoms in graphene may be sp2hybridized carbon atoms. Additionally, pristine graphene has a Raman spectrum with two main peaks: a G-mode at approximately 1580 cm'1and a D mode at approximately 1350 cm'1(when using a 532 nm excitation laser). In contrast, the 3DG carbons disclosed herein are characterized by a distinct morphological structure as described below in this disclosure with reference to Figures 3B-3G, 5A-5C, 6A-6C. 7A-7B, 8-9, and 10A-10B.

[0060] In some implementations, the 3DG carbons may include one or more of oxygen containing surface functional groups, nano-silica particles, or nano-silica surface functional groups disposed on one or more of surfaces of the 3DG carbons or within the 3DG carbons. In some instances, the 3DG carbons may be characterized by a graphene to amorphous carbon ratio of between approximately 1% and approximately 95%. In some implementations, the 3DG carbons may be characterized by a carbon purity of at least 99.9%. The 3DG carbons may be characterized by an electrical conductivity of between approximately 500 S / m and approximately 20,000 S / m when compressed at pressure of approximately 12,000 pounds per square inch (“psi”).

[0061] The cement industry contributes to approximately 8% of global greenhouse gas (CO2) emissions. Approximately 90% of these emissions are produced during the high temperature calcination process of limestone and clay materials at amounts of approximately 0.8 tons CO2 per ton of ordinary Portland cement (“OPC”), which includes the amount of CO2 produced by combustion of fuels used to heat the kilns. Accounting for CO2 emissions from quarry-to-point-of-use, approximately 1 ton of CO2 is produced per ton of OPC.Therefore, considerable research and development has been directed to reduce the amount of Portland cement in concrete and increase the replacement levels of cement. As described below, supplementary cementitious materials (“SCMs”) may be used as additives to increase the replacement levels of cement and realize reductions in CO2 emissions. However, further improvements associated with the production of cement-based products are desired.

[0062] In some implementations, and without being bound by any particular theory, the 3DG carbons may function as a nano-filler, improve microscopic pore structure, and enhance the mechanical performance of cement-based products including concrete. As hydration ratesslow down at later ages of the curing process, 3DG carbons may serve as nucleation sites for improving hydration rates of cementitious materials. With the addition of the 3DG carbons, the chloride resistance of concrete including 3DG carbons may be improved by approximately 200% relative to the chloride resistance of equivalent or corresponding concrete not including 3DG carbons, and the resistance to water permeability may be increased by approximately 25%.

[0063] Ordinary Portland cement (“OPC”) is produced by calcining limestone (CaCOs) with clay (aluminosilicates) in a kiln at approximately 1500 °C to form a sintered product commonly known as clinker. Portland cement is used as a cementitious material (binder) in cement products including concrete. ASTM standard specification (ASTM Cl 50) requires that Portland cement “must have the following chemical compositions: aluminum oxide, feme oxide, magnesium oxide, sulfur trioxide, tricalcium silicate (“C3S”), dicalcium silicate (“C2S”), tricalcium aluminate (“C3A”), and tetracalcium aluminoferrite.’’ When mixed with water, the calcium silicates and aluminates are hydrated via several hydration and gelation reactions to primarily form calcium-silicate-hydrate (“C-S-H”) paste, which gradually bonds sand and gravel particles in concrete together and hardens to form a solid water-resistant product via a process known as setting. After initial setting, concrete continues to harden and develop its mechanical strength over a period of approximately 30 days. Approximately less than 5 wt% gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) may be added to clinker and ground to fine powder in a ball mill. Gypsum is added primarily to retard the setting time of cement by slowing down the hydration rates of the C2S, C3S and C3A, and more importantly, the exothermic hydration of C3A by preventing “flash setting.’’

[0064] In addition to forming C-S-H, hydration typically forms a byproduct known as Portlandite, which is composed of calcium hydroxide (“C-H”). Portlandite does not have cementitious properties and may cause an undesirable increase in the permeability of concrete to water, which reduces the mechanical strength of concrete. To mitigate this effect, supplementary cementitious materials (“SCM”) may be added to Portland cement or concrete prior to hydration, to react with C-H and water during hydration via the pozzolanic reaction, which also has the beneficial effect of forming additional C-S-H cementitious compounds.

[0065] As previously described, undesirable C-H produced by hydraulic activity (for example, hydration of Portland cement), may be consumed during pozzolanic activity provided by SCMs to produce additional amounts of cementitious compounds like C-S-H. Examples of SCMs may include fly ash (byproduct of coal fired furnaces), blast furnace slag(referred to herein as “slag”), silica fume, and natural pozzolans like metakaolin. Other SCMs including slag may exhibit hydraulic activity and produce cementitious compounds during hydration. Slag cement does not exhibit pozzolanic activity but consumes C-H by binding alkalis in its hydration products. Therefore, although it is a hydraulic cement, slag cement provides the benefits of a pozzolan. SCMs are also used to improve concrete performance in its fresh and hardened state and to improve the workability, durability, and strength of concrete.

[0066] Reports suggest that graphene physically and chemically interacts with cementitious binders and improves adhesion between the graphene basal planes and cement gel by Van der Waals forces, which reinforces the hydrated structure by preventing cracks from developing at a nanoscale. Changes in porosity and hydration at the graphene-cement interface have also been observed. When used as a water-based admixture in typical cementbased mortar at dosing levels of less than 0.1%, graphene was found to increase compression strength by 34% increase in and tensile strength by 7%. However, graphene produced by exfoliation of graphite is an expensive boutique additive. Reports suggest that in volumes approaching approximately 5 tons, the price range of the graphene nanoplatelet powders may be approximately $250 / kg-$300 / kg, which is approximately 2000x the U.S. price of Portland cement (of approximately $125 / ton). Less expensive additives and cement compositions which offer higher replacement levels of Portland cement, and which lead to reduced setting time without degrading mechanical strength are required.

[0067] The benefits of cement-based products including 3DG carbons were previously described in commonly owned International Patent Application No. PCT / US2023 / 063476, International Patent Application No. PCT / US2024 / 045741, and International Patent Application No.PCT / US2025 / 054615, the entireties of which are incorporated by reference herein. Integrated chemical processes that exploit the synergies associated with producing the 3DG carbons using a biofuel feedstock, providing power to cement kilns based on a biofuel feedstock, capturing carbon dioxide from byproduct and effluent streams for producing additional 3DG carbons, and mixing the 3DG carbons with cement -based products to produce high-performance cement-based products combined with negligible greenhouse gas emissions are desired. Additionally, integrated chemical processes that exploit the synergies associated with producing 3DG carbons and hydrogen using a biofuel feedstock are desired. The high-performance cement -based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt andwater migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the respective properties of the corresponding cement-based products.

[0068] Figure 1 A shows a schematic diagram of an integrated process plant 100A for producing high-performance cement-based products, according to some implementations. In some implementations, the integrated process plant 100A may include a cement production plant 101 configured to produce one or more cement-based products 102 and output a first off-gas including carbon dioxide (CO2) 106, and a carbon production plant 103.

[0069] In some implementations, the carbon production plant 103 may include one or more reactors 104 configured to operate based on a first operation mode or a second operation mode. During the first operation mode, the one or more reactors 104 may be configured to dissociate the first feedstock including a biofuel gas 105 into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce the hydrogen gas 120 and the first carbonbased material 107 including 3DG carbons. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated using a microwave energy source coupled to each of the one or more reactors.

[0070] The International Energy Agency (“IEA”) estimates that biofuels may provide up to 27% of world transportation fuel by 2050. Examples of biofuels may include ethanol, biodiesel, biogas, among other similar non-limiting examples. Eiquid biofuels may be converted to gaseous products including light hydrocarbons using one or more chemical processes including reforming, partial oxidation, gasification among other similar nonlimiting examples. The light hydrocarbons may include Ci to C4 hydrocarbons and may be include the feedstock 105 associated with integrated process plant 100A.

[0071] In some implementations, the cement production plant 101 may include one or more kilns configured to produce a sintered product commonly known as clinker by calcining limestone (CaCCh) with clay (aluminosilicates) at approximately 1500 °C. Calcining limestone with clay releases the first off-gas including carbon dioxide (CO2) 106. In some instances, the first off-gas including carbon dioxide (CO2) 106 may be routed to the carbon production plant 103 as a second feedstock.

[0072] In some implementations, during the second operation mode, the one or more reactors 104 may be configured to dissociate the second feedstock 106 including first off-gas including CO2 into a second feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas 110 and the second carbon-based material 111 including 3DG carbons. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated using a microwave energy source coupled to each of the one or more reactors. Additional details related to CO2 dissociation to carbon-based materials based on microwave energy are described in commonly owned U.S. Patent No. 12,201,958B2, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

[0073] As previously described herein, approximately 90% of emissions are produced during the high temperature calcination process at amounts of approximately 0.8 tons CO2 per ton of ordinary Portland cement (“OPC”), which includes the amount of CO2 produced by combustion of fuels used to heat the kilns. Accordingly, in some implementations, the one or more kilns may be heated by electrical power generated by one or more power plants 112 operating based on the combustion of the biofuel gas 105 and configured to emit reduced levels of CO2 in first effluent gas 114 relative to the CO2 emitted from direct healing of kilns by combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel.

[0074] In some implementations, the first effluent gas 114 may be routed to a CO2 recovery plant 115 configured to produce recovered CO2 116 and a second effluent gas 117 including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOX. In some instances, the one or more kilns associated with the cement production plant 101 may be heated by combustion of the biofuel feedstock 105 and CO2 in the effluent gas may be separated from the effluent using a CO2 recovery plant.

