Packaging perovskite module and solar cell comprising same

Abstract

A silicon solar module, a perovskite solar module, and a tan silicon-perovskite solar module are provided, each including one or more transparent layers that are curable by UV. In one aspect, a solar module is described. The solar module includes: a substance including a compound curable by UV; and a plurality of layers comprising: a first layer of the substance; comprising glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first band gap, the perovskite solar cell being located between the first layer of the substance and the first substrate layer. In some examples, the compound may be a resin or an acrylate-based composition.

Description

Technical Field

[0001] The features of the present invention pertain to the field of solar cells, such as perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) and tandem solar cells. Background Art

[0002] A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell, is an optoelectronic device that converts light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Silicon solar cells can convert light with a wavelength range of approximately 300 nanometers ("nm") to 1100 nm into electricity. However, as the light wavelength decreases from 1100 nm, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells significantly decreases. In addition, silicon solar cells cannot convert light with a wavelength higher than 1100 nm into electricity because such photons lack the energy required to overcome the silicon bandgap.

[0003] A tandem solar cell has two independent solar cells stacked on top of each other. The top cell absorbs the incident light, and the bottom cell absorbs the remaining light that passes through the top cell. The bottom cell can be a silicon solar cell, and the top cell can be made of a different material. The top cell can have a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell. Therefore, the top cell can effectively convert shorter-wavelength light into electricity. The top cell can be transparent to longer-wavelength light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb such longer-wavelength light and convert it into electricity. Therefore, a tandem solar cell can generate electricity over a wider range of light wavelengths and has a higher conversion efficiency than a single cell.

[0004] Generally, solar cells are sensitive to the environment, including ambient ultraviolet (UV) light, water immersion, high temperature, and other environmental effects, which, if not mitigated, can degrade the performance of solar cells. However, the service life of the sealants used to protect solar cells is typically affected by similar phenomena, such as water absorption and the interaction between oxygen and UV radiation in sunlight. In advanced solar cells, poor-quality sealants can become a bottleneck for extending service life and conversion efficiency. Therefore, there is a need to improve the systems, materials, and methods for protecting and encapsulating solar cells. Summary of the Invention

[0005] The present disclosure describes silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, each including one or more transparent layers that can be cured by ultraviolet light (UV). Also described is a method for manufacturing such solar modules.

[0006] The UV-curable compounds described herein refer to materials that can be cured (e.g., solidified) when exposed to UV light of appropriate intensity. Photopolymers, such as photoactivated resins and acrylate-based compositions, are types of UV-curable compounds that can be particularly useful in solar cell applications. Photopolymers generally include multifunctional monomers, oligomers, or both, which polymerize in the presence of UV light, resulting in an increase in the viscosity of the photopolymer. Photopolymers can also be doped with one or more photoinitiators (e.g., radical or ionic photoinitiators), which generate reactive species upon exposure to UV light, thereby activating the polymerization process during curing.

[0007] After curing, the UV-curable compounds can be used as adhesives, coatings, and sealants in various solar module configurations, such as silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, etc. UV-curable compounds typically have characteristics such as surface passivation and enhanced solar module throughput. The UV-curable compounds can be laminated or combined with other transparent sealants such as silicone, thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), etc. in a mixture to improve multiple solar module performance metrics without significantly changing the manufacturing process.

[0008] The tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules described herein are solar modules composed of two solar modules stacked on top of each other. The solar modules include silicon solar cells and perovskite solar cells, where the perovskite solar cells are typically stacked on top of the silicon solar cells. That is, when installed, sunlight first irradiates on the perovskite solar cells. Perovskite solar cells generally have a higher bandgap than silicon solar cells. For example, perovskite solar cells can have a bandgap of about 1.7 electron volts ("eV"), while silicon solar cells have a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Therefore, perovskite solar cells can effectively convert shorter-wavelength light into electricity. Perovskite solar cells can transmit longer-wavelength light, which enables the underlying silicon solar cells to absorb such longer-wavelength light and convert it into electricity. The combination of perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can convert a wider spectrum of light into electricity more effectively than a single solar cell. For example, the thermal loss of the tandem solar module may be smaller than that of a single solar module, thereby achieving higher overall spectral efficiency. Adding perovskite solar cells can improve the final solar module by reducing costs, improving the performance per unit weight of the module, improving the overall performance of the module, etc.

[0009] The silicon solar cells can be monocrystalline silicon solar cells or polycrystalline silicon solar cells. The silicon solar cells can be components of traditional solar panels. The solar panels can have a backsheet on which the silicon solar cells are disposed. A sealant can cover the top of the silicon solar cells to prevent them from being exposed to dust and moisture.

[0010] The perovskite solar cell can be deposited on the bottom surface of the top glass plate. This is different from the structure of traditional tandem solar modules, in which the perovskite cell is directly disposed on top of the silicon wafer. Depositing the perovskite solar cell on the bottom surface of the top glass plate enables manufacturers to integrate the perovskite solar cell into their traditional silicon solar panels without reprocessing or process changes. Instead, the manufacturer only needs to replace the traditional glass plate with a perovskite glass plate. The present disclosure may refer to the perovskite glass plate or perovskite on glass as "active glass".

[0011] The UV-curable compound can be deposited on the top surface of the top glass plate, the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell, or both. The UV-curable compound can be applied to the perovskite glass plate and then cured with UV light before or after the perovskite solar cell is incorporated into the tandem solar module. The UV-cured layer can provide improved UV protection, encapsulation, passivation, and throughput for the tandem module. The UV-curable compound can also be deposited on the top surface of the perovskite solar cell, between the mating surfaces of the perovskite solar cell and the top glass plate. This can passivate the top surface of the perovskite cell exposed to sunlight, thereby further improving the performance of the tandem module. In some cases, the sealant covering the top of the silicon solar cell can be replaced or combined with the UV-curable compound in a mixture.

[0012] The perovskite solar cell includes a first transparent conductive oxide ("TCO") layer that can be deposited on the top glass plate, a hole transport layer ("HTL") deposited on the first TCO layer, a perovskite layer deposited on the HTL, an electron transport layer ("ETL") deposited on the perovskite layer, and a second TCO layer deposited on the ETL. The first TCO layer and the second TCO layer can be used as terminals of the perovskite solar cell. The ETL and HTL promote the transport of electrons and holes, respectively, while suppressing the transport of holes and electrons, respectively. The perovskite layer can absorb light to generate charge carriers, resulting in a voltage and current flowing across the terminals of the perovskite solar cell.

[0013] The perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell can have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module can be a 4-terminal module. The perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be connected in series or in parallel by connecting the terminals in an appropriate manner. In the case of series connection, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be current-matched. In the case of parallel connection, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can be voltage-matched.

[0014] These features, as well as other features related to the silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and their encapsulations described herein, are summarized below.

[0015] Generally, in a first aspect, the present disclosure describes a solar module. The solar module includes: a material including a compound curable by ultraviolet light; and a plurality of layers, the plurality of layers including: a first layer of the material; a first base layer including glass; and a perovskite solar cell having a first bandgap, the perovskite solar cell being located between the first layer of the material and the first base layer.

[0016] In some examples, the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition. In some examples, the material can consist of the compound. In other examples, the material can further include a sealant.

[0017] Embodiments of the solar module can include one or more of the following features and / or features of other aspects. For example, the solar module can include an edge seal around one or more layers. The edge seal can include the material. In some examples, the edge seal consists of the material.

[0018] The layer can further include a second layer of the material, with the first base layer between the second layer of the material and the perovskite solar cell. The layer can further include a second base layer including glass or a backsheet, the second base layer being the outermost layer of the layer. The layer can further include a sealant layer located between the first layer of the material and the second base layer.

[0019] The perovskite solar cell can include a photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell can further include a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, with the photoactive perovskite layer between the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer. The first TCO layer and the second TCO layer can be terminals of the perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell can include a plurality of segments separated by multiple sets of scribes. Each set of scribes can include P1, P2, and P3 scribes. The first layer of material can fill each set of scribes. The perovskite solar cell can further include a hole transport layer (HTL) located between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell can further include an electron transport layer (ETL) located between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.

[0020] The first bandgap can be in the range from 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV.

[0021] The layer can further include a silicon solar cell having a second bandgap different from the first bandgap, with the first layer of the material between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell.

[0022] The substance can have a refractive index of 1.5 or higher. The substance can be transparent to visible light. The substance can absorb ultraviolet light.

[0023] For light having a wavelength of 350 nanometers (nm) or shorter, the solar module can have a transmission efficiency of less than 100%.

[0024] Other aspects of the present disclosure provide methods of processing and fabricating the devices and components described above and elsewhere in the present disclosure.

[0025] Among other advantages, examples of the disclosed ultraviolet (UV)-curable encapsulation can also improve the reliability of solar cells, such as extending the lifespan of the solar cells, maintaining the conversion efficiency of the solar cells above a threshold, or both. Examples of UV-curable compounds that can be used for UV-curable encapsulation include photopolymers, such as photoactivated resins and acrylate-based compositions that can be cured (e.g., polymerized) using UV light.

[0026] Resins (e.g., epoxy resins) are reactive polymers that can be used in device fabrication and surface treatment. For example, the resin can act as an adhesive to bond two surfaces, passivate the surface, and provide a protective coating for the surface. The uncured resin typically exists in a liquid form, which facilitates the application of the resin during various manufacturing steps. Resin curing (e.g., UV curing) refers to the hardening process that increases the viscosity of the resin. The resin can be cured into a solid form or an intermediate form between a liquid and a solid, such as a high-viscosity liquid form or a gel form.

[0027] Acrylates are monomers and / or oligomers that can be rapidly polymerized into polyacrylate polymers. For example, an acrylate-based composition containing acrylate monomers and a photoinitiator can be cured using UV light to initiate polymerization to form polyacrylate.

[0028] UV curable compounds have many advantages compared to compounds cured using other technologies, especially in solar cell applications such as tandem solar cells. For example, UV curable compounds can be cured with UV light, while traditional epoxy resins typically involve exothermic or endothermic curing processes. Exothermic and endothermic curing generate (or produce) sufficient heat to cause thermal degradation of the solar cells and other components of the solar module. In addition, traditional epoxy resins typically include one or more co-reactants (such as hardeners or curing agents) to facilitate curing. Therefore, in order to obtain optimal epoxy resin curing, it is necessary to mix the co-reactants rationally. In contrast, UV curable compounds can be single-component adhesives that can be directly coated onto the solar cells (e.g., at low viscosity) and cured (e.g., solidified) after being coated. UV curable compounds can also be combined with one or more additives (such as other sealants) into a mixture to facilitate UV curing and improve the properties of the mixture. In addition, compared to traditional epoxy resins, UV curable compounds have a significantly shorter curing time (e.g., seconds or minutes instead of hours or days), while also providing UV light protection by reflecting and / or absorbing UV light. Since the life cycle of solar cells is severely affected by environmental and UV degradation, these characteristics make UV curable compounds advantageous in industrial-scale solar cell manufacturing, especially in surface adhesion, surface passivation, encapsulation, and sealing.

[0029] UV curable compounds are particularly effective in tandem solar cells that involve the hybridization of two different solar cells. In a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell, optical losses at the interface between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell, as well as recombination losses in either layer of the two cells, can lead to a reduction in conversion efficiency. Adding a UV curable layer between the perovskite cell and the silicon cell can significantly reduce optical losses and increase the conversion efficiency. In particular, the UV curable layer can increase the transmittance of the useful parts of the spectrum (such as visible light and infrared light), thus effectively converting it into electricity. The UV curable layer can also improve the surface passivation on both sides of the perovskite solar cell, thereby reducing the likelihood of the perovskite solar cell reacting with the surrounding environment.

