Magnetohydrodynamic electric power generator

Abstract

To provide a technology relating to the field of power generation.SOLUTION: A power generator providing at least one of electrical and thermal power includes (i) at least one reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, (ii) a reaction mixture including at least two components chosen from: H2O catalyst or source of H2O catalyst; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; reactants to form H2O catalyst or a source of H2O catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and a molten metal to enhance the conductivity of the reaction mixture, (iii) a molten metal injection system including at least one pump, (iv) an ignition system, (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to plasma, (vi) a molten metal recovery system, and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting a high-power light output from a blackbody radiator of a cell into electricity using concentrator thermophotovoltaic cells, or (b) converting energetic plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.SELECTED DRAWING: None

Description

Technical Field

[0001] Cross - reference to related applications This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 457,935, filed Feb. 12, 2017; 62 / 461,768, filed Feb. 21, 2017; 62 / 463,684, filed Feb. 26, 2017; 62 / 481,571, filed Apr. 4, 2017; 62 / 513,284, filed May 31, 2017; 62 / 513,324, filed May 31, 2017; 62 / 524,307, filed Jun. 23, 2017; 62 / 532,986, filed Jul. 14, 2017; 62 / 537,353, filed Jul. 26, 2017; 62 / 545,463, filed Aug. 14, 2017; 62 / 556,941, filed Sep. 11, 2017; 62 / 573,453, filed Oct. 17, 2017; 62 / 584,632, filed Nov. 10, 2017; 62 / 594,511, filed Dec. 4, 2017; 62 / 612,304, filed Dec. 29, 2017; and 62 / 618,444, filed Jan. 17, 2018, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

Background Art

[0002] The disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and more particularly, to systems, devices, and methods for power generation. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems that generate optical power, plasma, and thermal power and generate electrical power via an electromagnetic hydrodynamic power converter, an opto-electric power converter, a plasma-electric power converter, a photon-electric power converter, or a thermo-electric power converter, and related methods. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use a photovoltaic power converter to ignite water or a water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure.

[0003] Power generation can take many forms using power from a plasma. The successful commercialization of plasma may depend on a power generation system that can efficiently form a plasma and capture the power of the generated plasma.

[0004] Plasma may be formed during the ignition of a fuel. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electrons-deprived atoms may be formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be utilized by the electric converters of the present disclosure. Ions and excited state atoms can recombine and undergo electron relaxation to emit optical power. The optical power can be converted to electricity with photovoltaic technology.

[0005] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes, such as solid or molten metal electrodes, configured to deliver power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and generate a plasma; an electrical power source configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one electromagnetic hydrodynamic power converter arranged to receive the high temperature and high pressure plasma or at least one photovoltaic (PV) power converter arranged to receive a plurality of plasma photons.

[0006] In one embodiment, a SunCell® power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one tank that can maintain a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants including (i) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation period, (ii) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, (iii) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and (iv) molten metal; a molten metal injection system including at least two molten metal reservoirs each including a pump and an injector tube; at least one reactant supply system for replenishing the reactants consumed in the reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy; at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power that supplies opposite voltages to at least two molten metal reservoirs each including an electromagnetic pump; and at least one power converter or output system that converts at least one of the light and heat outputs into electrical energy and / or thermal energy.

[0007] In one embodiment, the molten metal may include any conductive metal or alloy known in the art. The molten metal or alloy may have a low melting point. Representative metals and alloys are gallium, indium, tin, zinc, and galinstan alloys, where an example of a typical eutectic mixture is 68% Ga, 22% In, and 10% Sn (by weight), although the proportions may be 62 - 95% Ga, 5 - 22% In, 0 - 16% Sn (by weight). In one embodiment where the metal reacts with at least one of oxygen and water to form the corresponding metal oxide, the hydrino reaction mixture may include molten metal, metal oxide, and hydrogen. The metal oxide may function as a source of oxygen for forming the HOH catalyst. Oxygen is recycled between the metal oxide and the HOH catalyst, and hydrogen consumed to form hydrino is resupplied.

[0008] The molten metal injection system may include at least two molten metal reservoirs each including an electromagnetic pump that injects streams of molten metal that cross inside the bath, where each reservoir may include a molten metal level controller including an inlet riser tube. The ignition system may comprise a source of electrical power that supplies opposite voltages to at least two molten metal reservoirs each including an electromagnetic pump that supplies a flow of current and power through the intersecting streams of molten metal so as to form a plasma in the bath by the reaction of reactants including ignition. The ignition system may include (i) a source of electrical power that supplies opposite voltages to at least two molten metal reservoirs each including an electromagnetic pump, and (ii) at least two intersecting streams of molten metal injected from at least two molten metal reservoirs each including an electromagnetic pump, where the source of electrical power is capable of delivering a short burst of electrical energy sufficient to react with the reactants to form a plasma. The source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma may include at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may include (i) a DC or AC conduction type including a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through an electrode and a source of a constant or in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field, or (ii) an induction type including a source of an alternating magnetic field through a short circuit loop of molten metal that induces an alternating current in the metal and a source of an in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field. At least one connection of the pump and the corresponding reservoir, or another connection between components including the bath, the injection system, and the converter, may include at least one of a wet seal, a flange and gasket seal, an adhesive seal, and a slip nut seal, where the gasket may include carbon. The DC or AC current of the molten metal ignition system may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the intersection of the molten metal streams so as to cause ignition to further cause an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz.The induction type electromagnetic pump may include a ceramic channel that forms a short circuit loop of the molten metal. The power system may further include an induction coupling heater that forms the molten metal from the corresponding solid metal, where the molten metal may include at least one of silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper. The power system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one cooler. The power system may include at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and at least one of an output system of the reaction power output or a power converter such as a boiler. The boiler may include a radiant boiler. A part of the reaction tank may include a blackbody radiator that may be maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000K to 3700K. The reservoir of the power system may include boron nitride, a part of the tank including the blackbody radiator may include carbon, and the electromagnetic pump components (parts) in contact with the molten metal may include oxidation-resistant metal or ceramic. The reactants of the hydrino reaction may include at least one of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water. By supplying the reactants, each of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water may be maintained at a pressure within the range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr.The light radiated by the blackbody radiator of a power system directed at a thermophotovoltaic converter or a photovoltaic converter is blackbody radiation mainly including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell may be a concentrator cell containing at least one compound selected from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. The light emitted by the reactive plasma and directed at a thermophotovoltaic converter or a photovoltaic converter is mainly ultraviolet light, and the photovoltaic cell may be a concentrator cell containing at least one compound selected from group III nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN.

[0009] In one embodiment, the PV converter may further comprise a UV window to the PV cell. The PV window may replace at least a portion of the blackbody radiator. The window may be substantially transparent to ultraviolet light. The window may be resistant to wetting with molten metal. The window may operate at a temperature that is at least one of above the melting point of the molten metal and above the boiling point of the molten metal. Typical windows are sapphire, quartz, MgF2, and fused silica. The window may be cooled and may comprise means for cleaning during operation or maintenance. SunCell® may further comprise at least one source of an electric field and a magnetic field for confining plasma within a region that avoids contact with at least one of the window and the PV cell. The source may comprise an electrostatic precipitation system. The source may comprise a magnetic confinement system. The plasma may be confined by gravity, where at least one of the window and the PV cell is at a suitable height with respect to the location of plasma generation.

[0010] Instead, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter may comprise a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal recovery system, a metal recycling system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recycling system, where the reactants may include at least one of H2O vapor, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. By supplying the reactants, each of O2, H2, and the reaction product H2O may be maintained at a pressure in the range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr. The reactant supply system that replenishes the reactants consumed in the reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy may include at least one of an O2 and H2 gas supply, a gas housing, a selective gas permeable membrane within at least one wall of the reaction vessel, the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the metal recovery system, and the metal recycling system, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors, a flow controller, at least one valve, and a computer for maintaining at least one of the O2 and H2 pressures. In one embodiment, at least one component of the power system may include a ceramic, where the ceramic may include at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, and silicon nitride. The molten metal may include silver, and the magnetohydrodynamic converter may further include a source of oxygen to form an aerosol of silver particles supplied to at least one of a reservoir, a reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic nozzle, and a magnetohydrodynamic channel, where the reactant supply system may additionally supply and control a source of oxygen to form an aerosol of silver. The molten metal may include silver. The magnetohydrodynamic converter may further include a cell gas including an ambient gas that contacts silver in at least one of the reservoir and the vessel. The power system may further comprise means for maintaining a flow of cell gas that contacts molten silver to form a silver aerosol, where the flow of cell gas may include at least one of a forced gas flow and a convective gas flow. The cell gas may include at least one of a noble gas, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2.Means for maintaining the cell gas flow may include at least one of a gas pump or compressor, such as an electromagnetic hydrodynamic gas pump or compressor, an electromagnetic hydrodynamic converter, and at least one of a turbulent flow caused by a molten metal injection system and a plasma.

[0011] The induction electromagnetic pump of the power system may include a two-stage pump including a first stage including a pump of a metal recirculation system, and the second stage includes a pump of a metal injection system for injecting a stream of molten metal that intersects with others inside the tank. The source of electrical power of the ignition system may include an induction ignition system that may include a source of an alternating magnetic field passing through a short-circuit loop of molten metal that generates an alternating current in the metal including the ignition current. The source of the alternating magnetic field may include a primary transformer winding including an electromagnet of the transformer and a magnetic yoke of the transformer, and silver may at least partially function as a secondary transformer winding such as a single-turn short-circuit winding surrounding the primary transformer winding and including an induced current loop. The reservoir may include a molten metal cross-connection channel connecting two reservoirs so that the current loop surrounds the transformer yoke, where the induced current loop includes molten silver contained in the reservoir, the cross-connection channel, the injection tube, and the injected stream of molten silver crossing to complete the induced current loop.

[0012] In one embodiment, the emitter generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, where the emitter can maintain at least one tank at a pressure lower than, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants include a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, and c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen that may penetrate the walls of the tank, d) a molten metal such as silver, copper, silver - copper alloy, and e) an oxide such as at least one of CO2, B2O3, LiVO3, and a stable oxide that does not react with H2; at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power to cause the reactants to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and a heat - emitting plasma, where the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering molten metal and oxides; at least one power converter or output system for converting at least one of light and heat output into electrical power and / or thermal power, where the molten metal ignition system includes at least one ignition system, and the ignition system includes i) electrodes from the group consisting of a) at least one set of heat - resistant metals or carbon electrodes for confining the molten metal, b) a stream of molten metal delivered by an electromagnetic pump from a hermetically insulated molten metal reservoir and heat - resistant metals or carbon electrodes, and c) at least two streams of molten metal delivered by at least two electromagnetic pumps from a plurality of electrically insulated molten metals, and ii) a source of electrical power for delivering a high - current electrical energy sufficient to react the reactants to form a plasma, where the current of the molten metal ignition system ranges from 50 A to 50,000 A; the molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet for supplying a magnetic field and a current source for supplying the current component of the cross - product of the vectors; the molten metal reservoir includes an induction - coupled heater;The emitter comprises a system for recovering molten metal and oxides such as at least one reservoir communicating with a wall and a trough capable of providing a flow to the melt under gravity, and further comprises a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a temperature lower than that of the trough for collecting metal in the reservoir; the trough capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure includes an internal reaction cell containing a high-temperature blackbody radiator and an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; the blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000 K to 3700 K; the internal reaction cell containing the blackbody radiator includes a refractory material such as carbon or W; the blackbody radiation emitted from the outside of the cell is incident on a photo-electric power converter; at least one power converter for the reaction power output includes at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter; the light emitted from the cell is blackbody radiation mainly including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is at least one compound selected from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium antimonide arsenide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide antimonide arsenide (InPAsSb), a III / V group semiconductor, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge;and a concentrating cell comprising GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, and the power system further comprises a vacuum pump and at least one heat removal system, and the blackbody radiator further comprises a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller. Optionally, the emitter may comprise at least one additional reactant injection system, where the additional reactants include a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of a catalyst containing H2O during the generation period, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, and c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen. The additional reactant injection system includes at least one flow controller including at least one or more of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a highly accurate electronically controllable valve, where the valve includes at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, and the additional reactant injection system maintains the H2O vapor pressure in the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr.;

[0013] In one embodiment, a generator that generates power by converting H to hydrino may generate at least one of the following products from hydrogen, which are a) a hydrogen product having a matrix shift in the range of 0 to 2000 cm in addition to Raman peaks that are integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 cm -1 ; -1 b) a hydrogen product having a matrix shift in the range of 0 to 2000 cm in addition to infrared peaks that are integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 cm ; -1 c) a hydrogen product having a matrix shift in the range of 0 to 10 eV in addition to peaks of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy at an energy in the range of 500 to 525 eV -1 ; d) a hydrogen product that causes a high magnetic field MAS NMR matrix shift ; e) a hydrogen product having a high magnetic field MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift exceeding -5 ppm relative to TMS f) 0.23 to 0.3 cm-1 In addition to intervals that are integer multiples of, from 0 to 5000 cm -1 A hydrogen product having at least two electron beam emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm, with a matrix shift in the range of; and, g) In addition to intervals that are integer multiples of from 0.23 to 0.3 cm -1 A hydrogen product having a matrix shift in the range of from 0 to 5000 cm -1 And having at least two UV fluorescence emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm.