[0075] In some implementations, the CO2 recovery plant 115 may be configured to separate CO2 from the first effluent gas 114 by amine absorption. Examples of amines may include one or more of mono ethanolamine (“MEA”), diethanolamine (“DEA”), N, N-dimethylethanolamine (“DMEA”), 2-amino-2-methyl-l-propanol (“AMP”), among other similar non- limiting examples. CO2 may be released as recovered CO2116 by heat-stripping from the amine absorbent. In some instances, the CO2 recovery plant 115 may be configured to separate CO2 from the first effluent gas 114 by solid adsorbents. Examples of solid adsorbents may include one or more of activated carbon, zeolites, metal organic frameworks (“MOFs”), among other similar non-limiting examples. CO2 may be released as recovered CO2116 by from the adsorbent using pressure-swing or thermal-swing separation processes. In some instances, the CO2 recovery plant 115 may be configured to separate CO2 as recovered CO2116 from the first effluent gas 114 based on polymeric membrane separators.

[0076] Referring to Figure 1 A, in some implementations, integrated process plant 100A may include mixing plant 108 configured to produce one or more high-performance cementbased products characterized by enhanced properties by mixing the one or more cementbased products 102 with the first carbon-based material 107. The high-performance cementbased products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more ofmechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the respective properties of the corresponding cement-based products.

[0077] In some implementations, the mixing plant may be further configured to produce the one or more high-performance cement-based products 109 characterized by enhanced mechanical properties by mixing the one or more cement-based products 102 with one or more of the first carbon-based material 107 or the second carbon-based material 111. The high-performance cement-based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products. Examples of high-performance cement-based products include 3DG carbons were previously described in commonly owned International Patent Application No. PCT / US2023 / 063476, International Patent Application No. PCT / US2024 / 045741, and International Patent Application No.PCT / US2025 / 054615, which are incorporated by reference herein in each of their respective entireties.

[0078] In some implementations, the graphene associated with the second carbon-based material 111 may include flaky graphene, nodular graphene, graphitic carbon, and amorphous carbon. As previously described herein, the second carbon-based material 111 is one example of 3DG carbons. In some examples, the graphene associated with the second carbon-based material 111 may include one or more surface functional groups including oxygen relative to the first carbon-based material. In some other examples, the one or more surface functional groups may include one or more of epoxide (C-O-C), hydroxyl (-OH), ether (C-O-C), ketone (O-C=O), or carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups.

[0079] In some implementations, the graphene associated with the first carbon-based material 107 may include flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon. As previously described herein, the first carbon-based material 107 is another example of 3DG carbons.

[0080] Referring to Figure 1 A, in some implementations, each of the one or more power plants 112 may be configured to generate electrical energy based on the biofuel gas 105 and supply the electrical energy to a microgridl 13 associated with the integrated process plant 100A. In some other examples, the cement production plant 101, the carbon production plant 103, and the mixing plant 108 may each be configured to operate based on electrical energy supplied by the microgrid 103.

[0081] In some implementations, the recovered CO2 116 may be routed to the carbon production plant 103 as a third feedstock. In some examples, at least some of the one or more reactors 104 associated with the carbon production plant 103 may be configured to, while operating during the second operation mode, dissociate the third feedstock into a third feedstock plasma based on the micro wave energy and produce oxygen gas 110 and the second carbon-based material 111 including 3DG carbons. Additional details related to CO2 dissociation to carbon-based materials based on microwave energy are described in commonly owned U.S. Patent No. 12,201,958B2, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

[0082] In some implementations, the integrated process plant 100 A may further include an emissions abatement plant 118 configured to treat the second effluent gas 117 including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOX. In some instances, the emissions abatement plant 118 may be configured to receive and utilize the hydrogen gas 120 from the carbon production plant 103 as a reactant (or reducing agent). In some other instances, hydrogen gas 120 may be purified, compressed, and stored in integrated process plant 100 A (not shown in Figure 1A for simplicity).

[0083] In some examples, the emissions abatement plant 118 may include a selective catalytic reduction (“SCR”) unit (not shown in Figure 1 A for simplicity) configured to decompose NOXin the second effluent gas 117 to nitrogen and oxygen in the presence of the hydrogen gas. Accordingly, the use of hydrogen gas 120 as a reducing agent circumvents the need for toxic liquid urea-based solutions as liquid reducing agent commonly used in SCR processes. Examples of urea-based solutions include AdBlue® sold by several manufacturers including Yara, BASF, and TotalEnergies. AdBlue is decomposed by heat to ammonia, a toxic chemical, which reduces NOxin the presence of a catalyst to nitrogen and oxygen.

[0084] In some other implementations, the emissions abatement plant 118 may include an absorption unit (not shown in Figure 1 A for simplicity) configured to trap SOx in the second effluent gas using an absorbent chemical and convert the SOx to solid waste including calcium sulfite or calcium sulfate. Examples of absorbent chemicals include calcium carbonate or sodium hydroxide, among other similar non-limiting examples.

[0085] In some implementations, the emissions abatement plant 118 may include a CO decomposition unit (not shown in Figure 1 A for simplicity) configured to decompose CO in the second effluent gas to carbon waste. In some examples, CO decomposition may proceed via the Boudouard reaction, as shown below for convenience:2C0 <-> C + C02

[0086] In some other examples, CO may be dissociated as CO plasma based on the microwave energy in a microwave reactor and produce carbon waste and oxygen radicals, which may recombine as oxygen gas.

[0087] In some implementations, integrated process plant 100 A may include one or more valorization processes and their respective process plants. Valorization may be considered as one or more processes that upgrade the economic value of products, by-products, or waste by transforming these resources into value-added materials.

[0088] Figure IB shows a schematic diagram 100B depicting one or more valorization processes associated with the integrated process plant 100A, according to some implementations. In some implementations, a valorization process associated with integrated process plant 100 A may include a carbon gasification plant 150 configured to produce carbon monoxide (CO) from CO2 and carbon-based materials. In some instances, the carbon-based materials may be gasified by one or more of the first off-gas CO2 106, or the recovered CO2 116 from integrated process plant 100A to produce CO. In some examples, the carbon-based materials may include one or more of the first carbon-based material 107, the second carbonbased material 111 , or carbon waste products produced from the emissions abatement plant 116 associated with the integrated process plant 100A. The carbon gasification reaction may be expressed as:

[0089] The carbon gasification reaction is highly endothermic, and the reaction proceeds at temperatures above 700 °C. As such, the gasification reactors (not shown for simplicity) associated with carbon gasification plant 150 may be heated using electrical power supplied by microgrid 113. The carbon monoxide stream 151 that exits the carbon gasification plant 150 may be combined with hydrogen gas 120 produced by the carbon production plant 103 in synthesis gas blending plant 170 to obtain a mixture of CO and H2 referred to herein as synthesis gas 152. The synthesis gas 152 may be converted to a number of valued-added chemical products and fuels as described below.

[0090] In various implementations, the integrated process plant 100 A may include a methanol plant 153 configured to convert synthesis gas 152 to methanol 154. The chemical reaction associated with the conversion of synthesis gas 152 to methanol in methanol plant 153 may be expressed as: <>

[0091] The methanol synthesis reaction is exothermic and may be carried out in one or more reactors (not shown for simplicity) at a pressure between approximately 5 MPa and approximately 10 MPa and a temperature of approximately 250 °C in the presence of a copper- zinc catalyst supported on alumina. Methanol plant 153 may require the synthesis gas 152 to be free of sulfur impurities. As such, methanol plant 153 may include a synthesis gas desulfurization plant (not shown for simplicity). In some instances, synthesis gas 152 may be blended with carbon dioxide (CO2) and small amounts of methane. Single pass conversions associated with the reactors in methanol plant 153 may be low and may yield a product including 4 vol% to 7 vol% methanol. The unreacted synthesis gas is recycled (not shown in Figure IB for simplicity). The composition of the feed gas, including fresh synthesis gas feedstock 152 and recycled gas to the one or more reactors associated with methanol plant 153 and expressed as H2: CO: CO2 may be approximately 80-86 vol%: 8-10 vol% : 6-10 vol%. The H2 / CO ratio may be greater than 2 and may be tuned in synthesis gas blending plant 170 by adding variable amounts of CO2 to the feedstock to minimize side reactions of synthesis gas to form methane.

[0092] In some implementations, methanol 154 produced by methanol plant 153 may be used as the feedstock for producing formaldehyde 155, which is a raw material for producing a number of thermoset resins including phenolic resins, melamine resins, and polymethacrylates. The catalytic oxidation and / or dehydrogenation reactions for producing formaldehyde from methanol may be expressed as:> >>

[0093] In some other implementations, methanol 154 may be converted to acetic acid 156 by carboxylation reactions. Acetic acid is a versatile chemical and may be used for manufacturing industrial chemicals including vinyl acetate and cellulose acetate, for manufacturing household cleaning products. Acetic acid may be diluted with water to form vinegar and used for food preservation. Acetic acid may be used in a number of medical applications including the manufacture of ear drops and antiseptics.

[0094] In some other implementations, methanol 154 may be converted to fuel additives 157 including methyl tert-butyl ether (“MTBE”). MTBE acts as an oxygenate and enables gasoline to bum more completely and reduce harmful tailpipe emissions like carbonmonoxide. While blending gasoline with MTBE has decreased in the US and is banned in some states, the US continues to produce and export MTBE to countries including Mexico.