[0030] In some examples, the UV curable layer can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., about 1.5 or higher). When the UV curable layer is laminated between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell in a tandem cell, the UV curable layer can minimize the sharp change in refractive index between the two cells. This increases the light transmission from the perovskite solar cell to the silicon solar cell by reducing light reflection at their interface. The increased light flux can lead to a higher efficiency of photon conversion into electrical energy. In addition, the UV curable layer improves the reliability of one or both cells by mitigating damage caused by UV light irradiation, improving structural stability, and passivating its surface.

[0031] Multiple UV-curable layers can be deposited at multiple locations within a perovskite solar module, a silicon solar module, or a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module. For example, the UV-curable layer can be deposited on the substrate side of the solar cell, the electrode side, between the two cells of a tandem module, laminated with a conventional sealant, or a combination of the above. The UV-curable compound can also fully encapsulate multiple layers of the solar module, such as the solar cells of the module and the substrate on which the solar cells are deposited.

[0032] The UV-curable compound can be integrated into a production-level solution where the standard sealant in solar panel encapsulation and packaging serves as a protective layer, while the UV-curable compound provides adhesion, surface passivation, and UV protection.

[0033] The UV-curable compound can be a liquid, a solid, or, if multiple layers of UV-curable compounds are used, a combination of liquid and solid.

[0034] Although examples of UV-curable encapsulation are described herein for perovskite solar modules, silicon solar modules, and tandem perovskite-silicon solar modules, the UV-curable encapsulation is not limited thereto. The UV-curable encapsulation described herein can be used in any solar cell application to improve solar cell performance and mitigate environmental degradation, UV photodegradation, and other forms of degradation.

[0035] Those skilled in the art will readily appreciate other aspects and advantages of the present disclosure from the following detailed description, in which only exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. It should be understood that the present disclosure is capable of other different embodiments and that several details thereof can be modified in various obvious aspects, all without departing from the content of the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and the specification are to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive.

[0036] Incorporation by reference

[0037] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are incorporated herein by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. If a publication, patent, or patent application incorporated by reference conflicts with the disclosure in this specification, this specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such conflicting material. Description of the drawings

[0038] Figure 1A A tandem, 4-terminal silicon-perovskite solar cell module including multiple ultraviolet (UV)-curable layers is schematically shown according to one embodiment.

[0039] Figure 1BSchematically shows a perovskite solar cell according to one embodiment.

[0040] Figure 2 Schematically shows a perovskite solar module according to one embodiment having a UV - curable layer for protecting scribes.

[0041] Figure 3 Is a flowchart of a manufacturing process for forming a perovskite photovoltaic device according to one embodiment.

[0042] Figure 4 Is according to one embodiment Figure 3 Flowchart of operation 310 in

[0043] Figure 5 Is according to one embodiment Figure 3 Flowchart of operation 340 in

[0044] Figure 6 Is according to one embodiment Figure 3 Flowchart of operation 350 in

[0045] Figure 7 Is according to one embodiment Figure 3 Flowchart of operation 360 of

[0046] Figures 8A - 8D Schematically shows various perovskite solar modules with different UV - curable encapsulations according to some embodiments.

[0047] Figure 9A Schematically shows a UV - curable layer disposed on a UV - incident glass substrate according to one embodiment.

[0048] Figure 9B Is a graph of the transmission efficiency of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength according to one embodiment.

[0049] Figure 10A And 10B Shows photographs of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV - curable layer, respectively, after a stress test according to some embodiments.

[0050] Figure 11A And 11B Is a graph showing the performance of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV - curable layer, respectively, during a 75°C stress test according to some embodiments.

[0051] Figures 12A - 12C Is a graph showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during an 85°C and 85% relative humidity (85°C / 85%) extended reliability test according to some embodiments.

[0052] Figure 13 is a manufacturing process flow chart for forming a perovskite layer according to an embodiment.

[0053] Figure 14 is a process flow chart for manufacturing a tandem solar module according to an embodiment.

[0054] Figure 15 illustrates a computer system programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods provided herein, according to an embodiment. Detailed Description

[0055] Although various embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, those skilled in the art will understand that these embodiments are provided by way of example only. Those skilled in the art can make various changes, alterations, and substitutions without departing from the present invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein can be employed.

[0056] When the terms "at least", "greater than", or "greater than or equal to" are placed before the first value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term "at least", "greater than", or "greater than or equal to" applies to each value in the series. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0057] When the terms "not greater than", "less than", or "less than or equal to" are placed before the first value in a series of two or more numerical sequences, the term "not greater than", "less than", or "less than or equal to" applies to each value in the series. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0058] As used herein, the term "solar cell" generally refers to a device that generates electricity from light using the photovoltaic effect.

[0059] As used herein, the term "tandem" refers to a solar module having two solar cells stacked on top of each other.

[0060] As used herein, the term "4-terminal" refers to a tandem solar module in which the top and bottom solar cells each have two accessible terminals.

[0061] The term "perovskite" as used herein generally refers to materials having a crystal structure similar to that of calcium titanate and is applicable to perovskite solar cells. The general chemical formula for perovskite materials is ABX3. Examples of perovskite materials include methylammonium lead trihalide (i.e., CH3NH3PbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride) and formamidinium lead trihalide (i.e., HC(NH2)2PbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride).

[0062] The term "monocrystalline silicon" as used herein generally refers to silicon having a uniform crystal structure throughout the material. The orientation, lattice parameters, and electronic properties of monocrystalline silicon can remain constant throughout the material. For example, monocrystalline silicon can be doped with phosphorus or boron to make the silicon n-type or p-type, respectively.

[0063] The term "polycrystalline silicon" as used herein generally refers to silicon having an irregular grain structure.

[0064] The term "passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell" as used herein generally refers to a solar cell having an additional dielectric layer on the back side of the solar cell. This dielectric layer can reflect unabsorbed light back into the solar cell for a second absorption attempt and can additionally passivate the back side of the solar cell, improving the efficiency of the solar cell.

[0065] The term "heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) solar cell" as used herein generally refers to a solar cell composed of a monocrystalline silicon wafer surrounded by ultrathin amorphous silicon layers. One amorphous silicon layer can be n-doped and the other can be p-doped.

[0066] The term "interdigitated back contact cell (IBC)" as used herein generally refers to a solar cell having two or more electrical contacts disposed on the back side of the solar cell (e.g., the side opposite the incident light). These two or more electrical contacts can be disposed near alternating n-doped and p-doped regions of the solar cell. The IBC can include a high-quality absorption material configured to allow long-range carrier migration.

[0067] The terms "bandgap" and "band gap" as used herein generally refer to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in a material.

[0068] As used herein, the term "electron transport layer" ("ETL") generally refers to a layer of material in a solar cell that facilitates electron transport and inhibits hole transport. Electrons are the majority carriers in the ETL, while holes are the minority carriers. The ETL can be composed of one or more n-type layers. The one or more n-type layers can include an n-type exciton blocking layer. The n-type exciton blocking layer can have a wider bandgap than the photoactive layer (e.g., perovskite layer) of the solar cell, but have a conduction band that closely matches the conduction band of the photoactive layer. This allows electrons to easily transport from the photoactive layer to the ETL.

[0069] The n-type layer can be a metal oxide, metal sulfide, metal selenide, metal telluride, amorphous silicon, n-type group-IV semiconductor (e.g., germanium), n-type group-III-V semiconductor (e.g., gallium arsenide), n-type group-II-VI semiconductor (e.g., cadmium selenide), n-type group-I-VII semiconductor (e.g., cuprous chloride), n-type group-IV-VI semiconductor (e.g., lead selenide), n-type group-V-VI semiconductor (e.g., bismuth telluride), or n-type group-II-V semiconductor (e.g., cadmium arsenide), any of which can be doped (e.g., with phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony) or undoped. The metal oxide can be an oxide of titanium, tin, zinc, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, gallium, neodymium, palladium, cadmium, or an oxide of a mixture of two or more such metals. The metal sulfide can be a sulfide of cadmium, tin, copper, zinc, or a sulfide of a mixture of two or more such metals. The metal selenide can be a selenide of cadmium, zinc, indium, gallium, or a selenide of a mixture of two or more such metals. The metal telluride can be a telluride of cadmium, zinc, cadmium, or tin, or a telluride of a mixture of two or more such metals. Alternatively, other n-type materials can also be employed, including organic and polymeric electron transport materials and electrolytes. Suitable examples include, but are not limited to, fullerenes or fullerene derivatives (e.g., phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, C60, etc.) or organic electron transport materials including perylene or its derivatives.

[0070] As used herein, the term "hole transport layer" ("HTL") generally refers to a layer of material in a solar cell that facilitates hole transport and inhibits electron transport. Holes are the majority carriers in the HTL, while electrons are the minority carriers. The HTL can be composed of one or more p-type layers. The one or more p-type layers can include a p-type exciton blocking layer. The p-type exciton blocking layer generally has a valence band that closely matches the valence band of the photoactive layer (e.g., perovskite layer) of the solar cell. This allows holes to easily transport from the photoactive layer to the HTL.

[0071] The p-type layer can be made of a molecular hole transport material, a polymeric hole transport material, or a copolymeric hole transport material. For example, the p-type layer can be one or more of the following: nickel oxide, phenylthio, benzothiazolyl, dithiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, diketopyrrolopyrrole, ethoxydiphenylthio, amino, triphenylamino, carbazolyl, ethylenedioxyphenylthio, dioxyphenylthio, or fluorenyl. Additionally or alternatively, the p-type layer can include spiro-OMeTAD (2,2',7,7'-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyaniline)-9,9'-spirobifluorene)), P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)), PCPDTBT (poly[2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-4,7-diyl[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]), PVK (poly(N-vinylcarbazole)), poly(3-hexylthiophene), poly[N,N-diphenyl-4-methoxyaniline-4',4"-diyl], hexathiophene, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene, 5,12-bis(phenylethynyl)tetracene, dibenzo[ghi]perylene, 9,10-diphenylanthracene, PEDOT-TMA, PEDOT:PSS, perfluoropentacene, perylene, poly(phenylene oxide), poly(phenylene sulfide), quinacridone, rubrene, 4-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde diphenylhydrazone, 4-(dibenzylamino)benzaldehyde-N,N-diphenylhydrazone, or phthalocyanine.

[0072] As used herein, the term "ultraviolet (UV) curable compound" generally refers to a material that can be cured upon irradiation with UV light of appropriate intensity. Examples of UV curable compounds include photopolymers such as resins, acrylate-based compositions, etc., which can be cured (e.g., polymerized) by UV light. The UV curable compound can include one or more photoinitiators (e.g., radical or ionic photoinitiators) to activate the curing upon exposure to UV light. Embodiments also include mixtures of such UV curable compounds. Substances or mixtures suitable for UV curable encapsulation can include one or more UV curable compounds and one or more additives (e.g., other sealants) at different concentrations. Examples of additives include resins (e.g., epoxy resins, photocurable epoxy resins, and optically clear resins (OCR)), optically clear adhesives (OCA), silicones, cyclized perfluoropolymers, ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), ethylene-methyl acrylate (EMA), thermoplastic polyolefins (TPO), thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), polyvinyl butyral (PVB), polyisobutylene (PIB), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), acrylic compounds (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), paraffin wax, and thermosetting epoxy resins), organic-inorganic hybrid materials (ORMOCERs (ORM)), and other organic materials.