[0014] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and the power system includes At least one tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; Reactants, where the reactants include a) At least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) At least one of H2O or a source of H2O, c) At least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) Molten metal; At least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; At least one additional reactant injection system, where the additional reactants include a) At least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) At least one of H2O or a source of H2O, and c) At least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; At least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power, where the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; A system for recovering the molten metal; At least one output system for light and heat output to electrical power and / or thermal power, or at least one of a power converter; In one embodiment, the molten metal ignition system includes the following, which are: a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the molten metal; and, b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to form a plasma.

[0015] The electrodes may include a refractory metal. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to form a plasma includes at least one supercapacitor. The molten metal injection system may include an electromagnetic pump that includes at least one magnet that supplies a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current element (component) of the cross product of vectors. The molten metal reservoir may be provided with an induction heater. The molten metal ignition system may include at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where this open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to allow a high current to flow to achieve ignition. The molten metal ignition system current may be in the range of 500 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by metal injection to cause an ignition frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz, where the molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper, and the additional reactants may include at least one of H2O vapor and hydrogen gas. In one embodiment, the additional reactant injection system includes at least one or more of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and at least one flow controller comprising at least one of a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a highly accurate electronically controllable valve, where the valve includes at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, and the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain at least one of H2O and H2 pressure at a desired value.

[0016] The additional reactant injection system may maintain H2O vapor within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. In one embodiment, the system for recovering the reaction product includes at least one of a wall capable of supplying a flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir communicating with the tank, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another part of the tank so that the vapor of the molten metal condenses within the reservoir, where The recovery system may include at least one magnet for supplying a magnetic field and an electrode electromagnetic pump including an ignition current element (component) of the cross product of vectors.

[0017] In one embodiment, the power system includes a tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure. Here, the top cover including the blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000 K to 3700 K, Here, at least one of the top cover including the blackbody radiator and the internal reaction cell includes a heat-resistant metal with a high emissivity.

[0018] The power system may include at least one of the group consisting of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, and at least one power converter for reaction power output including a heater.

[0019] In one embodiment, the light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is at least one selected from perovskite, crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), a concentrating cell including InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge.

[0020] In one embodiment, the light emitted by the cell is mainly ultraviolet light, and the photovoltaic cell is a concentrating cell including at least one compound selected from group III nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN.

[0021] The power system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one cooler.

[0022] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and it at least one tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H2O, b) at least one H2O or source of H2O, c) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen, and d) molten metal; at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, where the additional reactant injection system a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing nascent H2O, b) at least one H2O or source of H2O, and c) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes at least one of a luminescent plasma and a thermal plasma to be formed in the reactants, where the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering the molten metal; at least one output system for light and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power or at least one power converter; and where the molten metal ignition system a) at least one set of electrodes for confining the molten metal, and b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma; The electrodes include heat-resistant metal; A source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma includes at least one super-capacitor; The molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump that includes at least one magnet that supplies a magnetic field and a current source to supply the current element (component) of the cross product of the vectors; The molten metal reservoir includes an induction coupled heater; The molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition; The molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500 A to 50,000 A; The molten metal ignition system is closed at an ignition frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; The molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper; The additional reactant includes at least one of H2O vapor and hydrogen gas; The additional reactant injection system includes at least one or more flow controllers including at least one from the group consisting of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a highly accurate electronically controllable valve, where the valve includes at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, and the valve is controlled by a pressure sensor and a computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2 pressures at a desired value; The additional reactant injection system maintains H2O vapor in the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr; A system for recovering the product of a reactant includes at least one of a wall capable of providing a flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir communicating with the tank, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another part of the tank in order to cause the molten metal to condense within the reservoir; A recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump includes at least one magnet for supplying a magnetic field and an ignition current element (component) of the cross product of vectors; A tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure includes an internal reaction cell, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; The top cover including the blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000 K to 3700 K; At least one of the top cover including the blackbody radiator and the internal reaction cell includes a heat-resistant metal having a high emissivity; The blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; At least one power converter for at least one reaction power output includes at least one of a group of a thermophotovoltaic power converter and a photovoltaic power converter; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is at least one compound selected from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), a III / V semiconductor, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; and The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one cooler.

[0023] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and the power system at least one tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants a) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, b) H2 gas, and c) molten metal; at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, where the additional reactants a) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, and c) H2; At least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a heat-emitting plasma to be formed with its reactants, where the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; A system for recovering the molten metal; At least one output system of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal power or at least one of a power converter; where the molten metal ignition system a) at least one set of electrodes for confining the molten metal, and b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma; The electrodes include a refractory metal; The source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma includes at least one supercapacitor; The molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet that supplies a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current element (component) of the cross product of vectors; The molten metal reservoir includes an induction coupling heater that at least initially heats the metal forming the molten metal; The molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition; The molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500 A to 50,000 A; The molten metal ignition system is closed in a circuit to cause an ignition frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; The molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper; The additional reactant injection system includes at least one of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and a flow controller, where the controller includes at least one or more from the group of mass flow controllers, pumps, syringe pumps, and highly precise electrically controllable valves, the valves including at least one from needle valves, proportional electronic valves, and stepper motor valves, and the valves are controlled by the pressure sensors and the computer to maintain at least one of H2O and H2 pressure at a desired value; The additional reactant injection system maintains H2O vapor within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr; The system for recovering the reaction product includes at least one of a wall that can provide a flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir communicating with the tank, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a temperature lower than another part of the tank so that the metal vapor of the molten metal condenses within the reservoir; The recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump includes at least one magnet for supplying a magnetic field and a firing current element (component) of the cross product of vectors; The tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure includes an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a high-temperature blackbody radiator, and an internal reaction cell; The top cover including a blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000K to 3700K; At least one of the top cover including a blackbody radiator and the internal reaction cell includes a heat-resistant metal with a high emissivity; The blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; The power converter for at least one reaction power output includes at least one of a thermophotovoltaic power converter and a photovoltaic power converter; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is at least one compound selected from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), a group III / V semiconductor, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; and The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one cooler.

[0024] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and the power system includes at least one tank capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants include a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) molten metal; at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, where the additional reactants include a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, and c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a heat-generating plasma to be formed with its reactants, where the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering the molten metal; and at least one output system of light and heat output to electrical power and / or thermal power or at least one of a power converter; including, where the molten metal ignition system a) at least one set of electrodes for confining the molten metal, and, b) a source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient for the reactants to react to form a plasma, including, the electrodes include a refractory metal; the source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient for the reactants to react to form a plasma includes at least one supercapacitor; the molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet that supplies a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current element (component) of a cross product of vectors; the molten metal reservoir includes an induction coupling heater that at least initially heats the metal forming the molten metal; the molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by injection of molten metal to allow a high current to flow to achieve ignition; the molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500 A to 50,000 A, the molten metal ignition system is closed at an ignition frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; The molten metal contains at least one of silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper, and the circuit is closed accordingly; The additional reactant injection system includes at least one of a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and a flow controller, where the controller includes at least one or more from the group of mass flow controllers, pumps, syringe pumps, and highly accurate electrically controllable valves, and the valve includes at least one from the group of needle valves, proportional electronic valves, and stepper motor valves, and the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain at least one of H2O and H2 pressure at a desired value; The additional reactant injection system maintains the H2O vapor pressure within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr; The system for recovering the reaction product includes at least one of a wall that can provide a flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir communicating with the tank, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another part of the tank so that the metal vapor of the molten metal condenses within the reservoir; The recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump includes at least one magnet for supplying a magnetic field and an ignition current element (component) of the cross product of vectors; The tank that can maintain a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure includes an outer chamber that can maintain a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an internal reaction cell; The top cover including a blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature within the range of 1000K to 3700K; At least one of the top cover including a blackbody radiator and the internal reaction cell includes a heat-resistant metal with a high emissivity; The blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; The power converter of at least one reaction power output includes at least one from the group of thermophotovoltaic converters and photovoltaic converters; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation including visible light and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is at least one compound selected from crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), a group III / V semiconductor, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, and is a concentrating cell; The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one cooler.

[0025] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and the power system includes at least one tank capable of a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure; a shot containing reactants, where the reactants include a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation period and b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; At least one shot injection system including at least one increased rail gun, where the increased rail gun includes a magnet that generates a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and separated electrically flowing rails, and the circuit between the rails is open until the circuit is closed by contact of the shot with the rails; At least one ignition system that induces the shot to form at least one of a light emitting plasma and a heat generating plasma, where the at least one ignition system includes a) At least one set of electrodes that confine the shot, and b) A source of electrical power that delivers a short burst of high current electrical energy; where the at least one set of electrodes forms an open circuit that is closed by injection of the shot to induce a high current to flow to achieve ignition, and the source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy is A voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC - DC mixed current within at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100 A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 1000 A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 and 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 including at least one of the DC or peak AC current densities within at least one of the ranges; The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or the voltage is given by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and the AC frequency is within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; an augmented plasma railgun recovery system that includes at least one magnet that supplies a vector-crossed current component of the ignition electrodes and a magnetic field and a system that recovers reaction products of reactants that includes at least one of gravity; at least one regeneration system for forming additional shots, including a blast furnace that regenerates additional reactants from the reaction products and forms molten reactants, a system that adds H2 and H2O to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, and a pelletizer that includes a water reservoir for forming shots; wherein the additional reactants include a) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst that includes H2O during the generation period, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix; and At least one or more of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a group of heat engines, and at least one output system of light and heat output to electrical power and / or thermal power or at least one power converter including a heater;

[0026] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising at least one tank capable of a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure; a shot comprising a reactant including at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water; at least one shot injection system including at least one increased railgun, wherein the increased railgun includes a magnet generating a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rails and separated electrically flowing rails, and the circuit between the rails is open until closed by contact of the shot with the rails; at least one ignition system for inducing the shot to form at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a heat-generating plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system includes a) at least one set of electrodes confining the shot, and b) a source of electrical power carrying a short burst of high-current electrical energy; Here, at least one of a set of electrodes is separated to form an open circuit, and the open circuit is closed by the injection of a shot to allow a high current to flow so as to achieve ignition, and the source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy is, a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC-DC hybrid current within at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100 A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 1000 A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 and 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 a DC or peak AC current density within at least one range of; the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, where the voltage is provided by applying a desired current to the resistance value of the solid fuel sample; a DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one range of about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and the AC frequency is within at least one range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; including at least one of, an augmented plasma railgun recovery system including at least one magnet supplying a vector-crossed current component and a magnetic field of ignition electrodes and a system for recovering reaction products of reactants including at least one of gravity; A regenerator that regenerates additional reactants from the reaction product, and a blast furnace that forms molten reactants, a system that adds H2 and H2O to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, and at least one regeneration system for forming additional shots including a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming shots; wherein the additional reactants include at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water; Photovoltaic cells include at least one compound selected from Group III nitrides, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN, and at least one of an output system or a power converter including a converging ultraviolet photovoltaic converter;

[0027] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and the power system includes at least one tank; shots containing reactants, where the reactants include a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation period, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one shot injection system; a shot ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a heat-generating plasma; a system that recovers the reaction product of the reactants; at least one regeneration system that regenerates additional reactants from the reaction product and forms additional shots; Here, the additional reactant(s) include(s): a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one H2O or source of H2O, c) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one output system for optical and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power or at least one power converter;

[0028] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes configured to deliver power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and generate plasma; a source of electrical power configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one photovoltaic power converter arranged to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0029] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one tank; a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen, and c) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix, a reactant comprising; at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactant, a source of electrical power carrying a short burst of high current electrical energy, a recharge system, at least one system for regenerating the initial reactant from the reaction product; and including at least one plasma dynamic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter;

[0030] In an exemplary embodiment, a method of generating electrical power may include: supplying fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; applying energy to the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting, in a photovoltaic power converter, a plurality of plasma photons into electrical power; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power.