[0095] In various other implementations, methanol 154 may be converted to a gasolinegrade fuel 158 by the methanol-to-gasoline process (“MTG”). In the MTG process, methanol is dehydrated to dimethyl ether, which is converted to olefins at a temperature of between approximately 360 °C and approximately 415 °C and at a pressure of approximately 2 MPa over a zeolite (ZSM-5) catalyst. The olefins may undergo a series of reactions including oligomerization, cracking, cyclization, and hydrogen-transfer reactions to form branched-chain paraffins including high-octane gasoline and aromatics.

[0096] In some implementations, methanol 154 may be converted to olefins 159 including ethylene, propylene, and butenes (referred to herein as “C1-C4 olefins”) using the methanol-to-olefin (“MTO”) process. In the MTO process, methanol is reacted al temperatures of between approximately 400 °C and 500 °C and at pressures of between approximately 0.1 MPa and approximately 0.3 MPa over zeolite catalysts (e.g., S APO-34) in a fluidized bed reactor to produce the olefins via a series of complex reactions. The light olefins may be used as raw materials for producing polymers including polyethylene-based polymers, polypropylene based polymers, and a variety of C1-C4 crosslinked polymers, which are widely used in a number of applications including manufacturing of synthetic fibers, thermoplastic composites, coatings, packaging, or of construction materials, among other similar non-limiting applications.

[0097] In some other implementations, synthesis gas 152 may be converted to a liquid fuel 61 using the Fischer-Tropsch (“F-T”) synthesis in a F-T synthesis plant 160. In the F-T synthesis plant 160, carbon monoxide is converted to straight chain hydrocarbons by reductive polymerization at approximately 220 °C and 2.7 MPa over an ion catalyst including potassium as a catalyst promoter. Straight chain hydrocarbons (C10-C20) may be used for producing jet-fuel and diesel fuel. The reactor design, operating conditions, and catalyst composition associated with the F-T synthesis plant 160 may be tuned to produce wax products and liquid hydrocarbons with a boiling point range comparable to the boiling point of gasoline. The F-T process may be used to upgrade low-value or difficult-to-transport feedstocks like coal, natural gas, or biomass into high-value, drop-in liquid fuels. These synthetic fuels are clean and are virtually free of sulfur and aromatics, and result in reduced particulate emissions during combustion. The F-T process produces specialized chemicals and high-purity lubricants that command a premium price over traditional crude oilderivatives and significantly increases the overall economic margins of the hydrocarbon value chain.

[0098] In some implementations, valorization processes associated with the integrated process plant 100A may also include production of synthesis gas 152 from a biomass feedstock 162 in biomass conversion plant 163. When the biomass feedstock is in solid, semi-solid, or liquid form, (e.g., coal, agricultural waste, manure, woodchips, municipal solid waste), the biomass feedstock 162 may be converted to synthesis gas 152’ in biomass conversion plant 163 using one or more chemical processes including gasification, steam reforming, autothermal reforming, partial oxidation, or a combination thereof. The synthesis gas 152’ may be routed to synthesis gas blending plant 170 and may be converted to one or more valued-added chemicals as previously described herein. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the process schematic diagrams described herein are shown by way of example only, and that other combinations of the processes may exist without departing from the scope and spirit of the present implementations.

[0099] In some other implementations, integrated process plant 100A may be configured to produce one or more of first carbon-based material 107 or second carbon-based material 111 in amounts that exceed the requirements of mixing plant 108 associated with the production of high-performance based cement products 109. For example, the production rate of one or more of first carbon-based material 107 or second carbon-based material 111 may be increased or decreased by changing one or more of the number of reactors 104 associated with carbon production plant 103, the throughput associated with each reactor, the operating frequency associated with the one or more reactors, the duration of operation of the one or more reactors, or a combination thereof. In some instances, the operation of integrated process plant 100A may be controlled using a distributed control system (“DCS”). Those skilled in the art would recognize that a DCS is a computerized, decentralized control system designed for controlling complex industrial processes and utilizes a plurality of localized controllers for controlling various unit operations and plants within an integrated process plant with high reliability, safety, and flexibility. Providers of DCS include, but are not limited to, Yokogawa Electric Corporation, Siemens, Honeywell, or Emerson Electric.

[0100] Examples of one or more reactors 104 associated with carbon production plant 103 (referring to Figure 1A) are described in commonly owned U.S. Patent Nos.12,201,958B2 and 9,767,992B1, which are incorporated by reference herein in each of their respective entireties. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram 200 of a microwave reactor 104,according to some implementations. In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors 104 may include a microwave energy source 201 configured to provide microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors 104 through waveguide 202, one or more inlets 203 configured to deliver to the one or more reactors the first feedstock 105 while operating during the first operation mode, or the second feedstock 106 including the first off-gas or the third feedstock 116 including recovered CO2 from the CO2 recovery plant 115 while operating during the second operation mode.

[0101] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors may include a dissociation chamber or dissociation zone 204 coupled to the microwave energy source. The dissociation chamber 204 may be disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets 203 and may be configured to dissociate the first feedstock into a first feedstock plasma based on the microwave energy activation and produce hydrogen gas and the first carbon-based material including 3DG carbons while operating during the first operation mode. In some instances, the dissociation chamber 204 may be configured to dissociate one or more of the second feedstock or the recovered CO2 into the second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and the second carbon-based material including 3DG carbons while operating during the second operation mode. In some instances, dissociation chamber 204 may include a plasma zone 204A and an afterglow zone 204B. The plasma zone 204A may be configured to generate radicals including carbon species or oxygen species based on the dissociation of the biofuel gas feedstock 105 or the second or third feedstock including CO2. The dissociation chamber 204 may be heated by one or more heating devices (not shown in Figure 2 for simplicity) including ohmic heating devices, dielectric heating devices, phonon heating devices, or inductive heating devices, electromagnetic heating devices among other similar non-limiting examples of heating devices. The one or more heating devices may be powered using electrical energy supplied by microgrid 113.

[0102] Additionally, carbon production plant 103 may include a reactor control system (not shown in Figure 2 for simplicity) may be configured to implement one or more process operations including controlling the temperature profile along the length of the dissociation chamber 204, controlling the operation of the microwave energy source 201, controlling the flow rates of the one or more feedstocks through the one or more inlets 203, and implementing the protocol for switching between the first operation mode and the second operation mode. In some instances, the reactor control system may also schedule which ofthe one or more reactors 104 (shown as 1, 2, 3, ... n, referring to Figure 1 A) operate during the first operation mode or the second operation mode.

[0103] A person skilled in the art would recognize that the reactor control system may include one or more processors, and a memory coupled to the one or more processors and storing program code that, when executed by the one or more processors, causes the control system to implement one or more process operations described above. Reactor 104 may include fluidic components including valves, regulators, sensors including temperature sensors and pressure sensors (not shown in Figure 2 for simplicity) that are configured to communicate with the reactor control system.

[0104] In some implementations, microwave source 201 may provide the microwave energy in pulses to the dissociation chamber 204. Operating parameters, including but not limiting to, the energy of pulse, pulse duration, pulse frequency may be tuned and implemented using the reactor control system to manipulate the ratio of one or more of flaky graphene, nodular graphene, graphitic carbons, amorphous carbons, turbostratic carbons in the first carbon-based material 107 or the second carbon-based material 111 and produce the desired morphology associated with first carbon-based material 107 and the second carbonbased material 111. Additionally, the number of layers associated with the flaky graphene may be controlled by tuning the operating parameters associated with the microwave source 201. Turbostratic carbons including one or more disordered stacked carbon layers characterized by random rotations or displacement with respect to each other. Details related to the creation of radicals in plasma zone 204A and nucleation and growth of the radicals to yield the carbon-based materials in the plasma zone 204A and afterglow zone 204B are described in commonly owned U.S. Patent Nos. 12,201,958B2 and 9,767,992B1, which are incorporated by reference herein in each of their respective entireties.

[0105] In some instances, chemical agents including oxygen or nitrogen may be added to the dissociation chamber 204 through the one or more inlets 203 to tune the morphology of the first carbon-based material 107 or the morphology of the second carbon-based material 111.

[0106] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors 104 may further include one or more outlets 205 configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors 104.

[0107] In some implementations, the integrated process plant may further include a solar power plant 119 electrically coupled to the microgrid 113. The solar power plant 119 may include a battery energy storage system (“BESS,” not shown in Figure 1 A for simplicity) configured to store electrical energy produced by the solar power plant. Examples of solar power plants that convert sunlight to electrical energy may include power plants based on photovoltaic (“PV”) arrays, or power plants based on concentrating solar power (“CSP”) systems, which are configured to capture solar energy using one or more collectors, concentrate solar energy into a receiver, and store the captured solar energy as thermal energy. In general, CSP systems reflect and concentrate sunlight into a receiver using a system of mirrors. Heat from the hot receiver may then be transferred using heat transfer media to generate steam and produce electricity using a turbine and related power systems in a decarbonized electric grid. Alternately, thermal energy may be stored for various industrial applications. CSP systems at utility-scale are typically configured as linear concentrator systems or a solar power tower (“SPT”) systems.

[0108] In some implementations, and referring to Figure 1 A, the integrated process plant for producing high-performance cement-based products may include one or more power plants 112, a cement production plant 101, a carbon production plant 103 including one or more reactors 104, a carbon dioxide (CO2) recovery plant 115, and an emissions abatement plant 118. In some examples, each of the one or more power plants 112 may be configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas 105 and supply the electrical energy to a microgrid 113. In some other examples, each of the one or more power plants 112 may be configured to output a first effluent gas 114 including one or more of CO, CO2. SOX, or NOX. In some instances, the cement production plant 101 may be configured to produce one or more cement-based products 102 and output a first off-gas 106 including CO2 based on the electrical energy supplied by the microgrid. In some other instances, at least some of the one or more reactors 104 associated with the carbon production plant 101 may be configured to dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas 105 into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas 120 and a first carbon-based material 107 including three dimensional graphene carbons (“3DG carbons”), while operating during a first operation mode. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy provided by the microgrid.