[0073] Although the UV-curable encapsulation is described herein with respect to silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and silicon-perovskite tandem solar modules, the methods and devices of the present disclosure can be used in combination with other solar cells (such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells) and tandems of such solar cells. For example, the tandem solar module can be a tandem cadmium telluride (CdTe)-perovskite solar cell. In another example, the tandem solar module can be a dye-sensitized solar cell-perovskite solar cell.

[0074] Figure 1A A tandem 4-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module 100 is schematically shown. The solar module 100 includes a first UV-curable layer 205-1, a top glass plate 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV-curable layer 205-2, a silicon solar cell 140, and a backsheet 145. Generally, the UV-curable layer 205 is formed by curing a layer of a material including a UV-curable compound, which can be performed in one or more steps of the manufacturing process. Examples of such processes are described in more detail elsewhere herein.

[0075] The first UV-curable layer 205-1 is disposed on the top surface of the top glass plate 105 and can suppress UV light from passing through the solar module 100 by absorbing and / or reflecting the UV light. Thus, less UV light reaches the underlying layers of the solar module 100 compared to a solar module without the UV-curable layer 205-1. Accordingly, the UV-curable layer 205-1 can protect the underlying layers of the solar module 100 (including the perovskite solar cell 240, the silicon solar cell 140, or both) from UV light degradation. In some embodiments, the first UV-curable layer 205-1 (or an additional UV-curable layer) can be disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105, which can passivate the top surface of the perovskite solar cell 240.

[0076] The top glass plate 105, in combination with the first UV-cured layer 205-1, can protect the underlying layer of the solar module 100 from dust and moisture. The top glass plate 105 and the entire solar module 100 can have a form factor corresponding to a conventional silicon solar panel. For example, the top glass plate 105 can have a form factor corresponding to a 32-cell, 36-cell, 48-cell, 60-cell, 72-cell, 96-cell, or 144-cell silicon solar panel. The top glass plate 105 can have a thickness of at least about 2.0 millimeters (mm), 2.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 5.0 mm, or greater. The top glass plate 105 can have a thickness of at most about 5.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.0 mm, or less. The top glass plate 105 can be transparent to allow light to enter the underlying solar cells. In some cases, the top surface of the top glass plate 105 can be coated with magnesium fluoride (MgF2) and / or polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) (e.g., 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS), which can generally improve light trapping and refractive index matching. In some embodiments, the top surface of the top glass plate 105 is coated with an antireflection coating to reduce light reflection in a specific spectral range. Alternatively, or additionally, the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105 can also be textured to scatter more light back to the perovskite solar cell 240.

[0077] Figure 1B is schematically shown Figure 1A the perovskite solar cell 240 of the solar module 100 shown in. The perovskite solar cell 240 includes a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer 110, a hole transport layer (HTL) 115, a perovskite layer 120, an electron transport layer (ETL) 125, and a second TCO layer 130. The perovskite solar cell 240 can be provided on the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105 by Figures 3 - 7 the manufacturing method described in. More details regarding such a manufacturing method have been described in International Application No. PCT / US2021 / 051465, filed on September 22, 2021, titled "Methods and Apparatus for Integrating the Manufacture of Tandem Solar Modules", the entire text of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0078] Perovskite solar cell 240 typically has a higher bandgap than silicon solar cell 140. For example, perovskite solar cell 240 can have a bandgap of about 1.30 electron volts (“eV”) to 2.10 eV or greater. In contrast, silicon solar cell 140 can have a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Thus, compared to silicon solar cell 140, perovskite solar cell 240 can efficiently convert shorter wavelength light into electricity. Perovskite solar cell 240 can transmit longer wavelength light, which enables the underlying silicon solar cell 140 to absorb such longer wavelength light and convert it into electricity. When perovskite solar cell 240 and silicon solar cell 140 are combined, they can convert a wider spectrum of light into electricity more efficiently than a single solar cell.

[0079] The first TCO layer 110 can be directly disposed on the top glass plate 105. Depositing the first TCO layer 110 directly on the top glass plate 105 can prevent damage to the HTL 115 and the perovskite layer 120. The first TCO layer 110 can be used as the positive terminal or cathode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The first TCO layer 110 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nanometers (nm), 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer or greater. The first TCO layer 110 can have a thickness of at most about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm or less. The first TCO layer 110 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO). The first TCO layer 110 can be made of doped ITO. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 or higher. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less.

[0080] The HTL 115 is disposed on the first TCO layer 110. The HTL 115 facilitates the hole transfer from the perovskite layer 120 to the first TCO layer 110 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the HTL 115 inhibits electron transfer. In some embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of one or more nickel oxide layers. In other embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of other suitable p-type materials described in the present disclosure. The HTL 115 may have a thickness of at least about 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micron or greater. The HTL 115 may have a thickness of at most about 1 micron, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm or less.

[0081] The perovskite layer 120 is disposed on the HTL 115. The perovskite layer 120 is the photoactive layer of the perovskite solar cell 240. That is, the perovskite layer 120 absorbs light and generates holes and electrons, which then diffuse into the HTL 115 and the ETL 125, respectively. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of methylammonium lead triiodide, methylammonium lead tribromide, methylammonium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of formamidinium lead triiodide, formamidinium lead tribromide, formamidinium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of cesium lead triiodide, cesium lead tribromide, cesium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 may be a triple-cation perovskite material, where the ratios of formamidinium, methylammonium, and cesium cations are different. Incorporating cesium into the perovskite lattice can provide enhanced thermodynamic stability. The bandgap of the perovskite layer 120 can be adjusted by tuning the halide content in methylammonium lead trihalide or formamidinium lead trihalide. The perovskite layer 120 may have a thickness of at least about 250 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900nm, 1 micron, 1.25 microns, 1.5 microns, 1.75 microns, 2 microns or greater. The perovskite layer 120 may have a thickness of at most about 2 microns, 1.75 microns, 1.5 microns, 1.25 microns, 1 micron, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm or less.

[0082] The ETL 125 is disposed on the perovskite layer 120. The ETL 125 facilitates the transfer of electrons from the perovskite layer 120 to the second TCO layer 130 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the ETL 125 inhibits hole transport. In some embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (“PCBM”). In other embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of other suitable n-type materials described in the present disclosure (e.g., C60). The ETL 125 can have a thickness of at least about 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm or greater. The ETL 125 can have a thickness of at most about 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm or less. The interface between the ETL 125 and the perovskite layer 120 is crucial for the performance of the perovskite layer 120. The surface of the perovskite layer 120 can be hydrophilic to enable good coverage of the hydrophilic ETL (e.g., PCBM). A combination of environmental conditions (e.g., low humidity <15%, low temperature of 18 to 24 degrees Celsius) and solvent compatibility can affect the quality of the perovskite layer-ETL connection.

[0083] The second TCO layer 130 is disposed on the ETL 125. The second TCO layer 130 can be used as the negative terminal or anode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micron or greater. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at most about 1 micron, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm or less. The second TCO layer 130 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO). The second TCO layer 130 can be made of doped ITO.

[0084] The second UV-cured layer 205-2 is disposed on the second TCO layer 130. When cured, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can act as an adhesive to bond the perovskite solar cell 240 to the silicon solar cell 140, which can provide a relatively firm matching of the solar cells 140 and 240. Alternatively, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can be cured before applying additional layers. The second UV-cured layer 205-2 can increase the light transmission through the solar module 100, thereby increasing the light absorption of the silicon solar cell 140. In addition, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140. The refractive index and thickness of the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can be selected such that more light in a desired spectral range (e.g., visible light and infrared light) is transmitted to the silicon solar cell 140 compared to a solar module without the UV-cured layer 205-2. This can be attributed to a reduction in the sharp change in refractive index between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140. For example, the UV-cured layer 205-2 can be a material with a relatively high refractive index to match the refractive index of the second TCO layer 130. In some embodiments, the refractive index of the UV-cured layer 205-2 is approximately equal to or greater than 1.5. The second UV-cured layer 205-2 can also passivate the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 while providing additional UV protection for the underlying silicon solar cell 140.

[0085] Generally, the UV-cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are transparent to visible light but can have different compositions. That is, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can include the same or different substances as the first UV-cured layer 205-1. For example, the UV-cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can include different mixtures that contain different UV-curable compounds, different concentrations of UV-curable compounds, different transparent additives, different concentrations of transparent additives, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the UV-cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 are in solid form, liquid form, or both solid and liquid forms, such as high-viscosity liquid or gel form. During the entire manufacturing process, the UV-cured layers 205-1 and 205-2 can be cured simultaneously, non-simultaneously, and / or at multiple times.

[0086] The sealant 135 is disposed on the second UV-cured layer 205-2. The combination of the sealant 135 and the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can prevent the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from being exposed to dust, moisture, and UV light. For example, the sealant 135 can serve as a protective layer at the interface between the perovskite cell 240 and the silicon cell 140, while the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can effectively bond the cell surfaces in addition to providing UV protection. As another example, the UV-cured layer 205-2 can be first cured to encapsulate the perovskite solar cell 240, and then the sealant 135 can be deposited on the silicon solar cell 140 to encapsulate the tandem module 100. Like the second UV-cured layer 205-2, the sealant 135 can electrically isolate the perovskite solar cell 240 from the silicon solar cell 140. In addition, the sealant 135 can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., approximately equal to or greater than 1.4), which matches the refractive index of the top silicon nitride or TCO layer of the silicon solar cell 140. Therefore, using a high refractive index material can reduce the transmission loss between the second TCO layer 130, the second UV-cured layer 205-2, the sealant layer 135, and the silicon solar cell 140, thereby improving the current density of the solar module 100. Using a high refractive index material can also improve light trapping. For example, the sealant 135 can include ethylene-vinyl acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, paraffin, etc.

[0087] Layers 205-2 and / or 135 can isolate both the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from the surrounding environment. Layers 205-2 and / or 135 can be configured to prevent the volatilization of one or more components of the perovskite layer 120. For example, layers 205-2 and / or 135 can minimize the loss of organic cations (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, etc.) due to heating of the perovskite layer 120. In another example, layers 205-2 and / or 135 can reduce the outward migration of chemical species from the perovskite layer 120, such as lead iodide or other lead halides, the outward migration of which can degrade the reliability of the integrated tandem module 100. The sealant 135 can be treated to have sufficient crosslinking to protect the perovskite layer 120 from water, oxygen, volatilization of organic compounds of the perovskite layer 120, etc., or any combination thereof. The sealant 135 can have a crosslinking percentage of at least about 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or more. The sealant 135 can have a crosslinking percentage of at most about 95, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less. In some embodiments, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 includes the sealant 135. For example, a substance or mixture including a UV-curable compound and the sealant 135 can be cured to form the second UV-cured layer 205-2, which can have the characteristics of both materials.

[0088] Typically, the silicon solar cell 140 can be a p-type silicon solar cell with a thin n-type layer ("emitter") covering the p-type substrate, or an n-type silicon solar cell with a thin p-type emitter covering the n-type substrate. The silicon solar cell 140 can be a monocrystalline silicon solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon solar cell, a PERC silicon solar cell, a HIT silicon solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), etc.

