Electrode assembly structure, secondary battery, and manufacturing method

Abstract

A method is provided for manufacturing a structure comprising an electrode assembly having a porous electrically insulating material and first and second end plates. The electrode assembly comprises a group of unit cells stacked in succession in a stacking direction and first and second opposite longitudinal end faces separated along the stacking direction. The first and second end plates are separated in the stacking direction and overlie the first and second longitudinal end faces. According to an embodiment of the structure, (i) each unit cell comprises an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have first and second opposite vertical end faces separated in a vertical direction, and (iii) the vertical direction is orthogonal to the stacking direction. The method includes providing the porous electrically insulating material to the electrode assembly using a stencil.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 293,272, filed December 23, 2021, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 293,391, filed December 23, 2021, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 168,638, filed March 31, 2021, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 168,454, filed March 31, 2021, which applications are incorporated by reference in their entireties herein.

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to methods and structures, such as electrode assemblies for use in energy storage devices, such as secondary batteries, energy storage devices employing such structures, and methods for manufacturing such structures and energy devices. [Background technology]

[0003] A rocking chair secondary battery or insertion secondary battery is a type of energy storage device in which carrier ions, such as lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, or magnesium ions, migrate between a positive electrode and a negative electrode through an electrolyte, such as a solid electrolyte or a liquid electrolyte. A secondary battery may include a single battery cell, or two or more battery cells electrically coupled to form a battery, where each battery cell may include a positive electrode, a negative electrode, an electrically insulating separator, and an electrolyte. In a solid-state secondary battery, a single solid material may function as both the electrically insulating separator and the electrolyte.

[0004] In a rocking chair battery cell, both the positive and negative electrodes contain materials into which carrier ions can be inserted and desorbed. When the cell is discharged, carrier ions are desorbed from the negative electrode and inserted into the positive electrode. When the cell is charged, the reverse process occurs, and carrier ions are desorbed from the positive electrode and inserted into the negative electrode.

[0005] However, as part of this carrier ion desorption and insertion process occurring during charging and / or discharging of the secondary battery, at least a portion of the carrier ions may be irreversibly lost to the electrochemical reaction. For example, a decomposition product containing lithium (or other carrier ions) and electrolyte components, known as a solid electrolyte interfacial phase (SEI), may form on the surface of the negative electrode. The formation of this SEI layer traps carrier ions and removes them from the cycling operation of the secondary battery, leading to irreversible capacity loss. Other chemical and electrochemical processes in the electrode assembly may also affect the loss of carrier ions. Such losses often occur during the initial charging step performed as part of the secondary battery formation process, for example due to the formation of an SEI layer in the initial charging step, resulting in a significantly lower capacity compared to the amount of carrier ions included in the secondary battery preformation.

[0006] Methods for replenishing electrodes in secondary batteries have been described (see, for example, U.S. Patent No. 10,770,760 to Castledine et al., which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), but there remains a need for new methods and structures for effectively and efficiently providing carrier ions to secondary batteries to replenish lost carrier ions.

[0007] Among the various aspects of the present disclosure are methods of manufacturing structures including electrode assemblies for energy storage devices, such as secondary batteries, fuel cells, and electrochemical capacitors, that can restore capacity lost as a result of SEI formation and / or mechanical or electrical degradation of the negative and / or positive electrodes. Advantageously, energy storage devices according to aspects of the present disclosure provide increased cycle life, higher energy density, and / or increased discharge rates. Summary of the Invention

[0008] Briefly, one aspect of the disclosure relates to a method for manufacturing a structure comprising an electrode assembly and first and second end plates, the electrode assembly comprising a porous electrically insulating material, the electrode assembly comprising a group of unit cells stacked consecutively in a stacking direction and having first and second opposed longitudinal end faces separated along the stacking direction, the first and second end plates being separated in the stacking direction and overlying the first and second longitudinal end faces, (i) each unit cell comprising an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have first and second opposed vertical end faces separated in a vertical direction, (iii) the vertical direction is orthogonal to the stacking direction, the method comprising providing the porous electrically insulating material to the electrode assembly using a stencil.

[0009] Yet another aspect of the present disclosure relates to a structure comprising an electrode assembly and first and second end plates, the electrode assembly comprising a porous electrically insulating material. The electrode assembly comprises a group of unit cells stacked in succession in a stacking direction and first and second opposite longitudinal end faces separated along the stacking direction, the first and second end plates being separated in the stacking direction and overlying the first and second longitudinal end faces, (i) each unit cell comprises an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have first and second opposite vertical end faces separated in a vertical direction, (iii) the vertical direction is perpendicular to the stacking direction. According to one aspect, the first and second vertical end faces are at least partially covered with the porous electrically insulating material using a stencil.

[0010] Other aspects, features, and embodiments of the present disclosure will be discussed in part, and in part will be apparent from, the following description and drawings. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0011] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of an electrode assembly having a set of electrode constraints. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of one embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly for a secondary battery. [Figure 1C] FIG. 1C is an inset cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly of FIG. [Figure 1D] 1C is a cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly of FIG. 1B taken along line D in FIG. 1B. [Diagram 2] 1 illustrates an exploded view of one embodiment of an energy storage device or secondary battery comprising an electrode assembly and a set of electrode constraints. [Figure 3A] 1 illustrates a cross section in the ZY plane of an embodiment of an electrode assembly having an auxiliary electrode. [Figure 3B] 1 illustrates a top view in the XY plane of an embodiment of an electrode assembly having a set of electrode constraints with openings therein. [Figure 4] FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrode assembly including a porous electrically insulating material. [Diagram 5] 1A-1D are perspective and cross-sectional views of an embodiment of a secondary battery comprising a wound electrode assembly. [Figure 6A] 6A and 6B are top views with insets of one embodiment of an electrode assembly before (6A) and after (6B) providing a porous electrically insulating material on a first vertical end surface and / or a second vertical end surface of an electrode and / or a counter electrode of the electrode assembly. [Figure 6B] 6A and 6B are top views with insets of one embodiment of an electrode assembly before (6A) and after (6B) providing a porous electrically insulating material on a first vertical end surface and / or a second vertical end surface of an electrode and / or a counter electrode of the electrode assembly. [Figure 7A] 1B illustrates a cross-section of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line AA' as shown in FIG. 1A, illustrating elements of an embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and a secondary growth constraint system. [Figure 7B]1B illustrates a cross-section of one embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line BB' as shown in FIG. 1A, illustrating elements of an embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and a secondary growth constraint system. [Figure 7C] 1B illustrates a cross-section of one embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line AA' as shown in FIG. 1A, further illustrating elements of an embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and a secondary growth constraint system. [Figure 8] FIG. 1 is a top view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly having a secondary growth constraint system and having a porous electrically insulating material on a first vertical end surface and / or a second vertical end surface of an electrode and / or a counter electrode of the electrode assembly. [Figure 9] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating a portion of a process for providing a porous electrically insulating material to a first vertical end surface and / or a second vertical end surface of an electrode and / or a counter electrode of an electrode assembly. [Figure 10] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of a stencil on an electrode assembly. [Figure 11A] FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an electrode assembly positioned between a set of bumpers. [Figure 11B] FIG. 13 is a side view of an embodiment of an end plate. [Figure 11C] FIG. 13 is a side view of an embodiment of an end plate. [Figure 12] FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a section of an electrode assembly having a stencil covering a peripheral portion of the electrode assembly. [Figure 13] 13 is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a section of an electrode assembly having a stencil covering a peripheral portion of the electrode assembly. FIG. [Figure 14] 13 is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of a section of an electrode assembly having a stencil covering a peripheral portion of the electrode assembly. FIG. [Figure 15] FIG. 13 is a side view of one embodiment of a section of an electrode assembly having end plates with a curved profile. [Figure 16]FIG. 13 is another side view of an embodiment of a section of an electrode assembly having end plates with a curved profile. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0012] Other aspects, embodiments, and features of the inventive subject matter will become apparent from the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. For clarity, not every element or component will be labeled in every figure, and not every element or component of every embodiment of the inventive subject matter will be shown unless illustration is necessary to enable those skilled in the art to understand the inventive subject matter.

[0013] definition As used herein, "a," "an," and "the" (i.e., singular) refer to plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, in one instance, reference to an "electrode" includes both a single electrode and a plurality of similar electrodes.

[0014] As used herein, "about" and "approximately" refer to plus or minus 10%, 5%, or 1% of the stated value. For example, in one case, about 250 μm includes 225 μm to 275 μm. As a further example, in one case, about 1,000 μm includes 900 μm to 1,100 μm. Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities (e.g., measurements, etc.) and the like used in the specification and claims should be understood to be modified in all cases by the term "about". Thus, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and the appended claims are approximations. Each numerical parameter should be construed, at least in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

[0015] "State of charge," as used herein in the context of the state of a secondary battery, refers to a state in which a secondary battery is charged to at least 75% of its rated capacity. For example, a battery may be charged to at least 80% of its rated capacity, at least 90% of its rated capacity, and even at least 95% of its rated capacity, such as 100% of its rated capacity.

[0016] "C-rate," as used herein, refers to a measure of the rate at which a secondary battery is discharged and is defined as the discharge current divided by the theoretical current draw that the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in 1 hour. For example, a C-rate of 1C indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 1 hour, a rate of 2C indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in ½ hour, a rate of C / 2 indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 2 hours, etc.

[0017] As used herein in the context of the state of a secondary battery, a "discharged state" refers to a state in which a secondary battery has been discharged to less than 25% of its rated capacity. For example, a battery may be discharged to less than 20% of its rated capacity, such as less than 10% of its rated capacity, and even less than 5% of its rated capacity, such as 0% of its rated capacity.

[0018] As used herein in the context of cycling a secondary battery between a charging state and a discharging state, "cycling" refers to charging and / or discharging the battery to move the battery from a first state, either a charging state or a discharging state, to a second state that is the opposite of the first state (i.e., the charging state if the first state was discharging, or the discharging state if the first state was charging), and then returning the battery to the first state to complete the cycle. For example, a single cycle of a secondary battery between a charging state and a discharging state can include charging the battery from the discharging state to the charging state and then returning it to the discharging state to complete the cycle, as in a charging cycle. A single cycle can also include discharging the battery from the charging state to the discharging state and then returning it to the charging state to complete the cycle, as in a discharging cycle.

[0019] With respect to the term "electrode" as used in "electrode structure" or "electrode active material", it is to be understood that such structure and / or materials may, in certain embodiments, correspond to those of a "negative electrode", e.g., "anode" as used in "negative electrode structure", "anode structure", "negative electrode active material", and "anode active material". With respect to the term "counter electrode" as used in "counter electrode structure" or "counter electrode active material", it is to be understood that such structure and / or materials may, in certain embodiments, correspond to those of a "positive electrode", e.g., "cathode" as used in "positive electrode structure", "cathode structure", "cathode active material", and "cathode active material". That is, where appropriate, any embodiment described with respect to an electrode and / or counter electrode may correspond to the same embodiment in which the electrode and / or counter electrode include the corresponding structure and materials, respectively, specifically the negative electrode and / or the positive electrode.

[0020] As used herein, "longitudinal axis", "lateral axis", and "vertical axis" refer to mutually perpendicular axes (i.e., each is orthogonal to the other). For example, the "longitudinal axis", "lateral axis", and "vertical axis" used herein are similar to a Cartesian coordinate system used to define three-dimensional aspects or orientations. Thus, the description of the elements of the inventive subject matter herein is not limited to the particular axes used to describe the three-dimensional orientation of the elements. Alternatively stated, the axes may be interchangeable when referring to three-dimensional aspects of the inventive subject matter.

[0021] As used herein, "longitudinal," "lateral," and "vertical" refer to directions that are perpendicular to one another (i.e., each is orthogonal to the other). For example, as used herein, "longitudinal," "lateral," and "vertical" may generally be parallel to the longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes, respectively, of a Cartesian coordinate system used to define three-dimensional aspects or orientations.

[0022] The "ferret diameter" referred to herein with respect to an electrode assembly is defined as the distance between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly, measured in a direction perpendicular to the two planes. For example, the ferret diameter of an electrode assembly in a longitudinal direction is the distance measured in a longitudinal direction between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. As another example, the ferret diameter of an electrode assembly in a transverse direction is the distance measured in a transverse direction between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly perpendicular to the transverse direction. As yet another example, the ferret diameter of an electrode assembly in a vertical direction is the distance measured in a vertical direction between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly perpendicular to the vertical direction.

[0023] "Maximum vertical extent" as used herein with respect to an endplate is defined as a point on either vertical side of the endplate that extends the greatest distance along a vertical axis in either vertical direction. For example, for an endplate having first and second vertical end faces separated in a vertical direction, the first maximum vertical extent may be that point on the first vertical end face that extends the greatest distance of any point on the first vertical end face along the vertical axis of the first vertical direction, and the second maximum vertical extent may be that point on the second vertical end face that extends the greatest distance of any point on the second vertical end face along the vertical axis of a second vertical direction that is opposite the first vertical direction.

[0024] As used herein in the context of cycling between a charged state and a discharged state of a secondary battery, "repeated cycling" refers to cycling from a discharged state to a charged state or from a charged state to a discharged state two or more times. For example, repeated cycling between a charged state and a discharged state can include at least two cyclings from a discharged state to a charged state, such as charging from a discharged state to a charged state, discharging back to a discharged state, charging again to a charged state, and finally discharging back to a discharged state. As yet another example, repeated cycling between a charged state and a discharged state can include discharging from a charged state to a discharged state, charging back to a charged state, discharging again to a discharged state, and finally charging back to a charged state at least twice. As a further example, repeated cycling between a charged state and a discharged state can include at least five cyclings, and even at least ten cyclings from a discharged state to a charged state. As a further example, repeated cycling between a charged state and a discharged state can include cycling from a discharged state to a charged state at least 25, 50, 100, 300, 500, and even 1000 times.

[0025] "Rated capacity" as used herein in the context of secondary batteries refers to the capacity of a secondary battery to deliver a specified current over a period of time, measured under standard temperature conditions (25°C). For example, rated capacity may be measured in ampere-hours by determining the current output for a specified time, or by determining the time that current can be output for a specified current and taking the product of the current and time. For example, for a 20 ampere-hour rated battery, if the current is specified at 2 amperes for the rating, the battery may be understood to be one that will provide a current output for 10 hours, and conversely, if the time is specified at 10 hours for the rating, the battery may be understood to be one that will output 2 amperes for 10 hours. In particular, the rated capacity of a secondary battery may be given as the rated capacity at a specified discharge current, such as a C-rate, where the C-rate is a measure of the rate at which the battery is discharged relative to its capacity. For example, a C-rate of 1C indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 1 hour, 2C indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in ½ hour, C / 2 indicates a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 2 hours, and so on. So, for example, a battery rated at 20 amp hours at a C-rate of 1C will provide a discharge current of 20 amps for 1 hour, a battery rated at 20 amp hours at a C-rate of 2C will provide a discharge current of 40 amps for 1 / 2 hour, and a battery rated at 20 amp hours at a C-rate of C / 2 will provide a discharge current of 10 amps for 2 hours.

[0026] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum width" (W EA ) corresponds to the maximum width of the electrode assembly measured longitudinally from a point opposite the longitudinal end face of the electrode assembly.

[0027] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum length" (L EA ) corresponds to the maximum length of the electrode assembly measured laterally from a point on the opposite side of the lateral surface of the electrode assembly.

[0028] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum height" (H EA) corresponds to the maximum height of the electrode assembly measured laterally from a point on the opposite side of the lateral surface of the electrode assembly.

[0029] Detailed Description In general, the present disclosure is directed to an energy storage device 100, such as a secondary battery 102, which is cycled between a charged state and a discharged state, for example as shown in Figures 1A-1D and 2. The secondary battery 102 includes a battery housing 104, an electrode assembly 106, carrier ions, and a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte within the battery housing. In certain embodiments, the secondary battery 102 also includes a set of electrode constraints 108 that constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106. The constrained growth of the electrode assembly 106 can be a macroscopic increase in one or more dimensions of the electrode assembly 106.

[0030] According to an embodiment of the present disclosure, a method for manufacturing an electrode assembly is provided that can facilitate the transfer of carrier ions from an auxiliary electrode 686 comprising a source of carrier ions to the electrode assembly 106, for example as shown in FIG. 3A. As discussed in more detail herein, according to certain embodiments, the transfer of carrier ions occurs as part of an initial formation process performed to activate a secondary battery comprising the electrode assembly. According to other embodiments, the transfer of carrier ions occurs as part of a process to replenish carrier ions in the electrode assembly lost due to the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) during the initial formation process and / or during cycling between charged and discharged states. The method for manufacturing an electrode assembly may, in certain embodiments, provide for the application of a porous electrically insulating material to the electrode assembly that enables the transfer of carrier ions therethrough.

[0031] 1A-1D, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes a group of unit cells 504 stacked in series in a stacking direction (i.e., stacking direction D in FIG. 1B). Each unit of the group of unit cells includes an electrode structure 110, a counter electrode structure 112, and an electrically insulating separator 130 between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, electrically insulating the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 from each other. In one example, as shown in FIG. 1B, the electrode assembly 106 includes stacked continuous unit cells 504 including the electrode structures 110 and the counter electrode structures 112 in an alternating arrangement. FIG. 1C is an inset view showing a secondary battery 102 having the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1B, and FIG. 1D is a cross-section of the secondary battery having the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1B. Other arrangements of stacked continuous unit cells 504a, 504b can also be provided.

[0032] In one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 includes an electrode active material layer 132 and an electrode current collector 136, as shown in, for example, FIGS. 1A-1D. For example, the electrode structure 110 can include an electrode current collector 136 disposed between one or more electrode active material layers 132. According to one embodiment, the electrode active material layer 132 includes an anode active material, and the electrode current collector 136 includes an anode current collector. Similarly, in one embodiment, the counter electrode structure 112 includes a counter electrode active material layer 138 and a counter electrode current collector 140. For example, the counter electrode structure 112 can include a counter electrode current collector 140 disposed between one or more counter electrode active material layers 138. According to one embodiment, the counter electrode active material layer 138 includes a cathode active material, and the counter electrode current collector 140 includes a cathode current collector. It should further be understood that the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112, respectively, are not limited to the specific embodiments and structures described herein, and other configurations, structures, and / or materials than those specifically described herein may be provided to form the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112. According to a specific embodiment, each unit cell 504a, 504b in the group of unit cells comprises, in a stacked row, a unit cell portion of an electrode current collector 136, an electrode structure 110 comprising an electrode active material layer 132, an electrically insulating separator 130 between the electrode and the counter electrode active material layer, a counter electrode structure 112 comprising a counter electrode active material layer 138, and a unit cell portion of a counter electrode current collector 140. In certain embodiments, the order of the unit cell portions of the electrode current collector, electrode active material layer, separator, counter electrode active material layer, and counter electrode current collector is reversed for adjacent unit cells in the stacked row, for example as shown in FIG. 1C, such that portions of the electrode current collector and / or counter electrode current collector are shared between adjacent unit cells.

[0033] According to the embodiment as shown in Figures 1A to 1D, the constituent units of the electrode structure group 110 and the counter electrode structure group 112 are respectively arranged in an alternating array having an alternating array direction corresponding to the stacking direction D. The electrode assembly 106 according to this embodiment further includes a longitudinal axis, a transverse axis, and a vertical axis that are perpendicular to each other, and the longitudinal axis A EAGenerally, the longitudinal axis A corresponds to or is parallel to the stacking direction D of the constituent units of the electrode structure group and the counter electrode structure group. As shown in the embodiment in FIG. EA is shown to correspond to the Y-axis, the horizontal axis is shown to correspond to the X-axis, and the vertical axis is shown to correspond to the Z-axis.

[0034] According to the embodiment disclosed herein, the electrode structure 110, the counter electrode structure 112, and the electrical insulating separator 130 in each unit cell 504 of the unit cell group have first and second vertical end faces on opposite sides separated in a vertical direction perpendicular to the stacking direction of the unit cell group. For example, referring to Fig. 1C and Fig. 4, the electrode structure 110 in each constituent unit of the unit cell group may have a first vertical end face 500a and a second vertical end face 500b on opposite sides separated in a vertical direction, the counter electrode structure 110 in each constituent unit of the unit cell group may have a first vertical end face 501a and a second vertical end face 501b on opposite sides separated in a vertical direction, and the electrical insulating separator 130 may have a first vertical end face 502a and a second vertical end face 502b on opposite sides separated in a vertical direction. According to yet another embodiment, the building blocks of the unit cell group have a first vertical edge 503a and a second vertical edge 503b extending across and comprising the opposite first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure 110, the electrical insulating separator 130, and the counter electrode structure 112 in each unit cell group. Referring to FIG. 3A and FIG. 4, according to yet another embodiment, the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in the same unit cell group building block are vertically offset from each other to form a first recess 505a, and the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in the same unit cell group building block are vertically offset from each other to form a second recess 505b. For example, the first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrodes can be recessed inward and / or offset with respect to the first and second vertical end faces of the respective electrodes in the same unit cell group building block. Referring to FIG. 3A , in one embodiment, a constituent unit of a unit cell group includes a counter electrode active material layer 138 having a first vertical end surface 501 a and a second vertical end surface 501 b recessed inwardly relative to the first and second vertical end surfaces of an electrode active material layer 132 and / or an electrically insulating separator 130.

[0035] According to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 further comprises a porous electrically insulating material 508 covering the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a and / or the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group 504. For example, as shown in FIG. 3A and FIG. 4, the porous electrically insulating material 508 may be located in one or more of the first recesses 505a and the second recesses 505b formed by the vertical offset of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in the unit cell constituent elements. According to a particular embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material has a porosity in the range of 20% to 60% (percentage of pore volume per total volume of the porous electrically insulating material). According to a particular embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material 508 may provide an ion conducting structure and may provide a path for carrier ions provided by the auxiliary electrode to the constituent elements of the unit cell group.