[0031] In another exemplary embodiment, a method of generating electrical power may include: supplying fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; applying energy to the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting, in a photovoltaic power converter, a plurality of plasma photons into thermal power; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power.

[0032] In one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of generating power includes delivering an amount of fuel to a fuel loading region located within a plurality of electrodes; passing at least about 100 A / cm 2 of current through the fuel by applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of a plasma, light, and heat to ignite the fuel; receiving at least a portion of the light within a photovoltaic power converter; converting, using the photovoltaic power converter, the light into power in a different form; and outputting the power in the different form.

[0033] In yet another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a water arc plasma power system, the water arc plasma power system including at least one closed reaction vessel; reactants including at least one source of H2O and H2O; at least one set of electrodes; a source of electrical power for delivering an initial high breakdown voltage of H2O and for subsequently supplying a high current; and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates arc plasma, light, and thermal energy, and further includes at least one photovoltaic power converter. Water may be supplied as vapor on or between the electrodes. Trapping may allow the plasma to expand into the low pressure region of the plasma cell to prevent suppression of the hydrino reaction. The arc electrodes may include a spark plug design. The electrodes may include at least one of copper, nickel, nickel with silver chromate and zinc plating for corrosion resistance, iron, nickel iron alloy, chromium, precious metals, tungsten, molybdenum, yttrium, iridium, and palladium. In one embodiment, it is maintained at a low water pressure such as within at least one range from about 0.01 Torr to 10 Torr and from 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. The pressure range may be maintained within one of the ranges disclosed by the disclosure for the SF-CIHT cell. Typical means of supplying water vapor are at least one of a reservoir containing H2O such as hydrated zeolite and a mass flow controller, or a salt bath such as a KOH solution that releases gaseous H2O within the desired pressure range. Water may be supplied by a syringe pump, where delivery into a vacuum results in evaporation of the water.

[0034] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including at least about 100 A / cm 2or an electrical power source of about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive solid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver electrical power to the solid fuel to generate plasma; and at least one of a thermoelectric power converter, a photovoltaic power converter, and a plasma power converter arranged to receive at least a portion of heat, photons, and / or plasma generated by the reaction. Other embodiments relate to a power generation system including: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading region disposed between the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive a conductive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply a current to the conductive fuel sufficient to ignite the conductive fuel and generate at least one of plasma and thermal power; a delivery mechanism for moving the conductive fuel into the fuel loading region; and at least one of a photovoltaic power converter for converting plasma photons into power or a thermal to electric converter for converting thermal power into a non-thermal form of power including electrical or mechanical power. Further embodiments relate to a method of generating power including: delivering an amount of fuel to a fuel loading region located within a plurality of electrodes; igniting the fuel by passing a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 through the fuel by applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat; receiving at least a portion of the light within a photovoltaic power converter; using the photovoltaic power converter to convert the light into a different form of power; and outputting the different form of power

[0035] Additional embodiments relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including at least an electrical power source of about 5,000 kW or more; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes, where the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, and are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power. Additionally provided in the present disclosure is a power generation system including at least an electrical power source of about 2,000 A / cm 2 or more; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes that at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power.

[0036] Another embodiment relates to a power generation system including at least an electrical power source of about 5,000 kW or more or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2an electrical power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes, at least one of the plurality of electrodes including a compression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towards the fuel loading region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to fuel received within the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel loading region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a non-plasma form; Other embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, the power generation system having an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 an electrical power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes, at least one of the plurality of electrodes including a compression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel loading region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towards the fuel loading region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to fuel received within the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel loading region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a non-plasma form;

[0037] Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel filling region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel disposed within the fuel filling region; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel filling region; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a non-photon form; a removal system for removing by-products of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operably coupled to the removal system for recycling the removed by-products of the ignited fuel into recycled fuel. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including: an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 or at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart and electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel filling region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a non-photon form. Certain embodiments further include one or more output power terminals operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including: an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm2 an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm² or at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other, where the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround the fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, are configured to receive a current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a different form.

[0038] Additional embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 ² or at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart from each other and electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, where the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel filling region; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into power in a non-photonic form; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. Further embodiments relate to a power generation system, the power generation system including an electrical power source configured to output a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2an electrical power source; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel filling region; a plasma-power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system; and including.

[0039] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, but the power generation system is at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2an electrical power source; a plurality of electrodes spaced apart and electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, where the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region, and the pressure within the fuel filling region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel filling region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power.Some embodiments include one or more of the following additional features, which may include that the photovoltaic power converter may be disposed within a vacuum cell; that the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of an antireflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, or a protective coating; that the photovoltaic power converter may be operatively coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; that the photovoltaic power converter may include an optical filter; that the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of a monocrystalline cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string / ribbon silicon cell, a multi-junction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a p-i-n device, a thin-film cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell; and that the photovoltaic power converter may include a multi-junction cell, where the multi-junction cell includes at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell including a Group III-V semiconductor material; and so on.

[0040] Additional exemplary embodiments relate to a system configured to generate power, the system including: a fuel supply configured to supply fuel; a power supply configured to supply electrical power; and at least one pair of electrodes configured to receive the fuel and the power, the electrodes selectively conducting power to a local region around the electrodes to ignite the fuel in the local region. Some embodiments relate to a method of generating electrical power, the method including: supplying fuel to the electrodes; supplying a current to the electrodes to ignite the localized fuel to generate energy; and converting at least some of the energy generated by the ignition into electrical power.

[0041] Other embodiments relate to a power generation system including: an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 ; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel fill region configured to receive fuel, where the fuel fill region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel fill region, and the pressure within the fuel fill region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel within the fuel fill region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert the plasma resulting from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power.

[0042] A further embodiment relates to a power generation system, the power generation system including an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a fuel filling region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. Further disclosed is a power generation system having an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A / cm 2 and a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one of arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. In one embodiment, the power converter includes a photovoltaic power converter from optical power to electricity.

[0043] An additional embodiment relates to a method of generating power, the method including the step of loading fuel into a fuel filling region including a plurality of electrodes; igniting the fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power by applying about 2,000 A / cm to the plurality of electrodes 2applying a current; performing at least one of passing an arc plasma through a photovoltaic converter to generate electrical power and passing thermal power through a thermoelectric converter to generate electrical power; and outputting at least a portion of the generated electrical power. Further disclosed is a power generation system, the power generation system including at least an electrical power source of about 5,000 kW or more; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, where the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver electrical power to a water-based fuel that is mostly composed of H2O to generate thermal power; a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal power into electrical power; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert at least a portion of light into electrical power. Additionally, another embodiment relates to a power generation system, the power generation system including at least an electrical power source of about 5,000 kW or more; a plurality of spaced-apart electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, where at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel filling region configured to receive a water-based fuel that is mostly composed of H2O, where the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes so that the compression mechanism of at least one of the electrodes is oriented towards the fuel filling region, and where the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and are configured to supply power to the water-based fuel received in the fuel filling region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert the plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-plasma form power. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0044] Brief description of the drawings The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the present disclosure. The drawings include the following.

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DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0071] Disclosed herein is a catalyst system that liberates energy from atomic hydrogen to form a lower energy state, where the electron shell is in a position closer to the nucleus relative to the nucleus. The power released is utilized for power generation and, additionally, new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physics, and a catalyst is required to receive energy from hydrogen to undergo the corresponding energy release transitions.

[0072] Classical physics gives the solutions for the closed forms of the hydrogen atom, hydride ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and hydrogen molecule, and predicts the corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo certain - including itself - catalytic reactions that receive energy at integer multiples of m·27.2 eV, the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, where m is an integer. The predicted reactions involve resonant non-radiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to an energy-receptive catalyst. The product is H(1 / p), a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom", where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ···, 1 / p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the excited states of hydrogen. Each hydrino state also includes electrons, protons, and photons, and the contribution of the field from photons increases rather than decreases the binding energy corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, an mH atom functions as a catalyst of m·27.2·2 eV for another (m + 1)th H atom [1]. For example, an H atom has m 2 ·13.6·6 eV ((91.2 / m 2To form an intermediate that decays with emission of a continuous band with energy up to 27.2 eV and a short-wavelength cut-off, through-space energy transfer can occur by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, and can thus act as a catalyst for another H upon receiving 27.2 eV therefrom. In addition to atomic H, molecules that receive m·27.2 eV from atomic H with a concomitant decrease in the molecular potential energy scale at the same energy may also function as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. And by the same mechanism, nascent H2O molecules formed by thermodynamically favorable reduction of metal oxides (not hydrogen-bonded in the solid state, liquid state, or gas state) are predicted to function as catalysts to form H(1 / 4) with energy release of 204 eV including emission of continuous radiation with a cut-off at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV) and transfer of 81.6 eV to HOH.

[0073] H[a H In H-atom catalytic reactions involving transitions to the H[a / (p=m+1)] state, m H atoms function as a catalyst of m·27.2 eV for another (m + 1)th H atom. And for mH to function as a catalyst, the reaction among m + 1 hydrogen atoms is given as follows by m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively receiving m·27.2 eV from the (m + 1)th hydrogen atom. m·27.2 eV + mH + H → mH + fast + me - + H*[a H / (m+1)] + m·27.2 eV (1) H * [a H / (m+1)] → H[a H / (m+1)] + [(m+1) 2 -12 · 13.6 eV - m · 27.2 eV (2) mH fast + + me - → mH + m · 27.2 eV (3)

[0074] Also, the overall reaction is as follows. H → H[a H / (p = m + 1)] + [(m + 1) 2 -1 2 · 13.6 eV (4)

[0075] The catalytic reaction (m = 3) regarding the potential energy of H2O[1] is as follows. 81.6 eV + H2O + H[a H → 2H fast + + O - + e - + H * [a H / 4] + 81.6 eV (5) H*[a H / 4] → H[a H / 4] + 122.4 eV (6) 2H fast + + O - + e - → H2O + 81.6 eV (7)

[0076] Also, the overall reaction is as follows. H[a H → H[a H / 4] + 81.6 eV + 122.4 eV (8)

[0077] After the transfer of energy to the catalyst (Equations (1) and (5)), the intermediate H * [a H / (m + 1)] is formed, having the radius of an H atom and a central field m + 1 times that of the proton's central field. Its electron has m 2· With the release of 13.6 eV of energy, when subjected to a radial acceleration towards a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m + 1) of the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, its radius is predicted to decrease. H * [a H / (m + 1)] The extreme ultraviolet continuous emission band by the intermediate (for example, Equation (2) and Equation (6)) has a short - wavelength cut - off and

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[0078] There may be additional catalysts and reactions for forming hydrinos. Specific species (for example, He) distinguishable based on their known electron energy levels+ 、Ar + 、Sr + 、K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, H2O in the generation period, nH (n = integer)) are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves the movement of q·13.6 eV to H or non-radiative energy transfer following q·13.6 eV of continuous emission to form hydrogen atoms that are lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number, and especially hot, excited state H. That is, in the equation for the main energy level of the hydrogen atom, En = -(e2 / (n28πε0aH)) = -(13.598 eV / n2) (10) n = 1, 2, 3,... (11) where aH is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, ε0 is the permittivity of vacuum, and the fractional quantum number is as follows. n = 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ···, 1 / p; (12) where p ≤ 137 is an integer Replacing the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg formula for the excited state of hydrogen and representing a hydrogen atom in a lower energy state called a "hydrino". The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = 1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radioactive, but transitions between two non-radioactive states such as from n = 1 to n = 1 / 2 are possible by non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable state given by the formula, (10) and (12) where the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is r = aH / p (13) where p = 1, 2, 3, ···. To satisfy energy conservation, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in integer units of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n = 1 state, and the radius is aH It transitions to / (m + p). Hydrino is formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction as follows. m·27.2eV (14) Here, m is an integer. When the net reaction enthalpy more closely matches m·27.2eV, the catalytic efficiency is thought to increase. Catalysts having a net reaction enthalpy within ±5% of ±10%, preferably within m·27.2eV, have been found to be suitable for most applications.