[0089] The silicon solar cell 140 can have a backsheet 145. The backsheet 145 seals the solar module 100 to prevent moisture ingress. In some cases, the backsheet 145 can be a glass plate having a top surface and a bottom surface. The top surface of the glass plate can have a highly reflective coating or a textured surface to further enhance light trapping or scattering for the silicon solar cell 140 and the perovskite solar cell 240. The glass plate can be transparent. The glass plate can be substantially transparent. The transparency of the glass plate can facilitate bifacial operation of the solar module 100. For example, the solar module 100 can be configured to absorb light from both sides of the module 100.

[0090] The perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell can have its own terminals. That is, the tandem solar module 100 can be a 4-terminal assembly, with each solar cell having two corresponding terminals. The perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be connected in series or parallel by connecting the terminals in an appropriate manner. In the case of series connection, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can achieve current matching. In the case of parallel connection, the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can achieve voltage matching. Laser scribing can be used to achieve current matching or voltage matching, for example, by connecting individually scribed perovskite solar cells in series or parallel to reach the desired voltage or current. The parallel or series connection between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 can be made via busbars / electrodes before module lamination. This enables its quick and easy introduction into any existing silicon manufacturing process.

[0091] The solar module 100 can have a power conversion efficiency of at least about 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30% or higher.

[0092] Please note that Figure 1ADepicts an example configuration of a stacked silicon-perovskite solar module 100 having two UV-cured layers 205. However, many other stacked solar module and single-cell solar module configurations are also possible, where the UV-cured layer is disposed at multiple different locations in the multi-layer structure. For example, the UV-cured layer can be applied to the substrate side, the electrode side, or both, of the solar cell. The UV-cured layer can also surround the solar cell. Regarding Figures 8A - 8D Describes various perovskite solar module configurations with different UV-curable encapsulations.

[0093] Figure 2 Schematically shows a perovskite solar module 200 having UV-cured layer 205 protecting scribes P1, P2, and P3. Perovskite solar module 200 is an example of a perovskite solar module that can be used alone or integrated with a silicon solar panel to form a stacked silicon-perovskite solar module, such as Figure 1A the stacked silicon-perovskite solar module 100 in

[0094] Figure 2 Shows a cross-sectional view of perovskite solar module 200. Perovskite solar module 200 includes a first TCO layer 110, an HTL 115, a perovskite (PVSK) layer 120, an ETL 125, and a second TCO layer 130, which together form perovskite solar cell 240. Solar module 200 further includes a positive terminal 201 and a negative terminal 202, which interface with perovskite solar cell 240, for example, for outputting electrical power. For clarity, HTL 115 and ETL 125 are depicted as solid lines to illustrate the various interconnections between TCO layers 110 and 130, perovskite layer 120, and terminals 201 and 202. Perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on a glass substrate 105, for example, on the bottom surface of a top glass plate. UV-cured layer 205 is disposed on perovskite solar cell 240, encapsulating the underlying layer of solar cell 240. Specifically, UV-cured layer 205 fills scribes P1 - P3 and bonds to terminals 201 and 202. Generally, UV-cured layer 205 protects scribes P1 - P3, provides structural stability, improves electrical isolation, and passivates the surface of solar cell 240.

[0095] The anode region 211 and the cathode region 212 represent opposite sides of the solar module 200, and the two terminals 201 and 202 of the photovoltaic module 200 are located on the opposite sides. The anode region 211 includes the anode terminal 201 electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110. Since there is a gap (G1) between the perovskite layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130, and this gap is filled by the UV curable layer 205, the anode 201 is electrically isolated from the perovskite layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130. The cathode region 212 includes the cathode terminal 202 electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130. The cathode region 212 further includes multiple scribelines P1 - P3 for performing various functions such as forming interconnections. The body of the solar module 200 is located in the space between the two regions 211 and 212, and this space may include multiple individually scribed perovskite segments. Specifically, each individually scribed perovskite segment can be separated by a corresponding set of scribelines P1 - P3 to form a serial interconnection (e.g., an overall interconnection) between the perovskite segments.

[0096] The scribelines P1 - P3 correspond to corresponding gaps in one or more layers in the solar module 200, and these gaps allow the deposition of overlapping layers into the gaps to form contacts. For example, the scribeline P1 corresponds to the gap in the first TCO layer 110 filled by the PVSK layer 120, the second TCO layer 130, and the UV curable layer 205. The scribeline P1 isolates the first TCO layer 110 between adjacent perovskite segments. The scribeline P2 corresponds to the gap in the PVSK layer 120 filled by the second TCO layer 130 and the UV curable layer 205. The scribeline P2 provides a channel to connect the first TCO layer 110 of one perovskite segment to the second TCO layer 130 of the next perovskite segment to form an interconnection. The scribeline P3 corresponds to the gap between the PVSK layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130, and this gap is filled with the UV curable layer 205. The scribeline P3 isolates the second TCO layer 115 between adjacent perovskite segments, forming segments that can be integrated into the solar module 200.

[0097] The scribing features P1 - P3 can be scribed through multiple lithography operations (e.g., laser scribing) in various steps of the manufacturing process of the perovskite solar module 200. Such steps will be described with respect to Figures 3 - 7 Note that if the perovskite solar module 200 is used in a tandem silicon - perovskite solar module, the UV curable layer 205 can be cured either before or after the perovskite solar module 200 is installed on the silicon solar panel. For example, the UV curable layer 205 can first be cured on the perovskite solar cell 240 to form a perovskite - on - glass (“active glass”) with improved UV protection and light flux. Subsequently, a sealant can be laminated between the active glass and the silicon solar cell to form a tandem silicon - perovskite module, such as Figure 1AThe stacked module 100 therein.

[0098] Figures 8A - 8D Schematically shows various perovskite solar modules 800a - 800d with different UV - curable encapsulations. Each of the exemplary perovskite solar modules 800a - 800b includes a perovskite solar cell 240, which can be configured according to Figure 1B , Figure 2 or other suitable ways.

[0099] Figure 8A Shows an exemplary perovskite solar module 800a, which includes a first UV - curable layer 205 - 1, a top glass plate 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV - curable layer 205 - 2, an encapsulation layer 135, a backsheet 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0100] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105 to form an active glass, and the first UV - curable layer 205 - 1 is disposed on the top surface of the top glass plate 105 to inhibit UV light from penetrating into the module 800a. The second UV - curable layer 205 - 2 is laminated together with the sealant 135 between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the backsheet 145. The second UV - curable layer 205 - 2 can passivate the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 and provide adhesion to the backsheet 145. The edge seal 210 surrounds the sides of the perovskite solar cell 240 and is laminated together with the UV layer 205 - 2 and the sealant 135, effectively sealing the perovskite cell 240 between the top glass plate 105 and the backsheet 145. The edge seal 210 can prevent the entry of contaminants (such as oxygen and moisture) and the escape of the sealant. Examples of seal materials that can be used for the edge seal 210 include silicone, polymers (such as polyurethane, rubber), butyl rubber, acrylic resin, caulking, sealant, tape, etc.

[0101] Figure 8B Shows another exemplary perovskite solar module 800b, which includes a top glass plate 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a UV - curable layer 205, a backsheet 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0102] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105 to form an active glass. The UV - curable layer 205 is laminated between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the backsheet 145. In this example, no additional encapsulation layer is used. However, the UV - curable layer 205 can include encapsulation additives in addition to the UV - curable compound. The edge seal layer 210 is laminated together with the UV - curable layer 205 and surrounds the sides of the perovskite solar cell 240, effectively sealing the perovskite cell 240 between the top glass plate 105 and the backsheet 145.

[0103] Figure 8C Shows another example perovskite solar module 800c, which includes a first UV-curable layer 205-1, a top glass plate 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV-curable layer 205-2, a back plate 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0104] The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass plate 105 to form an active glass, and the first UV-curable layer 205-1 is disposed on the top surface of the top glass plate 105. The second UV-curable layer 205-2 is laminated between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the back plate 145. In this example, the edge seal 210 surrounds the sides of the top glass plate 105 and the perovskite solar cell 240. Additionally, the edge seal 210 is composed of the same material as the UV-curable layer 205, forming a complete UV-curable encapsulation. The advantage of this configuration of the solar module 800c is that no additional encapsulation layer or other sealing material is required.

[0105] Figure 8D Shows another example perovskite solar module 800d, which includes a first UV-curable layer 205-1, a top glass plate 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV-curable layer 205-2, a back plate 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0106] The example perovskite solar module 800d is configured similarly to Figure 8C the solar module 800c in, but with the structure reversed. In this case, the "back" plate 145 is disposed on the first UV-curable layer 205-1 such that the first UV-curable layer 205-1 is laminated between the top glass plate 105 and the back plate 145.

[0107] Figure 9A Schematically shows a UV-curable layer 205 disposed on a glass substrate 105, which is subjected to the incidence of UV light 400. The UV-curable layer 205 has a refractive index of , and a thickness of . The glass substrate 105 has a refractive index of , and a thickness of 。The incident UV light 400-1 (vertically incident) is reflected and / or absorbed at the interface between layers 105 and 205, such that a part of the transmitted UV light 400-2 passes through. Theoretically, the transmission coefficient of the multi-layer optical structure can be determined according to the incident angle by the Fresnel equation, and this transmission coefficient is a function of the refractive indices and thicknesses of layers 105 and 205. The refractive indices (and extinction coefficients) of the glass substrate 105 and the UV-cured layer 205 are usually wavelength-dependent. The thickness of each of layers 105 and 205 also affects the wavelength dependence, e.g., due to resonance. Therefore, the transmission coefficient usually depends on the wavelength of the light and can be optimized to suppress UV light 400 of a specific wavelength (e.g., using various multi-layer optimization methods). Theoretical calculations can be compared with experimental results to confirm the desired performance.

[0108] Figure 9B A graph of the transmission efficiency (T%) of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength. The perovskite solar cell is configured according to Figure 1B and a UV-cured layer is applied. Figure 9B The wavelength range in the graph is from 250 nm to 350 nm, corresponding to a part in the mid-UV and near-UV ranges of the UV electromagnetic spectrum. As shown, when the wavelength is between 250 nm and 350 nm, the transmission efficiency is less than 100%. Specifically, when the wavelength is between 250 nm and 310 nm, the transmission efficiency is less than 90%; when the wavelength is between 250 nm and 290 nm, the transmission efficiency is less than 80%; when the wavelength is between 250 nm and 280 nm, the transmission efficiency is less than 60%; and when the wavelength is between 250 nm and 270 nm, the transmission efficiency is less than 55%. The UV-cured layer is the cause of the reduced transmission efficiency, which blocks part of the UV light radiation of the perovskite solar cell. That is, the UV-cured layer reflects and / or absorbs part of the UV light radiation, thereby protecting the perovskite solar cell from damage by UV light.

[0109] Figure 10A A photograph of the perovskite solar module 240a without a UV-cured layer after a stress test is shown. The solar module 240a was subjected to a stress test at 75 °C for 5 hours. Figure 10B A photograph of the perovskite solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer after a stress test is shown. The solar module 240b was subjected to a stress test at 75 °C for 100 hours. Compared with the solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer, the solar module 240a without a UV-cured layer shows signs of performance degradation, as indicated by the circular dashed area. The solar module 240a without a UV-cured layer has discolored, indicating that the perovskite has decomposed into , while the solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer showed no signs of decomposition, even though the solar module 240b underwent a significantly longer (20 times longer) stress test.