[0036] According to one embodiment of the disclosure, a method is provided for manufacturing a structure 101 comprising an electrode assembly 106 and having a porous electrically insulating material 508, as shown, for example, in FIG. 4. As discussed in more detail herein, and with reference to FIGS. 11-12, according to certain embodiments, the electrode assembly 106 comprises a group of unit cells 504 stacked consecutively in a stacking direction and opposite first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118 separated along the stacking direction. According to certain embodiments, the structure 101 further comprises a first end plate 180 and a second end plate 182 separated in the stacking direction and overlying the first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118. According to certain embodiments of the method and / or structure, (i) each unit cell 504 comprises an electrode structure 110, a counter electrode structure 112, and an electrically insulating separator 130 between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112, (ii) the electrode structure 110, the counter electrode structure 112, and the electrically insulating separator 130 in each unit cell 504 have first and second vertical end faces (500a, 500b), (501a, 501b), (502a, 502b) that are vertically separated and opposed, and (iii) the vertical direction is orthogonal to the stacking direction. According to certain embodiments, the method includes providing a porous electrically insulating material 508 to the electrode assembly 106 using a stencil 700.

[0037] 11A-11C and 12, in one embodiment, a first end plate 180 and a second end plate 182 correspond to a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156 of a primary growth constraint system, as described further herein. According to one embodiment, the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 each have a vertical thickness t EP a first vertical thickness t of a first cross-sectional area 1803 of each of the first end plate and the second end plate in an inner region 1801 of the respective first end plate and the second end plate adjacent to the stacked consecutive unit cells, EP1is a second vertical thickness t of a second cross-sectional area 1804 in a second region 1802 of the first end plate and the second end plate that are outside the first region in the stacking direction. EP2 In another embodiment, each of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 has a maximum vertical thickness t EP The cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction, each with a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX In one embodiment, each of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 also has a respective maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX In another embodiment, the first and second end plates each have a first and second vertical end area (1806a, 1806b) that coincides with a respective first and second maximum vertical extent (1805a, 1805b) on the opposing first and second vertical sides (1850a, 1850b) of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182, respectively. In certain embodiments, one or more of the first vertical end area 1806a and the second vertical end area 1806b of each end plate that coincide with the first and second maximum vertical extent of that end plate also coincides with the maximum vertical thickness t of that end plate. EPMAX may coincide at the same time.

[0038] 10-12 , in one embodiment, the method includes (a) positioning a stencil 700 comprising a stencil frame 701 defining a stencil opening 702 on the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 such that the stencil frame 701 covers at least a portion of the periphery 1853 of the electrode assembly 106, and the first vertical end faces 500 a, 501 a of the constituent electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 of the group of unit cells 504 are exposed through the stencil opening 702. In another embodiment, the method includes (a) positioning a stencil 700 comprising a stencil frame 701 defining a stencil opening 702 on the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 such that a top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701 is positioned so that the ... EPMAX In another embodiment, the method includes (a) positioning a stencil 700 comprising a stencil frame 701 defining a stencil opening 702 on the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182, such that the stencil is positioned on the first and second end plates such that a top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed a first vertical end surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent 1805a of each of the respective first and second end plates that are on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the top surface of the stencil frame.

[0039] In one embodiment, the method further includes (b) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode structures 110 or counter electrode structures 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group. In another embodiment, the method includes (b) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the first vertical end faces 501a of the counter electrode structures 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer of electrode active material 132, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material 138, and (b) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to cover the first vertical end faces 507a of the layer of counter electrode active material of the constituent elements of the unit cell group.

[0040] In one embodiment, the method further includes (c) positioning the stencil 700 over the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 such that the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the constituent electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 of the group of unit cells are exposed through the stencil openings 702. In one embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned over the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701 does not exceed a first vertical end face area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent 1805b of each of the respective first and second end plates that are on the same vertical side 1850a of the top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701 as the top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701. In one embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned over the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701 does not exceed a first vertical end face area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent 1805b of each of the respective first and second end plates that are on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly 106 as the top surface 703 of the stencil frame 701. EPMAX The stencil 700 is positioned on the first endplate 180 and the second endplate 182 such that it does not extend beyond a second vertical endface area 1806b of the first endplate 180 and the second endplate 182 that coincides with the second vertical endface area 1806b of the first endplate 180 and the second endplate 182.

[0041] In one embodiment, the method further includes (d) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structures 110 or counter electrode structures 112 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells. In another embodiment, the method includes (d) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the second vertical end faces 501b of the counter electrode structures 110, 112 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer of electrode active material 132 and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer of counter electrode active material 138, and (d) applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to cover the second vertical end faces 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells.

[0042] In one embodiment, the method further comprises rotating the electrode assembly 106 about an axis perpendicular to the vertical direction (e.g., X-axis or Z-axis) after applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 to the electrode assembly 106. In some embodiments, the electrode assembly is rotated following application of the porous electrically insulating material to the first vertical end surface 500a, 501a of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure, and the method further comprises applying the porous electrically insulating material to the second vertical end surface 500b, 501b of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure after the rotation. According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the method comprises rotating the electrode assembly 106 about a longitudinal axis in the stacking direction or a transverse axis in the transverse direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction to vertically reverse the positions of the first and second vertical end surfaces (500a, 500b), (501a, 501b) of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure.

[0043] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the maximum vertical thickness of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is equal to or less than the maximum vertical thickness tEPMAX In another embodiment, the maximum vertical thickness of the counter electrode structure 112 in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is not greater than the respective maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX In one embodiment, the maximum vertical thickness of the layer 138 of the counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is equal to or less than the respective maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX not exceed.

[0044] In one embodiment, the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 do not exceed the first vertical end face area 1806a of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182, which coincides with the first vertical end face 500a, 501a and the first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly. In one embodiment, the first vertical end face 501a of the counter electrode structure 112 does not exceed the first vertical end face area 1806a of the first and second end plates, which coincides with the first vertical end face 501a and the first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the first vertical end surface 507a of the layer 138 of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 does not exceed a first vertical end surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with the first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly as the first vertical end surface 507a.

[0045] In one embodiment, the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 do not exceed the second vertical end face area 1806b of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 1182, which coincides with the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the second vertical end face 501b of the counter electrode structure 112 does not exceed the second vertical end face area 1806b of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182, which coincides with the second vertical end face 501b and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the second vertical end surface 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 does not exceed a second vertical end surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincides with the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly as the second vertical end surface 507b.

[0046] In another embodiment, the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 are recessed relative to a first vertical end face area 1806a of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 that coincides with the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a and the first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly. In yet another embodiment, the first vertical end face 501a of the counter electrode structure 112 is recessed relative to the first vertical end face 501a and the first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and a first vertical end surface 507a of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 is recessed relative to a first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side surface 1850a of the electrode assembly as the first vertical end surface 507a. In some other embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and a maximum vertical thickness of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction is greater than or equal to the respective maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX not exceed.

[0047] In one embodiment, the second end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 are recessed relative to the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly as the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b. In another embodiment, the second end face 501b of the counter electrode structure 112 is recessed relative to the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly as the second vertical end faces 501b. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and the second end surface 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 is recessed relative to a second surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincides with the second end surface and a second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly.

[0048] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, in (a), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the upper surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the first end surface 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112 of the electrode assembly 106. In another embodiment, in (a), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the upper surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the first end surface 501a of the counter electrode structure 112 of the electrode assembly. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a layer 132 of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and in (a), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the upper surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the first end surface 507a of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 of the electrode assembly.

[0049] In one embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the second end surface 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112 in (c). In another embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the second end surface 501b of the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly 106 in (c). In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame is spaced vertically above the second end surface 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly in (c).

[0050] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is spaced vertically below the first end surface 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112 of the electrode assembly in (a). In another embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is spaced vertically below the first end surface 501a of the counter electrode structure 112 of the electrode assembly in (a). In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and in (a) the stencil 700 is positioned such that a top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is spaced vertically below a first end surface 507a of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly.

[0051] In one embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is vertically spaced below the second end surface 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly 106 in (c). In another embodiment, the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is vertically spaced below the second end surface 501b of the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly in (c). In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group includes a layer 132 of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group includes a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and the stencil 700 is positioned such that the top surface 703 of the stencil frame does not exceed or is vertically spaced below the second end surface 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 in the electrode assembly in (c). In one embodiment, in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned around the periphery of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 in the stacking direction. In one embodiment, in one or more of (a) and (c), the stencil openings are positioned such that a first vertical end surface area 1806a (in (a)) and / or a second vertical end surface area 1806b (in (c)) coinciding with one or more of the maximum vertical extent or maximum thickness of the end plates are exposed through the openings. In certain embodiments, by receiving at least a portion of the end plates 180, 182 within the stencil openings, the end plates act as extensions of the stencil in the stacking direction.

[0052] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, in (a), the stencil frame 701 is received on the receiving surface area 1813a of the outer region 1802 of the first and second end plates, the outer region 1802 being a first vertical thickness t EP1a second vertical thickness t in a second cross-sectional area 1804 perpendicular to the stacking direction that is smaller than EP2 In another embodiment, in (c), the stencil frame 701 is received on the receiving surface area 1813b of the outer region 1802 of the first and second end plates, the outer region 1802 having a first vertical thickness t EP1 a second vertical thickness t in a second cross-sectional area 1804 perpendicular to the stacking direction that is smaller than EP2 In one embodiment, at (a), the stencil frame 701 is received on a receiving surface area 1813a of the outer region 1802 of the first and second end plates that does not exceed or is smaller than a first surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the respective first and second end plates in the vertical direction. In another embodiment, at (c), the stencil frame 701 is received on a receiving surface area 1813b of the outer region 1802 of the first and second end plates that does not exceed or is smaller than a second surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the respective first and second end plates in the vertical direction.

[0053] In some embodiments, the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 each have a first end plate vertical end face 1870a and a second end plate vertical end face 1870b on a first vertical side 1850a and a second vertical side 1850b on opposite sides of the first and second end plates, respectively, and at least one of the first and second vertical end faces includes an inner surface region 1807 in an inner region adjacent to stacked consecutive unit cells and an outer surface region 1808 in an outer region exterior to the inner surface region in the stacking direction, the outer surface region 1808 being offset vertically inward from the inner surface region 1807.

[0054] In some embodiments, the first end plate vertical end face 1870a and the second end plate vertical end face 1870b each include opposing inner surface regions 1807a, 1807b separated vertically by an inner region 1801 adjacent stacked consecutive unit cells, and opposing outer surface regions 1808a, 1808b separated vertically by an outer region 1802 exterior to the inner region 1801 in the stacking direction, wherein the opposing outer surface regions 1808a, 1808b of each of the first and second end plate vertical end faces are offset vertically inward from the opposing inner surface regions 1807a, 1807b.

[0055] In one embodiment, the stencil frame 701 includes a first opposing ledge 704a and a second opposing ledge 704b, and in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned on the electrode assembly 106 such that the first opposing ledge 704a and the second opposing ledge 704b of the stencil frame 701 are received by the inwardly offset outer surface regions 1808a, 1808b of the first and second end plates 180 and 182 that are on the same vertical sides 1850a, 1850b of the stencil frame and electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the stencil frame 701 comprises a first opposing ledge 704a and a second opposing ledge 704b, and in either (a) or (c), the upper frame surfaces 703 of the first opposing frame region 704a and the second opposing frame region 704b are each sized to have a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAXIn some embodiments, the stencil frame 701 comprises a first opposing ledge 704a and a second opposing ledge 704b, and in (a) the upper frame surface 703 of the first opposing frame area 704a and the second opposing frame area 704b is positioned such that the upper frame surface 703 does not extend beyond or is recessed relative to the first surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates that is on the same vertical side 1850a of the electrode assembly as the upper surface 703 of the first opposing frame area and the second opposing frame area. In some embodiments, the stencil frame 701 comprises a first opposing ledge 704a and a second opposing ledge 704b, and in (c) the upper frame surface 703 of the first opposing frame region 704a and the second opposing frame region 704b is positioned such that the upper frame surface 703 does not extend beyond or is recessed relative to a second surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates that is on the same vertical side 1850b of the electrode assembly as the upper surfaces 703 of the first opposing frame region and the second opposing frame region.

[0056] 11A-11C and 12-13, according to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes a longitudinal axis (e.g., Y-axis) in the stacking direction and a vertical axis (e.g., Z-axis) in the perpendicular direction, and the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 each include a first opposing vertical end surface 1870a and a second opposing vertical end surface 1870b having a cross-sectional profile in the plane of the vertical and longitudinal axes that is chamfered, sloped, stepped, or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, the cross-sectional profile of each of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 in the plane of the vertical and longitudinal axes decreases monotonically from an inner region 1801 to an outer region 1802, as shown in FIG. 13, the cross-sectional profile of each of the first and second endplates 180, 182 in the plane of the vertical and longitudinal axes decreases in a stepped manner from an inner region 1801 to an outer region 1802 in each of the respective first and second endplates. In one embodiment, the outer region 1802 of each of the first and second endplates includes a stepped feature 1860 adapted to receive the stencil frame 701.

[0057] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (b) includes using a blade 705 to apply the slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a of the constituent electrode structures 110 or counter electrode structures 112 of the unit cells 504. In another embodiment, (b) includes using a blade to apply the slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the first vertical end faces 501a of the constituent counter electrode structures 112 of the unit cells 504. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and (b) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil openings 702 to at least partially, and even completely, cover a first vertical end surface 507a of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504.

[0058] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (d) includes using a blade 705 to apply the slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the constituent electrode structures 110 or counter electrode structures 112 of the unit cells 504. In another embodiment, (d) includes using a blade to apply the slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil opening 702 to at least partially and even completely cover the second vertical end faces 501b of the constituent counter electrode structures 112 of the unit cells 504. In some embodiments, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 132 of electrode active material and each counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504 comprises a layer 138 of counter electrode active material, and (d) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil openings 702 to at least partially, and even completely, cover the second vertical end faces 507b of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structures 112 of the constituent units of the group of unit cells 504.

[0059] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (b) includes running a blade along the first vertical end surfaces 1870a of the first and second end plates in a lateral direction perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions to apply the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil openings 702 to the first vertical end surfaces 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112. In another embodiment, the blade is moved to a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAXIn certain embodiments, the blade runs across the first vertical end face 1870a at the first surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates that coincides with the first maximum extent 1805a of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. In yet other embodiments, (b) includes running the blade across the first vertical end face 1870a of the first and second end plates in a lateral direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction. In some embodiments, in (b), the length of the blade extends across the electrode assembly 106 in the stacking direction from the first end plate 180 to the second end plate 182. In some embodiments, in (b), the porous electrically insulating material 508 is applied to either the blade or the surface of the electrode assembly 106, and the blade is run laterally along the first vertical edge faces 1870a of the first and second end plates. In one embodiment, the blade is brought into contact with one or more of the first vertical edge faces as the blade is run and / or swept across the first and second end plates.

[0060] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (d) includes running a blade along the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 in a lateral direction perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions to apply the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil openings 702 to the second end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112. In one embodiment, the blade is moved to a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAXIn some embodiments, the blade runs across the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first and second end plates at a second surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincides with the second maximum extent 1805b of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. In other embodiments, the blade runs across the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first and second end plates 180 and 182 in a lateral direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction. In some embodiments, in (b), the length of the blade extends across the electrode assembly 106 in the stacking direction from the first end plate 180 to the second end plate 182. In yet another embodiment, (d) includes running the blade laterally along the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first and second end plates, perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions, to apply the porous electrically insulating material 508 through the stencil openings 702 to the second end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 or counter electrode structure 112. In some embodiments, (d) includes applying the porous electrically insulating material 508 to either the blade or a surface of the electrode assembly 106 and running the blade laterally along the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first and second end plates. In one embodiment, the blade contacts one or more of the second vertical end faces as the blade runs and / or sweeps across the first and second end plates.

[0061] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (a) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that at least a portion of the first vertical end faces 1870a of the first and second end plates 180 and 182 adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells 504 are exposed through the stencil opening 702. In another embodiment, (c) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that at least a portion of the second vertical end faces 1870b of the first and second end plates 180 and 182 adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells 504 are exposed through the stencil opening 702. For example, in certain embodiments, the inner surface regions 1807a, 1807b located in the inner region 1801 of the first and second end plates adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells can be exposed through the stencil opening in either (a) or (c).

[0062] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (a) is a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX 18. In another embodiment, (a) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that a first surface area 1806a on a first vertical side 1850a of the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent 1805a is exposed through the stencil opening 702. In another embodiment, (a) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that a first surface area 1806a on a first vertical side 1850a of the first and second end plates that has a first maximum vertical extent 1805a is exposed through the stencil opening 702.

[0063] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, (c) is a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX18. In another embodiment, (c) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that a second surface area 1806b on the second vertical side 1850b of the first and second end plates that coincides with the second maximum vertical extent 1805b is exposed through the stencil opening 702. In another embodiment, (c) includes positioning the stencil 700 such that a second surface area 1806b on the second vertical side 1850b of the first and second end plates that coincides with the second maximum vertical extent 1805b is exposed through the stencil opening 702.

[0064] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the stencil frame 701 at least partially covers the periphery 1853 of the electrode assembly 106 in a lateral direction perpendicular to both the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0065] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, referring to FIG. 14, each unit cell 504 comprises an electrode current collector end section 512 and a counter electrode current collector end section 513 extending in opposite lateral directions perpendicular to both the stacking direction and the vertical direction from the respective electrode structure 110 and counter electrode structure 112. In some embodiments, the end sections of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are recessed in a vertical direction relative to the first and second vertical end faces (500a, 500b), (501a, 501b) of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112. In some embodiments, in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the stencil frame 701 at least partially covers the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 around the electrode assembly 106 in a lateral direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction. In some embodiments, in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are recessed relative to the stencil frame 701. In some embodiments, in either (a) or (c), the stencil 700 is positioned such that the lateral ledges 704a, 704b on the opposite sides of the stencil frame 701 are positioned on the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140. In one embodiment, the end sections 512, 513 can include both current collector connection regions 512a, 513a configured to be connected to a bus bar and can further include removable regions 512b, 513b that are external to the lateral current collector connection regions and configured to be removed during assembly of the structure 101 to expose the current collector connection regions 512a, 513a for connection to the respective bus bars. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 14, end sections 512, 513 including removable regions 512b, 513b at the lateral ends of the end sections, and a stencil 700 is provided over both the current collector connection regions 512a, 513a and the removable regions 512b, 513b to inhibit application of porous electrically insulating material to these regions.

[0066] According to the methods disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the first and second vertical end faces (515a, 515b), (516a, 516b) of the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 have (i) a first vertical end face 500a and a second vertical end face 500b of the electrode structure 110, (ii) a first vertical surface area 1806a and a second vertical surface area 1806b of the first and second end plates that coincide with the first and second maximum vertical extents (1805a, 1805b) of the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182, and (iii) a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX In some embodiments, the first and second vertical end faces (515a, 515b), (516a, 516b) of the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are recessed by at least 0.010 mm relative to either (i) the first and second vertical end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode structure, (ii) the first and second surface areas 1806a, 1806b of the first and second end plates that correspond to the first maximum vertical extent 1805a, 1805b of the first and second end plates 180 and 182, respectively, and (iii) the maximum vertical thickness t EPMAXIn some embodiments, the first and second vertical end faces (515a, 515b), (516a, 516b) of the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are recessed by at least 0.025 mm relative to either (i) the first and second vertical end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode structure, (ii) the first and second surface areas 1806a, 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first and second maximum vertical extents (1805a, 1805b) of the first and second end plates 180 and 182, and (iii) the maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX and the first and second surface areas 1806a, 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first and second end plates 1806a, 1806b. In some embodiments, the first and second vertical end faces (515a, 515b), (516a, 516b) of the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are recessed to accommodate the stencil frame 701 in a vertical distance between the first and second vertical end faces (515a, 515b), (516a, 516b) of the end sections 512, 513 of the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 and the first and second vertical end faces (500a, 500b), (501a, 501b) of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure.

[0067] According to the method disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the method further includes disposing the electrode assembly 106 between a set of bumpers 800 on opposite sides of the stacking direction and applying pressure to the first end plate 180 and the second end plate 182 in the stacking direction through the bumpers. In one embodiment, the set of opposite bumpers 800 press against and exert a compressive pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 1890a and 1890b of the end plates 180, 182. In one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 is disposed between the bumpers 800 such that a first surface area 1806a of the first and second end plates, which corresponds to a first maximum vertical extent 1805a of the first and second end plates, extends vertically past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the bumpers. In some embodiments ... EPMAX 8. The bumpers 800 are disposed between the bumpers 800 such that first surface areas 1806a of the first and second end plates 180, 182, which correspond to the first and second vertical end faces 801a, 801b of the bumpers, extend vertically past the first and second vertical end faces 801a, 801b of the bumpers.

[0068] In some embodiments, the method further includes mounting at least a portion of the stencil frame 701 on an opposing set of bumpers 800. In some embodiments, the first and second surface areas 1806a and 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first and second maximum vertical extents 1805a and 1805b of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.010 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the set of bumpers. In some embodiments, the maximum vertical thickness t EPMAXThe first and second surface areas 1806a and 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first maximum vertical extent 1805a and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.010 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the set of bumpers. In some embodiments, the first and second surface areas 1806a and 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first maximum vertical extent 1805a and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.025 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the set of bumpers. In some embodiments, the maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX The first and second surface areas 1806a and 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first maximum vertical extent 1805a and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.025 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the set of bumpers. In some embodiments, the first and second surface areas 1806a and 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first maximum vertical extent 1805a and the second maximum vertical extent 1805b of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.050 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a and 801b of the set of bumpers. In some embodiments, the maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX The first and second surface areas 1806a, 1806b of the first and second end plates, which correspond to the first and second vertical end faces 801a, 801b of the bumper set, extend at least 0.050 mm past the first and second vertical end faces 801a, 801b of the bumper set.

[0069] According to embodiments disclosed herein, in one embodiment, the cross-sectional thickness t EP decreases in the stacking direction from an inner region 1801 of each of the first and second end plates adjacent to consecutive stacked unit cells to an outer region 1802 of each of the first and second end plates that is outside the first region in the stacking direction.