[0109] In some implementations, the CO2 recovery plant 115 may be configured to recover CO2 from the first effluent gas 114 and produce recovered CO2 116 and a secondeffluent gas 117 including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOXbased on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid.

[0110] In some implementations, the emissions abatement plant 118 may be configured to treat the second effluent gas 117 based on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid. In some examples, the emissions abatement plant 118 may be configured to receive and utilize the hydrogen gas 120 from the carbon production plant as a reducing agent.

[0111] In some implementations, at least some of the one or more reactors 104 associated with the carbon production plant 103 may be configured to dissociate a second feedstock including one or more of the first off-gas 106 or the recovered CO2 116 into a second plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas 110 and a second carbon-based material 111 including 3DG carbons while operating during a second operation mode. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy provided by the microgrid 113. In some implementations, the integrated process plant 100A may further include a solar power plant 119 electrically coupled to the microgrid 113. As previously described herein, the solar power plant 119 may include a battery energy storage system (“BESS”) configured to store electrical energy produced by the solar power plant.

[0112] In some implementations, the integrated process plant 100 A may further include a mixing plant 108 configured to mix the one or more cement-based products 102 with one or more of the first carbon-based material 107 or the second carbon-based material 111 to produce the one or more high-performance cement-based products 109. As previously described herein, high-performance cement-based products may be characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, and reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products. A person skilled in the art would recognize that first carbon-based material 107 including 3DG carbons and second carbon-based material 111 including 3DG carbons should be substantially uniformly dispersed in the with the one or more cement-based products 102 with “clumping” as localized aggregates.

[0113] Figure 3A shows a schematic diagram 300A of a cement-based product including a carbon-based material including 3DG carbons, according to some implementations.Referring to Figure 1A, the 3DG carbons (also referred to herein as a “mixed morphology carbons”) may include the first carbon-based material 107 or the second-based carbon material 111. In some instances, the cement-based product 301 A may include flaky graphene302A and nodular graphene 303 A dispersed in the cement-based product 301 A. Graphitic carbons may be considered as graphene including several layers of flaky graphene for the purposes of Figure 3A. As previously described herein, due to its complex mixed morphology, the first carbon-based material 107 second carbon-based material 111 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene may also be referred to as three-dimensional graphene carbons (“3DG carbons”).

[0114] In cement formulations that include SCMs including metakaolin, the 3DG carbons may nucleate, seed, and accelerate C-S-H growth through the pozzolanic reaction of the silicates in metakaolin with calcium hydroxide in the cement. Regulated gelation and formation of ‘entangled’ fiber macromolecules from dispersed 3DG carbons, as described above, may produce a high-strength geopolymer binder matrix. A geopolymer is an aluminosilicate inorganic polymer characterized by a covalently bonded, amorphous, or semicrystalline matrix or network.

[0115] An example of nodular graphene may include carbon nano-onions (“CNOs”). As shown in Figure 3A, a carbon-based material including only flaky graphene 302A may not disperse in the cement-based product 301 A and instead localize or agglomerate as undesirable stacks of localized graphene flakes 304A in the cement-based product 301 A. In contrast, the carbon-based material including both flaky graphene 302A and nodular graphene 303A may be uniformly dispersed, or substantially uniformly dispersed, in the cement-based product 301 A as dispersed graphene 305 A without forming localized islands or stacks of graphene.

[0116] Without being bound by any particular theory, flaky graphene may be characterized by sp2-hybridizcd carbon atoms and arc prone to stack via n - n bond interactions. Stacked or localized graphene flakes 304A may hinder uniform dispersion of the carbon-based material in the cement-based product 301 A. Additionally, a carbon-based material including only nodular graphene 303A may not be effective in reinforcing the cement-based product, because nodular graphene 303A is spherical, or substantially spherical in shape, and is characterized by a lower surface area-to- volume ratio than flaky graphene 302A.

[0117] In contrast, 3DG carbons including both flaky graphene 302A and nodular graphene 303A inhibits stacking and localization of flaky graphene 302A as flaky graphene 302A may be interleaved with nodular graphene 303A resulting in dispersed graphene 305A.3DG carbons including flaky graphene 302A and nodular graphene 303A may also increasecompressive strength, material reinforcement, and thermal conductivity of the cement-based products 102 and may reduce residual stresses generated during the hydration and setting of the cement-based products 301 A. Accordingly, the cement-based products including the 3DG carbons may be considered as high-performance cement-based products 109.

[0118] In some implementations, flaky graphene 302A may be covalently linked or welded or fused to nodular graphene 303A by one or more of microwave radiation, direct current discharge, low temperature non-equilibrium plasma, thermal equilibrium plasma, plasma generated at an intermediate temperature below thermal equilibrium temperature during chemical processing of hydrocarbon feedstock to produce 3DG carbons.

[0119] Figures 3B-3C show scanning electron microscopy (“SEM”) micrographs 300B-300C, respectively, of 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene, according to some implementations. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the micrographs included in this disclosure are shown by way of example only, and that other scales may exist without departing from the scope and spirit of the present implementations. As can be seen, the example 3DG carbons 306 includes a plurality of flaky graphene 302C, nodular graphene 3O3C, and mesopores 307. Flaky graphene 302C may include one or more graphene layers as described below with reference to Figure 5A in this disclosure.

[0120] Figures 3D-3G show transmission electron microscopy (“TEM”) micrographs 300D-300G, respectively, of 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene, according to some implementations. In some implementations, at least some of the flaky graphene 302D may be characterized by a linear dimension of between approximately 50 nm and 200 nm. Referring to Figures 3D-3E, in some instances, flaky graphene 302D may include wavy or wrinkled graphene 308. Referring to Figure 3F, in some other instances, at least some of the wavy and / or wrinkled flaky graphene may be joined together to define one or more ridges and valleys 309. At least some of the ridges and valleys 309 may produce areas of increased flexibility within the wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 308. In some implementations, flaky graphene 302D may include wavy or flexible graphene layers that resemble crinkled paper. The graphene layers may be flexible as they may be fused with each other at sp3type defects in a sp2graphene lattice structure.

[0121] In some instances, as shown in Figure 3G, nodular graphene 303G may be disposed as porous carbon agglomerates 310, which may be arranged as a “string of pearls.” Additional details related to nodular graphene are described below with reference to Figures 6A-6C, 7A-7B, and 8.

[0122] Referring to Figures 3B-3C, the 3DG carbons 306 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene may be characterized by a morphology that is significantly different from the morphology of each of single layer graphene or two-dimensional (“2D”) graphene.Figure 4A shows a scanning electron microscopy (“SEM”) micrograph 400A of single layer graphene flakes. Single layer graphene powder supplied by ACS Material LLC (Pasadena, CA) is produced as graphene flakes using a combination of thermal exfoliation reduction and hydrogen reduction. The thickness of the single layer graphene flakes 401 A is between 0.6 nm and 1.2 nm and is characterized by a BET surface area of between 400 m2 / g to 1000 m2 / g. The flake size is between 0.4 pm and 0.5 pm. Referring to Figure 4A and Figures 3B-3C, the crystalline single layer graphene flakes do not include the mesoporous structure of the 3DG carbons 306 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene.

[0123] Figure 4B shows a SEM micrograph 400B of 2-dimensional graphene nanoplatelets. The 2-dimensional nanoplatelets supplied by XG Sciences (Lansing, MI) are produced from graphite as the starting material. The nanoplatelets or graphene flakes include nanoparticles consisting of short stacks of graphene sheets. The nanoplatelets have an average thickness of approximately 7 nm and a surface area of 120 m2 / g to 150 m2 / g.Average particle size is between 5 pm and 25 pm. Referring to Figure 4B and Figures 4B-4C, the crystalline sheets of graphene nanoplatelets 40 IB do not include the mesoporous structure of the 3DG carbons 306 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene.

[0124] In some implementations, the amount of 3DG carbons 306 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene in the one or more cement-based products may be between approximately 0.1 wt% by weight of binder (“bwob”) and approximately 5 wt% bwob.

[0125] In some implementations, a Brunaucr-Emmctt-Tcllcr (“BET”) surface area measured using nitrogen gas of 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene may be between approximately 50 m2 / g and approximately 300 m2 / g.

[0126] In some implementations, the 3DG carbons including flaky graphene and nodular graphene may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56. In some instances, the 3DG carbons may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an LD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7. An LD / IG ratio less than 2 suggests that flaky graphene associated with the carbon-based material includes several layers of graphene. In some other instances, 3DG carbons may be characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signaturehaving an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56 and an UD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7.

[0127] In some implementations, the flaky graphene associated with the 3DG carbons may include a plurality of graphene layers. In some instances, the number of graphene layers in the plurality of graphene layers may be between 5 and 15. In some other instances, the plurality of graphene layers may include one or more of few layer graphene (“FLG”) or many layer graphene (“MLG”). Referring to Figures 3D-3F, in some implementations, flaky graphene 302A may include a plurality of graphene layers, which may be arranged as one or more stacks of graphene layers connected to each other and defining a 3D porous scaffold structure including mesopores.