[0079] The catalytic reaction involves two steps of energy release, which are non - radioactive energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release during which the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. A general reaction is represented by the following equation. m·27.2eV + Cat q- + H[a H / p] → Cat (q+r)+ + re - + H * [a H / (m + p)] + m·27.2eV (15) H * [a H / (m + p)] → H[a H / (m + p)] + [(p + m) 2 - p 2 ·13.6eV - m·27.2eV (16) Cat (q+r)+ + re - → Cat q+ + m·27.2eV (17) And the overall reaction is as follows. H[a H / p] → H[a H / (m + p)] + [(p + m)2 -p 2 ·13.6 eV (18) q, r, m, and p are integers. H * [aH / (m + p)] is equal to the central field of the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and (m + p) times the proton, and H[aH / (m + p)] is the corresponding stable state of 1 / (m + p) of the radius of H.

[0080] The catalytic product H(1 / p) is the hydrino hydride ion H - (1 / p) may react with electrons to form it, or two H(1 / p) may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2(1 / p). In particular, the catalytic product H(1 / p) also has the binding energy E of the following formula B of the novel hydride ion H - (1 / p) may react with electrons to form it. E B can be expressed as follows.

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[0081] The NMR peak shifted to the high magnetic field side is direct evidence of the existence of hydrogen in a lower energy state with a reduced radius compared to the normal hydride ion, and is direct evidence of the existence of hydrogen in a lower energy state with an increase in the diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of two electrons and the magnitude p of the photon field (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)). [Number] This shift is given by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of two electrons and the contribution of the photon (light quantum) field of magnitude p as in the following equation (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)). The predicted hydrino hydride peak is shifted anomalously to the high magnetic field side relative to the normal hydride ion. In one example, the peak is on the high magnetic field side of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS, alone or in a compound, includes normal H - 、H、H2, or H +might be greater than that known for at least one of them. The shift might be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to the bare proton is within an approximate range of at least one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm where the shift of TMS is about -31.5 relative to the bare proton, -(p29.9 + p 2 2.74) ppm (Equation (20)). The range of the absolute shift relative to the bare proton is within an approximate range of at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%, -(p29.9 + p 2 1.59×10 -3 ) ppm (Equation (20)). In another example, the presence of hydrino species such as hydrino atoms, hydride ions, or molecules within a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide like NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift to a higher magnetic field. Those matrix protons of NaOH or KOH might exchange. In one example, the shift might be such that the matrix peak is within the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. The NMR determination might include magic angle spinning 1 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS 1 1H NMR).

[0082] H(1 / p) might react with a proton, and two H(1 / p)'s are each H2(1 / p) +and may react to form H2(1 / p). The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distance, and energy were solved from the Laplacian in elliptic coordinates under non-radiative constraints.

Number

[0083] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +pe at each focus of the molecular orbit of the prolate rotating ellipse T is as follows.

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[0084] The bond dissociation energy E of the hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D is the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T and. E D = E(2H(1 / p)) - E T (24) Here E(2H(1 / p)) = -p 2 27.20 eV (25)

[0085] E D is given by equations (23 - 25). E D = -p 2 27.20 eV - E T = -p 2 27.20 eV - (-p 2 31.351 eV - p 3 0.326469 eV) = p 2 4.151 eV + p 3 0.326469 eV (26)

[0086] H2(1 / p) may be identifiable by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), but here, in addition to the ionized electrons, the ionization products are those containing two protons and electrons, hydrogen (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p) + and may be at least one of the possibilities such as, where its energy may be shifted by the matrix.

[0087] Catalysis - NMR of the product gas provides the most reliable test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2(1 / p). Generally, the 1 1H NMR resonance of H2(1 / p) is predicted to be at higher magnetic field than that of H2 by the fractional radius in elliptic coordinates, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. The expected shift ΔBT / B for H2(1 / p) is given by the sum of the contributions of the photon field of magnitude p and the diamagnetism of the two electrons (Mills GUTCP equations (11.415 - 11.416)):

Number

[0088] The vibrational energy E for the transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) from υ = 0 to υ = 1 vib is as follows. E vib = p 2 0.515902 eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0089] The rotational energy E for the transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) from J to J + 1 rot is as follows.

Number

[0090] The energy of rotation p 2 dependence is due to the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c’ for H2(1 / p) is as follows. [Number]

[0091] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam-excited emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). H2(1 / p) may be trapped within a matrix for measurement, such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halogen) matrices.

[0092] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm -1 . That peak is enhanced by using a conductive material having particle size or roughness characteristics equivalent to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) showing the IRE peak.

[0093] I. Catalysis In the present disclosure, terms such as the hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H-catalyzed reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and the hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction of atomic H to form a state of hydrogen having the energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12), and to reactions such as that of the catalyst of formula (15-18) of formula (14). Corresponding terms such as reactants, reactants for hydrino formation, catalyst mixtures, hydrino reaction mixtures, hydrino reactants, that form or produce lower energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to reaction mixtures that effect the catalysis of H to a hydrino state or H state having the energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12).

[0094] The catalytic transition of lower energy hydrogen of the present disclosure may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of integer m of the potential energy of 27.2 eV of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen that accepts energy from atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from species such as atoms or ions (e.g., Li → Li 2+ for which m = 3), and further may include concerted reactions of bond cleavage (e.g., NaH → Na 2+ + H for which m = 2) by ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the initial bonding partners. He + is a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV, since it ionizes at 54.417 eV which is 2·27.2 eV, and meets the catalyst criterion. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also function as a catalyst in integer multiples of 27.2 eV enthalpy. The catalyst can accept energy from atomic hydrogen in one integer unit of about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and 27.2 / 2 eV ± 0.5 eV.

[0095] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M, where the ionization of t electrons from each atom or ion M to successive energy levels is such that the total ionization energy of the t electrons is approximately one of m·27.2 eV and m·(27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0096] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, where the breaking of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from each atom M to successive energy levels is such that the total of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is approximately one of m·27.2 eV and m·(27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0097] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises molecules selected from atoms, ions, and / or molecules of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3, and atoms or ions of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He + , Ti 2+ , Na + , Rb + , Sr + , Fe 3+ , Mo 2+ , Mo 4+ , In 3+ , He + , Ar + , Xe + , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + and contains atoms or ions of.

[0098] In other embodiments, the total electron transfer energy, including the ionization energy of the t electrons from M, the M - H bond energy, and the difference in electron affinity (EA) between MH and A, is approximately m·27.2 eV, where m is an integer, such that the ionization of the t electrons from atomic M to successive energy levels plus the breaking of the M - H bond and the transfer of an electron to the acceptor A provides a hydrino - generating MH - type hydrogen catalyst. An MH that can provide a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m·27.2 eV - type hydrogen catalysts are OH - , SiH - , CoH - , NiH - , and SeH - .

[0099] In other embodiments, an MH + type hydrogen catalyst for generating hydrinos is provided by the transfer of an electron from a donor A that may be negatively charged, the cleavage of the M - H bond, and the ionization of the t electrons from atomic M to successive energy levels, and the total electron transfer energy, including the ionization energies of MH and A, the M - H bond energy, and the difference in ionization energy of the t electrons from M, is approximately m·27.2 eV, where m is an integer.

[0100] In one embodiment, at least one of a molecule or a positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst that receives approximately m·27.2 eV from atomic H along with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the positively or negatively charged molecular ion or molecule by approximately m·27.2 eV. Typical catalysts are H2O, OH, the amide group NH2, and H2S.

[0101] O2 may function as a catalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of an oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. The reaction: O2 → O + O 2+ , O2 → O + O 3+、and, 2O→2O + each supplies an enthalpy of about 2, 4, and 1 times that of E h and, by accepting these energies so as to cause the formation of hydrino, includes a catalytic reaction for forming hydrino.

[0102] II. Hydrino E B = 13.6eV / (1 / p) 2 A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by p, where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is a product of the H-catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given in equations (10) and (12) will hereinafter be referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino". The radius a H / p (where a H is the radius of a normal hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is denoted as H[a H / p]. A hydrogen atom having a radius a H will hereinafter be referred to as a "normal hydrogen atom" or "ordinary hydrogen atom". Normal atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0103] According to the present disclosure, greater than the binding of normal hydride ions (about 0.75 eV) from p = 2 to 23 and less than in the case of p = 24 (H - ), a hydrino hydride ion having a binding energy according to equation (19) (H -) is provided. For p = 2 to p = 24 in formula (19), the binding energies of hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Typical compositions consisting of novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0104] Compounds consisting of one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also exemplified. Such compounds are called "hydrino hydride compounds".

[0105] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies. (a) Hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"), (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion"). Here, with respect to the form of hydrogen, "ordinary" and "usual" are synonymous.

[0106] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, the compound has a hydrogen atom with a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p) such that (a) p is an integer from 2 to 137, 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 ; (b) a hydride ion (H 2 having a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times of about

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[0107] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, (a) p is an integer,

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[0108] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound includes a negatively charged hydrogen species having an increased binding energy, the compound further includes a proton, normal H2 + or one or more cations such as normal H3 + is included.

[0109] A method is provided herein for preparing a compound comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds". The method involves generating an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p), where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137, and reacting the catalyst, having a net enthalpy of reaction of about (m / 2)·27 eV, with atomic hydrogen, where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400. A further product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can react with an electron source to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can react with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion. 2

[0110] The novel hydrogen compositions can include the following, which are (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy (hereinafter referred to as an "increased binding energy hydrogen species"), where this binding energy is (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) Since the binding energy of a normal hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy under ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, unobservable, or negative, and greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species; and, (b) comprises at least one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy".

[0111] "Other element" in this context means an element other than a hydrogen species with increased binding energy. Thus, the other element can be any element other than a normal hydrogen species or hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the hydrogen species with increased binding energy are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and the hydrogen species with increased binding energy are charged so as to provide charge balance such that the other element forms a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular bonds and coordination bonds, and the latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonds.

[0112] Also, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided include the following (a) and (b), but they are, (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with total energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy"), where the total energy thereof is, (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or, (ii) since the total energy of a normal hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy under ambient conditions, the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, unobservable, or negative, and greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species, and, (b) at least one other element.

[0113] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. A hydrogen species according to the present disclosure has a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. A hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as a "hydrogen species with increased binding energy", although some embodiments of the hydrogen species with increased total energy have a binding energy of the first electron that is less than the binding energy of the first electron of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of formula (19) at P = 24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of a normal hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of formula (19) at P = 24 is considerably greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0114] Also, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided herein include the following (a) and (b), which (a) A plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy"), where the binding energy is (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species where the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is lower than or negative of the thermal energy under ambient conditions, and thus the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed; and, (b) Optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy".