[0070] 3A-3B, according to certain embodiments, a method is provided for transporting carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode 686 to the constituent elements of the group of unit cells 504 through the porous electrical insulating material 508. As discussed above, carrier ions may be transported to provide carrier ions to the electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the unit cells to compensate for the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer that may be formed during the initial formation process or the loss of carrier ions resulting from a subsequent charge cycle of the secondary battery 102 having the electrode assembly 106. In certain embodiments, a portion of the carrier ions introduced into the unit cells from the counter electrode structure are irreversibly bound at this SEI layer and are therefore removed from the cycle operation, i.e., from the capacity available to the user. As a result, during the initial discharge, fewer carrier ions are returned from the electrode structure to the counter electrode structure than were initially provided by the cathode during the initial charge operation, leading to irreversible capacity loss. During each subsequent charge and discharge cycle of the secondary battery, the resulting capacity loss from mechanical and / or electrical degradation of the electrode structure and / or counter electrode structure tends to be much less per cycle, but even a relatively small carrier ion loss per cycle can significantly affect the degradation of the energy density and cycle life as the battery ages. In addition, the electrode structure and counter electrode structure can also undergo chemical and electrochemical degradation, causing capacity loss. Thus, embodiments of the present disclosure herein provide a method of activating an electrode assembly and / or a secondary battery, such as through an initial formation process that provides additional carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode to the constituent units of the unit cell, and / or during a refilling process that is performed to replenish the content of carrier ions lost during subsequent charge and / or discharge cycles of a secondary battery having the electrode assembly. According to certain embodiments, carrier ions are transferred to compensate for the loss of carrier ions during the initial or subsequent charge cycles of the electrode assembly.

[0071] According to one embodiment, the auxiliary electrode 686 includes a carrier ion source, such as any of lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, magnesium ions, and aluminum ions. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 3A, the auxiliary electrode 686 is positioned on a vertical end surface of the electrode structure, counter electrode structure, and electrically insulating separator of the constituent elements of the unit cell, such as on the opening 176 in the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and / or the second secondary growth constraint 160. In a variation, one or more auxiliary electrodes 686 are positioned on both the first and second vertical end surfaces, and / or alternatively, the auxiliary electrode 686 may be positioned on only one of the first and second vertical end surfaces. For example, in one embodiment, the first auxiliary electrode 686a is positioned on the first vertical end surface of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112, and the second auxiliary electrode 686b is positioned on the second vertical end surface of the electrode structure and / or the counter electrode structure. The auxiliary electrode 686 may be selectively electrically connected or coupled to one or more of the electrode structures 110 and / or counter electrode structures 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cells, for example, by a switch and / or a control unit (not shown). According to certain embodiments, the auxiliary electrode is electrolytically or otherwise coupled (e.g., through a separator) to the counter electrode structures and / or electrode structures of the constituent elements of the unit cells to provide a flow of carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode to the electrode structures and / or counter electrode structures. Electrolytically coupled means that carrier ions may be transported through an electrolyte, such as from the auxiliary electrode to the electrode structures 110 and / or counter electrode structures 112 and between the electrode structures 110 and the counter electrode structures 112. The auxiliary electrode 686 is also directly or indirectly coupled to the electrode structures and / or counter electrode structures, such as by a series of wires or other electrical connections.

[0072] In one embodiment, carrier ions are transported to a discharge voltage V ces eod , and the discharge voltage V at the end of a given electrode structure es,eod where, for the unit cells of the group, the discharge voltage V of the unit cells is cell,eod =V es,eod-V ces,eod For example, in one embodiment, the constituent elements of the unit cell and / or the secondary battery including the constituent elements of the unit cell are subjected to a discharge voltage V cell,eod When the discharge voltage V es,eod is less than 0.9 V (vs. Li) and greater than 0.4 V (vs. Li). Thus, for example, in one such embodiment, the secondary battery has a cell end discharge voltage V cell,eod When the discharge voltage V es,eod can be in the range of about 0.5 V (vs. Li) to about 0.8 V (vs. Li). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the secondary battery has a discharge voltage V cell,eod When the discharge voltage V es,eod can be in the range of about 0.6 V (vs. Li) to about 0.8 V (vs. Li). In one such embodiment, the secondary battery has a discharge voltage V cell,eod When the discharge voltage V es,eod can be in the range of about 0.6 V (vs. Li) to about 0.7 V (vs. Li).

[0073] According to yet another embodiment, the V ces,eod The value corresponds to the voltage at which the state of charge of the counter electrode structure is at least 95% of the reversible chronocapacity of the counter electrode structure, V ces,eod is at least 0.4 V (vs. Li) but less than 0.9 V (vs. Li). For example, in one such embodiment, V cell,eod When the voltage V reaches 1 V, the counter electrode structure is at a voltage V, which corresponds to a voltage at which the state of charge of the counter electrode structure is at least 96% of the reversible chronocapacity of the counter electrode structure. ces,eod has a value of V es,eod is at least 0.4 V (vs. Li) but less than 0.9 V (vs. Li). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, V cell,eodWhen the voltage V reaches 1 V, the counter electrode structure is at a voltage V corresponding to a voltage at which the state of charge of the counter electrode structure is at least 97% of the reversible chronocapacity of the counter electrode structure. ces,eod has a value of V es,eod is at least 0.4 V (vs. Li) but less than 0.9 V (vs. Li). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, V cell,eod When the voltage V reaches 1 V, the counter electrode structure is at a voltage V corresponding to a voltage at which the state of charge of the counter electrode structure is at least 98% of the reversible chronocapacity of the counter electrode structure. ces,eod has a value of V es,eod is at least 0.4 V (vs. Li) but less than 0.9 V (vs. Li). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, V cell,eod When the voltage V reaches 1 V, the counter electrode structure is at a voltage V, which corresponds to a voltage at which the state of charge of the counter electrode structure is at least 99% of the reversible chronocapacity of the counter electrode structure. ces,eod has a value of V es,eod is at least 0.4 V (vs. Li) but less than 0.9 V (vs. Li).

[0074] According to one embodiment, the method includes the steps of: (i) transferring carrier ions from the counter electrode structure to the electrode structure in the group of unit cells during an initial or subsequent charging cycle to at least partially charge the electrode assembly; and (ii) transferring carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode to the counter electrode structure and / or electrode structure through the porous electrically insulating material, such that the auxiliary electrode is electrolytically coupled to the counter electrode structure and / or electrode structure of the constituent units of the group of unit cells through the separator to provide the electrode assembly with a discharge voltage V at a predetermined counter electrode structure end. cos,eod and the discharge voltage V at the end of a given electrode structure es,eodand providing a method for producing a porous electrically insulating material comprising the steps of: (i) transferring carrier ions from the counter electrode structure of the unit cell group to the electrode structure of the unit cell group after (ii) to charge the electrode assembly; (iii) transferring carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode to the counter electrode structure during (ii) may then be transferred from the counter electrode structure to the electrode structure in (iii); (ii) is performed simultaneously with (i ...

[0075] 4, according to one embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material 508 substantially fills the first and second recesses 505a, 505b of the constituent units of the unit cell group 504. According to another embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material 508 is disposed such that at least a portion of the porous electrically insulating material 508 covering the first vertical end faces 500a, 501a and / or the second vertical end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent units of the unit cells is adjacent to the electrically insulating separator 130 of that unit cell. For example, in one embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material substantially fills the areas of the first recess 505a and the second recess 505b that are disposed inwardly relative to the first and second vertical end faces 500a and 500b of the electrode structure 110 in the constituent unit of the unit cell group and abut the first side face 131a of the electrically insulating separator 130 that faces the counter electrode structure 110. According to a particular embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material fills at least a portion of the first recess 505a and / or the second recess 505b that are recessed inwardly from the first and second vertical end faces 502a and 502b of the electrically insulating separator 130 to provide structural support to the electrically insulating separator 130. For example, the porous electrically insulating material can, in certain embodiments, provide a rigid material abutting the first and second vertical ends 133a, 133b of the electrically insulating separator 130 to maintain the upright position of the vertical ends relative to the first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrode structure 112. Maintaining the position of the vertical ends 133a, 133b of the electrically insulating separator 130 can, in certain embodiments, reduce the possibility of electrical shorts between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, and other undesirable effects. The porous electrically insulating material can also, in certain embodiments, reduce undesirable electrical edge effects at portions of the first and second vertical end faces of the cathode structure.

[0076] According to one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 constituting the unit cell group comprises an electrode active material layer 132 and an electrode current collector layer 136, the counter electrode structure 112 constituting the unit cell group comprises a counter electrode active material layer 138 and a counter electrode current collector layer 140, and the porous electrically insulating material 508 covers the first vertical end face 507 a and the second vertical end face 507 b of the counter electrode active material layer of the unit cell group. 3A and 4, the porous electrically insulating material extends in the stacking direction across and covers the first and second vertical end faces 501 a, 501 b of the counter electrode structure 112, including across one or more of the first and second vertical end faces 507 a, 507 b of the counter electrode active material layers 138 in adjacent unit cells 504 a, 504 b, and in certain embodiments across the first and second vertical end faces 509 a, 509 b of the counter electrode current collector 140 shared by adjacent unit cells 504. The porous electrically insulating material extending across portions of adjacent unit cells can, in this embodiment, abut and provide structural support to the vertical ends 133 a, 133 b of the electrically insulating separators 130 in adjacent unit cells. In still further embodiments, a porous electrically insulating material 508 can be provided on first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure 110, such as on the first and second vertical end faces 511 a, 511 b of the electrode active material layers 132 in adjacent unit cells 504 a, 504 b, and across the first and second vertical end faces 510 a, 510 b of the electrode current collectors 136 shared by adjacent unit cells 504.

[0077] According to yet further embodiments, the porous electrically insulating material 508 is provided on those portions of the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, where a path is provided for the flow of carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode to the constituent elements of the unit cell group. For example, in an embodiment where a flow of carrier ions is provided from the auxiliary electrode 686 to the counter electrode structure 112, the porous electrically insulating material 508 is disposed on the first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrode structure to provide a path for the carrier ions to the counter electrode structure. As another example, in an embodiment where a flow of carrier ions is provided from the auxiliary electrode to the electrode structure 110, the porous electrically insulating material 508 is disposed on the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure to provide a path for the carrier ions to the electrode structure.

[0078] According to certain embodiments, the porosity of the electrically insulating material can be selected to provide a predetermined conductivity of carrier ions through the material. In certain embodiments, the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, and / or at least 55%. Furthermore, in certain embodiments, the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 55% or less, 50% or less, 45% or less, 40% or less, and / or 35% or less. According to yet another embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material 508 comprises a ratio of porosity to the porosity of the electrically insulating separator 130 between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure in the constituent units of the unit cell group in a range of 1:0.75 to 1:1.5.

[0079] In one embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material 508 includes particulate material dispersed in a binder material. For example, the specific material may include stable metal oxides and / or ceramics, such as one or more of alumina, boron nitride, titania, silica, zirconia, magnesium oxide, and calcium oxide. In another embodiment, the particulate material includes particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of at least 0.35 microns, at least 0.45 microns, at least 0.5 microns, and / or at least 0.75 microns. In yet another embodiment, the particulate material includes particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of 40 microns or less, 35 microns or less, 25 microns or less, and / or 20 microns or less. In one embodiment, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, and / or at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.35 microns, at least 0.45 microns, at least 0.5 microns, and / or at least 0.75 microns, and no more than 40 microns, no more than 35 microns, no more than 25 microns, and / or no more than 20 microns. Further, in one embodiment, the particulate material comprises at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, and / or at least 85% by weight of the porous electrically insulating material. In further embodiments, the particulate material comprises no more than 99.5%, no more than 97%, no more than 95%, and / or no more than 90% by weight of the porous electrically insulating material. In one embodiment, the binder material comprises a polymeric material selected from any of the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene acrylic acid (EAA), ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA), and copolymers thereof.

[0080] 1A-1D, according to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has mutually perpendicular lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes corresponding to the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a first longitudinal end surface 116 and a second longitudinal end surface 118 separated from one another in the longitudinal direction, and an electrode assembly longitudinal axis A. EAand a lateral surface 142 surrounding the electrode assembly 106 and connecting the first longitudinal end surface 116 and the second longitudinal end surface 118. The lateral surface 142 includes first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis, separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. For example, the lateral surface 142 can include surface regions 144, 146 on opposite sides of the X direction (i.e., sides of a rectangular prism) and surface regions 148, 150 on opposite sides of the Z direction. In yet another embodiment, the lateral surface can include a cylindrical shape. The electrode assembly 106 has a maximum width W measured in the longitudinal direction. EA and the maximum length L bounded by the lateral surface and measured laterally EA and the maximum height H bounded by the lateral surface and measured vertically EA In one embodiment, the maximum length L EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum length L EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum length L EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum length L EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum length L EA and maximum height H EA The ratio of may be at least 20: 1. The ratio of the various dimensions may allow for optimal configuration within the energy storage device to maximize the amount of active material, thereby increasing the energy density.

[0081] In some embodiments, the maximum width W EA is the maximum height H EA For example, in one embodiment, the maximum width W EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum width WEA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum width W EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum width W EA and maximum height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the ratio of maximum width W EA and maximum height H EA may be at least 20:1.

[0082] According to one embodiment, the maximum width W EA and maximum length L EA The ratio of the maximum width W to the maximum width W may be selected to be within a predetermined range that provides an optimal configuration. EA and maximum length L EA The ratio of maximum width W to maximum width W may range from 1:5 to 5:1. EA and maximum length L EA The ratio of maximum width W EA and maximum length L EA The ratio may range from 1:2 to 2:1.

[0083] According to an embodiment of the present disclosure, each electrode structure 110 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group has a length L measured in a lateral direction between a first opposing lateral end surface 601a and a second opposing lateral end surface 601b of the electrode structure 110. E and a height H measured vertically between the first opposing vertical end surface 500a and the second opposing vertical end surface 500b of the electrode structure. E and a width W measured longitudinally between the first opposing surface 603a and the second opposing surface 603b of the electrode structure. E Each counter electrode structure of the electrode structure unit has a length L measured laterally between a first opposing lateral end surface 602a and a second opposing lateral end surface 602b of the counter electrode structure. CEand a height H measured vertically between the first opposing vertical end surface 501a and the second opposing vertical end surface 501b of the counter electrode structure. CE and a width W measured longitudinally between the first opposing surface 604a and the second opposing surface 604b of the counter electrode structure. CE Including,

[0084] According to one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 constituting the unit cell group is L E and W E and H E is at least 5:1 with each of H E and W E The ratio of L to L is in the range of about 2:1 to about 100:1, and for the counter electrode structure 112 constituting the unit cell group, CE and W CE and H CE is at least 5:1 with each of H CE and W CE In one embodiment, the ratio of L E and W E and H E is at least 10:1, and L CE and W CE and H CE and each of L is at least 10:1. E and W E and H E is at least 15:1, and CE and W CE and H CE and each of L is at least 15:1. E and W E and H E is at least 20:1, and L CE and W CE and H CE Each of the ratios is at least 20:1.

[0085] In one embodiment, the height (HE ) and width (W E ) is at least 0.4:1. For example, in one embodiment, for each electrode structure 110 constituting the unit cell group, H E and W E and H may have a ratio of at least 2:1, respectively. E and W E and H may have a ratio of at least 10:1, respectively. E and W E The ratio of H to H, respectively, will be at least 20:1. E and W E The ratio of H to H will generally be less than 1,000:1, respectively. For example, in one embodiment, E and W E and H may have a ratio of less than 500:1, respectively. E and W E and H may have a ratio of less than 100:1, respectively. E and W E and H may be less than 10:1, respectively. E and W E The ratio of may range from about 2:1 to about 100:1, respectively.

[0086] In one embodiment, the height (H CE ) and width (W CE ) is at least 0.4:1. For example, in one embodiment, for each counter electrode structure 112 of the unit cell group, CE and W CE and H may have a ratio of at least 2:1, respectively. CE and W CE and H may have a ratio of at least 10:1, respectively. CE and W CEThe ratio of H to H, respectively, will be at least 20:1. CE and W CE The ratio of H to H will generally be less than 1,000:1, respectively. For example, in one embodiment, CE and W CE and H may have a ratio of less than 500:1, respectively. CE and W CE and H may have a ratio of less than 100:1, respectively. CE and W CE and H may be less than 10:1, respectively. CE and W CE The ratio of may range from about 2:1 to about 100:1, respectively.

[0087] In one embodiment, the group of unit cells can include an alternating arrangement of electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112, and can include any number of building blocks depending on the energy storage device 100 and its intended use. By way of further example, in one embodiment, more generally, the group of electrode structures 110 and the group of counter electrode structures 112 each have N building blocks, each of the N-1 electrode structure building blocks 110 being between two counter electrode structure building blocks 112, each of the N-1 counter electrode structure building blocks 112 being between two electrode structure building blocks 110, and N being at least 2. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 4. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 5. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 10. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 25. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 50. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 100 or more.

[0088] 5, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes a wound electrode assembly having a plurality of windings 205a, 205b of the constituent electrode structure 110 and counter electrode structure 112 of the unit cells about a central axis C of the wound electrode assembly, the vertical direction of the wound electrode assembly being parallel to the central axis (z direction), and further, the constituent electrode structure and counter electrode structure of the unit cells each have a length L extending from a first end 121a of the counter electrode structure at a central region 200 of the wound electrode assembly and along each winding to a second end 121b of the counter electrode structure at an outer region 202 of the electrode assembly. E and L CE In the embodiment shown, the wound electrode assembly comprises a generally cylindrical shape.

[0089] According to one embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material has a length L CE and / or the length L of the electrode structure of the unit cell group. E 6A-6B, embodiments may include an electrode assembly without a porous electrically insulating material 508 (FIG. 6A) and an electrode assembly in which the porous electrically insulating material 508 extends over at least the length L of the counter electrode structure (FIG. 6B). CE 6B shows a top view of an electrode assembly having a porous electrically insulating material 508 disposed to fill recesses 505a, 505b in the form of grooves extending along the cathode structure 110. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 6B, the porous electrically insulating material 508 covers the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the counter electrode current collector 140. In addition to covering the first vertical end face 501a and the second vertical end face 501b of the cathode structure, the embodiment shown in FIG. 6B further includes the porous electrically insulating material covering the length of the electrode active material layer 132 of the electrode structure 110 such that only the electrode current collector 136 remains exposed.

[0090] In one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 is enclosed within a volume V defined by a set of electrode constraints 108 that constrain the overall macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106, for example as illustrated in FIG. 1A. The set of electrode constraints 108 may be capable of constraining the growth of the electrode assembly 106 along one or more dimensions to reduce swelling and deformation of the electrode assembly 106 and thereby improve the reliability and cycling life of the energy storage device 100 having the set of electrode constraints 108. Without being limited to any one particular theory, it is believed that carrier ions that migrate between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 during charging and / or discharging of the secondary battery 102 and / or electrode assembly may intercalate into the electrode active material, causing the electrode active material and / or the electrode structure 110 to expand. This expansion of the electrode structure 110 may cause the electrode and / or electrode assembly 106 to deform and swell, thereby compromising the structural integrity of the electrode assembly 106 and / or increasing the likelihood of electrical shorts or other failures. In one example, excessive swelling and / or expansion and contraction of the electrode active material layer 132 during cycling of the energy storage device 100 can cause pieces of the electrode active material to peel off and / or delaminate from the electrode active material layer 132, thereby compromising the efficiency and cycling life of the energy storage device 100. In yet another example, excessive swelling and / or expansion and contraction of the electrode active material layer 132 can cause the electrode active material to breach the electrically insulating microporous separator 130, thereby causing electrical shorts and other failures of the electrode assembly 106. Thus, the set of electrode constraints 108 prevents this swelling or growth from occurring upon cycling between charged and discharged states, improving the reliability, efficiency, and / or cycling life of the energy storage device 100.

[0091] In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 comprising a primary growth constraint system 151 is provided to mitigate and / or reduce at least one of the growth, expansion, and / or swelling of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction (i.e., in a direction parallel to the Y-axis), for example as shown in FIG. 1A. For example, the primary growth constraint system 151 may include a structure configured to constrain growth by opposing expansion at the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 comprises a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156 that are separated from each other in the longitudinal direction (stack direction) and can operate in conjunction with at least one primary connecting member 162 that connects the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 together to inhibit growth in the electrode assembly 106 in the stack direction. For example, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 may at least partially cover the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 and may work in conjunction with the connecting members 162, 164 connecting the primary growth constraints 154, 156 to one another to impede and inhibit any growth in the electrode assembly 106 that occurs during repeated cycles of charging and / or discharging.

[0092] In addition, repeated cycling of charge and discharge processes in the secondary battery 102 may induce growth and distortion not only in the longitudinal direction (e.g., Y-axis in FIG. 1A ) of the electrode assembly 106, but also in directions perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as the transverse and vertical directions (e.g., X-axis and Z-axis in FIG. 1A , respectively), as discussed above. Furthermore, in certain embodiments, the incorporation of a primary growth constraint system 151 to inhibit growth in one direction may even exacerbate growth and / or swelling in one or more other directions. For example, if a primary growth constraint system 151 is provided to inhibit longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106, the intercalation of carrier ions during charge and discharge cycles and the resulting swelling of the electrode structure may induce distortion in one or more other directions. In particular, in one embodiment, the strain generated by the combination of electrode growth / swelling and longitudinal growth constraints may result in buckling or other failure of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction (e.g., Z-axis shown in FIG. 1A) or even in the lateral direction (e.g., X-axis shown in FIG. 1A). Thus, in one embodiment of the present disclosure, a secondary growth constraint system 152 is provided that may operate in conjunction with the primary growth constraint system 151 to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 along multiple axes of the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be configured to operate in conjunction with or otherwise synergistically with the primary growth constraint system 151, thereby constraining the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 to provide improved performance and reduced occurrence of failures of secondary batteries having the electrode assembly 106 and the primary growth constraint system 151 and secondary growth constraint system 152, respectively.