[0128] As previously described herein, graphene layers in flaky graphene may be flexible as they may be fused with each other at sp3type defects in a sp2graphene lattice structure. In some implementations, 3DG carbons 306 including flaky graphene and nodular graphene (referring to Figures 3B-3C) may be produced using a high throughput, low-cost, cracking of a hydrocarbon gas such as natural gas, in an atmospheric microwave plasma reactor, as previously described in this disclosure.

[0129] Figure 5A shows a schematic diagram 500A of flaky graphene in 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. Flaky graphene nanoparticles may include an interconnected bundle 501 of electrically conductive graphene layers 503 arranged to form a three dimensional (“3D”) open porous scaffold structure (not shown for simplicity). Each interconnected bundle 501 may include one or more stacks 502 of graphene layers. Each stack 502 may include a plurality of graphene layers 503 that are stacked horizontally as clearly shown in stack 504. One or more stacks 502 of graphene layers 503 may be arranged to form a 3D porous scaffold structure including mesopores 505. In some implementations, one or more of the stacks 503 may be connected substantially orthogonal to each other. In some implementations, each graphene layer 503 may be characterized by a diameter or linear dimension (“La”) of between approximately 50 nm to approximately 200 nm. In some implementations, graphene stack 502 may include few layer graphene (“FLG”), which may be composed of 5 to 15 layers of graphene.

[0130] The 3DG carbons including agglomerates of nanoparticle may be produced by high throughput, low-cost, cracking of a hydrocarbon gas (including natural gas) in an atmospheric microwave plasma reactor. An example microwave plasma reactor that can be used to produce the 3DG carbons is also disclosed in commonly-owned U.S. Pat. No.9,767,992, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. In some instances, plasma-based processing conditions applied or performed in a reactor including a microwave reactor may be adjusted with a high degree of tunability to achieve 3DG carbons and graphene-on-graphene densification to yield the complex 3DG carbons described herein. The 3DG carbons may be surface etched using methods including CO2 etching to create pores on the external surface of the agglomerates and to increase the surface area of the 3DG carbons.

[0131] In some implementations, the flaky graphene nanoparticles associated with 3DG carbons may include three-dimensional (“3D”) multi-modal mesoporous carbon nanoparticles. As previously described herein, a mesoporous material, as generally understood and as referred to herein, includes a material containing pores with diameters between 2 nm and 50 nm, according to IUPAC nomenclature. In some instances, mesoporous carbon nanoparticle may be characterized by a three-dimensional (“3D”) hierarchical porous structure including pores 506. In some other instances, at least a portion of the hierarchical porous structure may further define a 3D open porous scaffold structure 507.

[0132] In some implementations, flaky graphene associated with 3DG carbons may include a plurality of interconnected crinkled 3D graphene sheets, flat graphene, wrinkled graphene, wavy or flexible graphene layers that resemble crinkled paper and may be produced using microwave processes. The graphene layers may be flexible as they may be fused with each other at sp3type defects in the sp2graphene lattice structure.

[0133] In some implementations, dopants including one or more of sulfates, silicates, or alkalis that beneficially impact cement hydration processes may be disposed on the surface of 3DG carbons described with reference to Figure 5A, may be micro-confined in the pores of the open porous scaffold structure 507, or may be nano-confined in the open porous scaffold structure 507.

[0134] Figure 5B shows a diagram 500B depicting nano-confinement of a dopant in 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. In some instances, the dopants may be nanoconfined in the 3D open porous scaffold structure 507 and released out as a function of time. Timed-release of nucleating agents may be tuned to impact the acceleration of the pozzolan reaction after the formation of Portlandite from the reaction of anhydrous calcium silicate with water. The 3DG carbons as described herein may also provide a flexible scaffold-type structure to manage material expansion and mitigate crack formation during hydration and curing of cement. In some configurations, the stack 502 may include one or more of singlelayer graphene (“SLG”), few layer graphene (“FLG”) defined as ranging from 5 to 15 layers of graphene, or many layer graphene (“MLG”).

[0135] Figure 5C shows a diagram of calcium-aluminosilicate hydrates 505C including polymerized fibrous materials supported by 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. Without being bound by any particular theory, hydration of ordinary Portland cement (“OPC”) including gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) may form random needle-like ettringite (calcium sulfo-aluminate), tobermorite (calcium silicate hydrate) and calcium-aluminosilicate hydrates (“C-A-S-H”) in the form of entangled and branched polymerized fibrous material 501C of silicates and aluminates. Polymerized fibrous material 501 C may include polymerized amorphous alumino-silicates 502C and crystalline aluminosilicates 503C. 3DG carbons 504C may be used as fillers or seeding agents to anchor or serve as a “bridging agent” between polymerized C-A-S-H fibers, thereby leading to in higher compressive and tensile strength and greater resistance to fracture during the setting of the hydrated cementitious product. The high surface area of 3DG carbons 504C may provide a high density of nucleating sites for C-S-H or C-A-S-H, which may then grow and polymerize to form fibrous material 501 C.

[0136] By kinetically controlling the hydration and authigenic formation of entangled, needle-like crystalline phases in the cementitious matrix, elasticity and toughness may be improved over conventional concrete. 3DG carbons 504C used in cement-based product compositions may further reduce the permeability of the hydrated cementitious product over and above the reduction in permeability possible with the use of only a pozzolan as SCM. 3DG carbons 504C when used as additives or fillers may also reduce shrinkage on cooling the cementitious product because 3DG carbons exhibit negative thermal expansion. That is, the 3DG carbons 504C increase in size when cooling and decrease in size when heating. In contrast, cementitious products without any 3DG carbons 504C are characterized by positive thermal expansion. Therefore, by varying the amount of 3DG carbons 504C used as fillers or additives, crack formation in the cementitious product due to repetitive ambient temperature thermal cycling may be reduced.

[0137] In some implementations, and referring to Figure 3G, nodular graphene 303 G may include porous carbon agglomerates 310 of porous primary carbon nanoparticles. In some instances, the example porous primary carbon nanoparticles may resemble carbon nanoonions (“CNOs”). As described below with reference to Figure 6A, the porous primary carbon nanoparticles may each include an inner porous shell disposed about a center of therespective porous carbon primary nanoparticle and enclosing an inner porous carbon region, an outer porous shell enclosing an outer porous carbon region disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell, and an interconnected porous network disposed in and in fluid communication with the inner and outer porous carbon regions. In some implementations, the inner porous carbon region and the outer porous carbon region may be characterized by an average pore size and an average pore density associated with each region. In some implementations, the average pore size may decrease along a radial direction from the center to the outer porous shell. In some other implementations, the porous primary carbon nanoparticles may further include one or more intermediate porous shells disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell, wherein each of the intermediate porous shells encloses a respective intermediate porous carbon region.

[0138] Figure 6A shows a schematic diagram 600A of a porous primary carbon nanoparticle 605 in nodular graphene associated with 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. As shown in the example of Figure 6A, the primary carbon nanoparticle 605 may include a core (inner) porous carbon region 611 defined by a first porosity and enclosed within an inner porous shell 613. The inner porous carbon region 611, which may also be referred to herein as the first porosity region, may include a plurality of first pores 601 dispersed therein. An outer porous carbon region 612, which may also be referred to herein as the second porosity region, may be disposed between the inner porous shell 613 and an outer porous shell 610 and may include a plurality of second pores 602 dispersed therein. The inner porous carbon region 611 and the outer porous carbon region 612 may be interconnected by one or more of the first pores 601 or one or more of the second pores 602, thereby interconnecting the first and second porosity regions. That is, the inner porous carbon region 611 may be configured to be in fluid communication with the outer porous carbon region 612 through an interconnected porous network. The inner porous carbon region 611 may be defined by a first pore density, and the outer porous carbon region 612 may be defined by a second pore density that is similar to or different than the first pore density. The first pores 601 may confine dopants 617 to be released as a function of time (time release) during hydration of cement, and the second pores 602 may provide pathways or channels for transport of dopants 617 into and from the primary particle 605 (and for pre-loading dopants into the primary carbon particle 605).

[0139] In some implementations, example porous primary carbon nanoparticle 605 may be characterized by an average size or principal dimension (diameter, length, width) of lessthan approximately 200 nm. In some implementations, an average pore size may decrease along a radial direction from the center 616 of the nanoparticle 605 to the outer boundary 613 of the nanoparticle 605. In some implementations, porous primary carbon nanoparticle 605 may be characterized by a range of pore sizes and pore distributions in each region.

[0140] Figure 6B shows a transmission electron microscopy (“TEM”) micrograph 600B of nodular graphene including porous carbon agglomerates 640 of porous primary nanoparticles 605, according to some implementations. Example porous carbon agglomerate 640 may include an interconnected porous network disposed between adjacent carbon nanoparticles 605. Agglomerate 640 may include a plurality of porous carbon primary nanoparticles 605 and in some instances, may resemble a “string-of-pearls.” In some implementations, the size or principal dimension of agglomerate 640 may be between approximately 50 nm and 500 nm.

[0141] Figure 6C shows another TEM micrograph 600C of nodular graphene including agglomerates of porous primary carbon nanoparticles, according to some implementations. In some implementations, an example porous carbon agglomerates 640 may be spherical in shape. In some implementations, an agglomerate 640 may be of any shape, including one or more of spherical, spheroidal, dumbbell, cylindrical, elongated cylindrical type, rectangular prism, disk, wire, or may be of irregular shape.