[0115] A hydrogen species with increased binding energy can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more electrons, hydrino atoms, at least one compound containing at least one of the hydrogen species with increased binding energy, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the hydrogen species with increased binding energy.

[0116] Also, the novel compounds and molecular ions provided include the following (a) and (b), which are: (a) A plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with total energy (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy"), where this total energy is (i) Greater than the total energy of normal molecular hydrogen, or (ii) Greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species where the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy under ambient conditions, so the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable, not observed, or negative; and, (b) Optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy".

[0117] In one example, the compounds provided are hydride ions having a binding energy (about 0.8 eV) according to formula (19) (a "hydride ion with increased binding energy" or "hydrino hydride ion") that is lower for p = 24 but greater than the binding energy of normal hydrides for p = 2 to 23; (b) hydrogen atoms having a binding energy (about 13.6 eV) greater than the binding energy of normal hydrogen atoms ("hydrogen atoms with increased binding energy" or "hydrinos"); (c) hydrogen molecules having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("hydrogen molecules with increased binding energy" or "dihydrinos"); and (d) molecular hydrogen ions having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV ("molecular hydrogen ions with increased binding energy" or "dihydrino molecular ions"); and include at least one of the hydrogen species with increased binding energy selected from these. In the present disclosure, the hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy are also referred to as hydrogen species and compounds with lower energy. A hydrino includes hydrogen species with increased binding energy, or equivalently, hydrogen species with lower energy.

[0118] III. Chemical reactor The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing hydrogen species and compounds of increased binding energy of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis are power and optionally plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells". A hydrogen reactor includes a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos may be in the form of a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, and a chemical reactor or a gas fuel cell such as an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and at least one source of HOH and H is ice. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell and includes ice at at least one electrode such that the discharge entrains at least a portion of the ice.

[0119] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell includes a tank, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of voltages in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and currents in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source of water such as means and a reservoir for forming and supplying H2O droplets. The droplets may move between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma may react to form hydrinos and includes HOH and H. The ignition rate and corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The high voltage source may include at least one high voltage capacitor that may be charged by the high voltage power source. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further includes means such as at least one of a heat engine and a PV converter for converting power from the hydrino process, such as light and heat, into electricity.

[0120] Typical examples of cells for making hydrino may be in the form of a liquid fuel cell (cell), a solid fuel cell (cell), a heterogeneous fuel cell (cell), a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT cell or SunCell® cell. Each of these cells includes (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof for forming hydrino; and (iii) a chamber for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst for making hydrino. As used herein and contemplated by the present disclosure, the term "hydrogen" includes, unless otherwise specified, not only protium ( 1 H), but also deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3It also includes (H). Typical chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include the SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell examples of the present disclosure. Additional typical examples are provided in this section of the chemical reactor. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are provided within the present disclosure. Other catalysts may function to form hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these typical cases in parameters such as reactants, wt% of reactants, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Appropriate reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrino and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactants of the present disclosure by predicted continuous emission bands that are integer multiples of 13.6 eV. Alternatively, unexpectedly high H kinetic energy has been measured by Doppler line broadening of the H line, inversion of the H line, plasma formation without breakdown field, and unusually long plasma afterglow duration reported by Mills in previous publications. Such data regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuel have been independently verified by other researchers elsewhere. The formation of hydrino by the cells of the present disclosure has also been confirmed by electrical energy that was a continuous output over a long duration that was typically multiple times the electrical input, often by a factor greater than 10 without another alternative source.The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G. Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell", International Journal of Energy Research, (2013), and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G. Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, "High Power Density Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell", (2014), and as reported in Mills' previous issued literature, the arrival time before the m / e = 1 peak corresponding to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV, which matches the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) by the energy transferred to the third body H, XPS showing the predicted total binding energy of 500 eV for H2(1 / 4), the quantum number p of the square of the rotational energy of H2 is 4 or 16, 1950 cm. -1 FTIR spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy showing the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4), electron beam excitation luminescence spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy showing the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with the quantum number p of the square of the energy of H2 being 4 or 16, ESI-ToFMS and ToF-SIMS showing H2(1 / 4) complexed to the getter matrix as a peak of m / e = M + n2 where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer, identified as a solid fuel and a product of the CIHT cell by MAS H NMR showing a predicted high magnetic field shifted matrix peak of about -4.4 ppm.

[0121] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by the cells of the present disclosure, such as those containing a solid fuel that generates thermal power, was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from the solid fuel for hydrino formation exceeding the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60. MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) high magnetic field matrix shift of about -4.4 ppm. 1950 cm -1The Raman peaks starting at matched the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results have been reported in Mills' previous published literature and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, "Solid Fuel Forming HOH Catalysts", (2014), which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0122] IV. Solid - fuel - catalyzed induced hydrino transition (SF - CIHT) cell and power converter In one embodiment, a power system that generates at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one cell, a reactant including (a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O during the generation period, (b) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen, and (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix, and at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactant, a source of electrical power for supplying a short burst of high-current electrical energy, a refilling system, at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products, and at least one direct converter such as a plasma electric converter like a PDC, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a photovoltaic converter, an optical rectenna such as that reported by A. Sharma, V. Singh, T. L. Bougher, B. A. Cola, "Carbon Nanotube Optical Rectennas", Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027 - 1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220 (incorporated by reference in its entirety), and at least one of at least one thermoelectric power converter. In a further embodiment, the cell can enable at least one pressure of atmospheric pressure, higher than atmospheric pressure, and lower than atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, the regeneration system can include at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system.In another embodiment, at least one direct plasma - electric converter can include at least one from the group of a plasmadynamic power converter, a (vector E)×(vector B) direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a Post or Venetian Blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In one further embodiment, at least one thermal - electric converter can include at least one from the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter.

[0123] The SunCell (registered trademark) may include a plurality of electrodes. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction selectively occurs at a polarized electrode, such as a positively polarized electrode. The reaction selectivity may be due to a much higher reaction rate of the hydrino reaction at the positively biased electrode. In one embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell (registered trademark), such as the wall of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, may be positively biased to increase the hydrino reaction rate. The SunCell (registered trademark) may include a conductive reservoir 5c connected to the lower hemisphere 5b41 of the blackbody radiator, where the reservoir is positively biased. The bias may be achieved by contact between the molten metal in the reservoir 5c and at least one of the positively biased EM pump tubes 5k6 and 5k61. The EM may be positively biased by connecting the ignition electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2a to the positive terminal of the source 2 of electrical power.

[0124] Ignition may cause the emission of high-power EUV light that may ionize a photoelectric active electrode such that a voltage is induced at the electrode. The ignition plasma may be optically thick to EUV light so that the EUV light is selectively confined to the positive electrode to further cause a selective localization of the photoelectric effect at the positive electrode. The SunCell (registered trademark) may further include an external circuit connected across an electrical load to utilize the voltage due to the photoelectric effect and the hydrino-based power. In one embodiment, the ignition event that forms the hydrino may cause an electromagnetic pulse that may be captured as electrical power at a plurality of electrodes, where a rectifier may rectify the electromagnetic power.

[0125] In addition to the UV and thermal photovoltaic power of the present disclosure, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbine, microturbine, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, chemical and electrochemical power conversion systems. The Rankine cycle turbine may include an organic substance such as supercritical CO2, hydrofluorocarbon or fluorocarbon, or a steam operating fluid. In the Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, SunCell® may supply thermal power to at least one of a preheater, a heat recuperator (thermal recuperator), a boiler, and an external combustor type heat exchanger stage of the turbine system. In one embodiment, the Brayton cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater incorporated in the combustion section of the turbine. The SunCell® turbine heater may include a duct that receives an air flow from at least one of a compressor and a heat recuperator, where the air is heated and the duct is heated to direct a compressed flow to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle may be closed where the power converter further includes at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0126] The converter may be as described in Mills' prior publications and Mills' prior applications. Hydrino reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and SunCell® systems may be those of the present disclosure or those of prior U.S. patent applications such as the hydrogen catalytic reactor, PCT application PCT / US08 / 61455, filed 4 / 24 / 2008; the heterogeneous hydrogen catalytic reactor, PCT application PCT / US09 / 052072, filed 7 / 29 / 2009; the heterogeneous hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT application PCT / US10 / 27828, filed 3 / 18 / 2010; the electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT application PCT / US11 / 28889, filed 3 / 17 / 2011; the H2O-based electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT application PCT / US12 / 31369, filed 3 / 30 / 2012; the CIHT power system, PCT application PCT / US13 / 041938, filed 5 / 21 / 13; the power generation system and method related thereto, PCT application PCT / IB2014 / 058177, filed 1 / 10 / 2014; the photovoltaic power generation system and method related thereto, PCT application PCT / US14 / 32584, filed 4 / 1 / 2014; the electrical power generation system and method related thereto, PCT application PCT / US2015 / 033165, filed 5 / 29 / 2015; the ultraviolet electrical generation system and method related thereto, PCT application PCT / US2015 / 065826, filed 12 / 15 / 2015, and the thermophotovoltaic electrical power generator, PCT application PCT / US16 / 12620, filed 1 / 8 / 2016 (the "Mills prior applications"), which are incorporated by reference.

[0127] In one embodiment, H2O is ignited to form hydrino with high energy release in at least one formation of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (In this disclosure, "ignition" means a very high reaction rate from H to hydrino, which may be manifested as a burst, pulse, or other form of high power release.) H2O may include a fuel that is ignited by application of a high current such as one within the range of about 2000A to 100,000A. This may be achieved by application of a high voltage such as about 5,000 to 100,000V to first form a highly conductive plasma such as an arc. Alternatively, the high current may be passed through a compound or mixture containing H2O, where the resulting fuel, such as a solid fuel, has a high conductivity. (In this disclosure, solid fuel is used to mean a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst such as H and HOH that further reacts to form hydrino. The plasma voltage may be as low as within the range of about 1V to 100V. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solid. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture may be in at least one state such as a gaseous, liquid, molten matrix such as a molten conductive matrix like molten silver, silver - copper alloy, and at least one of copper, solid, slurry, sol - gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, air flow, and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, a solid fuel with very low resistance includes a reaction mixture containing H2O. The low resistance may be due to the conductor components of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the fixed fuel is about 10 -9 Ω to 100Ω, 10 -8 Ω to 10Ω, 10 -3 Ω to 1Ω, 10 -4 Ω to 10 -1 Ω, and 10 -4 Ω to 10 -2It is at least one in the range of Ω. In another embodiment, the fuel with high resistance contains H2O including a trace amount or a small molar percentage of the compound or material to be added. In the latter case, a high current may be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing a breakdown that forms a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0128] In one embodiment, the reactants can include a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and a conductive matrix and a source of H2O that form at least one of atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants including a source of H2O can include at least one of bulk H2O, a state other than bulk H2O, a compound(s) undergoing at least one of a reaction that forms H2O and releases bound H2O. Additionally, the bound H2O includes a compound that interacts with H2O, where the H2O is in at least one of the states of absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physically adsorbed H2O, and water of hydration. In an embodiment, the reactants can include one or more compounds or materials and a conductor undergoing at least one of the release of bulk H2O, absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physically adsorbed H2O, and water of hydration, and can have H2O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, at least one of the inceptive H2O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen can include at least one of (a) at least one source of H2O; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0129] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a high current. In one embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the reactants that form hydrino are exposed to low voltage, high current, high-power pulses that cause a very fast reaction rate and energy release. In one typical embodiment, the 60Hz voltage is less than 15V peak, and the current is 10,000A / cm 2 and 50,000A / cm 2between the peaks and the power is between 150,000 W / cm 2 and 750,000 W / cm 2 Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers within about 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are appropriate. In one embodiment, the Hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC - DC mixed current within at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be within at least one range of 100 A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000 A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 . The DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be within the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be within at least one range selected from about 10 -6 s to 10 s, 10 -5 s to 1 s, 10 -4 s to 0.1 s, and 10 -3 s to 0.01 s.