[0110] Figure 11A and 11B are graphs respectively showing the performance of the perovskite solar modules 240a and 240b during the 75 °C stress test. Figure 11A and 11B The graphs in measure the power generation of the solar modules 240a and 240b over a period of time under a constant light source. Figure 11B shows the maximum power P max , the current I at the maximum power mp and the voltage V at the maximum power mp residual factors. P max and I mp roughly overlap and gradually decrease, while V mp remains roughly stable for 600 hours before starting to gradually decrease. Refer to Figure 10A , after being placed at 75 °C for 5 hours, the solar module 240a without a UV-cured layer retained approximately 60% of its initial power conversion efficiency (PCE). In contrast, the solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer retained more than 90% of its initial PCE after being placed at 75 °C for 200 hours.

[0111] As Figure 10B and 11B shown, even after an extended test time, the performance of the solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer hardly degraded. The slow degradation is due to a combination of the UV-cured layer and factors such as the composition of the perovskite layer and the quality of the encapsulation of the perovskite layer. The solar module 240b and other example solar modules using the UV-curable encapsulation described herein are capable of achieving performance metrics that pass standardized test requirements. For example, such components can pass reliability tests such as the IEC 61215 and / or IEC 61646 standards, and even exceed the performance of these standards (e.g., still passing the standards after 4000 hours of testing).

[0112] Figures 12A - 12C is a graph showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during an extended reliability test at 85 °C and 85% relative humidity (85 °C / 85%).

[0113] Figure 12A shows the performance change over time of a perovskite solar module with a sealant and edge seal but without a UV-cured layer. The corresponding graph plots the normalized maximum power P max as a function of time.Figure 12B shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800a configured as in Figure 8A with a sealant, two UV-cured layers, and edge sealing. Figure 12C Displays the performance of a perovskite solar module 800b configured as in Figure 8B with a UV-cured layer and edge sealing. Figure 12B And 12C Displays the normalized variables: maximum power P max (solid line), fill factor FF (short dashed line), open-circuit voltage V oc (short dashed line), and short-circuit current density J sc (long dashed line) as a function of time. The normalized variables correspond to the variables divided by their respective initial values. Comparing Figure 12A with Figure 12B and 12C the solar modules with UV-cured layers (800a and 800b) show little degradation even over a relatively long test time. Figure 12A In Figure 12B and 12C the measured values are roughly the same or even higher after 1000 hours, while in

[0114] Figure 3 is a flowchart of a manufacturing process 300 for forming a perovskite photovoltaic device (such as Figure 2 the perovskite solar module 200 in

[0115] Figure 4 is Figure 3Flowchart of operation 310. Operation 310 includes providing a substrate (311). The substrate can be a transparent substrate. The substrate can include silicon-based glass (e.g., amorphous silicon dioxide, doped silicon dioxide, etc.), transparent conductive oxides, ceramics, chalcogenide glasses, polymers (e.g., transparent plastics, poly(methyl methacrylate), etc.), or any combination thereof. The substrate can include the top surface of a solar module. For example, the substrate can be the top glass plate of a silicon solar panel assembly. The substrate can have a texture and / or a pattern. For example, the substrate can include nanoscale textures configured as an anti-reflection coating and an adhesion surface. In another example, the substrate can include a pattern configured to generate a photon channel. In another example, the substrate can include a pre-patterned portion (e.g., a top contact grid layout) having electrodes for removing energy from a solar cell. The substrate can have an area of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, or more square meters. The substrate can have an area of at most about 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or less square meters. The substrate can be a large-format substrate. For example, the substrate can be a Gen 10 substrate.

[0116] Operation 310 includes applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to a substrate to form a first transparent conductive layer (312). The first transparent conductive layer may include a transparent conductive oxide (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium cadmium oxide, etc.), a transparent conductive polymer (e.g., poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)) (PEDOT), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), poly(4,4-dioctylcyclopentadithiophene), etc.), carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanowires (e.g., silver nanowires), metal grids (e.g., grid contacts including metals), thin films (e.g., metal thin films), conductive grain boundaries, etc., or any combination thereof. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full-spectrum transparency of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or higher. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full-spectrum transparency of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20% or lower. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full-spectrum transparency within a range defined by any two of the above values. For example, the first transparent conductive layer may have a full-spectrum transparency of 75% to 85%. The first transparent conductive layer may have a transparency of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9% or higher in a spectral band. The first transparent conductive layer may have a transparency of at most about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20% or lower in a spectral band. For example, the first transparent conductive layer may have a transmittance of 85% in the wavelength range of 400 nm to 1200 nm. The first transparent conductive layer may act as a barrier to moisture, gas, dust, etc. for the perovskite layer. The first transparent conductive layer may also prevent the diffusion of ions (e.g., metal ions) that may affect the performance of the perovskite layer.

[0117] Operation 310 includes applying a hole transport layer to the first transparent conductive layer (313). The hole transport layer is configured to transport holes from the absorption layer to the first transparent conductive layer and out of the solar module. The hole transport layer can include organic molecules (e.g., 2,2',7,7'-tetrakis[N,N-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD)), inorganic oxides (e.g., nickel oxide (NiOx), copper oxide (CuOx), cobalt oxide (CoOx), chromium oxide (CrOx), vanadium oxide (VOx), tungsten oxide (WOx), molybdenum oxide (MoOx), cuprous aluminum oxide (CuAlO2), cuprous chromium oxide (CuCrO2), cuprous gallium oxide (CuGaO2), etc.), inorganic chalcogenides (e.g., cuprous iodide (CuI), copper indium sulfide (CuInS2), copper zinc tin sulfide (CuZnSnS4), copper barium tin sulfide (CuBaSnS4), etc.), and other inorganic materials (e.g., copper thiocyanate (CuSCN), etc.), organic polymers, etc., or any combination thereof. For example, nickel oxide can be coated on a glass substrate covered with indium tin oxide to form a hole transport layer on the transparent conductive layer.

[0118] Operation 310 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (314) on the hole transport layer. The one or more lithography operations can include optical lithography (e.g., (extreme) ultraviolet lithography, X-ray lithography, laser scribing, etc.), electron beam lithography, ion beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, other direct writing processes (e.g., dip-pen lithography, inkjet printing), etc., or any combination thereof. For example, multiple features (e.g., P1 scribed features) can be scribed onto the hole transport layer and the underlying first transparent conductive layer using laser scribing. The one or more lithography operations can include the addition and / or deletion of features. For example, the features can be cured and made permanent. In another example, the features can be formed by removing material from the target.

[0119] Return to Figure 3, Process 300 includes applying one or more perovskite precursors to a hole transport layer (320). The applying method can include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma-enhanced CVD, atomic layer deposition, spin coating, dip coating, blade coating, drop casting, centrifugal casting, chemical solution deposition, sol-gel deposition, electroplating, physical vapor deposition, thermal evaporation, molecular beam epitaxy, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, cathodic arc deposition, ultrasonic spraying, inkjet printing, etc., or any combination thereof. The applying method can include applying a single perovskite precursor at a time. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be evaporated onto the hole transport layer, and then a second perovskite precursor can be sprayed onto the first precursor. The applying step can include applying multiple precursors at once. For example, an inkjet printer can apply a solution including multiple precursors. Process 300 optionally includes applying one or more additional perovskite precursors to a hole transport layer (330). The additional perovskite layer can be applied in the same manner as operation 320. For example, a first precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition, and then a second precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition. Alternatively, the additional perovskite layer can be applied in a manner different from operation 320. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be deposited by physical vapor deposition, while a second perovskite precursor can be deposited by ultrasonic spraying. Operation 330 can be repeated multiple times. For example, multiple additional perovskite precursors can be applied to the hole transport layer through multiple operations.

[0120] Ultrasonic spray applications can include the use of multiple nozzles. The ultrasonic spraying process can include the use of a single nozzle. For example, a single nozzle can be configured to raster spray across an application area to provide coverage of the area. Multiple different types of nozzles can be tested for a predetermined uniformity and / or thickness of a film deposited by the nozzle, and the optimal nozzle can be selected from the different types of nozzles. Once the optimal nozzle is selected, multiple nozzles of that type can be used in the ultrasonic spray application. The nozzles can form a set of nozzles configured to spray over a large area to improve throughput and efficiency. The set of nozzles can be a bar nozzle (e.g., a row of nozzles across a single dimension), a two-dimensional array of nozzles (e.g., nozzles distributed over a rectangle), a three-dimensional array of nozzles (e.g., multiple nozzles distributed in three dimensions). The nozzles can be adjusted in angle for spraying. The angle can deviate from a parallel line to the substrate by at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 degrees or more. The angle between the angle and the parallel line to the substrate can be at most about 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 degrees or less. The angle can be configured to reduce or eliminate precursor undercoating of the substrate and contamination of other components of the manufacturing process. Roll-to-roll on-line manufacturing processes can be achieved using ultrasonic spraying. In a roll-to-roll on-line manufacturing process, a series of nozzle sets can each sequentially add different layers to a substrate, the substrate can be processed (e.g., annealed, laser scribed, etc.), and a finished photovoltaic cell can be produced on a single production line. Compared to a step-by-step manufacturing process, the roll-to-roll process can result in significant improvements in production cost and production speed.

[0121] One or more perovskite precursors may include one or more lead halides (e.g., lead fluoride, lead chloride, lead bromide, lead iodide, etc.), lead salts (e.g., lead acetate, lead oxide, etc.), other metal salts (e.g., manganese halide, tin halide, metal oxide, metal halide, etc.), organic halides (e.g., formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, butylammonium halide, etc.), alkali metal salts (e.g., alkali metal halides, etc.), alkaline earth metal salts (e.g., alkaline earth metal halides, etc.), perovskite nanoparticles, etc., or any combination thereof. A plurality of perovskite precursors can be used as one or more perovskite precursors. For example, both methylammonium iodide and butylammonium iodide can be used as perovskite precursors. In this example, the ratio of methylammonium iodide to butylammonium iodide can be about 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 90:10, or 99:1. In another example, a mixture of lead halides can be used as part of the perovskite precursor. Using different mixtures of lead halides can adjust the bandgap of the perovskite layer. For example, using different mixtures of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) iodide can produce different bandgaps. Using different amounts of lead(II) chloride affects the crystal stability of the perovskite layer and can prevent phase segregation within the layer. The amount of lead(II) chloride added can be greater than the amount of lead(II) bromide added (by weight). The amount of lead(II) chloride added can be less than the amount of lead(II) bromide added (by weight). The amount of lead(II) chloride added can be the same as the amount of lead(II) bromide added (by weight). The amount of lead(II) iodide soluble in the solution may be related to the amounts of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride in the solution. For example, adding more lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride to a lead(II) iodide solution can improve the solubility of lead(II) iodide, thereby reducing the particles in the perovskite layer.

[0122] One or more perovskite precursors can be one or more perovskite precursor solutions. For example, a solution of lead(II) iodide in dimethyl sulfoxide can be used as a perovskite precursor. The perovskite precursor can be present in a solution of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 or more weight percent of the perovskite precursor. The perovskite precursor can be present in a solution of at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or lower weight percent of the perovskite precursor solution. The solution can include one or more solvents. Examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (such as water, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethers, esters, acetates, acetone, etc.), non-polar solvents (such as hexane, toluene, etc.), etc., or any combination thereof. The proper mixing of solvents and the solvent composition can help control the solvent removal rate, thereby affecting the development of grains and the formation of bulk defects. Adjusting the interaction between the coordination strength of the solvent and the evaporation rate of the precursor solution can better control the formed perovskite film and the reaction kinetics of its formation. For example, a weakly coordinating solvent with a rapid evaporation rate may form a more disordered film, but may also result in a reduction in residual solvent in the film. Solvent mixtures can improve the solubility of solutes, reduce the evaporation rate, improve the performance of the application method, etc. For example, a combination of NMP and DMSO can increase the solute solubility and reduce the solvent evaporation rate. In this example, the properties of the NMO / DMSO mixture can reduce the premature crystallization of perovskite and improve the film quality. In another example, adding NMP to DMF can increase the solution spray width through an ultrasonic spraying device, which can provide greater flexibility for the spraying parameters used.