[0093] 7A-7C, an embodiment of a set of electrode constraints 108 having a primary growth constraint system 151 and a secondary growth constraint system 152 for an electrode assembly 106 is shown. FIG. 7A shows a cross-section of the electrode assembly 106 in FIG. 1A taken along the longitudinal axis (Y-axis) such that the resulting 2D cross-section is illustrated in the vertical axis (Z-axis) and the longitudinal axis (Y-axis). FIG. 7B shows a cross-section of the electrode assembly 106 in FIG. 1A taken along the transverse axis (X-axis) such that the resulting 2D cross-section is illustrated in the vertical axis (Z-axis) and the transverse axis (X-axis). As shown in FIG. 7A, the primary growth constraint system 151 can generally comprise a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156, respectively, separated from each other along the longitudinal axis (Y-axis). For example, in one embodiment, the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 each include a first primary growth constraint 154 at least partially or even completely covering a first longitudinal end surface 116 of the electrode assembly 106, and a second primary growth constraint 156 at least partially or even completely covering a second longitudinal end surface 118 of the electrode assembly 106. In yet another version, one or more of the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 can be internal to the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one or more of the primary growth constraints include an internal structure of the electrode assembly 106. The primary growth constraint system 151 can further include at least one primary connecting member 162 connecting the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 and can have a major axis that is parallel to the longitudinal direction. For example, the primary growth constraint system 151 may include a first primary connection member 162 and a second primary connection member 164 separated from one another along an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, such as along a vertical axis (Z-axis) as depicted in the embodiment. The first primary connection member 162 and the second primary connection member 164 may function to connect the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, respectively, to one another and to maintain the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, respectively, in tension with one another to inhibit growth along the longitudinal axis of the electrode assembly 106.

[0094] 7A-7C, the set of electrode constraints 108 can further include a secondary growth constraint system 152, which can generally comprise a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and a second secondary growth constraint 160, each separated from one another along a second direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as along a vertical axis (Z-axis) in the embodiment shown. For example, in one embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​extends at least partially across a first region 148 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, and the second secondary growth constraint 160 extends at least partially across a second region 150 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 opposite the first region 148. In yet another version, one or more of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158 and 160 may be internal to the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one or more of the secondary growth constraints include an internal structure of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158 and 160 are each connected by at least one secondary connection member 166, which may have a major axis that is parallel to a second direction, such as a vertical axis. The secondary connection member 166 may function to connect and hold the first and second secondary growth constraints 158 and 160, respectively, in tension with each other to constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 along a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as, for example, constraining growth in the vertical direction (e.g., along the Z axis). In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 7A, the at least one secondary connection member 166 may correspond to at least one of the first and second primary growth constraints 154 and 156. However, the secondary connecting members 166 are not so limited and may alternatively and / or additionally comprise other structures and / or configurations.

[0095] According to one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 are each configured to operate cooperatively such that portions of the primary growth constraint system 151 function cooperatively as part of the secondary growth constraint system 152 and / or portions of the secondary growth constraint system 152 act cooperatively as part of the primary growth constraint system 151. For example, in the embodiment shown in Figures 7A and 7B, the first primary connecting member 162 and the second primary connecting member 164 of the primary growth constraint system 151 can function as at least a portion, or even the entire structure, of the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, that constrain growth in a second direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. In yet another embodiment, as discussed above, one or more of the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 can function as one or more secondary connecting members 166 for connecting the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively. Conversely, at least a portion of the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 can act as the first primary connection member 162 and the second primary connection member 164, respectively, of the primary growth constraint system 151, and at least one secondary connection member 166 of the secondary growth constraint system 152 can, in one embodiment, act as one or more of the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, respectively. Thus, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 can each share components and / or structures for exerting restraint on the growth of the electrode assembly 106.

[0096] In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 can comprise structures such as primary and secondary growth constraints and primary and secondary connection members that can be structures external and / or internal to the battery housing 104 or can be part of the battery housing 104 itself. In certain embodiments, the battery housing 104 can be a sealed housing, for example, to seal the liquid electrolyte therein and / or to seal the electrode assembly 106 from the external environment. In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 can comprise a combination of structures including the battery housing 104 and other structural components. In one such embodiment, the battery housing 104 may be a component of the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152; stated differently, in one embodiment, the battery housing 104, alone or in combination with one or more other structures (within the battery housing 104 and / or outside the battery housing 104, e.g., the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152), constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction D and / or in a second direction orthogonal to the stacking direction D. In one embodiment, one or more of the primary growth constraints 154, 156 and the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 may comprise structures internal to the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 do not form any part of the battery housing 104, but instead, one or more separate structures other than the battery housing 104 (within the battery housing 104 and / or outside the battery housing 104) constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction D and / or in a second direction perpendicular to the stacking direction D. In another embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 are within the battery housing 104, which may be a sealed battery housing, such as a hermetically sealed battery housing. The electrode assembly 106 may be constrained by the set of electrode constraints 108 at a pressure greater than the pressure exerted by the growth and / or swelling of the electrode assembly 106 during repeated cycling of the energy storage device 100 or secondary battery 102 having the electrode assembly 106.

[0097] In one exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes one or more separate structures within the battery housing 104 that constrain the growth of the electrode structure 110 in the stacking direction D by exerting a pressure in the stacking direction D that exceeds the pressure generated by the electrode structure 110 upon repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 110 as part of an electrode assembly 106. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes one or more separate structures within the battery housing 104 that constrain the growth of the counter electrode structure 112 in the stacking direction D by exerting a pressure in the stacking direction D that exceeds the pressure generated by the counter electrode structure 112 upon repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the counter electrode structure 112 as part of an electrode assembly 106. The secondary growth constraint system 152 may similarly include one or more separate structures within the battery housing 104 that suppress growth of at least one of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in a second direction perpendicular to the stacking direction D, such as along a vertical axis (Z-axis), by exerting a pressure in the second direction that exceeds the pressure generated by the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112, respectively, upon repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112, respectively.

[0098] In yet another embodiment, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 of the primary growth constraint system 151 constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, respectively, in a longitudinal direction, i.e., pressure that exceeds the pressure exerted by the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 on other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106 that would be in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as first and second regions of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 that are on opposite sides along the transverse and / or vertical axis. That is, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 may exert pressure in the longitudinal direction (Y-axis) that exceeds the pressure generated by the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 in a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as the transverse (X-axis) and vertical (Z-axis) directions. For example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure against the first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or even both. In another embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure against the first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds by at least a factor of two the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or even both. For example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 inhibits growth of the electrode assembly 106 in at least one, or both, of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D with a pressure against the first vertical end surface 116 and the second vertical end surface 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds by at least three times the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151.By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or in both, with a pressure against the first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds by a factor of at least four the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or in both, with a pressure against the first and second longitudinal end faces 116 and 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds by a factor of at least five the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly 106.

[0099] 7C, an embodiment of an electrode assembly 106 having a set of electrode constraints 108 is shown with a cross section taken along line A-A' shown in FIG. 1A. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7C, the primary growth constraint system 151 can comprise a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156 on the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, respectively, and the secondary growth constraint system 152 can comprise a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and a second secondary growth constraint 160 on the opposing first surface region 148 and second surface region 150 of the lateral face 142 of the electrode assembly 106. According to this embodiment, the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 can function as at least one secondary connecting member 166 to connect the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 and to maintain the growth constraints in tension with each other in a second direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction (e.g., vertically). However, additionally and / or alternatively, the secondary growth constraint system 152 can include at least one secondary connection member 166 located in an area other than the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. It can also be understood that the at least one secondary connection member 166 can act as at least one of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 internal to the longitudinal ends 116, 118 of the electrode assembly and can act in conjunction with either another internal primary growth constraint and / or a primary growth constraint at the longitudinal ends 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 to inhibit growth. With reference to the embodiment shown in FIG. 7C, the secondary connection member 166 can be provided spaced apart along the longitudinal axis from the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, respectively, such as towards a central region of the electrode assembly 106. The secondary connection member 166 may connect the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 at an interior location from the electrode assembly end faces 116, 118, respectively, and may be subjected to tension between the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 at that location.In one embodiment, the secondary connection members 166 connecting the secondary growth constraints 158, 160 at interior locations from the end faces 116, 118 are provided in addition to one or more secondary connection members 166 provided at the electrode assembly end faces 116, 118, such as secondary connection members 166 that also function as the primary growth constraints 154, 156 at the longitudinal end faces 116, 118. In another embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 comprises one or more secondary connection members 166 connecting the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, at interior locations spaced apart from the longitudinal end faces 116, 118, with or without the secondary connection members 166 at the longitudinal end faces 116, 118. The internal secondary connection members 166 may also be understood to act as the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, according to one embodiment. For example, in one embodiment, at least one of the internal secondary connection members 166 may include at least a portion of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112, as described in more detail below.

[0100] More specifically, with respect to the embodiment shown in FIG. 7C, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may include a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​overlying the first region 148 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 and an opposing second secondary growth constraint 160 overlying the second region 150 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 being vertically separated from each other (i.e., along the Z-axis). Additionally, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may further include at least one internal secondary connecting member 166 spaced apart from the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. The internal secondary connecting member 166 may be aligned parallel to the Z-axis and connect the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, to maintain the growth constraints in tension with each other and form at least a portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152. In one embodiment, the at least one internal secondary connection member 166, either alone or together with the secondary connection members 166 located at the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, may be subjected to tension between the first and secondary growth constraints 158, 160 in the vertical direction (i.e., along the Z-axis) during repeated charging and / or discharging of the energy storage device 100 and / or secondary battery 102 having the electrode assembly 106, to reduce the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction. Furthermore, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 7C, the set of electrode constraints 108 further comprises a primary growth constraint system 151 having a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156 at the longitudinal ends 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 connected by a first primary connection member 162 and a second primary connection member 164, respectively, to the first lateral surface region 148 and the second lateral surface region 150 of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the secondary internal connection member 166 may itself be understood to act in coordination with one or more of the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, respectively, to exert a constraining pressure on each portion of the electrode assembly 106 that lies vertically between the secondary internal connection member 166 and the longitudinal ends 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106, where the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156, respectively, may be located.

[0101] According to one embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 are each connected to a secondary connection member 166 that includes at least a portion of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112, or other internal structure, of the electrode assembly 106. The first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 may each be connected to a first vertical end surface and / or a second vertical end surface of the counter electrode structure 112 and / or the electrode structure 110, or other internal structure, which in one embodiment form the secondary connection member 166. In one embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​is connected to a first vertical end surface 500a, 501a of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group 504. In another embodiment, the second secondary growth constraint 160 is connected to a second vertical end surface 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112 of the constituent elements of the unit cell group 504. The constituent units of the unit cells connected at the first vertical end surface may be the same as or different from the constituent units of the unit cells connected at the second vertical end surface. The first and / or second secondary growth constraints may be connected to the first and / or second vertical end surfaces away from the electrode structure and / or counter electrode structure including one or more of the electrode current collector, the electrode active material layer, the counter electrode current collector, and the counter electrode active material layer in the constituent units of the unit cells. In another example, the first and second secondary growth constraints may be connected to the first and / or second vertical end surfaces of the electrically insulating separator. Thus, in certain embodiments, the secondary connection member 166 may comprise one or more of the structures of the electrode structure and / or counter electrode structure including one or more of the electrode current collector, the electrode active material layer, the counter electrode current collector, and the counter electrode active material layer in the constituent units of the unit cells. 3A-3B, an embodiment is shown in which a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and a second secondary growth constraint 160 are connected to a secondary connection member 166 including an electrode current collector 136 in a constituent unit of a group of unit cells. In FIG. 4, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and the second secondary growth constraint 160 are connected to a secondary connection member 166 including an electrode structure 110 including an electrode current collector 136.Further, in one embodiment, the first primary connecting member is a first secondary growth constraint, the second primary connecting member is a second secondary growth constraint, and the first primary growth constraint or the second primary growth constraint is a first secondary connecting member.

[0102] 15-16, in one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 are connected to the first and second end plates 180, 182 corresponding to the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156. In one embodiment, end segments 1880 of the first and secondary growth constraints 158, 160 at opposite longitudinal ends of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces 1870a, 1870b of the first and second end plates, respectively. In one embodiment, the end segments 1880 of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces 1870a, 1870b of the first and second end plates 180, 182, respectively, and connect to the exterior longitudinal end faces of the first and second end plates. According to some embodiments, the end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints are connected to the exterior longitudinal end faces of the first and second end plates by any one or more of adhesion, bonding, welding, bonding, soldering, sintering, crimping, brazing, spray bonding, clamping, wire bonding, ribbon bonding, ultrasonic bonding, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding, induction welding, cold welding, plasma spraying, flame spraying, and arc spraying. According to one embodiment, the end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces of each of the first and second end plates to provide a curved profile of the end segments in a plane formed by the vertical axis and a longitudinal axis that is parallel to the stacking direction. In one embodiment, the end segments of the first and second growth constraints are curved around the first and second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates.

[0103] According to an embodiment herein, the primary growth constraint system 151 restricts the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction such that the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction that may occur after 20 consecutive cycles (cycles between a charged state and a discharged state) of the secondary battery 102 is less than 20%, or less than 10% after 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery, or less than 10% after 5 consecutive cycles, or less than 1% per cycle of the battery. In one embodiment, the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the stacking direction that may occur after 20 consecutive cycles and / or 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 3% and / or less than 2%. According to further embodiments herein, the secondary growth restriction system 152, which includes the first connecting member 158 and the second connecting member 160, restricts the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction such that the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction that may occur after 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%, or less than 10% after 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery, or less than 10% after 5 consecutive cycles, or less than 1% per cycle of the battery. In one embodiment, the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction that may occur after 20 consecutive cycles and / or 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 3% and / or less than 2%.

[0104] In one embodiment, the first primary growth constraint 154 and the second primary growth constraint 156 each include a first primary growth constraint 154 that at least partially or even completely covers a first longitudinal end surface 116 of the electrode assembly 106, and a second primary growth constraint 156 that at least partially or even completely covers a second longitudinal end surface 118 of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that a surface area of ​​a projection of the electrode assembly 106 in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., the longitudinal direction) is smaller than a surface area of ​​a projection of the electrode assembly 106 on another orthogonal plane. For example, with reference to the embodiment of the electrode assembly 106 shown in FIG. 1 (e.g., a rectangular pillar), the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly 106 in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., the XZ plane) is L.EA ×H EA Similarly, the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto the ZY plane corresponds to W EA ×H EA and the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto the XY plane corresponds to L EA ×W EA Thus, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that the stacking direction intersects the plane on which the projection with the smallest surface area lies. Thus, in the embodiment in FIG. 2A, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that the stacking direction intersects the plane on which the projection with the smallest surface area lies. EA ×L EA That is, the electrode assembly is positioned so that it intersects the XZ plane on which the projection of the smallest surface area corresponding to the smallest surface area (e.g., H EA ×L EA ) is positioned so that its projection is perpendicular to the stacking direction (e.g., the vertical end face).

[0105] In one embodiment, the surface area of ​​the first longitudinal end face 116 and the second longitudinal end face 118 is less than 33% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first longitudinal end face 116 and the second longitudinal end face 118, respectively, is less than 25% of the surface area of ​​the entire surface of the electrode assembly 106. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first longitudinal end face 116 and the second longitudinal end face 118, respectively, is less than 20% of the surface area of ​​the entire surface of the electrode assembly. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first longitudinal end face 116 and the second longitudinal end face 118, respectively, is less than 15% of the surface area of ​​the entire surface of the electrode assembly. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first longitudinal end face 116 and the second longitudinal end face 118, respectively, is less than 10% of the surface area of ​​the entire surface of the electrode assembly.

[0106] In one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends of the electrode assembly is subjected to a compressive load of at least 100 psi. For example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 200 psi. As a further example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 300 psi. As a further example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 400 psi. As a further example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 500 psi. As a further example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 600 psi. As yet another example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 700 psi. As yet another example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 800 psi. As a further example, in one embodiment, each of the first and second longitudinal end faces is subjected to a compressive load of at least 900 psi. In yet another example, each of the first and second longitudinal end faces is subjected to a compressive load of at least 1000 psi. In one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints are connected to the at least one secondary connection member by any one or more of adhesion, bonding, welding, bonding, soldering, sintering, crimping, brazing, spray bonding, clamping, wire bonding, ribbon bonding, ultrasonic bonding, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding, induction welding, cold welding, plasma spraying, flame spraying, and arc spraying.

[0107] In one embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces 122, 124 of the electrode assembly coincident with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode and counter electrode groups onto the longitudinal end faces 162, 164 (i.e., the "projected surface areas"), respectively, are subjected to a significant compressive load imposed by the constraint 130. For example, in one embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coincident with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode and counter electrode groups onto the longitudinal end faces are each subjected to a compressive load of at least 0.7 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). As a further example, in such an embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coincident with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode and counter electrode groups onto the longitudinal end faces are each subjected to a compressive load of at least 1.75 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode group and the counter-electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces each receive a compressive load of at least 2.8 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode group and the counter-electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces each receive a compressive load of at least 3.5 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode group and the counter-electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces each receive a compressive load of at least 5.25 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). As a further example, in one such embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projections of the constituent elements of the electrode group and counter electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces will each be subjected to a compressive load of at least 7 MPa (averaged over the surface areas of each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively).As a further example, in one such embodiment, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode group and the counter-electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces will each be subjected to a compressive load of at least 8.75 MPa (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). In general, however, the areas of the longitudinal end faces of the electrode assembly coinciding with the projection of the constituent elements of the electrode group and the counter-electrode group onto the longitudinal end faces will each be subjected to a compressive load of about 10 MPa or less (averaged over the surface area of ​​each of the first and second projected surface areas, respectively). In each of the foregoing exemplary embodiments, the longitudinal end faces of the secondary battery of the present disclosure will experience such compressive loads when the battery is charged to at least about 80% of its rated capacity.

[0108] 3A-3B, in one embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and / or the second secondary growth constraint 160 are each configured to have a vertical thickness T CThe electrode assembly 106 includes an opening 176 formed therethrough. According to embodiments herein, the opening 176 can provide a passage for the flow of carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode 686 through the first and / or second secondary growth constraints 158 and / or 160 to the building blocks of the unit cells. For example, for an auxiliary electrode 686 located outside the volume V enclosed by the set of electrode constraints 108, e.g., outside the first and / or second secondary growth constraints 158 and / or 160, carrier ions provided from the auxiliary electrode 686 can access the building blocks of the unit cells of the electrode assembly inside the constraints via a passage through the opening 176. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 8 , which depicts a top view of the electrode assembly 106 showing the first secondary growth constraint 158, the opening 176 includes a slot shape having a long dimension oriented in the vertical and / or stacking direction (Y direction) and extending across the building blocks of the unit cells. Other shapes and / or configurations of the opening 176 can also be provided. According to certain embodiments, at least a portion of the opening 176 is vertically aligned over the porous electrically insulating material 508, such that carrier ions entering the electrode assembly 106 through the opening 176 pass through the porous electrically insulating material 508 to the constituent elements of the unit cells. A process for transporting carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode 686 to the constituent elements of the unit cells can, according to certain embodiments, include transporting carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode 686 through the opening 176, through the porous electrically insulating material 508 to one or more of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 8, the porous electrically insulating material 508 extends over the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure within the first and second secondary growth constraints, while leaving the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode current collector 136 exposed.

[0109] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a method for manufacturing an electrode assembly and / or a secondary battery is provided. According to one embodiment, the method includes providing a group of unit cells stacked in a stacking direction, (i) each unit cell includes an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have first and second vertical end faces on opposite sides separated in a vertical direction, and (iii) the vertical direction is perpendicular to the stacking direction. The method further includes providing a porous electrically insulating material covering the first vertical end face and / or the second vertical end face of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure of the constituent unit of the unit cell group, and the porous electrically insulating material has a porosity in the range of 20% to 60%. According to one embodiment, the porous electrically insulating material is provided by coating the first and / or second vertical end faces with a slurry or paste including a particulate binder material in a solvent and allowing the solvent to evaporate, leaving the particulate material dispersed in the binder material on the first and / or second vertical end faces. For example, in the embodiment shown in Figure 9, a slurry and / or paste 900 is applied to the first and / or second vertical end faces 500a, 501a and / or 500b, 501b of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112.

[0110] In one embodiment, the binder material is soluble in a solvent, and the solvent is evaporated by heating and / or drying the solvent with a gas flow. For example, the solvent may include any of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), heptane, octane, toluene, xylene, or mixed hydrocarbon solvents. Furthermore, according to certain embodiments, the slurry and / or paste comprises at least 50% by weight, at least 55% by weight, at least 60% by weight, at least 65% by weight, at least 70% by weight, at least 75% by weight, and / or at least 80% by weight of particulate material, and 90% by weight or less, 85% by weight or less, 80% by weight or less, and / or 75% by weight or less of particulate material. According to one embodiment, the density of the porous electrically insulating material provided on the first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrode structure per surface area of ​​the first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrode is 15 mg / cm. 2 ~25mg / cm 2 is in the range.

[0111] According to one embodiment, the method further includes connecting vertically separated first and second secondary growth constraints to the constituent electrode current collectors of the electrode structure, the first and second secondary growth constraints having openings formed through their respective vertical thicknesses, the secondary growth constraint system at least partially inhibiting growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction upon cycling of the electrode assembly. For example, the growth constraints can be connected to the exposed first and second vertical end faces of the electrode current collectors as shown in FIG. 8 after the porous electrically insulating material is applied to the first and / or second vertical end faces of the electrode structure 110 and / or counter electrode structure 112.