[0142] In some implementations, nodular graphene in 3DG carbons may include tri-zone porous carbon primary nanoparticles. Figure 7 A shows a schematic diagram of another porous carbon primary nanoparticle 700A including nodular graphene, according to some implementations. The tri-zone particle 700A may include three discrete zones such as, but not limited to, a first zone 701, a second zone 702, and a third zone 703. In some respects, each of the zones 701-703 surrounds and / or encapsulates a preceding zone. For example, the first zone 701 may be surrounded by or encapsulated by the second zone 702, and the second zone 702 may be surrounded by or encapsulated by the third zone 703. The first zone 701 may correspond to an inner region of the tri-zone particle 700A, the second zone 702 may correspond to an intermediate transition region of the tri-zone particle 700A, and the third zone 703 may correspond to an outer region of the tri-zone particle 700A. In some respects, the tri-zone particle 700A may include a permeable shell 705 that deforms in response to contact with one or more adjacent non-tri-zone particles and / or tri-zone particles 700 A.

[0143] In some implementations, the first zone 701 may have a relatively low density, a relatively low electrical conductivity, and a relatively high porosity, the second zone 702 mayhave an intermediate density, an intermediate electrical conductivity, and an intermediate porosity, and the third zone 703 may have a relatively high density, a relatively high electrical conductivity, and a relatively low porosity. In some respects, the first zone 701 may have a density of carbon material between approximately 1.5 g / cc and 5.0 g / cc, the second zone 702 may have a density of carbon material between approximately 0.5 g / cc and 3.0 g / cc, and the third zone 703 may have a density of carbon material of less than approximately 1.5 g / cc. In other aspects, the first zone 701 may include pores having a width of less than approximately 40 nm, the second zone 702 may include pores having a width of less than approximately 35 nm, and the third zone 703 may include pores having a width of less than approximately 30 nm.

[0144] In some implementations, the first zone 701 may have a principal dimension Di of less than approximately 100 nm, the second zone 702 may have a principal dimension D2 between approximately 20 nm and 150 nm, and the third zone 703 may have a principal dimension D3 of approximately 200 nm.

[0145] In some implementations, the pores associated with tri-zone particle 700A may decrease in size and volume from one zone to the other. In some implementations, the tri-zone particle may consist entirely of one zone with a range of pore sizes and pores distributions (e.g., pore density). For the example of Figure 7A, the pores 711 associated with the first zone 701 or the first porosity region may have relatively large widths and may be defined as macroporcs, the pores 712 associated with the second zone 702 or the second porosity region have intermediate-sized widths and may be defined as mesopores, and the pores 713 associated with the third zone 703 or the third porosity region have relatively small widths and may be defined as micropores.

[0146] As previously described with reference to Figure 6B-6C, a group of tri-zone porous carbon primary nanoparticles 700A may be joined together to form an agglomerate 640. In some implementations, a plurality of mesopores may be interspersed throughout the agglomerates formed by respective groups of the carbon nanoparticles. In some instances, the first porosity region (also referred to as first zone) 701 may be at least partially encapsulated by the second porosity region (also referred to as second zone) 702 such that a respective agglomerate may include one or more mesopores and one or more macropores. In one implementation, a mesopore may have a principal dimension between approximately 3.3 nanometers (nm) and approximately 19 nm, and a macropore may have a principal dimension between approximately 0.1 pm and approximately 1,000 pm. In some instances, the tri-zoneparticle 700A may include carbon fragments intertwined with each other and separated from one another by at least some of the mesopores.

[0147] Figure 7B shows a step function 700B associated with the pore size distribution representative of a porous carbon primary nanoparticle of Figure 7 A, according to some implementations. As previously discussed, the pores distributed throughout the tri-zone particle 700A may have different sizes, volumes, or distributions. In some implementations, the average pore volume may decrease based on a distance between a center of the tri-zone particle 700A and an adjacent zone, for example, such that pores associated with the first zone 701 or the first porosity region have a relatively large volume or pore size, pores associated with the second zone 702 or the second porosity region have an intermediate volume, and pores associated with the third zone 703 or the third porosity region have a relatively small volume. The interior region has a higher pore volume than the regions near the periphery. In the example of Figure 7 A, the average pore volume in the inner region (also referred to as first zone) is approximately 3 cc / g, the average pore volume in the outermost region (also referred to as third zone) is approximately 0.5 cc / g and the average pore volume in the intermediate region (also referred to as second zone) is between approximately 0.5 cc / and approximately 3 cc / g.

[0148] Figure 8 shows a graph 800 illustrating pore volume distribution of a carbonbased material including 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. As shown in graph 800, pores associated with a relatively high pore volume may have a relatively low pore size, for example, such that the pore size generally increases as the pore volume decreases. Additionally, pores having a pore size less than approximately 1 nm may be referred to as micropores, pores having a pore size between approximately 3 and approximately 11 nm may be referred to as mesopores, and pores having a pore size greater than approximately 24 nm may be referred to as macropores.

[0149] In some implementations, the 3DG carbons described above may be sensitized prior to being incorporated as an additive or filler in one or more formulations of cementbased products. In some examples, “sensitized” 3DG carbons may include the product resulting from breaking up of agglomerates of 3DG carbons to nanoparticles to increase the surface area of the 3DG carbons. In some other examples, “sensitized” 3DG carbons may include the product resulting from treating the surfaces of 3DG carbon agglomerates or 3DG carbon nanoparticles to produce functional groups linked to the surfaces of the 3DG carbons. In some instances, surface functional groups may increase the hydrophilicity of 3DG carbonsand improve the dispersion of the 3DG carbons in aqueous media, for example water, and in cement-based products.

[0150] In some implementations, “sensitized” 3DG carbons may include the product resulting from ozone treatment of the 3DG carbons. Ozone treated 3DG carbons may include polar surface functional groups which may be reactive in some example cementitious materials. Alternately, the polar surface functional group may enhance the dispersion of the 3DG carbons (also referred to herein as carbon filler) in cement-based products. In some instances, ozone oxidation treatment may also reduce the particle size of the carbon-based materials, which may also improve the dispersion of the carbon-based material in the cementbased products. In some implementations, dispersion of the oxidized carbon-based materials may also improve the hydration reactions associated with cement-based products and enhance the mechanical properties and durability of cement-based products including concrete.

[0151] Figure 9 shows a TEM micrograph 900 of a carbon-based material 900A including flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon, according to some implementations. As shown in Figure 9, carbon-based material 900 A may include flaky graphene 901, nodular graphene 902, and graphitic carbon 903. In some implementations, flaky graphene may be characterized by multiple layers of graphene disposed as a stack of layers. In some other examples, the lateral size (also referred to herein as length) of flaky graphene may be between approximately 10 nm and approximately 100 nm. In some examples, the lateral size of flaky graphene may exceed 100 nm. In some instances, flaky graphene 901 may include a stack of less than ten graphene layers. In some other instances, flaky graphene 901 may include a stack of more than ten graphene layers. In some examples, flaky graphene 901 may be characterized by “irregular-shaped” graphene layers 904. In some other examples, the “irregular-shaped” graphene layers 904 associated with flaky graphene 901 may be folded or bent. Additional details related to flaky graphene were previously described herein with reference to Figures 3D-3E.

[0152] In some implementations, nodular graphene 902 may include a plurality of carbon nano-onions 905 disposed as a “string of pearls.” In some examples, carbon nano-onions 905 may include multiple graphene layers, which may be characterized by defects (also referred to herein as disorder). Defects may include deviations from the hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms associated with single layer graphene. As described below with reference to Figures 10A-10B, defects or disorder in carbon nanostructures including nodular graphene may becaused by one or more of vacancies, grain boundaries, or wrinkles that deviate from the ideal honeycomb lattice of single layer graphene. Additional details related to nodular graphene were previously described herein with reference to Figures 6A-6C, Figures 7A-7B, and Figure 8.

[0153] In some implementations, graphitic carbon 903 may include curved graphene layers 906. In some examples, curved graphene layers 906 may enclose a volume defined by a core region 907 encapsulated by shell region 908. In some other examples, the core region 907 may include a plurality of graphene layers. In some other examples, shell region 908 may include a plurality of graphene layers. In some instances, the core region 907 may be characterized by a core region porosity. In some other instances, the shell region 908 may be characterized by a shell region porosity. In some instances, the shell region porosity may be greater than the core region porosity.

[0154] In some other examples, the areal ratio of flaky graphene: nodular graphene: graphitic carbon may be approximately 63: 1 :36. In some instances, the areal ratio may be estimated by analyzing transmission electron microscopy (“TEM”) micrographs of the carbon-based material at a magnification of 50kX. Examples of TEM micrographs associated with flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon in a carbon-based material were previously described herein with reference Figure 9.

[0155] As previously described herein, in some implementations, at least some of the flaky graphene, the nodular graphene, or the graphitic carbon in the carbon-based materials described herein, may include one or more surface functional groups including oxygen. In some instances, the surface functional groups may include one or more of epoxide (C-O-C), hydroxyl (-OH), ether (C-O-C), ketone (O-C=O), or carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups.

[0156] Figures 10A-10B show electron energy loss spectroscopy (“EELS”) spectra 1000A-1000B of a carbon-based material including flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon, according to some implementations. In some examples, at least some of the flaky graphene, the nodular graphene, or the graphitic carbon in the carbon-based material may include one or more surface functional groups including oxygen. In some instances, surface functional groups including oxygen may be generated by ozone etching of the carbon-based material. The EELS spectra 1000A-1000B correspond to the K-shell ionization edge of carbon (also referred to herein as the “core loss edge” or “C-K edge”). The EELS spectra associated with Figure 10A is representative of the core (or central) region of flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon in the carbon-based material. TheEELS spectra associated with Eigure 10B is representative of the edge (or peripheral) region of flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon in the carbon-based material.