[0130] In one embodiment, the transfer of energy from catalytic atomic hydrogen to the hydrino state results in the ionization of the catalyst. The electrons ionized from the catalyst are accumulated in the reaction mixture and the cell and may result in space charge accumulation. The space charge may change the energy level for the subsequent energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, which is accompanied by a decrease in the reaction rate. In one embodiment, the application of a high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in the hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, a high current, such as an arc current, extremely raises the temperature of a reactant, such as water, that may function as a source of H and HOH catalysts. The high temperature may cause thermal decomposition of water in at least one of the physical phases of water, such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water, to form at least one of nH (where n is an integer) and HOH catalysts. The thermal decomposition may occur at a high temperature, such as a temperature in at least one of the ranges of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K.In one typical embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 to 4000 K such that the mole fraction of atomic H is high, as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J. Villermaux [J. Lede, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, "Production of Hydrogen by Direct Thermal Decomposition of Water", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp. 675-679; H. H. G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, "Catalytic Thermal Decomposition of Water and Production of Hydrogen", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677-688; S. Z. Baykara, "Production of Hydrogen by Direct Solar Thermal Decomposition of Water, Possibilities for Process Efficiency Improvement", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1451-1458; S. Z. Baykara, "Experimental Solar Water Pyrolysis", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1459-1469], which are hereby incorporated by reference. The thermal decomposition may be assisted by a solid surface such as one of the cell components (components). The solid surface may be heated to an elevated temperature (high temperature) by a plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction and by the input power. The thermal decomposition gas, such as downstream of the ignition region, may be cooled to prevent the reverse reaction or recombination of the product to the starting material water. The reaction mixture may include a coolant such as at least one of a solid phase, a liquid phase, or a gas phase at a temperature lower than the temperature of the product gas. The cooling of the thermal decomposition reaction product gas may be achieved by contacting the product with the coolant. The coolant may include at least one of low temperature steam, water, and ice.

[0131] SunCell (registered trademark) may include a pyrolytic hydrogen generator including a SunCell (registered trademark) radiator, a metal oxide, a water source, a water sprayer, and a hydrogen and oxygen gas collection system. The blackbody radiation from the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be incident on the metal oxide that decomposes into oxygen and metal when heated. The hydrogen generator may include a water sprayer that sprays the water source and the metal. The metal may react with water to form metal oxide and hydrogen gas. The gas may be collected using separators and collection systems known in the art. The reaction may be represented as follows. MxOy = xM + (y / 2)O2 xM + yH2O = MxOy + yH2 The metals and oxides may be those known in the art to support the pyrolysis of H2O to form hydrogen, such as ZnO / Zn and SnO / Sn. Other typical oxides are manganese oxide, cobalt oxide, iron oxide, and mixtures thereof known in the art, https: / / www.stage-ste.eu / documents / SF%201%202011%20solar_fuels%20by%20SolarPACES.pdf which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0132] In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT generator or SunCell (registered trademark) generator includes a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, which includes at least one tank; reactants, where the reactants a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst containing H2O in the generation period, b) at least one of H2O or a source of H2O, c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and, d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one reactant injection system; At least one reactant ignition system configured to cause the reactant to form at least one of a luminescent plasma and a thermal plasma; A system configured to recover the reaction product of the reactant; At least one regeneration system configured to regenerate additional reactants from the reaction product; wherein the additional reactants include: a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst including H2O in the generation stage, b) at least one H2O or source of H2O, c) at least one atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and At least one output system or power converter from at least one of the optical and thermal outputs to electrical power and / or thermal power, including a photovoltaic converter, a photo - electronic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and at least one of a group of heat engines and a heater;

[0133] In one embodiment, the shot fuel may include a source of H, H2, a source of catalyst, a source of H2O, and at least one of H2O. Suitable shots may include a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may include at least one of MgCl2·6H2O, BaI2·2H2O, and ZnCl2·4H2O. Alternatively, the shot may include at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water.

[0134] The ignition system may include a) at least one set of electrodes configured to confine the reactants, and b) a source of electrical power configured to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy, where the short burst of high-current electrical energy is sufficient for the reactants to react to form a plasma. The source of electrical power may receive electrical power from a power converter. In one embodiment, the reactant ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by an injection of reactants that allows a high current to flow to achieve ignition. In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a switch that performs at least one of initiation of current and interruption of current once ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by reactants filling the gap between the electrodes. The switching may be electronically performed by means of at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, the ignition may be mechanically switched. The current may be interrupted after ignition to optimize the output hydrino generation energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may include a switch to allow a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause an explosion and to turn off the power during the phase in which the plasma is generated. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy includes at least one of the following, which are voltages selected to cause a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current within at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100 A / cm 2from 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000 A / cm 2 from 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 from 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm in at least one range of DC or peak AC current density; however, wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, and the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel sample by the desired current, the DC or peak AC voltage is in at least one range of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and, the AC frequency is in at least one range of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0135] The output power of the SF-CIHT cell may include thermal and photovoltaic-convertible optical power. In one embodiment, the photo-electric converter may include those that utilize at least one of the photovoltaic effect, the thermionic effect, and the photoelectronic effect. The power converter may be a direct power converter that converts the kinetic energy of high-kinetic-energy electrons into electricity. In one embodiment, the power of the SF-CIHT cell may be at least partially in the form of thermal energy or may be at least partially converted into thermal energy. The electrical power converter may include a thermionic power converter. A typical thermionic cathode may include scandium-doped tungsten. The optical effect enhances electron emission by raising the electron energy across the bandgap into the conduction band where electrons are thermally emitted. The cell may utilize photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE). In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell may include a light absorber such as at least one of extreme ultraviolet (EUV), ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and near-infrared light. The absorber may be outside the cell. For example, it may be outside the window of the PV converter 26a. As a result of absorption, the absorber may increase in temperature. The absorber temperature may be in the range of about 500°C to 4000°C. Heat may be input into the thermophotovoltaic or thermionic cell. Thermoelectric and heat engines such as Stirling, Rankine, Brayton, and other heat engines known in the art are within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0136] At least one first photo - electric converter, such as one that utilizes at least one of the photovoltaic effect, the thermoelectron effect, and the photoelectron effect of a plurality of converters, may be selective with respect to a first portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and may be transparent with respect to at least a second portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The first portion may be converted to electricity in the corresponding first converter, and the second portion, to which the first converter is non - selective, may propagate to another second converter, which is selective with respect to at least a part of the propagated second portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

[0137] In an embodiment, Figures 1, 2, and 3 - 72 (old: Figures 2I28, 2I69, and 2I80 - 2I149)The SF-CIHT cell or generator, also called SunCell (registered trademark), shown in , comprises six basic low-maintenance systems, some of which have no moving parts and are operable over long periods. They are: (i) a start-up inductively coupled heater comprising a power supply 5m, leads 5p, and antenna coil 5f for a first molten silver or silver-copper alloy, including an electrode electromagnetic pump that includes molten metal or melt, and optionally a magnet 8c for directing an initial ignition plasma stream; (ii) a fuel injector, such as one that includes a hydrogen supply (supply), such as a hydrogen permeation supply through a blackbody radiator, where hydrogen may be generated from water by electrolysis or pyrolysis, and an injection system including a source of oxygen, such as an oxide like LiVO3 or another oxide of the present disclosure, and an electromagnetic pump 5ka for injecting molten silver or molten silver-copper alloy, and alternatively a gas injector 5z1 for injecting at least one of steam and hydrogen gas; (iii) an ignition system that generates a low-voltage high-current flow across a pair of electrodes 8 through which molten metal, hydrogen, and an oxide, or molten metal and at least one of H2O and hydrogen gas are injected to form a glowing emission plasma; (iv) a blackbody radiator heated to incandescence by the plasma; (v) an opto-electric converter 26a including a so-called concentrating photovoltaic cell 15 that receives light from the blackbody radiator and operates at a high light intensity, such as greater than 1000 Suns; and (vi) a fuel recovery and heat management system 31 that returns (retains) the molten metal to the injection system following ignition. In another embodiment, light from the ignition plasma may directly irradiate the PV converter 26a and be converted to electricity.

[0138] In one embodiment, the plasma emits a significant portion of the optical power and energy as EUV and UV light. To maintain the plasma under optically thinner conditions to reduce the attenuation of short-wavelength light, the pressure may be reduced by maintaining a vacuum within the reaction chamber, cell 1. In one embodiment, the photo-electric converter includes a photovoltaic (PV) cell of the present disclosure that responds to the substantial wavelength region of the light emitted from the cell such as that corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In one embodiment, the fuel may include silver having at least one of trapped hydrogen and trapped H2O. The emission of light may include primarily ultraviolet light such as light in the wavelength region from about 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may respond to at least a portion of the wavelength region from about 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may include at least one group III nitride such as InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In one embodiment, the PV cell includes SiC. In one embodiment, the PV cell may include multiple junctions. The junctions may be stacked in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. The independent junctions may be mechanically stacked or wafer-bonded. The layers of the multi-junction cell and at least one of the cells connected in series may be provided with bypass diodes to minimize current and power losses due to current mismatch between the cell layers. A typical multi-junction PV cell includes at least two junctions including n-p doped semiconductors such as multiple ones from the group of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. The n dopant of GaN may include oxygen and the p dopant may include Mg. A typical triple-junction cell may include InGaN / / GaN / / AlGaN, where / / may mean a transparent wafer bonding layer or mechanical stacking (stacking) that isolates. The PV may be operated at a high light intensity equivalent to that of concentrated photovoltaic (CPV).The substrate may be at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter two provide lattice matching of the beast for CPV applications. The layers can be deposited using the metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) method known in the art. The cell may be cooled by a diode laser such as a commercially available GaN diode laser or a cold plate such as those used in CPV. The grid contacts may be attached to the front and back of the cell as in the case of a CPV cell. In one embodiment, the PV converter may have a protective window that is substantially transparent to responsive light. The window may be at least 10% transparent to responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may include a coating such as a UV transparent coating on the PV cell. The coating may include a material of the UV window of the present disclosure such as sapphire or an MgF2 window. Other suitable windows include LiF and CaF2. The coating may be applied by deposition such as vapor deposition.

[0139] The cells of the PV converter 26a may include a photonic design that resonantly couples and impedance-matches a single mode of the emitter and the cell directly above the semiconductor bandgap, thereby creating a'squeezed' narrowband near-field emission spectrum. Specifically, a typical PV cell may include surface-plasmon-polariton thermal emitters and silver-backed semiconductor-thin-film photovoltaic cells.

[0140] EM pump 5ka(Figures 1, 2, and 3 - 86 (old: Figures 2I28, 2I69, and 2I80 - 2I163) ) may include an EM pump heat exchanger 5k1, an electromagnetic pump - coolant - line - feed - through assembly 5kb, a magnet 5k4, a magnetic yoke, and optionally a thermal barrier 5k5 that may include gas or an evacuated gap with optional radiation shielding (shielding), a pump tube 5k6, a bus bar 5k2, and a bus bar current source connection 5k3 having a feed - through 5k31 supplied by current from a PV converter. At least one of the yoke 5k5 and the magnet 5k4 of the magnetic circuit may be cooled by an EM pump heat exchanger 5k1 such as one cooled by a coolant such as water having a coolant inlet line 31d and a coolant outlet line 31e to a cooler 31a. A typical EM pump magnet 5k4 includes at least one of a cobalt samarium such as SmCo - 30MGOe and a neodymium - iron - boron (N44SH) magnet. The magnet may include a return flux circuit.