[0112] In yet another embodiment, a method for manufacturing an electrode assembly and / or a secondary battery includes: (1) providing an auxiliary electrode including a carrier ion source external to a porous electrically insulating material; and (2) applying a bias voltage between the auxiliary electrode and the constituent units of the electrode group or the constituent units of the counter electrode group to provide a flow of carrier ions through the openings in the first and second secondary growth constraints and through the porous electrically insulating material to the electrode group and / or the counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group. For example, the manufacturing method can include a process for forming a secondary battery including an initial charging process for charging the secondary battery and / or charging the electrode structure, and a process for replenishing carriers lost in the initial charging process. According to certain embodiments, the manufacturing method for an electrode assembly and / or a secondary battery can include any of the methods for providing carrier ions to the constituent units of the unit cell group described herein. According to further embodiments, a method for transferring carrier ions from the auxiliary electrode including a source of carrier ions to the electrode assembly can be performed during an initial or subsequent charging cycle of the secondary battery and / or electrode assembly.

[0113] In one embodiment, a method is provided for preparing an electrode assembly 106 with a set of electrode constraints 108, which can be used as part of a secondary battery configured to cycle between charged and discharged states. The method can generally include forming a sheet structure, cutting the sheet structure into pieces (and / or pieces), stacking the pieces, and applying a set of constraints. By strip, it is understood that pieces other than those in the shape of a strip can be used. The pieces can include an electrode active material layer, an electrode current collector, a counter electrode active material layer, a counter electrode current collector, and a separator, and can be stacked to provide an alternating arrangement of electrode active material and / or counter electrode active material. The sheet can include, for example, a unit cell 504 and / or at least one of the components of a unit cell 504. For example, the sheet can include a group of unit cells, which can be cut to a predetermined size (such as a size suitable for a 3D battery), and then the sheets of unit cells can be stacked to form the electrode assembly 106. In another example, the sheet can include one or more components of a unit cell, such as, for example, at least one of electrode current collector 136, electrode active material layer 132, separator 130, counter electrode active material layer 138, and counter electrode current collector 140. Sheets of components can be cut to size to form pieces (such as a size suitable for a 3D battery) and then stacked to form an alternating arrangement of electrode active material layer components and counter electrode active material layer components.

[0114] In yet another embodiment, the set of applied electrode constraints 108 may correspond to any of those described herein, such as a set of constraints including a primary growth constraint system comprising first and second primary growth constraints, at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints separated from one another in a vertical direction, and at least one primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints. Additionally, the set of electrode constraints may include a secondary growth constraint system comprising first and second secondary growth constraints separated in a direction perpendicular to the vertical direction (e.g., vertical or horizontal) and connected by at least one secondary connecting member, the secondary growth constraint system at least partially restraining growth of the electrode assembly in a vertical direction upon cycling of the secondary battery. At least one of the primary connection member, or the first and / or second primary growth constraints of the primary growth constraint system, and the secondary connection member, or the first and / or second secondary growth constraints of the secondary growth constraint system, may be one or more of the assembly components constituting the pieces, such as, for example, at least one of an electrode active material layer, an electrode current collector, a counter electrode active material layer, a counter electrode current collector, and a separator. For example, in one embodiment, the primary connection member of the primary growth constraint system may be one or more of the assembly components constituting the pieces, such as, for example, at least one of an electrode active material layer, an electrode current collector, a counter electrode active material layer, a counter electrode current collector, and a separator. That is, applying the constraints may include applying the first and second primary growth constraints to the primary building block connection members that are one of the structures in the stack of pieces.

[0115] 2, an exploded view of one embodiment of a secondary battery 102 having a set of electrode constraints 108 of the present disclosure is illustrated. The secondary battery 102 includes a battery housing 104 and an electrode assembly within the battery housing 104, as described above, with the electrode assembly 106 having a first longitudinal end surface 116 and an opposing second longitudinal end surface 118 (i.e., separated from the first longitudinal end surface 116 along the Y-axis Cartesian coordinate system shown). Alternatively, the secondary battery 102 may include multiple electrode assemblies 106 having a set of electrode constraints 108 provided within the housing. The electrode assemblies 106 include a group of electrode structures 110 and a group of counter electrode structures 112 stacked relative to each other in a stacking direction D within each of the electrode assemblies 106, or in other words, the group of electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 are arranged in a series of alternating electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112, which series proceeds in the stacking direction D between a first longitudinal end surface 116 and a second longitudinal end surface 118, respectively.

[0116] According to the embodiment shown in Fig. 2, tabs 190, 192 protrude outwardly from the battery housing 104 and provide electrical connection between the electrode assembly 106 and an energy source or consumer (not shown). More specifically, in this embodiment, the tab 190 is electrically connected (e.g., using a conductive adhesive) to a tab extension 191, which is electrically connected to an electrode structure 110 that the electrode assembly 106 comprises. Similarly, the tab 192 is electrically connected (e.g., using a conductive adhesive) to a tab extension 193, which is electrically connected to a counter electrode structure 112 that the electrode assembly 106 comprises. The tab extensions 191, 193 may also function as bus bars to pool currents from each of the respective electrodes and counter electrode structures to which the tab extensions 191, 193 are electrically connected.

[0117] 2 has an associated primary growth constraint system 151 for constraining growth in the vertical direction (i.e., stacking direction D). Alternatively, in one embodiment, multiple electrode assemblies 106 may share at least a portion of the primary growth constraint system 151. In the embodiment shown, each primary growth constraint system 151 includes a first primary growth constraint 154 and a second primary growth constraint 156 that may overlie the first vertical end surface 116 and the second vertical end surface 118, respectively, as described above, and opposing first primary connection members 162 and second primary connection members 164 that may overlie the lateral surface 142, respectively, as described above. The opposing first and second primary connection members 162, 164 may pull the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, toward one another, or alternatively, may help constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction, and the primary growth constraints 154, 156 may exert a compressive or constraining force on the opposing first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118, respectively. As a result, expansion of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction is prevented during formation and / or cycling of the battery 102 between charged and discharged states. Additionally, the primary growth constraint system 151 exerts a pressure on the electrode assembly 106 in a vertical direction (i.e., stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 in either of two directions that are mutually perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the vertical direction (e.g., as illustrated, the vertical direction corresponds to the direction of the Y axis, and the two directions that are mutually perpendicular to each other and to the vertical direction correspond to the directions of the X axis and Z axis, respectively, of the illustrated Cartesian coordinate system).

[0118] 2 has an associated secondary growth constraint system 152 for constraining vertical growth (i.e., expansion of the electrode assembly 106, electrode structure 110, and / or counter electrode structure 112 in the vertical direction (i.e., along the Z-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system). Alternatively, in one embodiment, multiple electrode assemblies 106 share at least a portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152. Each secondary growth constraint system 152 includes a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and a second secondary growth constraint 160, respectively, that may overlie the lateral surface 142, and at least one secondary connection member 166, each of which is described in more detail above. The secondary connecting member 166 may pull the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, toward one another, or alternatively, may help constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction, and the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 may apply a compressive or constraining force to the lateral surface 142, each of which is described in more detail above. As a result, expansion of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction is prevented during formation and / or cycling of the battery 102 between charged and discharged states. Additionally, the secondary growth constraint system 152 exerts a pressure on the electrode assembly 106 in a vertical direction (i.e., parallel to the Z-axis of a Cartesian coordinate system) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 in either of two directions that are mutually perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the vertical direction (e.g., as illustrated, the vertical direction corresponds to the direction of the Z-axis, and the two directions that are mutually perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the vertical direction correspond to the directions of the X-axis and Y-axis, respectively, of the illustrated Cartesian coordinate system).

[0119] According to certain embodiments, to complete the assembly of the secondary battery 102, the battery housing 104 can be filled with a non-aqueous electrolyte (not shown), and the lid 104a can be folded (along the fold line, FL) and sealed against the upper surface 104b. When fully assembled, the sealed secondary battery 102 occupies a volume bounded by the exterior surfaces of the secondary battery 102 (i.e., the displaced volume), the secondary battery housing 104 occupies a volume corresponding to the displaced volume of the battery (including the lid 104A) less the interior volume of the battery (i.e., the prismatic volume bounded by the interior surfaces 104c, 104d, 104e, 104f, 104g, and the lid 104a), and each of the primary growth constraint systems 151 and secondary growth constraint systems 152 of the set 106a occupies a volume corresponding to its respective displaced volume. Thus, in combination, the battery housing 104 and the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152 occupy 75% or less of the volume bounded by the exterior surface of the battery housing 104 (i.e., the displacement volume of the battery). For example, in one such embodiment, the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152 and the battery housing 104 in combination occupy 60% or less of the volume bounded by the exterior surface of the battery housing 104. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152 and the battery housing 104 in combination occupy 45% or less of the volume bounded by the exterior surface of the battery housing 104. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152 and the battery housing 104 in combination occupy 30% or less of the volume bounded by the exterior surface of the battery housing 104. As a further example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 and the battery housing 104 in combination occupy 20% or less of the volume bounded by the exterior surface of the battery housing.

[0120] In general, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 will typically comprise a material that has a tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (greater than 70 MPa), comparable to the battery electrolyte, does not significantly corrode at the floating or anodic potential of the battery 102, and does not significantly react or lose mechanical strength up to 45° C. and even 70° C. In one embodiment, at least one of the first primary growth constraint, the second primary growth constraint, the first secondary growth constraint, and the second secondary growth constraint comprises a material that has a tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (greater than 70 MPa). For example, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 may comprise any of a wide range of metals, alloys, ceramics, glasses, plastics, or combinations thereof (i.e., composites). In one exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraining system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraining system 152 include a metal such as stainless steel (e.g., SS316, 440C, or 440C hard), aluminum (e.g., aluminum 7075-T6, hard H18), titanium (e.g., 6Al-4V), beryllium, beryllium copper (hard), copper (O2 free, hard), nickel, etc.; however, in general, when the primary growth constraining system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraining system 152 include a metal, it is generally preferred that the metal be incorporated to limit corrosion and to limit the creation of an electrical short between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraining system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraining system 152 include a ceramic such as alumina (e.g., sintered or Coorstek AD96), zirconia (e.g., Coorstek YZTP), yttria stabilized zirconia (e.g., ENrG E-Strate®), etc. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes glass, such as Schott D263 tempered glass.In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 include a plastic such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK) (e.g., Aptiv 1102), PEEK with carbon (e.g., Victrex 90HMF40 or Xycomp 1000-04), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) with carbon (e.g., Tepex Dynalite 207), polyetheretherketone (PEEK) with 30% glass (e.g., Victrex 90HMF40 or Xycomp 1000-04), polyimide (e.g., Kapton®), or the like. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 include a composite material such as E-glass standard cloth / epoxy, 0°, E-glass UD / epoxy, 0°, Kevlar standard cloth / epoxy, 0°, Kevlar UD / epoxy, 0°, Carbon standard cloth / epoxy, 0°, Carbon UD / epoxy, 0°, Toyobo Zylon® HM fiber / epoxy, etc. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 include fibers such as Kevlar 49 aramid fiber, S-glass fiber, carbon fiber, Vectran UM LCP fiber, Dyneema, Zylon, etc. In one embodiment, at least one of the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 includes a sheet of material having a thickness in a range of about 10 to about 100 micrometers. In another embodiment, at least one of the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 includes a sheet of material having a thickness in a range of about 30 to about 75 micrometers.

[0121] The constituent elements of the electrode structures 110 and the counter electrode structures 112 can include an electroactive material capable of absorbing and releasing carrier ions, such as lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, magnesium ions, or aluminum ions. In some embodiments, the constituent elements of the electrode structures 110 include an anode active electroactive material (sometimes referred to as a negative electrode) and the constituent elements of the counter electrode structures 112 include a cathode active electroactive material (sometimes referred to as a positive electrode). In other embodiments, the constituent elements of the electrode structures 110 include a cathode active electroactive material and the constituent elements of the counter electrode structures 112 include an anode active electroactive material. In each of the embodiments and examples listed in this paragraph, the anode active material can be, for example, a particle agglomerate electrode, an electrode active material formed from a particulate material, such as by forming a slurry of particulate material and casting it into a layer shape, or a monolithic electrode.

[0122] According to one embodiment, the electrode active material used in the electrode structure 110 corresponding to the anode of the electrode assembly 106 includes a material that expands upon insertion of carrier ions into the electrode active material during charging of the secondary battery 102 and / or the electrode assembly 106. For example, the electrode active material may include an anode active material that accepts carrier ions during charging of the secondary battery, such as by intercalation or alloying with the carrier ions, in an amount sufficient to generate an increase in the volume of the electrode active material. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material may include a material that has a capacity to accept 2 or more moles of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material when the secondary battery 102 is charged from a discharged state to a charged state. As a further example, the electrode active material may include a material that has a capacity to accept 1.5 or more moles of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material, such as 2.0 or more moles of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material, and even 2.5 or more moles of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material, such as 3.5 or more moles of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material. The carrier ions accepted by the electrode active material may be at least one of lithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. Examples of electrode active materials that expand to provide such a volume change include one or more of silicon (e.g., SiO), aluminum, tin, zinc, silver, antimony, bismuth, gold, platinum, germanium, palladium, and alloys and compounds thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material can include a silicon-containing material in particulate form, such as one or more of particulate silicon, particulate silicon oxide, and mixtures thereof. In another embodiment, the electrode active material consists of silicon or silicon oxide. In yet another embodiment, the electrode active material can include a material that exhibits a smaller or even negligible volume change. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material can include a carbon-containing material, such as graphite. In yet another embodiment, the electrode structure includes a layer of lithium metal, such as, for example, an electrode structure including an electrode current collector, on which a layer of lithium metal is deposited during the charging process as a result of the transfer of carrier ions from the counter electrode structure to the electrode structure.

[0123] Further, according to certain embodiments, exemplary anode active electroactive materials include carbon materials such as graphite and soft or hard carbon, or any of a range of metals, metalloids, alloys, oxides, and compounds that can form alloys with lithium. Specific examples of metals or metalloids that can constitute the anode material include graphite, tin, lead, magnesium, aluminum, boron, gallium, silicon, Si / C composites, Si / graphite blends, SiOx, porous Si, intermetallic Si alloys, indium, zirconium, germanium, bismuth, cadmium, antimony, silver, zinc, arsenic, hafnium, yttrium, lithium, sodium, graphite, carbon, lithium titanate, palladium, and mixtures thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the anode active material includes aluminum, tin, or silicon, or oxides thereof, nitrides thereof, fluorides thereof, or other alloys thereof. In another exemplary embodiment, the anode active material includes silicon, silicon oxide, or alloys thereof.

[0124] In yet another embodiment, the anode active material can include lithium metal, lithium alloys, carbon, petroleum coke, activated carbon, graphite, silicon compounds, tin compounds, and alloys thereof. In one embodiment, the anode active material can include carbon, such as non-graphitizable carbon, graphitic carbon, and the like; Li x Fe2O3(0≦x≦1), Li x WO2(0≦x≦1), Sn x Me 1-x Me' y O z(Me: Mn, Fe, Pb, Ge; Me’: Al, B, P, Si, elements found in Groups 1, 2, and 3 of the periodic table, halogens, 0 < x ≦ 1, 1 ≦ y ≦ 3, 1 ≦ z ≦ 8), such as metal composite oxides, lithium metal, lithium alloys, silicon-based alloys, tin-based alloys, SnO, SnO2, PbO, PbO2, Pb2O3, Pb3O4, Sb2O3, Sb2O4, Sb2O5, GeO, GeO2, Bi2O3, Bi2O4, Bi2O5, etc., such as metal oxides, conductive polymers such as polyacetylene, Li-Co-Ni-based materials, etc. In one embodiment, the anode active material can include crystalline graphite such as natural graphite, synthetic graphite, etc., and amorphous carbon such as soft carbon, hard carbon, etc. Other examples of carbon materials suitable for the anode active material can include graphite, kish graphite, pyrolytic carbon, mesophase pitch-based carbon fibers, mesocarbon microbeads, mesophase pitch, graphitized carbon fibers, and high-temperature sintered carbon such as coke derived from petroleum or coal tar pitch. In one embodiment, the negative electrode active material can include tin oxide, titanium nitrate, and silicon. In another embodiment, the negative electrode can include a lithium metal such as a lithium metal film, or a lithium alloy such as an alloy of lithium, and one or more types of metals selected from the group consisting of Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra, Al, and Sn. In yet another embodiment, the anode active material is a metal compound capable of alloying and / or intercalating with lithium, such as Si, Al, C, Pt, Sn, Pb, Ir, Ni, Cu, Ti, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr, Be, Ca, Sr, Sb, Ba, Ra, Ge, Zn, Bi, In, Mg, Ga, Cd, Si alloy, Sn alloy, Al alloy, etc., SiO v(0 < v < 2), metal oxides capable of doping and undoping lithium ions such as SnO2, vanadium oxide, or lithium vanadium oxide, and composite materials containing metal compounds and carbon materials such as Si-C composite materials or Sn-C composite materials can be included. For example, in one embodiment, metals such as lithium, indium, tin, aluminum, or silicon, or their alloys, transition metal oxides such as Li4 / 3Ti5 / 3O4 or SnO, and artificial graphite, graphite carbon fiber, resin-fired carbon, pyrolytic vapor-grown carbon, cork, mesocarbon microbeads ("MCMB"), furfuryl alcohol resin-fired carbon, polyacene, pitch-based carbon fiber, vapor-grown carbon fiber, or natural graphite, etc., can be carbonaceous materials. In another embodiment, the negative electrode active material can include a composition suitable for carrier ions such as sodium or magnesium. For example, in one embodiment, the negative electrode active material includes a layered carbonaceous material and a chemical formula Na arranged between the layers of the layered carbonaceous material. x Sn y-z M z The composition of can be included, where M is Ti, K, Ge, P, or a combination thereof, 0 < x ≦ 15, 1 ≦ y ≦ 5, and 0 ≦ z ≦ 1. In one embodiment, when the secondary battery including the electrode structure having the anode active material is charged from the discharged state to the charged state, the anode active material has a capacity of carrier ions that is 2 moles or more of carrier ions per mole of the anode active material.

[0125] In one embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of: (a) silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and cadmium (Cd); (b) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (c) alloys or intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements; (d) oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, and mixtures, composites, or lithium-containing composites thereof, (e) salts and hydroxides of Sn, (f) lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxides, lithium transition metal oxides, ZnCo2O4, (g) particles of graphite and carbon, (h) lithium metal, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of alloys and intermetallic compounds of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, or Cd with other elements. In one embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, and tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, and Cd. In one embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of silicon and oxides and carbides of silicon. In one embodiment, the anode active material is selected from the group consisting of graphite and carbon.

[0126] In one embodiment, the negative electrode active material may further include a conductive material such as a carbon-based material, carbon black, graphite, graphene, activated carbon, carbon fiber, and / or a conductive assistant, carbon black such as acetylene black, ketjen black, channel black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, and the like, conductive fibers such as carbon fibers, metal fibers, and the like, conductive tubes such as carbon nanotubes, fluorocarbon powder, metal powder such as aluminum powder, nickel powder, and the like, conductive whiskers such as zinc oxide, titanium potassium oxide, and the like, conductive metal oxides such as titanium oxide, and the like, or polyphenylene derivatives, and the like. In addition, metal fibers such as metal meshes, metal powders such as copper, silver, nickel, and aluminum, and organic conductive materials such as polyphenylene derivatives may also be used. In yet another embodiment, a binder such as one or more of, for example, polyethylene, polyethylene oxide, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene-butadiene rubber, tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoroalkyl vinyl ether copolymer, vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymer, vinylidene fluoride-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, polychlorotrifluoroethylene, vinylidene fluoride-pentafluoropropylene copolymer, propylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, ethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene-tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, vinylidene fluoride-perfluoromethyl vinyl ether tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, ethylene-acrylic acid copolymer, and the like, may be provided and may be used alone or in mixtures.

[0127] Exemplary cathode active materials include any of a wide range of cathode active materials. For example, for lithium ion batteries, the cathode active material may include a cathode material selected from transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, lithium transition metal oxides, lithium transition metal sulfides, and lithium transition metal nitrides. The transition metal elements of these transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, and transition metal nitrides may include metal elements having a d-shell or an f-shell. Specific examples of such metal elements are Sc, Y, lanthanides, actinides, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pb, Pt, Cu, Ag, and Au. Additional cathode active materials include LiCoO2, LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O4, Li(Ni x Co y Al z )O2, LiFePO4, Li2MnO4, V2O5, molybdate oxysulfide, phosphates, silicates, vanadates, sulfur, sulfur compounds, oxygen (air), Li(Ni x Mn y Co z )O2, and combinations thereof. Additionally, compounds for the cathode active material layer can include lithium-containing compounds further including metal oxides or metal phosphates, such as compounds including lithium, cobalt, and oxygen (e.g., LiCoO2), compounds including lithium, manganese, and oxygen (e.g., LiMn2O4), and compounds including lithium iron and phosphate (e.g., LiFePO). In one embodiment, the cathode active material includes at least one of lithium manganese oxide, lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or composite oxides formed from combinations of the foregoing oxides. In another embodiment, the cathode active material includes one or more of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), and the like, or substituted compounds having one or more transition metals, Li 1+x Mn 2-xO4 (wherein x is 0 to 0.33), lithium manganese oxides such as LiMnO3, LiMn2O3, and LiMnO2, lithium copper oxide (Li2CuO2), vanadium oxides such as LiV3O8, LiFe3O4, V2O5, and Cu2V2O7, LiNi 1-x M x LiMnO2 (wherein M=Co, Mn, Al, Cu, Fe, Mg, B, or Ga, and x=0.01 to 0.3) 2-x M x LiMn2O4, in which a portion of Li is replaced with an alkaline earth metal ion, a disulfide compound, Fe2(MoO4), or the like. In one embodiment, the cathode active material can include one or more of the following: a lithium manganese complex oxide represented by the chemical formula LiMn2O4 (wherein M=Co, Ni, Fe, Cr, Zn, or Ta, and x=0.01 to 0.1) or Li2Mn3MO8 (wherein M=Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, or Zn). 1+x Fe 1-x M' x (PO 4-b )X b The cathode active material may include lithium metal phosphates having an olivine crystal structure of, where M' is at least one selected from Al, Mg, Ni, Co, Mn, Ti, Ga, Cu, V, Nb, Zr, Ce, In, Zn, and Y, and X is at least one selected from F, S, and N, with -0.5≦a≦+0.5, 0≦x≦0.5, and 0≦b≦0.1, such as LiFePO4, Li(Fe,Mn)PO4, Li(Fe,Co)PO4, Li(Fe,Ni)PO4, etc. In one embodiment, the cathode active material is LiCoO2, LiNiO2, LiMnO2, LiMn2O4, LiNi 1-y Co y O2, LiCo 1-y Mn y O2, LiNi 1-y Mn y O2(0≦y≦1), Li(Ni a Co b Mn c )O4(0 <a<2,0<b<2,0<c<2、かつa+b+c=2)、LiMn 2-zNi z O4, LiMn 2-z Co z O4 (0 < z < 2), LiCoPO4, and LiFePO4, or a mixture of two or more of them, and includes at least one of them.