[0157] Referring to Figures 10A-10B, the distinct peak at approximately 285 eV corresponds to sp2hybridization and represents 71* bonding. Additionally, the distinct peak at approximately 293 eV corresponds to sp3hybridization and represents <5* bonding. As such, the carbon-based material includes carbon nanostructure or nanoparticles characterized by “mixed bonding,” and as such, may be considered as “mixed morphology” carbons.

[0158] As shown in Figures 10A-10B, the clear and sharp n* peaks associated with both graphitic carbon and nodular graphene suggest significant sp2characteristics at both the edge and core regions of these nanoparticles in the carbon-based material. At the core region (Figure 10 A), the intensity of the n* peak of nodular graphene is greater than the intensity of the 71* peak of flaky graphene. Additionally, the intensity of the 71* peak of flaky graphene is greater than the intensity of the 71* peak of graphitic carbon. At the edge region (Figure 10B), the intensity of the 7t* peak associated with graphitic carbon is substantially similar to the intensity of the 71* peak associated with flaky graphene. Additionally, the intensity of the 71* peak associated with nodular graphene is less than the respective intensity of the 71* peak associated with each of graphitic carbon and flaky graphene. These observations associated with the EELS spectra suggest a change in sp2characteristics associated with the transition from the core region to the edge region of the flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon nanoparticlcs in the carbon-based material.

[0159] On the other hand, the o* peaks associated with both the core region and edge region of the flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon nanoparticles are not as well defined as their respective n* peaks, which suggests the presence of disordered C-C bonds in the carbon nanostructure of flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon. Hie o* peak associated with nodular graphene appears to be “smeared out,” with a broad hump and indicates that nodular graphene is characterized by a relatively higher degree of disorder in the carbon nanostructure or high defect concentration. In some examples, nodular graphene may be considered as relatively more amorphous than flaky graphene or graphitic carbon.

[0160] In some implementations, based on the o* peaks associated with the EELS spectra of the carbon-based material including flaky graphene, nodular graphene and graphitic carbon, the degree of disorder associated with the carbon nanostructure in nodular graphene may be greater than the degree of disorder associated with the carbon nanostructure in flakygraphene. Additionally, the degree of disorder associated with the carbon nanostructure in flaky graphene may be greater than the degree of disorder associated with the carbon nanostructure in graphitic carbon. The degree of disorder associated with carbon nanostructures or nanoparticles may also be referred to as a “defect concentration” associated with a respective carbon nanostructure in the carbon-based material. Defects or disorder in the carbon nanostructures may be caused by one or more of vacancies, grain boundaries, or wrinkles that deviate from the ideal honeycomb lattice nanostructure of single layer graphene. A higher defect concentration indicates greater disorder.

[0161] In some implementations, the degree of disorder associated with nodular graphene in the carbon-based material may be greater than the degree of disorder associated with the flaky graphene. The degree of disorder associated with nodular graphene and flaky graphene corresponds to a defect concentration associated with nodular graphene and flaky graphene, respectively, relative to the honeycomb lattice structure of single layer graphene. In some examples, the degree of disorder associated with flaky graphene may be greater than the degree of disorder associated with graphitic carbon. The degree of disorder associated with flaky graphene and graphitic carbon corresponds to a defect concentration associated with flaky graphene and graphitic carbon, respectively, relative to the honeycomb lattice nanostructure of single layer graphene.

[0162] In some implementations, a high-performance cement composition may include ordinary Portland cement (“OPC”), one or more secondary cementitious material (“SCM”) additives, and a carbon-based material including mixed morphology carbons (“3DG carbons”). As previously described herein, mixed morphology carbons may include flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon. Any one of the SCMs, or combination of SCMs, described in this disclosure may be used in cement-based product formulations in accordance with various aspects of the present disclosure. The amount of mixed morphology carbons may be between approximately 0.05% by weight of binder (“bwob”) and 2% bwob.

[0163] Figure 11 shows a schematic diagram of another integrated process plant 1100 for producing hydrogen and carbon-based materials including 3DG carbons, according to some implementations. In some other implementations, an integrated process plant 1100 may include one or more power plants 1112, and a carbon production plant 1103 including one or more reactors 1104. In some instances, each of the one or more power plants 1112 may be configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas 1105 and output an effluent gas 1114 including one or more of CO, CO2, SOX, or NOX. In some other instances, at leastsome of the one or more reactors 1104 may be configured to dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas 1105 into a first feedstock plasma based on microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas 1106 and a first carbon-based material 1107 3DG carbons, during a first operation mode.

[0164] In some implementations, at least some of the one or more reactors 1104 associated with the carbon production plant 1103 may be configured to dissociate a second feedstock including the effluent gas 1114 into a second plasma based on microwave energy and produce oxygen gas 1110 and a second carbon-based material 1111 including 3DG carbons during a second operation mode. In some instances, water vapor may be fed to the one or more reactors 1104 along with the effluent gas 1114 to assist with the dissociation of CO2. In some examples, the microwave energy may be generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy. Additional details related to the one or more reactors 1114 were previously described herein with reference to Figures 1-2.

[0165] In some implementations, and referring to Figure 2, each of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may include a microwave energy source configured to provide microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors, and one or more inlets configured to deliver to the one or more reactors the first feedstock during the first operation mode or the second feedstock including the effluent gas during the second operation mode. In some examples, each of the one or more reactors associated with the carbon production plant may include a dissociation chamber coupled to the microwave energy source. In some other examples, the dissociation chamber may be disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets and may be configured to dissociate the first feedstock into a first feedstock plasma based on the microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas and the first carbon-based material including 3DG carbons during the first operation mode, and dissociate the second feedstock including the effluent gas into a second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including 3DG carbons during the second operation mode.

[0166] In some implementations, and referring to Figure 2, a 2.45 GHz microwave energy source 201 may dissociate a feedstock to the carbon-based materials described herein and produce one or more of oxygen gas and hydrogen gas in reactor 104 including a dissociation chamber characterized by a diameter of approximately 12 cm. In some examples, a 915 MHz microwave energy source 201 may dissociate a feedstock to the carbon-based materials described herein and produce one or more of oxygen gas andhydrogen gas in reactor 104 including a dissociation chamber characterized by a diameter of approximately 30 cm. In some other examples, a 75MW klystron-based microwave energy source 201 may power an industrial scale integrated process plant for producing the carbonbased materials and hydrogen gas.

[0167] In some implementations, each of the one or more reactors may further include one or more outlets configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors.

[0168] Hydrogen gas 1106 may be considered as clean hydrogen gas. As such, the integrated process plant 1100 may be eligible for carbon credits calculated based on the amount of hydrogen produced or the extent of the reduction in emissions. The carbon credits may be monetized in one or more carbon credit marketplaces.

[0169] Hydrogen gas 1106 may be purified to remove trace contaminants including one or more of water vapor, CO, CO2, NOX, SOXusing processes that are known to those skilled in the art, compressed and stored in a hydrogen storage plant 1120. Stored hydrogen may be dispensed or transported to support one or more offsite applications. Examples of applications may include stationary power production, ammonia production plants, hydrogen refueling stations for fuel cell vehicles, among other similar non-limiting applications. In some instances, hydrogen stored in hydrogen storage plant 1120 may be routed to fuel cell plant 1121 for electrical energy generation. Fuel cell plant 1121 may be coupled to microgrid 1113. In some examples, one or more of the first carbon-based material 1107 or the second carbon-based material 1111 may be utilized in a number of applications including batteries, polymer composites, cement-based products, sensors, among other similar non-limiting examples.

[0170] As used herein, a phrase referring to “at least one of’ or “one or more of’ a list of items refers to any combination of those items, including single members. For example, “at least one of: a, b, or c” is intended to cover the possibilities of: a only, b only, c only, a combination of a and b, a combination of a and c, a combination of b and c, and a combination of a and b and c. Unless otherwise specified in this disclosure, for construing the scope of the term “about” or “approximately,” the error bounds associated with the values (dimensions, operating conditions etc.) disclosed is ± 10% of the values indicated in this disclosure. As used herein, a “cement -based product” also includes a “hydrating cementbased product.” Accordingly, the 3DG carbons disclosed herein, including the surfacefunctionalized 3DG carbons, may be dispersed in water and added to a cement composition, mortar composition, or concrete composition during the hydration process. The error bounds associated with the values disclosed as percentages is ± 1% of the percentages indicated. The word “substantially” used before a specific word includes the meanings “considerable in extent to that which is specified,” and “largely but not wholly that which is specified.”

[0171] Various modifications to the implementations described in this disclosure may be readily apparent to persons having ordinary skill in the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied to other implementations without departing from the spirit or scope of this disclosure. Thus, the claims are not intended to be limited to the implementations shown herein but are to be accorded the widest scope consistent with this disclosure, the principles and the novel features disclosed herein.

[0172] Additionally, various features that are described in this specification in the context of separate implementations can also be implemented in combination in a single implementation. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single implementation can also be implemented in multiple implementations separately or in any suitable subcombination. As such, although features may be described above in combination with one another, and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be omitted from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.

[0173] Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. Further, the drawings may schematically depict one more example processes in the form of a flowchart or flow diagram. However, other operations that are not depicted can be incorporated in the example processes that are schematically illustrated. For example, one or more additional operations can be performed before, after, simultaneously, or between any of the illustrated operations. In some circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the implementations described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all implementations, and the described program components and systems can be integrated together in a single product or packaged into multiple products.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. An integrated process plant including :a cement production plant configured to produce one or more cement-based products and configured to output a first off-gas including carbon dioxide (CO2):a carbon production plant including one or more reactors, wherein during a first operation mode, at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to dissociate a first feedstock including a biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on a microwave energy and configured to produce hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (3DG carbons); anda mixing plant configured to produce one or more high-performance cement-based products by mixing the one or more cement-based products with the first carbon-based material, wherein the high-performance cement-based products are characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, or reduced crack formation relative to the respective properties of the corresponding cement-based products.