[0141] In one embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy may be achieved by hydrogen undergoing a transition to a hydrino with a high p - value in Equation (18) in a process referred to herein as disproportionation as given in Chapter 5 of Mills GUT, which is incorporated herein by reference. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p) where p = 1, 2, 3, ··· 137 can further undergo a transition to a lower energy state given by Equations (10) and (12), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom that resonantly and non - radiatively receives m·27.2 eV with an inverse change occurring simultaneously in its potential energy. The general overall formula for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p + m)) induced by the resonant transfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1 / p) is represented by Equation (·35). H(1 / p’)+H(1 / p) →H+H(1 / (p + m))+[2pm + m 2 -p’ 2 +1]·13.6eV (35)

[0142] EUV light from the hydrino process may dissociate dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms may function as a catalyst for the transition to a lower energy state. A typical reaction involves the catalysis of H to H(1 / 17) by H(1 / 4), where H(1 / 4) may be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. The disproportionation reaction of hydrino is predicted to result in characteristics in the X-ray region. As shown by Equation (5-8), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is H[a H / 4]. The first hydrogen-type atom H[a H / p] is an H atom, and considering the transition reaction that can occur within a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas, where the second acceptor hydrogen-type atom H[a H / p’] as a catalyst is H[a H / 4]. Since the potential energy of H[a H / 4] is 4 2 ·27.2 eV = 16·27.2 eV = 435.2 eV, the transition reaction is represented by the following equation. 16·27.2 eV + H[a H / 4] + H[a H / 1] →H fast + + e - + H * [a H / 17] + 16·27.2 eV (36) H * [a H / 17] → H[a H / 17] + 3481.6 eV (37) H fast + + e - → H[a H / 1] + 231.2 eV (38)

[0143] Also, the overall reaction is as follows. H[a H / 4] + H[a H / 1] → H[aH / 1]+H[a H / 17]+3712.8eV (39)

[0144] H * [a H / (p + m)] intermediate (e.g., formula (16) and formula (37))-induced extreme ultraviolet continuous emission bands have a short wavelength cut-off and

Number

Number

[0145] In one embodiment, the generator may generate high power and high energy with low-pressure H2O. The water vapor pressure may be within at least one of the ranges from about 0.001 Torr to 100 Torr, from 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, from 1 mTorr to 5 Torr, from 10 mTorr to 1 Torr, and from 100 mTorr to 800 Torr. The low H2O vapor pressure may be at least one supplied and maintained by a water vapor source and may be means for controlling at least one of the flow rate and the pressure. The water supply may be sufficient to maintain a desired ignition rate. The water vapor pressure may be controlled by at least one of steady-state control or dynamic control and equilibrium control. The generator may include a pump 13a that maintains a low water vapor pressure in a desired region. The water may be removed by differential pumping such that the region of the cell outside the electrode region has a lower pressure, such as a lower partial pressure of water.

[0146] The water vapor pressure of the cell may be maintained by a water storage tank / trap connected to the cell. The water vapor pressure of the cell may be in at least one of a steady state or an equilibrium state with the water vapor pressure above the water surface of the water reservoir / trap. The water reservoir / trap may include a cooler for maintaining a reduced temperature such as cryogenic temperature, an H2O absorption material such as activated carbon or desiccant, and means for reducing the vapor pressure such as at least one of a solute. The water vapor pressure may be a low pressure established in an equilibrium state or a steady state with ice that may be supercooled. The cooling may include a cryo-chiller such as a carbon dioxide, liquid nitrogen, or liquid helium bath. The solute may be added to the water reservoir / trap to lower the water vapor pressure. According to Raoult's law, the vapor pressure may be lowered. The solute may be highly soluble and at a high concentration. Typical solutes are sugars and ionic compounds, for example, alkali, alkaline earth, and ammonium halides, hydroxides, nitrates, sulfates, dichromates, carbonates, and acetates, for example, ionic compounds such as at least one of K2SO4, KNO3, KCl, NH4SO4, NaCl, NaNO2, Na2Cr2O7, Mg(NO3)2, K2CO3, MgCl2, KC2H3O2, LiCl, and KOH. The trap desiccant may include a molecular sieve such as a typical molecular sieve 13X, a molecular sieve in the form of 4-8 mesh pellets.

[0147] In one example of removing excess moisture, the trap may be sealed and heated, after which the liquid water may be pumped out or discharged as vapor. The trap may be re-cooled and then re-implemented. In one example, H2 is added to cell 26 in a region such as at an electrode to react with an O2 reaction product to convert the reaction product to water, controlled by the water reservoir / trap. The H2 may be supplied by electrolysis at a hydrogen permeable cathode such as a PdAg cathode. The hydrogen pressure may be monitored by a sensor that supplies a feedback signal to a hydrogen supply controller such as an electrolysis controller.

[0148] In one typical embodiment, the water partial pressure is maintained at a desired pressure within the range of about 50 mTorr to 500 mTorr by a hydrated molecular sieve such as 13X. The water released from the molecular sieve may be replaced by a water supply (water supple) such as that from tank 31l supplied by the corresponding manifold and line. The area of the molecular sieve may be sufficient to supply water at a rate necessary to maintain at least the desired partial pressure. The off-gas rate of the molecular sieve may match the sum of the consumption rate of the hydrino process and the discharge rate of the pump. At least one of the release rate and the partial pressure may be controlled by controlling the temperature of the molecular sieve. The cell may include a controller for the molecular sieve having a connection to cell 26. The container may further include means for maintaining the temperature of the molecular sieve such as a heater and a cooler and a temperature controller.

[0149] In one alternative steady state embodiment, the water vapor pressure is maintained by a flow controller such as one that controls at least one of the mass flow and the water vapor pressure within the cell. The water supply rate may be adjusted to match what is consumed in the Hydrino and any other cell reaction and what is removed by means such as pumping. The pump may include at least one of a water reservoir / trap, a cryopump, a vacuum pump, a mechanical vacuum pump, a scroll pump, and a turbopump. At least one of the supply rate and the removal rate may be adjusted to achieve the desired water vapor pressure of the cell. Further, a desired partial pressure of hydrogen may be applied. At least one of the H2O and H2 pressures may be sensed and controlled by sensors and controllers such as pressure gauges like Baratron gauges and mass flow controllers. Water may be injected through the EM pump tube 5k4 by a flow controller which may further include a pressure arrestor and a back-flow check valve to prevent the molten metal from flowing back into the water supply device such as a mass flow controller. The gas may be supplied by a syringe pump. As an alternative to the mass flow controller, the water vapor pressure may be maintained by a highly accurate electronically controllable valve such as at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepping motor valve. The valve is controlled by a water vapor pressure sensor and a computer to maintain the water vapor pressure of the cell at a desired value such as within the range of about 0.5 Torr to 2 Torr, but the control may be for a small tolerance such as within 20%. The valve may have a fast responsiveness to maintain an acceptable error with respect to a rapid change in the water vapor pressure within the cell. By varying the water vapor pressure on the supply side of the valve, the dynamic range of the flow through the valve may be adjusted to allow for different minimum and maximum ranges. The supply side pressure may be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the temperature of the water reservoir 31l respectively.Water may be supplied through the EM pump - tube 5k6.

[0150] In another embodiment, at least one of water and hydrogen such as steam may be injected simultaneously with a molten metal such as molten silver metal. At least one of the water, steam, and hydrogen injectors may include a delivery tube terminated at a high - speed solenoid valve. The solenoid valve may be electrically connected in at least one of series and parallel to the electrode such that when current flows through the electrode, current also flows through the valve. In this case, at least one of water and hydrogen such as steam may be injected simultaneously with the molten metal. In another embodiment, the injector system includes an optical sensor and a controller to cause the injection. The controller may open and close a high - speed valve such as a solenoid valve when metal injection or ignition is sensed. In one embodiment, the lines for the injection of at least two of a melt such as a silver melt, water such as steam, and hydrogen may coincide. The coincidence may be through a common line. In one embodiment, the injector includes an injection nozzle. The nozzle of the injector may include a gas manifold such as one aligned with the metal stream (stream) including the electrode 8. The nozzle may further include a plurality of pinholes from a manifold that delivers a plurality of gas jets of at least one of H2O and H2. In one embodiment, H2 is bubbled through a reservoir of H2O at a pressure greater than the pressure of the cell, and the H2O is entrained by an H2 carrier gas. The high - pressure gas mixture flows through the pinholes into the melt to maintain the gas jets. At the electrode, the gas, which may be a mixture, may be mixed with the molten metal which is a conductive matrix. When a high current is applied, the corresponding fuel mixture may ignite to form hydrino.

[0151] In an embodiment for improving the energy balance of the generator, a cooler such as 31 may be driven by thermal power that may include the heat generated by the cell. The thermal power may be from internal dissipation and the Hydrino reaction. The cooler (chiller) can include an absorption chiller known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the heat to be removed is absorbed by a refrigerant or coolant such as water that may vaporize. An adsorption chiller may use heat to condense the refrigerant. In one embodiment, water vapor is absorbed by an absorbent material (adsorbent) such as Silicagel, Zeolith, or a nanostructured material such as the nanostructured material of P. McGrail of the Pacific Northwest Laboratory. The absorbed water is heated and released in the chamber where the pressure rises sufficiently for the water to condense.

[0152] The SF-CIHT generator includes components having parameters such as those of the present disclosure that are sensed and controlled. In an embodiment, a computer with a sensor and control system may sense and control the following, although they are: (i) the inlet and outlet temperatures of each cooler of each cooled system such as at least one of a PV converter, an EM pump magnet, and an induction coupled heater, as well as the coolant pressure and flow rate, (ii) the voltage, current, power, frequency, and duty cycle of an ignition system, (iii) the EM pump injection flow rate using sensors such as optical, Doppler, Lorentz, or electrode resistance sensors and controllers, (iv) the voltage, current, and power of an induction coupled heater and an electromagnetic pump 5k, (v) the pressure within the cell, (vi) the wall temperature of cell components, (vii) the heater power of each section, (viii) the current and magnetic flux of an electromagnetic pump, (ix) the melting temperature, flow rate, and pressure of silver, (xi) the flow rate, temperature, and pressure of each gas that may be delivered through a common gas injection manifold and formed by a regulator and of each gas that is permeated or injected such as H2 and H2O, (xi) the intensity of incident light to a PV converter, (xii) the voltage, current, and power output of a PV converter, (xiii) the voltage, current, power, and other parameters of power conditioning equipment, (xiv) those for at least one of a parasitic load and an external load with respect to the output voltage, current, and power of the SF-CIHT generator, (xv) the voltage, current, and power input to any parasitic load such as at least one of an induction coupled heater, an electromagnetic pump, a cooler, and a sensor and control device, (xvi) the voltage, current, and charge state of a starter circuit with energy storage. In one embodiment, the measured parameters may be separated from regions of the system having high temperatures that would damage the sensor during its measurement.For example, the pressure of a gas such as at least one of H2 and H2O may be measured using a connecting gas line such as a cooling tower that connects to a cell such as 5b or 5c and cools the gas before it enters a pressure transducer such as a Baratron capacitance manometer. If the parameters experience going beyond a desired range such as an excessive temperature, the generator may be provided with a safety shut-off mechanism as known in the art. The shut-off mechanism may comprise a computer and a switch that supplies power to at least one component of the generator that may be opened to cause a shut-off.

[0153] In one embodiment, the cell may comprise at least one getter such as at least one of air, oxygen, hydrogen, CO2, and water. An oxygen getter such as a finely divided carbon or metal oxygen-reactive material may trap any oxygen formed within the cell. In the case of carbon, the carbon dioxide product may be tapped by a CO2 scrubber that may be reversible. CO2 scrubbers are known in the art such as organic compounds like monoethanolamine, minerals and zeolites, sodium hydroxide, lithium hydroxide, and metal oxide-based systems. The finely divided carbon getter may also serve the purpose of scavenging oxygen to protect the oxygen-reactive material within the cell, such as in a pump tube or cell containing an oxygen-reactive material comprising materials such as Mo, W, graphite, and Ta. In this case, carbon dioxide may be removed with a CO2 scrubber, or where finely divided carbon is used only for component protection, it may be pumped out with a vacuum pump.