[0128] In another embodiment, the cathode active material can include elemental sulfur (S8), sulfur-based compounds, or a mixture thereof. Sulfur-based compounds specifically include Li2S n (n ≧ 1), organic sulfur compounds, carbon-sulfur polymers ((C2S x ) n :x = 2.5 to 50, n ≧ 2), etc. In another embodiment, the cathode active material can include oxides of lithium and zirconium.

[0129] In another embodiment, the cathode active material can include at least one composite oxide of lithium and a metal such as cobalt, manganese, nickel, or a combination thereof. Examples thereof include Li a A 1-b M b D2 (where 0.90 ≦ a ≦ 1 and 0 ≦ b ≦ 0.5), Li a E 1-b M b O 2-c D c (where 0.90 ≦ a ≦ 1, 0 ≦ b ≦ 0.5, and 0 ≦ c ≦ 0.05), LiE 2-b M b O 4-c D c (where 0 ≦ b ≦ 0.5 and 0 ≦ c ≦ 0.05), Li a Ni 1-b-c Co b M c D a (where 0.90 ≦ a ≦ 1, 0 ≦ b ≦ 0.5, 0 ≦ c ≦ 0.05, and 0 < a ≦ 2), Li a Ni 1-b-c Co b M c O 2-a X a (where 0.90 ≦ a ≦ 1, 0 ≦ b ≦ 0.5, 0 ≦ c ≦ 0.05, and 0 < a < 2), Li a Ni1-b-c Co b M c O 2-a X2 (wherein, 0.90≦a≦1, 0≦b≦0.5, 0≦c≦0.05, and 0 <a<2)、Li a Ni 1-b-c Mn b M c O 2-a X a (Wherein, 0.90≦a≦1, 0≦b≦0.5, 0≦c≦0.05, and 0 <a<2)、Li a Ni 1-b-c Mn b M c O 2-a X2 (wherein, 0.90≦a≦1, 0≦b≦0.5, 0≦c≦0.05, and 0 <a<2)、Li a Ni b E c G d O2 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1, 0≦b≦0.9, 0≦c≦0.5, and 0.001≦d≦0.1), Li a Ni b Co c Mn d GeO2 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1, 0≦b≦0.9, 0≦c≦0.5, 0≦d≦0.5, and 0.001≦e≦0.1), Li a NiG b O2 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1 and 0.001≦b≦0.1), Li a CoG b O2 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1 and 0.001≦b≦0.1), Li a MnG b O2 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1 and 0.001≦b≦0.1), Li a Mn2G b O4 (wherein 0.90≦a≦1 and 0.001≦b≦0.1), QO2, QS2, LiQS2, V2O5, LiV2O5, LiX'O2, LiNiVO4, Li (3-f) J2(PO4)3(0≦f≦2), Li (3-f)Fe2(PO4)3(0≦f≦2), and LiFePO4. In the above chemical formula, A is Ni, Co, Mn, or a combination thereof, M is Al, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr, Fe, Mg, Sr, V, a rare earth element, or a combination thereof, D is O, F, S, P, or a combination thereof, E is Co, Mn, or a combination thereof, X is F, S, P, or a combination thereof, G is Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Mg, La, Ce, Sr, V, or a combination thereof, Q is Ti, Mo, Mn, or a combination thereof, X’ is Cr, V, Fe, Sc, Y, or a combination thereof, and J is V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, or a combination thereof. For example, LiCoO2, LiMn x O 2x (x = 1 or 2), LiNi 1-x Mn x O 2x (0 < x < 1), LiNi 1-x-y Co x Mn y O2(0 ≦ x ≦ 0.5, 0 ≦ y ≦ 0.5), or FePO4 can be used. In one embodiment, the cathode active material includes at least one of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide, lithium nickel cobalt oxide, lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide, lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide, lithium manganese oxide, or lithium iron phosphate, nickel sulfide, copper sulfide, sulfur, iron oxide, or vanadium oxide, etc., among lithium compounds.

[0130] In one embodiment, the cathode active material can include at least one of oxides of the chemical formula NaM 1 a O2 such as NaFeO2, NaMnO2, NaNiO2, or NaCoO2, or a sodium-containing material such as an oxide represented by the chemical formula NaMn 1-a M 1 a O2, wherein M 1 is at least one transition metal element, and 0 < a < 1. Representative positive active materials include Na[Ni 1 / 2 Mn1 / 2 ]O2, Na 2 / 3 [Fe 1 / 2 Mn 1 / 2 ]O2, Na 0.44 Mn 1-a M 1 a Oxide represented by O2, Na 0.7 Mn 1-a M 1 a O 2.05 (wherein, M 1 is at least one transition metal element, 0≦a<1), Na6Fe2Si 12 O 30 or Na2Fe5Si 12 Na as O b M 2 c S 12 O 30 (wherein, M 2 is at least one transition metal element, 2≦b≦6, and 2≦c≦5), Na2Fe2Si6O 18 or Na2MnFeSi6O 18 Such as Na d M 3 e SiO 18 (wherein, M 3 is at least one transition metal element, 3≦d≦6, and 1≦e≦2), Na such as Na2FeSiO6 f M 4 g The oxide represented by Si2O6 (wherein, M 4 is at least one element selected from transition metal elements, magnesium (Mg), and aluminum (Al), where 1≦f≦2 and 1≦g≦2; phosphates such as NaFePO4, Na3Fe2(PO4)3, Na3V2(PO4)3, Na4Co3(PO4)2P2O7, and the like; borates such as NaFeBO4 or Na3Fe2(BO4)3, NaFeF6, Na2MnF6, and the like; h M 5 Fluorides represented by F6 (wherein M 5is at least one transition metal element, 2≦h≦3), fluorophosphates such as Na3V2(PO4)2F3, Na3V2(PO4)2FO2, etc. The positive active material is not limited to the above, and any suitable positive active material used in the art can be used. In one embodiment, the positive active material is preferably NaMnO2, Na[Ni 1 / 2 Mn 1 / 2 ]O2 and Na 2 / 3 [Fe 1 / 2 Mns 1 / 2 ]O2, phosphate cathodes such as Na3V2(PO4)3 and Na4Co3(PO4)2P2O7, or fluorophosphate cathodes such as Na3V2(PO4)2F3 and Na3V2(PO4)2FO2. In one embodiment, S (or the lithiated state Li2S), LiF, Fe, Cu, Ni, FeF2, FeO d F 3.2d , FeF3, CoF3, CoF2, CuF2, NiF2, where 0≦d≦0.5. In one embodiment, the cathode active material comprises lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). In one embodiment, the cathode active material is selected from the group consisting of intercalation chemistry cathode materials and conversion chemistry cathode materials.

[0131] In one embodiment, the electrode current collector may include a negative electrode current collector and may include a suitable conductive material, such as a metallic material. For example, in one embodiment, the negative electrode current collector may include at least one of copper, nickel, aluminum, stainless steel, titanium, palladium, calcined carbon, calcined carbon, indium, iron, magnesium, cobalt, germanium, copper or stainless steel surface treatment material (with lithium, carbon, nickel, titanium, silver, aluminum-cadmium alloy, and / or other alloys thereof). As another example, in one embodiment, the negative electrode current collector includes at least one of copper, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium, calcined carbon, copper or stainless steel surface treatment material (with carbon, nickel, titanium, silver, aluminum-cadmium alloy, and / or other alloys thereof). In one embodiment, the negative electrode current collector includes at least one of copper and stainless steel.

[0132] In one embodiment, the counter electrode current collector may include a positive current collector and may include a suitable conductive material, such as a metallic material. In one embodiment, the positive current collector includes at least one of stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium, sintered carbon, aluminum or stainless steel surface treatment materials (with carbon, nickel, titanium, silver, and / or alloys thereof). In one embodiment, the positive current collector includes aluminum.

[0133] In yet another embodiment, the cathode active material can further include one or more conductive additives and / or binders, which can be, for example, any of the conductive additives and / or binders described herein for the anode active material.

[0134] According to certain embodiments, an electrically insulating separator layer 130 may electrically insulate each component of the electrode structure 110 from each component of the counter electrode structure 112. The electrically insulating separator layer is designed to prevent electrical shorts while also allowing the transport of ionic charge carriers necessary to close the circuit during the passage of current in the electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the electrically insulating separator layer is microporous and permeable to an electrolyte, such as a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte or a gel electrolyte. Alternatively, the electrically insulating separator layer may include a solid electrolyte, i.e., a solid ionic conductor, which may function as both a separator and an electrolyte in the battery.

[0135] In certain embodiments, the electrically insulating separator layer 130 will typically comprise a microporous separator material that is permeable to a non-aqueous electrolyte. For example, in one embodiment, the microporous separator material comprises pores having diameters of at least 50 Å, more typically in the range of about 2,500 Å, and a porosity in the range of about 25% to about 75%, more typically in the range of about 35% to 55%. Additionally, the microporous separator material may be permeable to a non-aqueous electrolyte to allow conduction of carrier ions between adjacent units of the electrode and counter electrodes. In certain embodiments, for example, disregarding the multi-efficiency of the microporous separator material, at least 70 volume % of the electrically insulating separator material between the constituent units of the electrode structures 110 and the nearest constituent units of the counter electrode structures 112 (i.e., the "adjacent pairs") for ion exchange during a charge or discharge cycle is microporous separator material, or stated another way, the microporous separator material constitutes at least 70 volume % of the electrically insulating material between the constituent units of the electrode structures 110 and the nearest constituent units of the counter electrode structures 112.

[0136] In one embodiment, the microporous separator material includes a particulate material and a binder and has a porosity (void volume fraction) of at least about 20% by volume. The pores of the microporous separator material will have a diameter of at least 50 Å and will typically be in the range of about 250-2,500 Å. The microporous separator material will typically have a porosity of less than about 75%. In one embodiment, the microporous separator material will have a porosity (void volume fraction) of at least about 25% by volume. In one embodiment, the microporous separator material will have a porosity of about 35-55%.

[0137] Binders for the microporous separator material may be selected from a wide range of inorganic or polymeric materials. For example, in one embodiment, the binder may be an organic polymeric material such as a fluoropolymer derived from monomers containing vinylidene fluoride, hexafluoropropylene, tetrafluoropropene, and the like. In another embodiment, the binder is a polyolefin such as polyethylene, polypropylene, or polybutene having any of a variety of molecular weight and density ranges. In another embodiment, the binder is selected from the group consisting of ethylene-diene-propene terpolymer, polystyrene, polymethylmethacrylate, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylbutyral, polyacetal, and polyethylene glycol diacrylate. In another embodiment, the binder is selected from the group consisting of methylcellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, styrene rubber, butadiene rubber, styrene butadiene rubber, isoprene rubber, polyacrylamide, polyvinyl ether, polyacrylic acid, polymethacrylic acid, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylidene fluoride polyacrylonitrile, and polyethylene oxide. In another embodiment, the binder is selected from the group consisting of acrylate, styrene, epoxy, and silicone. Other suitable binders may be selected from polyvinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride-co-trichloroethylene, polymethylmethacrylate, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, polyethylene-co-vinyl acetate, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, cellulose acetate propionate, cyanoethyl pullulan, cyanoethyl polyvinyl alcohol, cyanoethyl cellulose, cyanoethyl sucrose, pullulan, carboxymethyl cellulose, acrylonitrile-styrene-butadiene copolymer, polyimide, or mixtures thereof.In yet another embodiment, the binder may be selected from polyvinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene, polyvinylidene fluoride-trichloroethylene, polymethylmethacrylate, polyacrylonitrile, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl acetate, ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer, polyethylene oxide, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate butyrate, cellulose acetate propionate, cyanoethyl pullulan, cyanoethyl polyvinyl alcohol, cyanoethyl cellulose, pullulan, carboxyl methyl cellulose, acrylonitrile styrene butadiene copolymer, polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene terephthalate, polyester, polyacetal, polyamide, polyether ether ketone, polyether sulfone, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenylene sulfide, polyethylene naphthalene, and / or any combination thereof. In another embodiment, the binder is a copolymer or blend of two or more of the aforementioned polymers.

[0138] The particulate material comprising the microporous separator material may also be selected from a wide range of materials. Generally, such materials have relatively low electronic and ionic conductivity at operating temperatures and do not corrode under the operating voltages of the battery electrodes or current collectors that contact the microporous separator material. For example, in one embodiment, the particulate material has a molecular weight of 1×10 -4 By way of further example, in one embodiment, the particulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions (e.g., lithium) of less than 1×10 -5 By way of further example, in one embodiment, the particulate material has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than 1×10 -6The binder has a conductivity for carrier ions of less than S / cm. For example, in one embodiment, the binder is an organic material selected from the group consisting of silicates, phosphates, aluminates, aluminosilicates, and hydroxides, such as magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, etc. Exemplary particulate materials include particulate polyethylene, polypropylene, TiO2-polymer composites, silica aerogel, fumed silica, silica gel, silica hydrogel, silica xerogel, silica sol, colloidal silica, alumina, titania, magnesia, kaolin, talc, diatomaceous earth, calcium silicate, aluminum silicate, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, or combinations thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the particulate material includes particulate oxides or nitrides, such as TiO2, SiO2, Al2O3, GeO2, B2O3, Bi2O3, BaO, ZnO, ZrO2, BN, Si3N4, Ge3N4, etc. (See, for example, P. Arora and J. Zhang, "Battery Separators," Chemical Reviews 2004, 104, 4419-4462.) Other suitable particles include BaTiO3, Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT), Pb 1-x La x Zr 1-y Ti y O3(PLZT), PB(Mg3Nb 2 / 3 The particulate material may include, for example, ZnO-PbTiO3 (PMN-PT), hafnia (HfO2), SrTiO3, SnO2, CeO2, MgO, NiO, CaO, ZnO, ZrO2, YO3, Al2O3, TiO2, SiC, or mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the particulate material will have an average particle size of about 20 nm to 2 micrometers, more typically 200 nm to 1.5 micrometers. In one embodiment, the particulate material will have an average particle size of about 500 nm to 1 micrometer.

[0139] According to one embodiment of the assembled energy storage device, the microporous separator material is permeable to a non-aqueous electrolyte suitable for use as a secondary battery electrolyte. Typically, the non-aqueous electrolyte comprises a lithium salt and / or mixture of salts dissolved in an organic solvent and / or solvent mixture. Exemplary lithium salts include inorganic lithium salts such as LiClO4, LiBF4, LiPF6, LiAsF6, LiCl, and LiBr, as well as inorganic lithium salts such as LiB(CH5)4, LiN(SO2CF3)2, LiN(SO2CF3)3, LiNSO2CF3, LiNSO2CF5, LiNSO2C4F9, LiNSO2C5F 11 , LiNSO2C6F 13 , and LiNSO2C7F 15 As yet another example, the electrolyte can include sodium ions dissolved in the electrolyte, such as, for example, any one or more of NaClO4, NaPF6, NaBF4, NaCF3SO3, NaN(CF3SO2)2, NaN(C2F5SO2)2, NaC(CF3SO2)3. Salts of magnesium and / or potassium can be provided as well. For example, magnesium salts such as magnesium chloride (MgCl), magnesium bromide (MgBr), or magnesium iodide (MgI) may be provided, and / or magnesium perchlorate (Mg(ClO)), magnesium nitrate (Mg(NO), magnesium sulfate (MgSO), magnesium tetrafluoroborate (Mg(BF), magnesium tetraphenylborate (Mg(B(CH), magnesium hexafluorophosphate (Mg(PF), magnesium hexafluoroarsenate (Mg(AsF), magnesium perfluoroalkylsulfonate (Mg(R ... f1 SO3)2) where R f1 is a perfluoroalkyl group), magnesium perfluoroalkylsulfonylimide (Mg((R f2 SO2)2N)2, where R f2As well as magnesium salts, which may be at least one selected from the group consisting of hexaalkyldisilazides ((Mg(HRDS)2, where R is a perfluoroalkyl group), and hexaalkyldisilazides ((Mg(HRDS)2, where R is an alkyl group). Exemplary organic solvents for dissolving the lithium salts include cyclic esters, linear esters, cyclic ethers, and linear ethers. Specific examples of cyclic esters include propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, γ-butyrolactone, vinylene carbonate, 2-methyl-γ-butyrolactone, acetyl-γ-butyrolactone, and γ-valerolactone. Specific examples of linear esters include dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, dibutyl carbonate, dipropyl carbonate, methylethyl carbonate, methylbutyl carbonate, methylpropyl carbonate, ethylbutyl carbonate, esters, ethyl propyl carbonate, butyl propyl carbonate, alkyl propionates, dialkyl malonates, and alkyl acetates. Specific examples of cyclic ethers include tetrahydrofuran, alkyl tetrahydrofuran, dialkyl tetrahydrofuran, alkoxy tetrahydrofuran, dialkoxy tetrahydrofuran, 1,3-dioxolane, alkyl-1,3-dioxolane, and 1,4-dioxolane. Specific examples of linear ethers include 1,2-dimethoxyethane, 1,2-diethoxyethane, diethyl ether, ethylene glycol dialkyl ether, diethylene glycol dialkyl ether, triethylene glycol dialkyl ether, and tetraethylene glycol dialkyl ether. In one embodiment, the electrode assembly includes a non-aqueous electrolyte comprising a mixture of a lithium salt and an organic solvent.

[0140] In yet another embodiment, the electrically insulating separator 130 includes a solid electrolyte, for example, as in a solid-state battery. Generally speaking, a solid electrolyte can facilitate the transport of carrier ions without the need for the addition of a liquid or gel electrolyte. According to certain embodiments, when a solid electrolyte is provided, the solid electrolyte may itself be capable of providing an insulator between the electrodes and allowing the passage of carrier ions through the insulator, and may not require the addition of a liquid electrolyte that permeates the structure.

[0141] In one embodiment, the secondary battery 102 may include an electrolyte, which may be any of organic liquid electrolytes, inorganic liquid electrolytes, aqueous electrolytes, non-aqueous electrolytes, solid polymer electrolytes, solid ceramic electrolytes, solid glass electrolytes, garnet electrolytes, gel polymer electrolytes, inorganic solid electrolytes, fused inorganic electrolytes, and the like. Other arrangements and / or configurations of the electrically insulating separator 130 may also be provided, with or without a liquid electrolyte. In one embodiment, the solid electrolyte may include a ceramic or glass material that can conduct carrier ions therethrough while providing electrical insulation. Examples of ion conducting materials may include garnet materials, sulfide glasses, lithium ion conducting glass ceramics, or phosphate ceramic materials. In one embodiment, the solid polymer electrolyte may include any of polyethylene oxide (PEO)-based, polyvinyl acetate (PVA)-based, polyethyleneimine (PEI)-based, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)-based, polyacrylonitrile (PAN)-based, LiPON (lithium phosphorus oxide), and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)-based polymers or copolymers thereof. In another embodiment, a sulfide-based solid electrolyte may be provided, such as a sulfide-based solid electrolyte including at least one of lithium and / or phosphorus, such as Li2S and P2S5, and at least one of SiS2, GeS2, Li3PS4, Li4P2S7, Li4SiS4, Li2S-P2S5, and other sulfides such as 50Li4SiO4.50Li3BO3, and / or B2S3. Other embodiments of the solid electrolyte include Li3N, LiI, Li5NI2, Li3N-LiI-LiOH, LiSiO4, LiSiO4-LiI-LiOH, Li2SiS3, Li4SiO4, Li4SiO4-LiI-LiOH, and Li3PO4-Li2S-SiS2, Li2S-P2S5, Li2S-P2S5-L4SiO4, Li2S-Ga2S3-GeS2, Li2S-Sb2S3-GeS2, Li 3.25 -Ge 0.25 -P 0.75 S4, (La,Li)TiO3(LLTO), Li6La2CaTa2O 12 , Li6La2ANb2O 12(A=Ca, Sr), Li2Nd3TeSbO 12 , LiBO 2.5 N 0.5 , Li9SiAlO8, Li 1+x Al x Ge 2-x (PO4)3(LAGP), Li 1+x Al x Ti 2-x (PO4)3(LATP), Li 1+x Ti 2-x Al x S y (PO4) 3-y , LiAl x Zr 2-x (PO4)3, LiTi x Zr 2-x Lithium (Li) nitrides, halides, and sulfides, such as (PO4)3, and other embodiments of the solid electrolyte may include garnet materials, such as those described in U.S. Patent No. 10,361,455, which is incorporated herein in its entirety. In one embodiment, the garnet solid electrolyte is a nesosilicate having the general formula X3Y2(SiO4)3, where X can be a divalent cation, such as Ca, Mg, Fe, or Mn, or Y can be a trivalent cation, such as Al, Fe, or Cr.

[0142] In one embodiment, the electrically insulating separator comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consisting of sulfide-based electrolytes. In another embodiment, the electrically insulating separator comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consisting of lithium tin phosphorus sulfide (LSn), lithium phosphorus sulfide (β-Li3PS4), and lithium phosphorus sulfur chloroiodide (Li6PS5Cl 0.9 I 0.1 In another embodiment, the electrically insulating separator comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consisting of oxide-based electrolytes. In another embodiment, the electrically insulating separator comprises a solid electrolyte selected from the group consisting of lithium lanthanum titanate (Li 0.34 La 0.56 TiO3), Al-doped lithium lanthanum zirconate (Li6.24La3Zr2Al0.24O11.98), Ta-doped lithium lanthanum zirconate (Li 6.4La3Zr 1.4 Ta 0.6 O 12 ), and lithium aluminum titanium phosphate (Li 1.4 Al 0.4 Ti 1.6 (PO4)3). In one embodiment, the electrically insulating separator comprises a polymer electrolyte selected from the group consisting of PEO based polymer electrolytes, polymer ceramic composite electrolytes (solid), polymer ceramic composite electrolytes, and polymer ceramic composite electrolytes.