[0123] One or more perovskite precursors may include one or more additives. The addition of one or more additives may be configured to reduce and / or eliminate defects within the perovskite layer prepared elsewhere herein. One or more additives may include one or more recrystallization solvents. One or more recrystallization solvents may be added to a solution including one or more perovskite precursors. One or more recrystallization solvents may be applied after depositing one or more perovskite precursors and / or after annealing one or more perovskite precursors. For example, a lead halide precursor may be applied first, followed by a recrystallization solvent, and then the perovskite precursor may be further annealed to orient the lead halide precursor to better bind with methylammonium iodide. Examples of recrystallization solvents include but are not limited to halobenzenes (e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.), haloforms (e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), etc., or any combination thereof.

[0124] Various parameters can be adjusted to provide a predetermined perovskite layer. Examples of parameters include, but are not limited to, the perovskite precursor solution application temperature, the volume application rate, the ultrasonic power of the ultrasonic spraying instrument, the lateral speed of precursor application (e.g., the speed at which the substrate moves through the applicator), the applicator height (e.g., the distance from the applicator to the substrate), environmental factors (e.g., humidity, reactive gas content, temperature, etc.), the wetting surface energy, etc., or any combination thereof. Any part of process 300 (including the application of the perovskite precursor) can be performed in a controlled environment. The controlled environment can have a relative humidity of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 99% or higher. The controlled environment can have a relative humidity of at most about 99%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10% or lower. The controlled environment can include a controlled atmosphere. The controlled atmosphere can include an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen, noble gas, etc.). The controlled atmosphere can have an oxygen content of at least about 1 part per million (ppm), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 500 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% or more. The controlled atmosphere can have an oxygen content of at most about 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 5,000 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 500 ppm, 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 1 ppm or lower. The controlled atmosphere can be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or higher. The controlled atmosphere can be at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or lower.

[0125] Process 300 includes performing one or more processing operations on the perovskite precursor to generate a perovskite layer (340). If the perovskite precursor is deposited as a complete perovskite layer, operation 340 can be omitted. Figure 5 is Figure 3 A flowchart of operation 340 in. Operation 340 includes providing a substrate (341) that supports a first transparent conductive layer, a hole transport layer, and one or more applied perovskite precursors. The substrate can be the result of operations 310 - 330 of process 300.

[0126] Operation 340 includes performing one or more processing operations on a perovskite precursor to generate a perovskite layer (342). The one or more processing operations may include annealing, exposure (e.g., ultraviolet light exposure), agitation (e.g., vibration), functionalization (e.g., surface functionalization), electroplating, template inversion, etc., or any combination thereof. For example, a substrate having a perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer from the precursor. In another example, the perovskite precursor may be annealed and then functionalized. Annealing may be performed in an inert atmosphere (e.g., argon atmosphere, nitrogen atmosphere). Annealing may be performed in a reactive atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere including a reagent (e.g., methylammonium)). Annealing may be performed at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or higher. Annealing may be performed at a temperature of at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or lower. Annealing may be performed within a temperature range defined by any two of the above values. For example, annealing may be performed at a temperature of 90 to 120 degrees Celsius. The annealing time may be at least about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120 minutes or longer. The annealing time may be at most about 120, 105, 75, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5 minutes or shorter. The annealing time may be defined by any two of the above values. For example, the annealing time may be about 5 to about 15 minutes. Multiple annealing treatments may be applied to the substrate. For example, the substrate may be annealed at a first time and temperature and then annealed again at a second time and temperature. Such an annealing treatment of the attachment may reduce the number of defects present in the perovskite layer and improve performance.

[0127] Operation 340 optionally includes applying one or more additional layers to the perovskite layer (343). The one or more additional layers can include one or more additional perovskite layers. For example, a second perovskite layer having a different bandgap can be applied to the first perovskite layer. The one or more additional layers can include one or more additional perovskite precursors. For example, iodine gas can be applied to form an iodine layer on the perovskite layer and / or the perovskite precursor layer. The one or more additional layers can include one or more cleaning operations. The cleaning operation can include applying a solvent to the perovskite layer. Examples of the solvent include but are not limited to water, non-polar organic solvents (such as hexane, toluene, etc.), polar organic solvents (such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, etc.), ionic solvents, etc. The one or more additional layers can include one or more passivation layers. The passivation layer can include a reagent for passivating and / or stabilizing the perovskite layer. For example, applying a solution including phenethylammonium iodide can passivate and stabilize the grains of the perovskite layer.

[0128] Operation 340 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (344) on one or more additional layers and / or the perovskite layer. The one or more lithography operations can be one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing can be used to generate features (such as, P2 scribing features) on the perovskite layer and one or more underlying layers.

[0129] Returning to Figure 3 , process 300 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (350). Figure 6 is Figure 3 a flowchart of operation 350 in. Operation 350 includes providing a substrate (351) that supports a first transparent conductive layer, a hole transport layer, and a perovskite layer. The substrate can be the substrate generated by Figure 3 operations 310 - 340 in.

[0130] Operation 350 includes applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (352). The electron transport layer can be applied by methods and systems described elsewhere herein (such as, physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spraying, etc.). The electron transport layer can include a material having a conduction band minimum less than the conduction band minimum of the perovskite layer. For example, if the perovskite layer has a conduction band minimum of -3.9 eV, the electron transport layer can have a conduction band minimum of -4 eV. Examples of electron transport layer materials include but are not limited to titanium oxide (such as, TiO2), zinc oxide, tin oxide, tungsten oxide, indium oxide, niobium oxide, iron oxide, cerium oxide, strontium titanate oxide, zinc tin oxide, barium tin oxide, cadmium selenide, indium sulfide, lead iodide, organic molecules (such as, phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), etc.), lithium fluoride, buckminsterfullerene (C60), etc., or any combination thereof.

[0131] Operation 350 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (353) on the electron transport layer. The one or more lithography operations may be the one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to generate features on the electron transport layer and one or more underlying layers.

[0132] Returning to Figure 3 Process 300 includes applying a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer (360). Figure 7 is Figure 3 a flowchart of operation 360. Operation 360 includes providing a substrate (371) that supports the first transparent conductive layer, the hole transport layer, the perovskite layer, and the electron transport layer. The substrate may be the substrate generated by Figure 3 operations 310-350 herein.

[0133] Operation 360 includes applying a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer (362). The second transparent conductive layer may be of the same type as the first transparent conductive layer. For example, both the first transparent conductive layer and the second transparent conductive layer may be indium tin oxide. The type of the second transparent conductive layer may be different from the type of the first transparent conductive layer. The second transparent conductive layer may be deposited in a manner described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, etc.).

[0134] Operation 360 optionally includes applying one or more main gates to the second transparent conductive layer (363). The one or more main gates may be applied as main gates (e.g., applying a preformed main gate to the second transparent conductive layer). For example, a main gate may be formed using a mask through an evaporation process. The one or more main gates may be applied as a solid thin film and then the main gate is formed. For example, a silver film may be deposited on the second transparent conductive layer and etched to form a main gate. In another example, a silver film may be made into a main gate using laser scribing.

[0135] Operation 360 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (364) on the electron transport layer. The one or more lithography operations may be the one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to generate features (e.g., P3 scribing features) on the second transparent conductive layer and one or more underlying layers.

[0136] The bus bar can be connected to at least about 2, 3, 4 or more terminals. The bus bar can be connected to at most about 4, 3, 2 or fewer terminals. The terminals can be configured to form a parallel connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals can be configured to form a series connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals can be scribed (e.g., laser scribed). The terminals can be configured to connect a perovskite photovoltaic device to another photovoltaic device before laminating two photovoltaic devices. For example, a perovskite photovoltaic device can be connected to a silicon photovoltaic device via two terminals.

[0137] Return to Figure 3 , Process 300 includes applying a UV curable compound to the second transparent conductive layer (370). Examples of UV curable compounds include various photopolymers such as resins (e.g., epoxy resins) and acrylate-based compositions that can be cured using ultraviolet light, as well as other compounds described elsewhere herein. The UV curable compound can include one or more photoinitiators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitiators) to activate curing upon exposure to ultraviolet light. In some embodiments, the UV curable compound can be applied in the form of a mixture that includes one or more additives (e.g., other sealants), such as additives described elsewhere herein. The UV curable compound can be applied over the scribed features (e.g., P1 - P3 scribed features) to provide protection and structural stability. The UV curable compound can be applied to the first transparent conductive layer as well as the second transparent conductive layer. For example, the UV curable compound can be supported between the substrate and the first transparent conductive layer. The UV curable compound can be applied across the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., over the entire layer), on a portion of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., on a portion of the layer), on the edge of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., as a sealant for the entire stacked layer), etc., or in any combination of the above. For example, the UV curable compound can be applied on the edge of the entire stacked layer (e.g., as an edge sealant) to prevent moisture and oxygen from diffusing into the stack.

[0138] Process 300 optionally includes applying a sealant over the UV curable compound (370). The UV curable compound and the sealant can be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. The UV curable compound and the sealant can be substantially transparent. For example, the UV curable compound and the sealant can be transparent in the same optical region as the second transparent conductive layer. The UV curable compound and the sealant can have a refractive index similar to that of the second transparent conductive layer. The UV curable compound and the sealant can be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. Examples of reactive species include, but are not limited to, oxygen, water, and polar molecules (e.g., polar volatile organic compounds, acids, etc.). Examples of sealants include, but are not limited to: PDMS, , silicone, butyl sealant, etc. If used for edge encapsulation, the sealant can include a tape. The tape can be a release layer with adhesive on the back. The sealant can be placed such that its end is at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 mm or more from the edge. The sealant can be placed such that its end is at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 mm or less from the edge.

[0139] Operation 300 includes curing (380) a UV-curable compound using ultraviolet light. For example, the UV-curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, a UV lamp, one or more UV lasers, or other light sources, or a combination thereof. The UV-curable compound can be cured before and / or after the application of the sealant. If the perovskite photovoltaic device is integrated in a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell, the UV-curable compound can also be cured after being mated with the silicon plate.

[0140] Figure 13 is a flow chart of a manufacturing process 1300 for forming a perovskite layer. Process 1300 can be Figure 3 an embodiment of operations 320-340 in

[0141] Process 1300 includes providing a substrate (1310) including a hole transport layer. The substrate can also include a transparent conductive layer as described elsewhere herein. The hole transport layer can be a hole transport layer as described elsewhere herein. The substrate can be a substrate as described elsewhere herein.

[0142] Process 1300 includes applying an organohalide salt layer to a lead layer (1330). The organohalide can be the organohalide described elsewhere in this document. For example, a mixture of methylammonium iodide, methylammonium chloride, and formamidinium iodide can be applied to the lead layer. The organohalide layer can be applied by a deposition process described elsewhere in this document. For example, the organohalide can be applied by spin coating, ultrasonic spraying, etc.