2. The integrated process plant of claim 1, wherein during a second operation mode, at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to receive the first off-gas as a second feedstock, configured to dissociate the second feedstock into a second plasma based on the microwave energy, and configured to produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including 3DG carbons.

3. The integrated process plant of claim 2, wherein the mixing plant is further configured to produce the one or more high-performance cement-based products by mixing the one or more ccmcnt-bascd products with one or more of the first carbon-based material or the second carbon-based material.

4. The integrated process plant of claim 1, further including one or more power plants, wherein each of the one or more power plants is configured to generate electrical energy based on the biofuel gas and configured to supply the electrical energy to a microgrid associated with the integrated process plant.

5. The integrated process plant of claim 4, wherein the cement production plant, the carbon production plant, and the mixing plant are each configured to operate based on electrical energy supplied by the microgrid.

6. The integrated process plant of claim 4, wherein each of the one or more power plants is configured to output a first effluent gas including one or more of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur oxides (SOX), or nitrogen oxides (NOX).

7. The integrated process plant of claim 6, further including a CO2 recovery plant configured to recover CO2 from the first effluent gas and configured to produce recovered CO2 and a second effluent gas including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOX, wherein the carbon production plant is further configured to receive the recovered CO2 as a third feedstock.

8. The integrated process plant of claim 7, wherein during a second operation mode, at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to dissociate the third feedstock into a third feedstock plasma based on the microwave energy and configured to produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons.

9. The integrated process plant of claim 7, further including an emissions abatement plant configured to treat the second effluent gas, wherein the emissions abatement plant is configured to receive and utilize the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant as a reducing agent.

10. The integrated process plant of claim 9, wherein the emissions abatement plant includes a selective catalytic reduction (SCR) unit configured to decompose NOXin the second effluent gas to nitrogen and oxygen in the presence of the hydrogen gas.

11. The integrated process plant of claim 9, wherein the emissions abatement plant includes an absorption unit configured to trap SOx in the second effluent gas using an absorbent chemical.

12. The integrated process plant of claim 9, wherein the emissions abatement plant includes a CO decomposition unit configured to decompose CO in the second effluent gas to carbon waste.

13. The integrated process plant of claim 1, wherein each of the one or more reactors includes:a microwave energy source configured to provide the microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors;one or more inlets configured to deliver to the one or more reactors:the first feedstock during the first operation mode: ora second feedstock including the first off-gas or a third feedstock including recovered CO2 from a CO2 recovery plant associated with the integrated process plant during a second operation mode; anda dissociation chamber coupled to the microwave energy source and disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets, wherein the dissociation chamber is configured to:dissociate the first feedstock during the first operation mode; and dissociate one or more of the second feedstock or the third feedstock into a second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons during the second operation mode.

14. The integrated process plant of claim 1, wherein each of the one or more reactors further includes one or more outlets configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors.

15. The integrated process plant of claim 1, further including a solar power plant electrically coupled to the microgrid.

16. An integrated process plant including:one or more power plants, wherein each of the one or more power plants is configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas and configured to output an effluent gas including one or more of CO, CO2, SOX, or NOX;a cement production plant configured to produce one or more cement -based products and configured to output a first off-gas including CO2 based on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid:a carbon production plant including one or more reactors, wherein during a first operation mode, at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on a microwave energy and are configured to produce hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (3DG carbons);a CO2 recovery plant configured to recover CO2 from the first effluent gas and to produce recovered CO2 and a second effluent gas including one or more of CO, SOX, or NOXbased on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid; andan emissions abatement plant configured to treat the second effluent gas based on the electrical energy provided by the microgrid and configured to configured to utilize the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant as a reducing agent.

17. The integrated process plant of claim 16, further including a solar power plant electrically coupled to the microgrid.

18. fhe integrated process plant of claim 16, wherein during a second operation mode, at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to dissociate a second feedstock including one or more of the first off-gas or the recovered CO2 into a second plasma based on microwave energy and to produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons, wherein the microwave energy is generated by a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy provided by the microgrid.

19. The integrated process plant of claim 18, further including a gasification plant configured to produce carbon monoxide (CO) by gasifying one or more of the first carbonbased material or the second carbon-based material using one or more of the first off-gas including CO2 or the recovered CO2.

20. The integrated process plant of claim 19, further including a synthesis gas blending plant configured to produce synthesis gas by mixing the carbon monoxide with the hydrogen gas from the carbon production plant.

21. The integrated process plant of claim 20, further including a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis plant configured to convert the synthesis gas to a liquid fuel.

22. The integrated process plant of claim 20, further including a methanol plant configured to convert the synthesis gas to methanol.

23. The integrated process plant of claim 20, further including a biomass conversion plant configured to convert biomass to synthesis gas, wherein the synthesis gas is routed to the synthesis gas blending plant.

24. The integrated process plant of claim 18, further including a mixing plant configured to produce one or more high-performance cement-based products characterized by enhanced properties including one or more of mechanical strength, durability, resistance to salt and water migration, or reduced crack formation relative to the corresponding properties of respective cement-based products by mixing the one or more cement-based products with one or more of the first carbon-based material or the second carbon-based material.

25. The integrated process plant of claim 18, wherein the second carbon-based material includes flaky graphene, nodular graphene, graphitic carbon, and amorphous carbon.

26. The integrated process plant of claim 18, wherein the second carbon-based material includes one or more surface functional groups including oxygen.

27. The integrated process plant of claim 26, wherein the one or more surface functional groups include one or more of epoxide (C-O-C), hydroxyl (-OH), ether (C-O-C), ketone (O-C=O), or carboxylic acid (-COOH) groups.

28. The integrated process plant of claim 16, wherein the first carbon-based material includes flaky graphene, nodular graphene, and graphitic carbon.

29. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the first carbon-based material is characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56.

30. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the first carbon-based material is characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an HD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7.

31. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the first carbon-based material is characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio between approximately 0.35 and approximately 0.56, and characterized by an DD / IG ratio between approximately 0.53 and approximately 0.7.

32. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the first carbon-based material is characterized by a Raman spectroscopy signature having an ID / IG ratio of approximately 0.49 and an LD / IG ratio of approximately 0.68.

33. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein at least some of the flaky graphene are covalently coupled to at least some of the nodular graphene.

34. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the flaky graphene includes a plurality of graphene layers.

35. The integrated process plant of claim 34, wherein a number of graphene layers in the plurality of graphene layers is between 5 and 15.

36. The integrated process plant of claim 34, wherein the plurality of graphene layers includes one or more of few layer graphene (FLG) or many layer graphene (MLG).

37. The integrated process plant of claim 34, where the graphene layers are arranged as one or more stacks connected to each other and defining a three dimensional (3D) porous scaffold structure including mesopores.

38. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein at least some of the flaky graphene is characterized by a linear dimension of between approximately 50 nm and 200 nm.

39. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the nodular graphene includes a plurality of carbon nano-onions (CNOs).

40. The integrated process plant of claim 28, wherein the nodular graphene includes porous carbon agglomerates of porous carbon primary nanoparticles, wherein a respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle includes:an inner porous shell disposed about a center of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle and enclosing an inner porous carbon region;an outer porous shell enclosing an outer porous carbon region disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell; andan interconnected porous network disposed in and in fluid communication with the inner and outer porous carbon regions.

41. The integrated process plant of claim 40, wherein the inner porous carbon region and the outer porous carbon region are characterized by an average pore size and an average pore density associated with each region.

42. The integrated process plant of claim 41, wherein the average pore size decreases along a radial direction from the center of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle to the outer porous shell of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle.

43. The integrated process plant of claim 40, wherein the porous carbon primary nanoparticle further includes one or more intermediate porous shells disposed between the inner porous shell and the outer porous shell of the respective porous carbon primary nanoparticle, wherein each of the intermediate porous shells encloses a corresponding intermediate porous carbon region.

44. An integrated process plant including:one or more power plants, wherein each of the one or more power plants is configured to generate electrical energy based on a biofuel gas and configured to output an effluent gas including one or more of CO, CO2, SOX, or NOX; anda carbon production plant including one or more reactors, wherein at least some of the one or more reactors are configured to perform one or more operations including:during a first operation mode, dissociate a first feedstock including the biofuel gas into a first feedstock plasma based on a microwave energy and produce hydrogen gas and a first carbon-based material including three-dimensional graphene carbons (3DG carbons); andduring a second operation mode, dissociate a second feedstock including the first effluent gas into a second plasma based on the microwave energy and produce oxygen gas and a second carbon-based material including the 3DG carbons.

45. The integrated process plant of claim 44, wherein each of the one or more reactors includes:a microwave energy source powered by the electrical energy, and configured to provide the microwave energy to each of the one or more reactors;one or more inlets configured to deliver, to the one or more reactors, the first feedstock during the first operation mode or the second feedstock during the second operation mode;a dissociation chamber coupled to the microwave energy source and disposed in fluid communication with each of the one or more inlets, the dissociation chamber configured to dissociate one or more of the first feedstock or the second feedstock; andone or more outlets configured to remove one or more of the hydrogen gas, the oxygen gas, the first carbon-based material, or the second carbon-based material from each of the one or more reactors.

Images