[0143] Embodiment The following enumerated embodiments 1-336 describe embodiments according to the present disclosure.

[0144] Enumerated embodiment 1: A method for manufacturing a structure comprising an electrode assembly and first and second end plates, the electrode assembly comprising an electrically insulating material; The electrode assembly comprises a group of unit cells stacked consecutively in a stacking direction and having first and second opposed longitudinal end faces separated along the stacking direction, the first and second end plates being separated in the stacking direction and overlying the first and second longitudinal end faces, (i) each unit cell comprises an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure, (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have first and second opposed vertical end faces separated in a vertical direction, (iii) the vertical direction is perpendicular to the stacking direction, The method includes providing a porous electrically insulating material to an electrode assembly using a stencil.

[0145] Enumerated embodiment 2. A structure comprising an electrode assembly and first and second end plates, the electrode assembly comprising an electrically insulating material; a group of unit cells stacked continuously in a stacking direction, first and second opposite longitudinal end faces separated along the stacking direction, and first and second end plates separated in the stacking direction and overlying the first and second longitudinal end faces, (i) each unit cell comprises an electrode structure, a counter electrode structure, and an electrically insulating separator between the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure; (ii) the electrode structure, the counter electrode structure, and the electrically insulating separator in each unit cell have opposite first and second end faces separated in a vertical direction; and (iii) the vertical direction is perpendicular to the stacking direction.

[0146] Enumerated embodiment 3: The first and second end plates each have a vertical thickness t EP a first vertical thickness t of a first cross-sectional area of ​​each of the first and second end plates at an inner region of the respective first and second end plates adjacent to the stacked consecutive unit cells; EP1 is a second vertical thickness t of a second cross-sectional area in the outer region of the first and second end plates that is outside of the respective inner regions in the stacking direction. EP2 The method or structure of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0147] Enumerated embodiment 4: Each of the first and second end plates has a respective maximum vertical thickness t in a cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction having a maximum vertical thickness for each end plate. EPMAX and the first and second end plates have respective maximum vertical thicknesses t EPMAX and wherein the first and second vertical end regions are on opposite first and second vertical sides of the first and second end plates.

[0148] Enumerated embodiment 5: A method or structure as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each of the first and second end plates has first and second vertical end surface areas that coincide with respective first and second maximum vertical extents on opposite first and second vertical sides of the first and second end plates.

[0149] Enumerated embodiment 6: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the method includes: (a) positioning a stencil having a stencil frame defining stencil openings on the first and second end plates such that the stencil frame covers at least a portion of a periphery of the electrode assembly, wherein first vertical end surfaces of the constituent electrode structures and counter electrode structures of the unit cell group are exposed through the stencil openings.

[0150] Enumerated embodiment 7: A method for forming a stencil comprising: (a) positioning a stencil having a stencil frame defining a stencil opening over first and second end plates, the stencil being configured such that a top surface of the stencil frame is within a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the respective first and second end plates in a vertical direction. EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second end plates are positioned on the first and second end plates such that the first and second end plates do not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that corresponds to

[0151] Enumerated embodiment 8: A method according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising: (a) positioning a stencil having a stencil frame defining a stencil opening on the first and second end plates, wherein the stencil is positioned on the first and second end plates such that a top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent of each of the respective first and second end plates that are on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the top surface of the stencil frame.

[0152] Enumerated embodiment 9: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising: (b) applying a porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover a first vertical end surface of the constituent electrode structure or counter electrode structure of the group of unit cells.

[0153] Enumerated embodiment 10: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising: (b) applying a porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover first vertical end surfaces of the counter electrode structures of the constituent units of the group of unit cells.

[0154] Enumerated embodiment 11: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and (b) includes applying a porous electrically insulating material through a stencil opening to cover a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the constituent units of the unit cell group.

[0155] Enumerated embodiment 12: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising: (c) positioning a stencil over the first and second end plates such that second vertical end surfaces of the constituent electrode structures and counter electrode structures of the unit cells are exposed through the stencil openings.

[0156] In enumerated embodiment 13:(c), the method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil is positioned on the first and second end plates such that the top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent of each of the respective first and second end plates that is on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the top surface of the stencil frame.

[0157] In enumerated embodiment 14:(c), the top surface of the stencil frame is formed to have a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil is positioned on the first and second end plates such that it does not exceed a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that corresponds to

[0158] Enumerated embodiment 15: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising (d) applying a porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover a second vertical end surface of the constituent electrode structure or counter electrode structure of the group of unit cells.

[0159] Enumerated embodiment 16: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising: (d) applying a porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover second vertical end surfaces of the counter electrode structures of the constituent units of the group of unit cells.

[0160] Enumerated embodiment 17: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and (d) includes applying a porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover a second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the constituent units of the unit cell group.

[0161] Enumerated embodiment 18: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising rotating the electrode assembly about an axis perpendicular to the vertical direction after application of the porous electrically insulating material to the electrode assembly.

[0162] Enumerated embodiment 19: A method according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrode assembly is rotated following application of the porous electrically insulating material to a first vertical end surface of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure, the method further comprising applying a porous electrically insulating material to a second vertical end surface of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure after the rotation.

[0163] Enumerated embodiment 20: The maximum vertical thickness of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is less than the respective maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX No more than one method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0164] Enumerated embodiment 21: The maximum vertical thickness of the counter electrode structure in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is equal to or less than the respective maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX No more than one method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0165] Enumerated embodiment 22: The maximum vertical thickness of the layer of the counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in a cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction is less than the respective maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX No more than one method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0166] Enumerated embodiment 23: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first vertical end surface of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure does not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the first vertical end surface and a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0167] Enumerated embodiment 24: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure does not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the first vertical end surface.

[0168] Enumerated embodiment 25: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure does not exceed a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the first vertical end surface.

[0169] Enumerated embodiment 26: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second vertical end surfaces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure do not exceed the second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates, which coincides with the second vertical end surfaces and a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0170] Enumerated embodiment 27: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure does not exceed a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the second vertical end surface.

[0171] Enumerated embodiment 28: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure does not exceed a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the second vertical end surface and a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0172] Enumerated embodiment 29: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first vertical end surfaces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure are recessed relative to a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the first vertical end surfaces and a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0173] Enumerated embodiment 30: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a first vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure is recessed relative to a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the first vertical end surface.

[0174] Enumerated embodiment 31: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of a constituent unit of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure is recessed relative to a first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the first vertical end surface and a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0175] Enumerated embodiment 32: Each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of an electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of a counter electrode active material, and the maximum vertical thickness of the layer of the counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction is greater than or equal to the maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX 4. The method or structure of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates is equal to or greater than the first vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates.

[0176] Enumerated embodiment 33: A method or structure as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second vertical end surfaces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure are recessed relative to a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the second vertical end surfaces and a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0177] Enumerated embodiment 34: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure is recessed relative to a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the second vertical end surface and a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0178] Enumerated embodiment 35: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and a second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure is recessed relative to a second vertical end surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the second vertical end surface and a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly.

[0179] Enumerated embodiment 36: (a) A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil is positioned such that the upper surface of the stencil frame is vertically above a first vertical end surface of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0180] Enumerated embodiment 37: (a) A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame is vertically above a first vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0181] Enumerated embodiment 38: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and in (a), the top surface of the stencil frame is positioned vertically above a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0182] Enumerated embodiment 39: In (c), the stencil is positioned such that the upper surface of the stencil frame is vertically above a second vertical end surface of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly, as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0183] In enumerated embodiment 40:(c), the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame is vertically above a second vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure in the electrode assembly, as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0184] Enumerated embodiment 41: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and in (c), the top surface of the stencil frame is positioned vertically above a second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0185] Enumerated embodiment 42: In (a), the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed or is below a first vertical end surface of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly in the vertical direction.

[0186] Enumerated embodiment 43: In (a), the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed or is below a first vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure in the electrode assembly in the vertical direction.

[0187] Enumerated embodiment 44: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and in (a), the top surface of the stencil frame is positioned in the vertical direction such that it does not exceed or is below a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0188] In enumerated embodiment 45:(c), the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed or is below a second vertical end surface of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly in the vertical direction.

[0189] In enumerated embodiment 46:(c), the stencil is positioned such that the top surface of the stencil frame does not exceed or is below the second vertical end surface of the opposing electrode structure in the electrode assembly in the vertical direction.

[0190] Enumerated embodiment 47: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein in either (a) or (c), the stencil is positioned around the periphery of the first and second end plates in the stacking direction.

[0191] Enumerated embodiment 48: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the components of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and in (c), the top surface of the stencil frame is positioned in the vertical direction such that it does not exceed or is below a second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure in the electrode assembly.

[0192] In enumerated embodiment 49:(a), a stencil frame is received on a surface of the outer region of the first and second end plates, and the outer region has a first vertical thickness t in a second cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction adjacent to the stacked consecutive unit cells in the inner region. EP1 A second vertical thickness t EP2 2. The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising:

[0193] In enumerated embodiment 50:(c), a stencil frame is received on the surface of the outer region of the first and second end plates, and the outer region has a first vertical thickness t in a second cross-sectional area perpendicular to the stacking direction adjacent to the stacked consecutive unit cells in the inner region. EP1 A second vertical thickness t EP2 2. The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising:

[0194] Enumerated embodiment 51: In (a), a method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil frame is received on a surface area of ​​the outer region of the first and second end plates that does not exceed or is below a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that corresponds to a first maximum vertical extent of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction.

[0195] In enumerated embodiment 52:(c), the method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil frame is received on a surface area of ​​the outer region of the first and second end plates that does not exceed or is below a second surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that corresponds to a second maximum vertical extent of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction.

[0196] Enumerated embodiment 53: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second end plates each have first and second end plate vertical end faces on first and second vertical side faces that are opposite each other of the first and second end plates, and at least one of the first and second vertical end faces includes an inner surface region in an inner region adjacent to stacked consecutive unit cells and an outer surface region in an outer region that is exterior to the inner surface region in the stacking direction, and the outer surface region is offset vertically inward from the inner surface region.

[0197] Enumerated embodiment 54: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each of the first and second end plate vertical end faces includes vertically separated, opposing inner surface regions in an inner region adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells, and vertically separated, opposing outer surface regions in an outer region that are external to the inner surface regions in the stacking direction, and the opposing outer surface regions of each of the first and second end plate vertical end faces are offset vertically inward from the opposing inner surface regions.

[0198] Enumerated embodiment 55: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil frame has first and second opposing ledges, and in either (a) or (c), the stencil is positioned on the electrode assembly such that the first and second opposing ledges of the stencil frame are received by inwardly offset outer surface areas of the first and second end plates that are on the same vertical side of the stencil frame and the electrode assembly.

[0199] Enumerated embodiment 56: A stencil frame comprising first and second opposing ledges, wherein in either (a) or (c), an upper frame surface of the first and second opposing frame regions is such that the upper frame surface is greater than or equal to a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second end plates are positioned so as to not extend beyond or be recessed relative to a first surface region of the first and second end plates, corresponding to

[0200] Enumerated embodiment 57: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil frame comprises first and second opposing ledges, and in (a) an upper frame surface of the first and second opposing frame areas is positioned such that the upper frame surface does not extend beyond or is recessed relative to a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates, the first surface area coinciding with a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates that is on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the upper surfaces of the first and second opposing frame areas.

[0201] Enumerated embodiment 58: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the stencil frame includes first and second opposing ledges, and in (c), an upper frame surface of the first and second opposing frame regions is positioned such that the upper frame surface does not extend beyond or is recessed relative to a second surface area of ​​the first and second end plates, the second surface area coinciding with a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates that is on the same vertical side of the electrode assembly as the upper surfaces of the first and second opposing frame regions.

[0202] Enumerated embodiment 59: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrode assembly includes a longitudinal axis (Y) in the stacking direction and a vertical axis (Z) in the vertical direction, and the first and second end plates each have first and second opposing vertical end faces having a cross-sectional profile in the YZ plane that is chamfered, sloped, stepped, or any combination thereof.

[0203] Enumerated embodiment 60: A method or structure as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the cross-sectional profile of each of the first and second end plates in the YZ plane monotonically decreases from the inner region to the outer region of each of the respective first and second end plates.

[0204] Enumerated embodiment 61: A method or structure as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the cross-sectional profile of each of the first and second end plates in the YZ plane gradually decreases from the inner region to the outer region of each of the respective first and second end plates.

[0205] Enumerated embodiment 62: A method or structure as in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein an outer region of each of the first and second end plates includes a stepped feature adapted to receive a stencil frame.

[0206] Enumerated embodiment 63: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the including includes rotating the electrode assembly about a longitudinal axis in the stacking direction or a transverse axis in the transverse direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction to vertically invert the positions of the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure.

[0207] Enumerated embodiment 64: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover a first vertical end surface of the constituent electrode structure or counter electrode structure of the group of unit cells.

[0208] Enumerated embodiment 65: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through a stencil opening to cover a first vertical end surface of the counter electrode structure of the constituent unit of the group of unit cells.

[0209] Enumerated embodiment 66: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and (b) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through a stencil opening to cover a first vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group.

[0210] Enumerated embodiment 67: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (d) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover the second vertical end surfaces of the constituent electrode structures or counter electrode structures of the group of unit cells.

[0211] Enumerated embodiment 68: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (d) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through a stencil opening to cover a second vertical end surface of the counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the group of unit cells.

[0212] Enumerated embodiment 69: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group comprises a layer of counter electrode active material, and (d) includes using a blade to apply a slurry of porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to cover a second vertical end surface of the layer of counter electrode active material of the counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group.

[0213] Enumerated embodiment 70: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) includes running a blade along the first vertical end faces of the first and second end plates in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions to apply the porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to the first vertical end faces of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure.

[0214] Enumerated embodiment 71: The blades have a respective maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first surface region of the first and second end plates runs across a first vertical end surface, the first surface region of the first and second end plates coinciding with

[0215] Enumerated embodiment 72: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the blade runs across a first vertical end surface in a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first maximum extent of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction.

[0216] Enumerated embodiment 73: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) includes running a blade across first vertical end faces of the first and second end plates in a lateral direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0217] The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) the length of the blade extends across the electrode assembly in a stacking direction from the first end plate to the second end plate.

[0218] Enumerated embodiment 75: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (b) includes applying a porous electrically insulating material to either the blade or a surface of the electrode assembly and running the blade laterally along the first vertical end faces of the first and second end plates.

[0219] Enumerated embodiment 76: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (d) includes running a blade along the second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions to apply the porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to the second vertical end faces of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure.

[0220] Enumerated embodiment 77: The blade has a maximum vertical thickness t EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the second surface region of the first and second end plates runs across a second vertical end surface, the second surface region of the first and second end plates coinciding with the second vertical end surface.

[0221] Enumerated embodiment 78: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the blade travels across a second vertical end surface at the first and second end plates in a second surface area that coincides with a second maximum extent of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction.

[0222] Enumerated embodiment 79: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the blade runs laterally across the second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates, perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0223] The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein in enumerated embodiment 80:(d), the length of the blade extends across the electrode assembly in a stacking direction from the first end plate to the second end plate.

[0224] Enumerated embodiment 81: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (d) includes running a blade along the second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the vertical and stacking directions to apply the porous electrically insulating material through the stencil openings to the second vertical end faces of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure.

[0225] Enumerated embodiment 82: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (d) includes applying a porous electrically insulating material to either the blade or a surface of the electrode assembly and running the blade laterally along the second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates.

[0226] Enumerated embodiment 83: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (a) includes positioning the stencil such that at least a portion of the first vertical end faces of the first and second end plates adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells are exposed through the stencil openings.

[0227] Enumerated embodiment 84: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (c) includes positioning the stencil such that at least a portion of the second vertical end faces of the first and second end plates adjacent the stacked consecutive unit cells are exposed through the stencil openings.

[0228] Enumerated embodiment 85: (a) a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in a vertical direction EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising positioning the stencil such that first surface areas of the first and second end plates, which correspond to

[0229] Enumerated embodiment 86: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (a) includes positioning the stencil such that a first surface area on a first vertical side of the first and second end plates, which corresponds to a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates, is exposed through the stencil opening.

[0230] Enumerated embodiment 87: (c) the maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising positioning the stencil such that a second surface area on a second vertical side of the first and second end plates, the second surface area corresponding to the first and second end plates, is exposed through the stencil opening.

[0231] Enumerated embodiment 88: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (c) includes positioning the stencil such that a second surface area on a second vertical side of the first and second end plates, which corresponds to a second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates, is exposed through the stencil opening.

[0232] Enumerated embodiment 89: In any of (a) and (c), the stencil is positioned such that the stencil frame at least partially covers the periphery of the electrode assembly in a lateral direction perpendicular to both the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0233] Enumerated embodiment 90: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each unit cell comprises an electrode current collector end section and a counter electrode current collector end section extending in opposite lateral directions from the respective electrode structure and counter electrode structure, perpendicular to both the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0234] Enumerated embodiment 91: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein an end section of either the electrode current collector or the counter electrode current collector is recessed in a direction perpendicular to the first and second vertical end surfaces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure.

[0235] Enumerated embodiment 92: In any of (a) and (c), the stencil is positioned such that the stencil frame at least partially covers the end sections of either the electrode current collector or the counter electrode current collector around the electrode assembly in a lateral direction perpendicular to the stacking direction and the vertical direction.

[0236] Enumerated embodiment 93: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein in either (a) or (c), the stencil is positioned such that the ends of the electrode current collector and the counter electrode current collector are recessed relative to the stencil frame.

[0237] Enumerated embodiment 94: In either (a) or (c), the stencil is positioned such that opposing lateral ledges of the stencil frame are positioned over the ends of the electrode current collector and the counter electrode current collector.

[0238] Enumerated embodiment 95: A first and second vertical end surface of an end of an electrode current collector and a counter electrode current collector has (i) a first and second vertical end surface of an electrode structure, (ii) a first and second surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincide with the first and second maximum vertical extents of the first and second end plates, and (iii) a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX and the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates are recessed by at least 0.010 mm relative to either the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates,

[0239] Enumerated embodiment 96: A first and second vertical end surface of an end of an electrode current collector and a counter electrode current collector has (i) a first and second vertical end surface of an electrode structure, (ii) a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with a first and second maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates, and (iii) a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAXand a first surface region of the first and second end plates, the first surface region being recessed by at least 0.025 mm relative to either the ...

[0240] Enumerated embodiment 97: A first and second vertical end surface of an end of an electrode current collector and a counter electrode current collector has (i) a first and second vertical end surface of the electrode structure, (ii) a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates that coincides with the first and second maximum vertical extents of the first and second end plates, and (iii) a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction. EPMAX and a first surface region of the first and second end plates, the first surface region being recessed by at least 0.050 mm relative to either the ...

[0241] Enumerated embodiment 98: A method or structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second vertical end faces of the ends of the electrode collector and the counter electrode collector are recessed to accommodate a stencil frame in the vertical distance between the first and second vertical end faces of the ends of the electrode collector and the counter electrode structure and the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure.

[0242] Enumerated embodiment 99: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, further comprising placing the electrode assembly between a set of bumpers on opposite sides of the stacking direction and applying pressure to the first and second end plates in the stacking direction via the bumpers.

[0243] Enumerated embodiment 100: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrode assembly is disposed between the bumpers such that a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates, which corresponds to a first maximum vertical extent of the first and second end plates, extends vertically past the first and second vertical end faces of the bumpers.

[0244] Enumerated embodiment 101: An electrode assembly having a maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in a vertical direction.EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a first surface area of ​​the first and second end plates, which corresponds to

[0245] Enumerated embodiment 102: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, further comprising mounting at least a portion of the stencil frame on an opposing set of bumpers.

[0246] Enumerated embodiment 103: A method as described in any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates, corresponding to the first and second maximum vertical extents of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.010 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0247] Enumerated embodiment 104: The maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates extend at least 0.010 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0248] Enumerated embodiment 105: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates, corresponding to the first and second maximum vertical extents of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.025 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0249] Enumerated embodiment 106: The maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates extend at least 0.025 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0250] Enumerated embodiment 107: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates, corresponding to the first and second maximum vertical extents of the first and second end plates, extend at least 0.050 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0251] Enumerated embodiment 108: The maximum vertical thickness t of each of the first and second end plates in the vertical direction EPMAX The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second surface areas of the first and second end plates extend at least 0.050 mm past the first and second vertical end faces of the set of bumpers.

[0252] Enumerated embodiment 109: The cross-sectional thickness t of each of the first and second end plates EP 4. The method or structure of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the thickness of each of the first and second end plates decreases in a stacking direction from an inner region of each of the first and second end plates adjacent stacked consecutive unit cells to an outer second region of each of the first and second end plates that is exterior to the first region in the stacking direction.

[0253] Enumerated embodiment 110: A secondary battery comprising a structure according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0254] Enumerated embodiment 111: A secondary battery manufactured according to the method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments.

[0255] Enumerated embodiment 112: A method for transporting carrier ions from an auxiliary electrode including a source of carrier ions to a structure or secondary battery comprising the electrode assembly of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, comprising:

[0256] a porous electrically insulating material covers a first or second vertical end surface of the electrode structure or the counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the unit cell group, the porous electrically insulating material having a porosity in the range of 20% to 60%;

[0257] The method includes transporting carrier ions from an auxiliary electrode to a constituent unit of the group of unit cells through a porous electrically insulating material.