[0143] Process 1300 includes applying a halide layer to the organohalide layer (1340). The halide layer can include halides (such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.), haloxides (such as chlorates, etc.), other halogen-containing compounds, etc., or any combination thereof. For example, the halide layer can include iodine. In another example, the halide layer can be iodine. The halide layer can be applied to the organohalide salt layer by a deposition process described elsewhere in this document. The halide can be applied as a gas. For example, iodine can be sublimed and applied as a gas to the organohalide salt layer. The halide can be applied uniformly across the surface of the organohalide salt layer. To apply the halide uniformly, various different application devices can be used. One example of an application device can be a "spray head" (e.g., an application head including multiple holes). Another example of an application device can be a rod including one or more nozzles that can be translated across the surface of the substrate. For example, a rod having the same width as the substrate can move across the substrate to deposit a uniform halide coating.

[0144] Process 1300 includes performing one or more processing operations to form a perovskite layer (1350). The perovskite layer can be the perovskite layer described elsewhere in this document (e.g., the perovskite layer from Figure 3 Process 300). The one or more processing operations can be the one or more processing operations described elsewhere in this document. For example, a lead layer (having a lead acetate layer deposited on top of the lead layer), a methylammonium iodide / formamidinium iodide layer, and a halide layer can be annealed together at a temperature of 90 - 120 degrees Celsius to form a methylammonium / formamidinium lead iodide perovskite layer. The one or more processing operations can include cleaning. The cleaning can include using one or more solvents described elsewhere in this document. The cleaning can be used to remove unreacted precursors from the perovskite layer. For example, isopropyl alcohol cleaning can be performed to remove residual organohalide salts. The one or more processing operations can include one or more treatments. Examples of treatments include but are not limited to: applying phenethylammonium iodide, thiocyanate cleaning, other passivation and / or stabilization processes, etc., or any combination thereof.

[0145] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for generating a perovskite layer, including spraying a solution comprising a perovskite layer precursor. A quenching solution can be applied to the precursor to form the perovskite layer. The solution can include all precursors of the perovskite layer. For example, the solution can include lead halide, organic halide, and halide. The solution can include the perovskite precursors described elsewhere herein. The solution can be applied by the processes described elsewhere herein. For example, the solution can be applied by ultrasonic spraying technology. The solution can be treated after application. For example, the solution can be heated to remove the solvent from the solution. The solution can be left untreated after application. A quenching solution can be applied to the solution (e.g., precursor solution). A quenching solution can be applied to the dried precursor. The quenching solution can include an anti-solvent (e.g., a solvent in which the perovskite precursor has a lower solubility than the solvent of the precursor solution). Examples of anti-solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (e.g., alcohols, acetone, etc.), long-chain non-polar solvents (e.g., octadecene, squalene, etc.), etc., or any combination thereof. The quenching solution can be applied in the manner described in other parts of this document. For example, the quenching solution can be applied by ultrasonic spraying technology. The solution can be placed under one or more atmospheric conditions to assist in removing the solvent. One or more atmospheric conditions can include reduced pressure (e.g., applying a vacuum), increased pressure (e.g., blowing air onto the substrate), etc., or a combination thereof. Reduced pressure can include applying a partial vacuum around the substrate. Such a vacuum can draw the solvent out of the film to achieve rapid solvent removal and produce a high-quality film. Increased pressure can include using an air knife or a similar blowing scheme to assist in removing the solvent. Such a high-quality film may exhibit a mirror effect under visual inspection. After applying the precursor solution, the solution can be allowed a certain time to self-level before curing. For example, before removing the solvent and preparing the perovskite layer, the precursor solution can be allowed to stand on the substrate for a sufficient time to level.

[0146] Figure 14is a flow chart of process 2000 for manufacturing a laminated solar module. Process 2000 includes providing a silicon solar panel (2010). The silicon solar panel can be the silicon solar panel described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar panel can be a front contact solar panel, an integrated back contact solar panel, a shingled solar panel, etc. The silicon solar panel can have at least about 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 72, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96 or more solar cells. The silicon solar panel can have at most about 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 72, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10 or fewer solar cells. In some embodiments, the silicon solar panel includes 60 six-inch solar cells arranged in a 6×10 grid. The cells can be connected in series. Each of the cells can have an open circuit voltage of 0.7V, and the total open circuit voltage is about 42V.

[0147] Process 2000 includes manufacturing a perovskite on glass, as described elsewhere herein (2020). For example, process 300 in Figure 3 can be used to manufacture the glass-based perovskite. The perovskite on glass can have at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more layers. The perovskite on glass can have at most about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or fewer layers.

[0148] Process 2000 includes laser scribing a perovskite on glass to form a perovskite cell or strip (2030). The manufacturing process can include using manufacturing techniques described elsewhere herein. For example, the manufacturing process can include using laser scribing to define one or more perovskite solar cells. One or more perovskite solar cells can be multiple perovskite solar cells. One or more perovskite solar cells can be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 or more perovskite solar cells. One or more perovskite solar cells can be at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or fewer perovskite solar cells. The perovskite solar cells can be connected in series. The perovskite solar cells can be connected in parallel. Laser scribing can divide the perovskite layer into multiple segments. These segments can form multiple perovskite solar cells. For example, contacts can be applied to these segments to extract charge from these segments.

[0149] Laser scribing can be configured to generate multiple perovskite cells that, when connected together, have the same or substantially the same voltage output as a silicon module. The voltage output per unit area of the perovskite layer can be known, and the perovskite layer can be scribed to form perovskite cells that provide a predetermined voltage dimension. For example, a perovskite layer can be scribed to form 5 perovskite sub-modules, each module including 40 perovskite solar cells, to match a silicon solar module having the same voltage output as 40 perovskite solar cells. In this example, the 5 perovskite sub-modules can be connected in parallel to increase the current generated by the perovskite layer while maintaining voltage matching with the silicon module.

[0150] Process 2000 includes connecting cells of a silicon solar panel to a perovskite solar cell to form a tandem module (2040). The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar cell can be in a voltage matching configuration. The voltage matching configuration can be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar cell can have the same voltage as the perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell can be connected in parallel with another. The perovskite solar cell can be connected in series with another. The perovskite solar cells can be connected such that there are multiple modules in the perovskite layer. For example, rows of perovskite solar cells can be connected in series with each other, and the connected rows can be connected in parallel. The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel can be connected as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell can be connected to the same junction box as the silicon solar cell via a copper (or other metal, charge collection strip, etc.) terminal.

[0151] Process 2000 includes encapsulating the module (2050) using an ultraviolet curable compound. The encapsulation can further include a sealant. For example, the encapsulation can include applying the ultraviolet curable compound to the perovskite layer and applying the sealant to the ultraviolet curable compound and / or the silicon solar panel. Additionally, or alternatively, the ultraviolet curable compound can be applied to the perovskite layer or the silicon solar panel in the form of a mixture that includes the ultraviolet curable compound and the sealant.

[0152] Process 2000 includes curing the ultraviolet curable compound using ultraviolet light (2060). For example, the ultraviolet curable compound can be exposed to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, an ultraviolet lamp, one or more ultraviolet lasers, or other light sources, or a combination thereof. Once cured, the ultraviolet curable compound can bond the mating surfaces of the tandem solar module, thereby providing protection against environmental effects and unwanted ultraviolet light. Operation 2060 can be performed at various different intervals, depending on the order in which the ultraviolet curable compound and / or the sealant are applied during the encapsulation of the tandem module. For example, if operation 2050 includes applying the ultraviolet curable compound and then applying the sealant, operation 2060 can be performed before and / or after applying the sealant.

[0153] Process 2000 may include applying a plurality of contacts to one or more perovskite solar cells to electrically couple the one or more perovskite solar cells. One or more processes described elsewhere herein may be used to apply the contacts. For example, the contacts may be evaporated onto the perovskite solar cells. In another example, the contacts may be applied to the perovskite solar cells by lithography techniques. The method may include applying a sealant to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The application process may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the sealant may be applied via evaporation. In another example, the sealant may be applied to the perovskite solar cells as a viscous solution. The sealant may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the sealant may be a thermoplastic polyolefin. The method may include applying an edge seal to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The edge seal may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the edge seal may be HelioSeal™.

[0154] Silicon solar panels and perovskite solar panels may be electronically coupled to the same junction box. Such a coupling to the same junction box may allow for the convenient integration of perovskite layers into existing silicon solar modules. Such a coupling may also simplify the installation of tandem solar modules, as the tandem modules may have only a single output rather than multiple outputs. Examples of different grid connections of different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules have been described in WO Patent Application No. 2022 / 066707 A1.

[0155] Perovskite compositions and additives.

[0156] The perovskite layer described herein may have a composition of MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3, where MA is methylammonium and FA is formamidinium. n1, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and / or less than 1. n1 + n2 + n3 may equal 1. A perovskite solar cell including the perovskite layer may maintain at least about 80% of its solar conversion efficiency after being irradiated for 300 hours under one sun condition in an air atmosphere at 45°C. The perovskite layer may be used as described in other parts of this document (e.g., as an absorption layer in a perovskite photovoltaic device).

[0157] In the above formula, X can be selected from fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X can be iodine. X can be a combination of two or more elements among fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X can be a mixture of chlorine and iodine. The combination can include individual components having a concentration of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or higher percentage. The combination can include individual components having a concentration of at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 or lower percentage. For example, the combination can be a mixture of about 1% chlorine and 99% iodine. The combination can include individual components having a concentration within the range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, the combination can be a mixture of about 1% - 5% bromine and about 95% - 99% iodine.

[0158] In the foregoing formula, n l , n2, and n3 can each be greater than at least about 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99 or greater. In the above formula, nl, n2, and n3 can each be less than at most about 0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.96, 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.45, 0.4, 0.35, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.15, 0.14, 0.13, 0.12, 0.11, 0.1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001 or less. In the above formula, n1, n2, and n3 can each have a range defined by any two of the above values. For example, n1 can be from about 0.001 to about 0.05, n2 can be from about 0.8 to about 0.989, and n3 can be from about 0.01 to about 0.15.

[0159] The cations in the formula can be as described above (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, cesium, butylammonium). Other cations that can be used include, but are not limited to, imidazolium, dimethylammonium, guanidinium, ammonium, methylformamidinium, tetramethylammonium, trimethylammonium, rubidium, copper, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, sodium, potassium, iron, other inorganic cations, other organic cations, etc., or any combination thereof. The perovskite layer may not include additional additives. For example, the perovskite layer may not include thiocyanate. In another example, the perovskite layer may not include urea. The perovskite layer can be configured to provide high performance and long life without additional additives. The absence of additional additives can reduce the cost of the perovskite layer and make it easier to manufacture. Adding cesium cations (or equivalent alternative cations) can improve the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. For example, the presence of cesium can increase the molecular bond strength of the lead halide structure in the perovskite layer. Cesium ions may also have a lower vapor pressure than organic ions, which may contribute to the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. Compared with other organic cations (such as methylammonium), formamidinium ions have a larger molecular weight, so adding formamidinium ions may make it more resistant to high temperatures. Since pure formamidinium perovskite may have inherent instability, adding cesium and / or methylammonium cations can improve crystal stability while maintaining thermal stability. Adding too much light organic cation (such as methylammonium) will reduce thermal stability. Adding a small amount of butylammonium iodide can improve the quality of the perovskite layer because the molecular structure of butylammonium iodide is larger and can better fill the voids in the perovskite crystal structure, thus better passivating the defects or imperfections in the crystal, and thus a higher quality or performance perovskite layer can be obtained.

[0160] The perovskite solar cell can be the perovskite solar cell described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell can be a solar cell formed on top of a glass of a silicon solar cell. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after being irradiated under one sun condition for 300 hours, the perovskite layer can retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 or more percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after being irradiated under one sun condition for 300 hours, the perovskite layer can retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 or lower percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after being irradiated under one sun condition for 300 hours, the perovskite layer can retain a certain percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value, and this percentage is defined by any two of the above values.

[0161] On the other hand, the present disclosure provides a method. The method can include providing a substrate. A perovskite precursor can be applied to the substrate. The perovskite precursor can be annealed to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer can include a composition of MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3. MA can be methylammonium. FA can be formamidine. n l , n2, and n3 can independently be greater than 0 and / or less than 1. n l + n2 + n3 can be equal to 1. The perovskite solar cell including the perovskite layer can maintain at least about 80% of the solar conversion efficiency after being irradiated under a single-sun condition for 300 hours in an air atmosphere at a temperature greater than 25°C and less than 100°C. The perovskite layer can be subjected to a lamination process for the encapsulation layer at a temperature of at least about 90°C.

[0162] The temperature of the lamination process for the encapsulation layer can be at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or higher. The temperature of the lamination process for the encapsulation layer can be up to about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or lower. The temperature of the lamination process for the encapsulation layer can be defined by any two of the above values. The encapsulation can be as described elsewhere herein (e.g., with respect to Figure 1A the UV-curing layers 205-1 / 205-2 and the sealant 135).

[0163] The perovskite solar cell can be the perovskite solar cell described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell can be a solar cell formed on the top glass of a silicon solar cell. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after irradiation for 300 hours under one sun condition, the perovskite layer can retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 or more percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after irradiation for 300 hours under one sun condition, the perovskite layer can retain at most about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 or lower percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value. In an air atmosphere at >25°C and <100°C, after irradiation for 300 hours under one sun condition, the perovskite layer can retain a certain percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value, which is defined by any two of the above values. After the encapsulation lamination process, the perovskite layer can retain at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or more percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value. The perovskite layer can retain at most about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 or lower percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process. The perovskite layer can retain the initial conversion efficiency value defined by any two of the above values after the encapsulation lamination process.

[0164] The perovskite precursor can be applied in the manner described in other parts of this document. For example, the perovskite precursor can be applied using an ultrasonic spray process. In this example, the precursor can be applied through different spraying operations (e.g., lead(II) iodide can be applied to the substrate, and methylammonium iodide can be applied to the lead(II) iodide). In another example, the perovskite precursor can be applied in a single operation. In this example, a solution comprising all the perovskite layer precursors can be applied and annealed to form the perovskite layer. The annealing process can include heating the perovskite layer to at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or higher. The annealing process can include heating the perovskite layer to at most about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or lower. The annealing process can include heating the perovskite layer to a temperature range defined by any two of the above values.

[0165] A UV curing layer can be applied to various examples, such as solar cells using PDMS as a sealant or top glass, solar cells with or without an ultrathin silver layer, solar cells manufactured using an in-line PVD process, solar cells having electrical connections within a tandem solar module, solar cells including hybrid composition perovskite solar cells, solar cells having a scalable manufacturing method, and solar cells that have undergone reliability testing and encapsulation. WO Patent Application 2022066707A1 (specifically paragraphs 153 - 184) discusses such examples. Adding a UV curing layer can improve the performance, reliability, manufacturability, or a combination thereof of any such solar cell.

[0166] Computer system

[0167] This disclosure provides a computer system programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods of this disclosure. Figure 15 A computer system 1201 is shown that is programmed or otherwise configured to direct the manufacturing and production processes described herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spraying, slot die coating, etc.) or to control power electronics connected to the solar modules described herein.

[0168] The computer system 1201 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also referred to herein as "processor" and "computer processor") 1205, which can be a single-core or multi-core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer system 1201 also includes a memory 1210 or storage location (e.g., random access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), an electronic storage unit 1215 (e.g., hard disk), a communication interface 1220 for communicating with one or more other systems (e.g., network adapter), and peripheral devices 1225, such as caches, other memories, data storage, and / or electronic display adapters. The memory 1210, storage unit 1215, communication interface 1220, and peripheral devices 1225 communicate with the CPU 1205 via a communication bus (solid lines) (such as a motherboard). The storage unit 1215 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer system 1201 can be operatively coupled to a computer network ("network") 1230 via the communication interface 1220. The network 1230 can be the Internet, an intranet, and / or an extranet, or an intranet and / or an extranet that communicates with the Internet. In some cases, the network 1230 is a telecommunications and / or data network. The network 1230 can include one or more computer servers, which can implement distributed computing, such as cloud computing. In some cases, via the computer system 1201, the network 1230 can implement a peer-to-peer network, which enables devices coupled to the computer system 1201 to act as clients or servers.

[0169] The CPU 1205 can execute a series of machine-readable instructions, which can be included in a program or software. The instructions can be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 1210. The instructions can be directed to the CPU 1205, and subsequently, the CPU 1205 can be programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1205 can include fetching, decoding, executing, and writing back.

[0170] The CPU 1205 can be a part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the computer system 1201 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0171] The storage unit 1215 can store files, such as drivers, libraries, and saved programs. The storage unit 1215 can store user data, such as user preferences and user programs. In some cases, the computer system 1201 can include one or more additional data storage units located outside the computer system 1201, such as on a remote server that communicates with the computer system 1201 via an intranet or the Internet.

[0172] The computer system 1201 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems via the network 1230. For example, the computer system 1201 can communicate with the user's remote computer system. Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (such as portable PCs), tablets or tablet PCs (such as Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, smartphones (such as Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled devices, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants (PDAs). The user can access the computer system 1201 via the network 1230.

[0173] The methods described herein can be implemented by machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system 1201, such as, for example, the memory 1210 or the electronic storage unit 1215. The machine executable code or machine readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor 1205. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 1215 and stored in the memory 1210 for ready access by the processor 1205. In some cases, instead of using the electronic storage unit 1215, the machine executable instructions can be stored in the memory 1210.

[0174] The code can be pre-compiled and configured to be used with a machine having a processor suitable for executing the code, or can be compiled at runtime. The code can be provided in a programming language that can be selected to cause the code to be executed in a pre-compiled or compiled manner.

[0175] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as computer system 1201, may be embodied programmatically. Various aspects of the technology may be considered "products" or "articles of manufacture", typically existing or embodied in some form of machine (or processor) executable code and / or associated data in a machine-readable medium. The machine executable code may be stored in an electronic storage unit, such as a memory (e.g., read-only memory, random access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. A "storage" type of medium may include any or all tangible memories of a device such as a computer, a processor, or associated modules thereof (such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives, etc.), which can provide non-transitory storage for software programming at any time. All or part of the content of the software may sometimes be transmitted via the Internet or various other telecommunications networks. For example, such communication may load the software from one computer or processor to another, such as from an administrative server or a host to a computer platform of an application server. Thus, another medium that can carry software elements includes light waves, radio waves, and electromagnetic waves, such as waves transmitted across physical interfaces used between local devices, wired and fiber optic fixed line networks, and various wireless links. Physical elements that carry such waves (such as wired or wireless links, fiber optic links, etc.) may also be considered media that carry software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible "storage" media, the term computer or machine "readable medium" refers to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0176] Thus, machine-readable media, such as computer-executable code, can take many forms, including but not limited to tangible storage media, carrier media, or physical transmission media. Non-volatile storage media includes, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any storage device in any computer or similar device, such as may be used to implement a database shown in the figures. Volatile storage media includes dynamic memory, such as the main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media includes coaxial cables, copper wire, and fiber optics, including the lines that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier transmission media can take the form of electrical or electromagnetic signals, or can take the form of acoustic or light waves, such as acoustic or light waves generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Thus, common forms of computer-readable media include, for example: floppy disks, flexible disks, hard disks, magnetic tape, any other magnetic media, CD-ROM, DVD, or DVD-ROM, any other optical media, punched cards, paper tape, any other physical storage media with patterns of holes, RAM, ROM, PROM, and EPROM, FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave that transports data or instructions, a cable or link that transports such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer can read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer-readable media may be involved in transporting one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0177] Computer system 1201 may include or communicate with an electronic display 1235 that includes a user interface (UI) 1240 for providing control of, for example, manufacturing process parameters. Examples of UIs include, but are not limited to, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and web-based user interfaces.

[0178] The methods and systems of the present disclosure can be implemented by one or more algorithms. The algorithms can be implemented in software and executed by central processor 1205.

[0179] Although the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, those skilled in the art should understand that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. The present invention is not intended to be limited to the specific examples provided in the specification. Although the present invention has been described with reference to the foregoing specification, the description and illustration of the embodiments herein are not intended to be limiting. Many variations, changes, and substitutions can now be envisioned by those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. In addition, it should be understood that all aspects of the present invention are not limited to the specific descriptions, configurations, or relative proportions described herein, which depend on various conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives of the embodiments of the present invention described herein can be employed in practicing the present invention. Accordingly, the present invention also encompasses any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. The following claims are intended to define the scope of the present invention, and the methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents are also encompassed therein.

[0180] Multiple embodiments are described. Other embodiments are in the following claims.

Claims

1. A solar module, comprising: A substance including a compound curable by ultraviolet light; And A plurality of layers, the plurality of layers including: A first layer of the substance; A first base layer including glass; and A perovskite solar cell having a first bandgap, the perovskite solar cell being located between the first layer of the substance and the first base layer.

2. The solar module according to claim 1, further comprising: An edge seal surrounding one or more of the plurality of layers.

3. The solar module according to claim 2, wherein, The edge seal is formed of the substance.

4. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The plurality of layers further includes: A second layer of the substance, the first base layer being located between the second layer of the substance and the perovskite solar cell.

5. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The plurality of layers further includes: A second base layer including glass or a backsheet, the second base layer being the outermost layer of the plurality of layers.

6. The solar module according to claim 5, wherein, The plurality of layers further includes: A sealant layer located between the first layer of the substance and the second base layer.

7. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The perovskite solar cell includes a photoactive perovskite layer.

8. The solar module according to claim 7, wherein, The perovskite solar cell further includes: A first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, the photoactive perovskite layer being located between the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer.

9. The solar module according to claim 8, wherein, The first TCO layer and the second TCO layer are terminals of the perovskite solar cell.

10. The solar module according to any one of claims 8 - 9, wherein, The perovskite solar cell includes a plurality of segments separated by multiple sets of scribes.

11. The solar module according to claim 10, wherein, Each set of scribes includes P1, P2, and P3 scribes.

12. The solar module according to any one of claims 10 - 11, wherein, The first layer of the substance fills each set of scribes.

13. The solar module according to any one of claims 8 - 12, wherein, The perovskite solar cell further includes: A hole transport layer (HTL), the HTL being located between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.

14. The solar module according to any one of claims 8-13, wherein, The perovskite solar cell further includes: An electron transport layer (ETL), the ETL being located between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.

15. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The first bandgap is in the range from 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV.

16. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The plurality of layers further includes: A silicon solar cell having a second bandgap different from the first bandgap, the first layer of the substance being located between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell.

17. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The substance has a refractive index of 1.5 or higher.

18. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The substance is transparent to visible light.

19. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein, The substance absorbs ultraviolet light.

20. The solar module according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein for light having a wavelength of 350 nanometers (nm) or shorter, the solar module has a transmission efficiency of less than 100%.

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