[0258] Enumerated embodiment 113: A secondary battery comprising the structure of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrode assembly comprises:

[0259] A structure or secondary battery comprising a porous electrically insulating material covering a first or second vertical end surface of an electrode structure or a counter electrode structure that is a constituent unit of a unit cell group, the porous electrically insulating material having a porosity in the range of 20% to 60%.

[0260] Enumerated embodiment 114: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material covers both first and second vertical end surfaces of the electrode structure or counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the group of unit cells.

[0261] Enumerated embodiment 115: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material covers first and second vertical end surfaces of both the electrode structure or counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the group of unit cells.

[0262] Enumerated embodiment 116: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material covers both first and second vertical end surfaces of both the electrode structure or counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the group of unit cells.

[0263] Enumerated embodiment 117: A method according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, transporting carrier ions to achieve and / or restore a discharge voltage Vces,eod at a given opposing electrode structure end and a discharge voltage Ves,eod at a given electrode structure end.

[0264] Enumerated embodiment 118: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein carrier ions are transported to replenish carrier ions lost in the formation of the SEI.

[0265] Enumerated embodiment 119: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, transporting carrier ions to compensate for loss of carrier ions during an initial or subsequent charging cycle performed by the electrode assembly.

[0266] Enumerated embodiment 120: A method according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, the method including: (i) transferring carrier ions from a counter electrode structure to an electrode structure in a group of unit cells during an initial or subsequent charging cycle to at least partially charge the electrode assembly; and (ii) transferring carrier ions from an auxiliary electrode to the counter electrode structure and / or the electrode structure through a porous electrically insulating material to provide the electrode assembly with a discharge voltage Vces,eod at a given counter electrode structure end and a discharge voltage Ves,eod at a given electrode structure end.

[0267] Enumerated embodiment 121: A method according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the process further comprises, after (iii)(ii), transferring carrier ions from the counter electrode structure of the constituent unit of the group of unit cells to the electrode structure to charge the electrode assembly.

[0268] Enumerated embodiment 122: The method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein (ii) is performed simultaneously with (i).

[0269] In enumerated embodiment 123:(ii), the method of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, further comprising applying a bias voltage between the auxiliary electrode and the electrode structure and / or the counter electrode structure of the constituent unit cells to provide a flow of carrier ions through the porous electrically insulating material member.

[0270] Enumerated embodiment 124: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the unit cells have first and second edges including opposite first and second vertical end faces, the first vertical end faces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure in the same unit cell group unit are vertically offset from each other to form a first recess, the second vertical end faces of the electrode structure and the counter electrode structure in the same unit cell group unit are vertically offset from each other to form a second recess, the first and second end faces of the counter electrode structure are vertically offset inward relative to the first and second vertical end faces of the respective electrode structures in the same unit cell group unit, and a porous electrically insulating material is located in at least one of the first and second recesses.

[0271] Enumerated embodiment 125: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material substantially fills the first and second recesses of the constituent units of the group of unit cells.

[0272] Enumerated embodiment 126: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein for a constituent unit of a group of unit cells, at least a portion of the porous electrically insulating material covering the first or second vertical end surface of the electrode structure and / or the counter electrode structure is adjacent to an electrically insulating separator.

[0273] Enumerated embodiment 127: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, in which the porous electrically insulating material substantially fills areas of first and second recesses disposed inwardly relative to the first and second vertical end faces of the electrode structure in the constituent unit of the unit cell group and abutting the side of the electrically insulating separator facing the counter electrode structure.

[0274] Enumerated embodiment 128: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrode structure of the constituent unit of the unit cell group comprises an electrode active material layer and an electrode current collector layer, the counter electrode structure of the constituent unit of the unit cell group comprises a counter electrode active material layer and a counter electrode current collector layer, and a porous electrically insulating material covers first and second vertical end faces of the counter electrode active material layer of the constituent unit of the unit cell group.

[0275] Enumerated embodiment 129: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 25%.

[0276] Enumerated embodiment 130: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 30%.

[0277] Enumerated embodiment 131: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 35%.

[0278] Enumerated embodiment 132: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 40%.

[0279] Enumerated embodiment 133: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 45%.

[0280] Enumerated embodiment 134: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises at least 50% porosity.

[0281] Enumerated embodiment 135: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of at least 55%.

[0282] Enumerated embodiment 136: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 55% or less.

[0283] Enumerated embodiment 137: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 50% or less.

[0284] Enumerated embodiment 138: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 45% or less.

[0285] Enumerated embodiment 139: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 40% or less.

[0286] Enumerated embodiment 140: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a porosity of 35% or less.

[0287] Enumerated embodiment 141: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the electrically insulating separator is microporous and the ratio of the porosity of the porous electrically insulating material to the porosity of the electrically insulating separator is in the range of 1:0.75 to 1:1.5.

[0288] Enumerated embodiment 142: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material comprises a particulate material dispersed in a binder material.

[0289] Enumerated embodiment 143: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises a stable metal oxide and / or ceramic.

[0290] Enumerated embodiment 144: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises any one or more of alumina, boron nitride, titania, silica, zirconia, magnesium oxide, and calcium oxide.

[0291] Enumerated embodiment 145: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises alumina.

[0292] Enumerated embodiment 146: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of at least 0.35 microns.

[0293] Enumerated embodiment 147: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of at least 0.45 microns.

[0294] Enumerated embodiment 148: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of at least 0.5 microns.

[0295] Enumerated embodiment 149: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of at least 0.75 microns.

[0296] Enumerated embodiment 150: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of 40 microns or less.

[0297] Enumerated embodiment 151: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of 35 microns or less.

[0298] Enumerated embodiment 152: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of 25 microns or less.

[0299] Enumerated embodiment 153: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises particles having a d50 particle size (median particle size) of 20 microns or less.

[0300] Enumerated embodiment 154: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.35 microns.

[0301] Enumerated embodiment 155: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.35 microns.

[0302] Enumerated embodiment 156: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.35 microns.

[0303] Enumerated embodiment 157: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.35 microns.

[0304] Enumerated embodiment 158: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.45 microns.

[0305] Enumerated embodiment 159: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.45 microns.

[0306] Enumerated embodiment 160: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.45 microns.

[0307] Enumerated embodiment 161: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.45 microns.

[0308] Enumerated embodiment 162: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.5 microns.

[0309] Enumerated embodiment 163: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.5 microns.

[0310] Enumerated embodiment 164: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.5 microns.

[0311] Enumerated embodiment 165: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.5 microns.

[0312] Enumerated embodiment 166: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.75 microns.

[0313] Enumerated embodiment 167: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.75 microns.

[0314] Enumerated embodiment 168: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.75 microns.

[0315] Enumerated embodiment 169: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of at least 0.75 microns.

[0316] Enumerated embodiment 170: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 40 microns or less.

[0317] Enumerated embodiment 171: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 40 microns or less.

[0318] Enumerated embodiment 172: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 40 microns or less.

[0319] Enumerated embodiment 173: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 40 microns or less.

[0320] Enumerated embodiment 174: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 35 microns or less.

[0321] Enumerated embodiment 175: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 35 microns or less.

[0322] Enumerated embodiment 176: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 35 microns or less.

[0323] Enumerated embodiment 177: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 35 microns or less.

[0324] Enumerated embodiment 178: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0325] Enumerated embodiment 179: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments 2, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0326] Enumerated embodiment 180: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0327] Enumerated embodiment 181: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0328] Enumerated embodiment 182: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 80% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 20 microns or less.

[0329] Enumerated embodiment 183: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 85% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0330] Enumerated embodiment 184: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 90% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0331] Enumerated embodiment 185: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least 95% by weight of the particles have a particle size of 25 microns or less.

[0332] Enumerated embodiment 186: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises at least 70% by weight of the porous electrically insulating material.

[0333] Enumerated embodiment 187: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises at least 75% by weight of the porous electrically insulating material.

[0334] Enumerated embodiment 188: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises at least 80% by weight of the porous electrically insulating material.

[0335] Enumerated embodiment 189: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises at least 85% by weight of a porous electrically insulating material.

[0336] Enumerated embodiment 190: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises 99.5% or less by weight of a porous electrically insulating material.

[0337] Enumerated embodiment 191: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises 97% or less by weight of a porous electrically insulating material.

[0338] Enumerated embodiment 192: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises 95% or less by weight of a porous electrically insulating material.

[0339] Enumerated embodiment 193: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the particulate material comprises 90% or less by weight of a porous electrically insulating material.

[0340] Enumerated embodiment 194: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the binder material comprises a polymeric material selected from the group consisting of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyethylene, polypropylene, ethylene acrylic acid (EAA), ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA), and copolymers thereof.

[0341] Enumerated embodiment 195: An electrode assembly having mutually perpendicular lateral, longitudinal and vertical axes corresponding to the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, wherein a first longitudinal end face and a second longitudinal end face are separated from each other longitudinally, and a lateral surface surrounding the longitudinal axis AEA of the electrode assembly and connecting the first and second longitudinal end faces, the lateral surface having opposite first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width WEA measured in the longitudinal direction, a maximum length LEA bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and a maximum height HEA bounded by the lateral surface and measured in the transverse direction, and further comprising:

[0342] Each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a length LE measured in a horizontal direction between first and second opposite horizontal ends of the electrode structure, a height HE measured in a vertical direction between the first and second opposite vertical ends of the electrode structure, and a width WE measured in a vertical direction between the first and second opposite surfaces of the electrode structure, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a length LCE measured in a horizontal direction between the first and second opposite horizontal ends of the counter electrode structure, a height HCE measured in a vertical direction between the first and second opposite vertical ends of the counter electrode structure, and a width WCE measured in a vertical direction between the first and second opposite surfaces of the counter electrode structure,

[0343] The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein, in an electrode structure of a constituent unit of the unit cell group, the ratio of LE to WE and HE is at least 5:1, respectively, and the ratio of HE to WE is in the range of about 2:1 to about 100:1, and, in a counter electrode structure of a constituent unit of the unit cell group, the ratio of LCE to WCE and HCE is at least 5:1, respectively, and the ratio of HCE to WCE is in the range of about 2:1 to about 100:1.

[0344] Enumerated embodiment 196: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material extends at least 50% of the length LCE of the constituent counter electrode structures of the unit cell group.

[0345] Enumerated embodiment 197: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material extends over at least 60% of the length LCE of the constituent counter electrode structures of the unit cell group.

[0346] Enumerated embodiment 198: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material extends over at least 75% of the length LCE of the constituent counter electrode structures of the unit cell group.

[0347] Enumerated embodiment 199: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material extends over at least 85% of the length LCE of the constituent counter electrode structures of the unit cell group.

[0348] Enumerated embodiment 200: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the porous electrically insulating material extends at least 90% of the length LCE of the constituent counter electrode structures of the unit cell group.

[0349] Enumerated embodiment 201: Each electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a layer of an electrode active material, and each counter electrode structure of the constituent units of the unit cell group includes a layer of a counter electrode active material, and the adjacent electrode active material layers and counter electrode active material layers in the constituent units of the unit cells are

[0350] a first vertical end surface of the counter electrode active material layer has a first recess disposed inwardly relative to the first vertical end surfaces of the electrode active material layer and the separator;

[0351] a second vertical end surface of the counter electrode active material layer has a second recess disposed inwardly relative to the second vertical end surfaces of the electrode active material layer and the separator;

[0352] 13. The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a porous electrically insulating material is disposed adjacent to the electrically insulating separator and within a first recess in a first vertical end face of the counter electrode active material layer, and a porous electrically insulating material is disposed adjacent to the electrically insulating separator and within a second recess in a second vertical end face of the counter electrode active material layer.

[0353] Enumerated embodiment 202: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the secondary battery comprises a set of electrode constraints.

[0354] Enumerated embodiment 203: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the set of electrode constraints comprises a primary growth constraint system comprising first and second primary growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from each other in the stacking direction, the at least one primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints, the primary growth constraint system restraining growth of the electrode assembly in the stacking direction, and the first and second primary growth constraints corresponding to respective first and second end plates.

[0355] Enumerated embodiment 204: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the set of electrode constraints comprises a secondary growth constraint system comprising first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the vertical direction and connected by at least one secondary connecting member, the secondary growth constraint system at least partially suppressing growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction upon cycling of the electrode assembly.

[0356] Enumerated embodiment 205: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein either the at least one primary connection member and the at least one secondary connection member are under tension.

[0357] Enumerated embodiment 206: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein first and second secondary growth constraints are connected to first and second end plates corresponding to the first and second primary growth constraints.

[0358] Enumerated embodiment 207: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints at opposite longitudinal ends of the first and second secondary growth constraints wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces of each of the first and second end plates.

[0359] Enumerated embodiment 208: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces of each of the first and second end plates and connect to the outer longitudinal end faces of the first and second end plates.

[0360] Enumerated embodiment 209: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints are connected to the outer longitudinal end surfaces of the first and second end plates by any one or more of adhesion, bonding, welding, joining, soldering, sintering, crimping, brazing, spray joining, clamping, wire joining, ribbon joining, ultrasonic joining, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding, induction welding, cold welding, plasma spraying, flame spraying, and arc spraying.

[0361] Enumerated embodiment 210: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein end segments of the first and second secondary growth constraints wrap around at least a portion of the first and second vertical end faces of each of the first and second end plates to provide a curved profile of the end segments in a plane formed by the vertical axis and a longitudinal axis that is parallel to the stacking direction.

[0362] Enumerated embodiment 211: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the end segments of the first and second growth constraints are curved around the first and second vertical end surfaces of the first and second end plates.

[0363] Enumerated embodiment 212: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a primary growth constraint system suppresses the growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction during cycling of a secondary battery comprising the electrode assembly such that an increase in ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction that may occur over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

[0364] Enumerated embodiment 213: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the secondary growth constraint system suppresses the growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction upon repeated cycling of the secondary battery such that an increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction that may occur over 20 consecutive cycles is less than 20%.

[0365] Enumerated embodiment 214: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein a first primary growth constraint at least partially covers a first longitudinal end face of the electrode assembly and a second primary growth constraint at least partially covers a second longitudinal end face of the electrode assembly.

[0366] Enumerated embodiment 215: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction is smaller than the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly on another perpendicular plane.

[0367] Enumerated embodiment 216: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first primary connection member is a first secondary growth constraint, the second primary connection member is a second secondary growth constraint, and the first primary growth constraint or the second primary growth constraint is a first secondary connection member.

[0368] Enumerated embodiment 217: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least one secondary connecting member includes a member located within the first and second longitudinal ends of the electrode assembly along the longitudinal axis.

[0369] Enumerated embodiment 218: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces is less than 33% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly.

[0370] Enumerated embodiment 219: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces is less than 25% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly.

[0371] Enumerated embodiment 220: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces is less than 20% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly.

[0372] Enumerated embodiment 221: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces is less than 15% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly.

[0373] Enumerated embodiment 222: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces is less than 10% of the surface area of ​​the electrode assembly.

[0374] Enumerated embodiment 223: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least one of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems comprises a material having a tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (greater than 70 MPa).

[0375] Enumerated embodiment 224: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least one of the first primary growth constraint, the second primary growth constraint, the first secondary growth constraint, and the second secondary growth constraint comprises a material having a tensile strength of at least 10,000 psi (greater than 70 MPa).

[0376] Enumerated embodiment 225: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least one of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 10 to about 100 micrometers.

[0377] Enumerated embodiment 226: The method, structure, or secondary battery of any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein at least one of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems comprises a sheet of material having a thickness in the range of about 30 to about 75 micrometers.

[0378] Enumerated embodiment 227: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces that exceeds the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly in each of two directions that are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the stacking direction.

[0379] Enumerated embodiment 228: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction that exceeds by at least two times the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly.

[0380] Enumerated embodiment 229: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction that is at least three times greater than the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly.

[0381] Enumerated embodiment 230: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction that exceeds a pressure maintained against the electrode assembly by at least four times.

[0382] Enumerated embodiment 231: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second primary growth constraints exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction that is at least five times greater than the pressure maintained against the electrode assembly.

[0383] Enumerated embodiment 232: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints are connected to at least one secondary connection member by any one or more of adhesion, bonding, welding, bonding, soldering, sintering, crimping, brazing, spray bonding, clamping, wire bonding, ribbon bonding, ultrasonic bonding, ultrasonic welding, resistance welding, laser beam welding, electron beam welding, induction welding, cold welding, plasma spraying, flame spraying, and arc spraying.

[0384] Enumerated embodiment 233: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 100 psi.

[0385] Enumerated embodiment 234: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 200 psi.

[0386] Enumerated embodiment 235: A method, structure, or secondary battery according to any one of the preceding enumerated embodiments, wherein each of the first and second longitudinal ends is subjected to a compressive load of at least 300 psi.

[0387] Enumerated embodiment 236: A method, structure, or secondary battery according...

Claims

1. A device for conducting electricity, comprising: The device comprises: a unit cell including an electrode separated from a counter electrode, the counter electrode being stacked along a first axis; The device comprises: end plates operatively coupled to unit cells stacked along the first axis such that a first surface of the end plate faces the unit cell, the end plates each having a side surface offset inwardly toward an inner section of the end plate, the side surfaces being separated from one another along a second axis perpendicular to the first axis, the inward offset being in a direction away from the unit cell along the first axis; The device comprises: a constraint system configured to at least partially constrain growth of the unit cells by opposing expansion of the unit cells during operation of the device, the constraint system coupled to the unit cells and the end plates, the constraint system contacting a second side of the end plates opposite the first side. device.

2. The stack of unit cells comprises a unit cell and another unit cell similar to the unit cell, the device comprises a stack of the unit cells; a plurality of unit cells of the stack of unit cells are stacked along a first axis; the stack of unit cells having opposing ends; a first surface of the end plate facing the stack of unit cells; the stack of unit cells comprises at least about 2, 4, 5, 10, 25, 50, or 100 unit cells; The device of claim 1 .

3. The constraint system is configured to at least partially constrain growth of the stack of unit cells by opposing expansion of the stack of unit cells during operation of the device; the constraint system is coupled to the stack of unit cells and the end plate. The device of claim 2.

4. The constraint system comprises a plurality of openings. The device of claim 1 .

5. The opening of the aperture has a long axis arranged normal to the first axis, The aperture of the opening includes a plurality of apertures. The device of claim 4.

6. The plurality of openings are equally spaced along a portion of the constraint system. The device of claim 4.

7. The constraint system includes a set of opposing constraints that include the constraint, The device of claim 1 .

8. The opposing constraining members of the set of opposing constraining members are spaced apart from each other. The device of claim 7.

9. The end plate is a first end plate, the device includes a second end plate stacked along a first axis and operably coupled to the unit cell such that a first surface of the second end plate faces the unit cell; the second end plate has side surfaces that are each offset inwardly toward an inner section of the end plate, the side surfaces being spaced apart from one another along a second axis perpendicular to the first axis, the inward offsets being in a direction away from the unit cell along the first axis; The first end plate faces the second end plate. The device of claim 1 .

10. The device further comprising a porous material that is electrically insulating; the constraint system includes at least one opening through which the porous material is visible; the porous material is configured to allow carrier ions to pass through the openings and enter the unit cells; The device of claim 1 .

11. The porous material comprising a ceramic. The device of claim 10.

12. The constraining system comprising an elemental metal, metal alloy, ceramic, glass, plastic, combinations thereof, or composites thereof. The device of claim 1 .

13. The constraint system includes at least one opening having an oval-shaped lateral cross-section. The device of claim 1 .

14. The constraining system is configured to allow movement of carrier ions into the unit cells during an initial formation process and / or to replenish carrier ions in the unit cells during cycling between a charge state and a discharge state. The device of claim 1 .

15. The constraining system is configured to allow movement of carrier ions into the unit cell during an initial formation process. The device of claim 14.

16. The electrode includes a current collector having a tab extension configured to connect to an electrode bus bar; The device comprises the electrode busbar. The device of claim 1 .

17. The constraining system is configured to at least partially constrain growth of the unit cells by exerting a pressure that exceeds a pressure generated by the electrode or the counter electrode during operation of the device. The device of claim 1 .

18. The device described in claim 17, wherein the constraint system is configured to constrain growth of the unit cell along the second axis.

19. The device according to claim 18, wherein operation of the device includes repeatedly charging and / or discharging the unit cells.

20. The device of claim 17.

20. The electrode is made of silicon, silicon carbon composite, silicon oxide, porous silicon, silicon alloy, a particulate silicon-containing material, or any combination thereof; 20. The device of claim 19.

21. The device, wherein the device is configured for repeated cycling between a charging state and a discharging state; The cycles include at least 2 cycles, 25 cycles, 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 300 cycles, 500 cycles, or 1000 cycles; The device of claim 1 .

22. The constraining system is wrapped around at least a portion of the end plate to provide a curved profile including a curvature. The device of claim 1 .

23. The curvature is defined around a side surface of the end plate.

23. The device of claim 22.

24. The electrode and / or the counter electrode have a length, a width and a height, said height, said length and said width being along axes of a Cartesian coordinate system; a ratio of said maximum length to said maximum height is at least 2:1; a ratio of said maximum width to said maximum height is at least 2:1; a ratio of said height to said width of at least 0.4:1; The device of claim 1 .

25. The device comprising: a housing enclosing the unit cell, the end plates, and the constraint system; the housing is configured for liquid sealing, sealing the unit cells, hermetically sealing, or any combination thereof; The device of claim 1 .

26. The end faces of the unit cells are subjected to a compressive load of at least 100 pounds per square inch (psi); the end surface is along an axis perpendicular to the first axis; The device of claim 1 .

27. A method for conducting electricity, comprising the steps of: (a) manufacturing a device according to any one of claims 1 to 26; (b) performing an initial formation step of the device; (c) using the device; The method includes at least one of the following:

28. A device for energy storage, comprising: The device comprises a control unit electrically coupled to a unit cell of the device according to any one of claims 1 to 26, the control unit is configured to control the movement of carrier ions into the unit cell. device.

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