[0154] The metal getter can react selectively with oxygen via H2O and can be regenerated with hydrogen. Suitable typical metals with low water reactivity are those of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. The getter or oxygen scrubber may be removed from the SF-CIHT cell and may be regenerated. The removal may be periodic or intermittent. The regeneration may be achieved by hydrogen reduction. The regeneration may be performed in-situ. The in-situ regeneration may be intermittent or continuous. 2-Aminoterephthalato-linked deoxy system [{(bpbp)Co2 II (NO3)}2(NH2bdc)](NO3)2·2H2O(bpbp - = 2,6-bis(N,N-bis(2-pyridylmethyl)aminomethyl)-4-tert-butylphenolato, NH2bdc 2- = 2-amino-1,4-benzenedicarboxylato) compounds that form reversible ligand bonds containing oxygen such as salts like nitrates and zeolites and their regeneration and other oxygen getters are known to those skilled in the art. As oxygen getters, highly flammable metals such as typical metals of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, aluminum, and rare earth metals may be used. The highly flammable metals may be used as water scavengers. Hydrogen storage materials may be used to capture hydrogen. Typical hydrogen storage materials are metal hydrides, misch metals such as Ni 3.65 Al 0.3 Mn 0.3Or something like M1-rich mischmetal such as M1(NiCoMnCu)5, Ni, R-Ni, R-Ni + about 8 wt% Vulcan XC-72, LaNi5, Cu, or Ni-Al, Ni-Cr such as about 10% Cr, Ce-Ni-Cr such as about 3 / 90 / 7 wt%, Cu-Al, or Cu-Ni-Al alloy, a species of M-N-H system such as LiNH2, Li2NH, or Li3N, and an alkali metal hydride further containing aluminum such as an aluminohydride or boron such as a borohydride. Further suitable hydrogen storage materials are alkaline earth metal hydrides such as MgH2, BaReH9, LaNi5H6, FeTiH 1.7、and metal alloy hydrides such as MgNiH4, metal borohydrides such as Be(BH4)2, Mg(BH4)2, Ca(BH4)2, Zn(BH4)2, Sc(BH4)3, Ti(BH4)3, Mn(BH4)2, Zr(BH4)4, NaBH4, LiBH4, KBH4, and Al(BH4)3, AlH3, NaAlH4, Na3AlH6, LiAlH4, Li3AlH6, LiH, LaNi5H6, La2Co1Ni9H6, and TiFeH2, amine borane complexes such as NH3BH3, polyaminoborane, and amine borane, boron hydride ammoniates, hydrazine-borane complexes, diborane diammoniate, borazine, and ammonium octahydrotriborates or tetrahydroborates, imidazolium ionic liquids such as alkyl(aryl)-3-methylimidazolium N-bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imidate salts, phosphonium borate, and carbonite substances.Further typical compounds include alkali ammonia boranes such as ammonia borane, lithium ammonia borane; borane alkyl amine complexes such as borane dimethylamine complex, borane trimethylamine complex, amino boranes; aminodiborane, n-dimethylaminodiborane, tris(dimethylamino)borane, di-n-butylboronamine, dimethylaminoborane, trimethylaminoborane, ammonia-trimethylborane, and triethylaminoborane. Further suitable hydrogen storage materials are organic liquids with absorbed hydrogen, for example, carbazoles and their derivatives such as 9-(2-ethylhexyl)carbazole, 9-ethylcarbazole, 9-phenylcarbazole, 9-methylcarbazole, and 4,4’-bis(N-carbazolyl)-1,1’-biphenyl. The getter may include an alloy capable of storing hydrogen, for example, of the AB5 (LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB2 (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type, where "AB. x" represents the ratio of the A-type element (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, or Ti, Zr) to the B-type element (V, Ni, Cr, Co, Mn, Al, Sn). Additional suitable hydrogen getters are those used in metal hydride batteries (batteries) such as nickel-metal hydride batteries known to those skilled in the art. Suitable getter materials for a typical hydride anode are R-Ni, LaNi5H6, La2Co1Ni9H6, ZrCr2H 3.8 , LaNi 3.55 Mn 0.4 Al 0.3 Co 0.75 , ZrMn 0.5 Cr 0.2 V 0.1 Ni 1.2 , and other hydrogen-storable alloys, such as hydrides of the group of AB5 (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Ni, Co, Mn, Al) or AB2 (V, Ti, Zr, Ni, Cr, Co, Mn, Al, Sn) types, where "AB x " represents the ratio of the A-type element (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, or Ti, Zr) to the B-type element (V, Ni, Cr, Co, Mn, Al, Sn). In other embodiments, the hydride anode getter material is MmNi 3.5 Co 0.7 Al 0.8 such as MmNi5 (Mm = mischmetal), AB5-type: MmNi 3.2 Co 1.0 Mn 0.6 Al 0.11 Mo 0.09 (Mm = mischmetal: 25 wt% La, 50 wt% Ce, 7 wt% Pr, 18 wt% Nd), La 1-y R y Ni 5-x M x , AB2-type: Ti 0.51 Zr 0.49 V 0.70 Ni 1.18 Cr 0.12 alloy, Mg 1.9 Al 0.1 Ni 0.8 Co 0.1 Mn 0.1 alloy, Mg 0.72 Sc 0.28 (Pd 0.012 +Rh 0.012 ), and Mg 80 Ti20 Magnesium-based alloys such as 80 V 20 La 0.8 Nd 0.2 Ni 2.4 Co 2.5 Si 0.1 LaNi 5-x M x (M = Mn, Al), (M = Al, Si, Cu), (M = Sn), (M = Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi4Co, MmNi 3.55 Mn 0.44 Al 0.3 Co 0.75 LaNi 3.55 Mn 0.44 Al 0.3 Co 0.75 AB compounds such as MgCu2, MgZn2, MgNi2, TiFe, TiCo, and TiNi, AB n compounds (n = 5, 2, or 1), AB 3-4 compounds, and AB x (A = La, Ce, Mn, Mg; B = Ni, Mn, Co, Al) contains at least one of. Other suitable hydride getters are ZrFe2, Zr 0.5 Cs 0.5 Fe2, Zr 0.8 Sc 0.2 Fe2, YNi5, LaNi5, LaNi 4.5 Co 0.5 , (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)Ni5, (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)Ni5, mischmetal nickel alloys, Ti 0.98 Zr 0.02 V 0.43 Fe 0.09 Cr 0.05 Mn 1.5, such as La2Co1Ni9, FeNi, and TiMn2. The getter of the present disclosure and others known to those skilled in the art may include getters for two or more cell gases. The additional getter may be a getter known to those skilled in the art. A typical multi-gas getter may include an alkali or alkaline earth metal such as lithium that may get at least two of O2, H2O, and H2. The getter may be regenerated by methods known in the art such as reduction, decomposition, and electrolysis. In one embodiment, the getter may comprise a cryotrap that does at least one of condensing a gas such as at least one of water vapor, oxygen, and hydrogen and trapping the gas in the cooled absorption material. The gas may be released from the absorption material at a higher temperature such that the getter is regenerated by heating and pumping off-gas. Typical materials that can absorb at least one of water vapor, oxygen, and hydrogen are carbon such as zeolite and activated carbon. When the corresponding gas levels increase to unacceptable levels sensed by sensors of the corresponding cell gas content, the timing of oxygen, hydrogen, and water scrubber regeneration may be determined. In one embodiment, at least one of the hydrogen and oxygen produced may be collected and sold as a commercial gas by systems and methods known to those skilled in the art. Alternatively, the collected hydrogen gas may be used in SunCell®.

[0155] Hydrogen and water contained in the melt may flow from tanks 5u and 31l through the manifold and supply lines under the pressure generated by a corresponding pump such as a mechanical pump. Alternatively, the water pump may be replaced by heating the water tank 31l to generate a vapor pressure, and the hydrogen pump may be replaced by generating a pressure to flow hydrogen by electrolysis. Alternatively, H2O may be provided as steam by the H2O tank 31l, a steam generator, and a steam line. Hydrogen may permeate through a hollow cathode connected to a pressurized hydrogen tank by electrolysis or pyrolysis. These exchange systems may eliminate the corresponding systems with moving parts.

[0156] In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell components and systems are optimized in combination, miniaturized, and in other ways for at least one of weight reduction, size reduction, cost reduction, and maintenance reduction. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell includes a common compressor for the cooler and a cell vacuum pump. The cooling device for heat removal may also function as a cryopump that functions as a vacuum pump. H2O and O2 may be condensed by the cryopump. In one embodiment, the ignition system including a bank of capacitors is miniaturized by using a reduced number of capacitors, such as a typical single 2.75V, 3400F Maxwell supercapacitor, as close as possible to the electrodes. In one embodiment, at least one capacitor has its positive terminal directly connected to the positive bus bar or positive electrode, and at least one capacitor has its negative terminal directly connected to the negative bus bar or negative electrode, where the other terminal of the capacitor of the opposite polarity may be connected by a bus bar so that current flows through the circuit including the capacitor when the molten metal closes the circuit by bridging an electrode that may include a molten metal injector. A set of capacitors connected between the electrodes in series may be replicated by that integer multiple to supply an integer multiple of current if desired. In one embodiment, the voltage on the capacitor may be maintained within the desired range by charging power from the PV converter.

[0157] The power conditioning of the SF-CIHT generator may be simplified by using all of the DC power (power) supplied by the PV converter to the native load where the DC power (power) is supplied by the PV converter. In one embodiment, the DC power (power) from the PV converter may supply at least one of the following, which are: (i) the DC charging power (power) of the capacitor of the ignition system including the source 2 of power (electrical power) to the electrode 8, (ii) the DC current of at least one electromagnetic pump, (iii) the DC power (power) of a resistive or inductively coupled heater, (iv) the DC power (power) of a cooler including a DC electric motor, (v) the DC power (power) of a vacuum pump including a DC electric motor, and (vi) the DC power (power) to a computer and sensors. The output power conditioning may include AC power (power) from the conversion of DC power (power) from the PV converter to AC using an inverter or the DC power (power) from the PV converter.

[0158] In one embodiment, the photo-electric converter includes a photovoltaic (PV) cell of the present disclosure that responds to the substantial wavelength region of light emitted from a cell such as corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In one embodiment, the PV cell is a concentrating cell that can accept light at an intensity higher than that of sunlight within an intensity range such as at least one of about 1.5 suns to 75,000 suns, 10 suns to 10,000 suns, and 100 suns to 2000 suns. The concentrating PV cell may include c-Si that can be operated within a range of about 1 to 1000 suns. The silicon PV cell may be operated at a temperature that performs at least one of improving the bandgap to better match the blackbody spectrum and improving heat removal, thereby reducing the complexity of the cooling system. In a typical embodiment, the concentrating silicon PV cell operates at about 130 °C at 200 to 500 Suns and provides a bandgap of about 0.84 V that matches the spectrum of a blackbody radiator at 3000 °C. The PV cell may include multiple junctions such as a triple junction. The concentrating PV cell may include multiple layers such as those of III / V semiconductors such as at least one of the group of InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. Multiple junctions such as a triple junction or a double junction may be connected in series. In another embodiment, the junctions may be connected in parallel. The junctions may be mechanically stacked. The junctions may be wafer-bonded. In one embodiment, the tunnel diode between the junctions may be replaced by wafer bonding.The wafer bond may be electrically insulated and transparent to a wavelength region that is converted by subsequent or deeper junctions. Each junction may be connected to an independent electrical connection or a bus bar. Independent bus bars may be connected in series or in parallel. The electrical contact of each electrically independent junction may include grid wires. The wire shadow region may be minimized by the current distribution across a plurality of parallel circuits or interconnections to an independent junction or group of junctions. The current may be removed along the side. The wafer bond layer may include a transparent conductive layer. Typical transparent conductors include indium tin oxide (ITO), fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), and transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) such as doped zinc oxide and conductive polymers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, and others known to those skilled in the art. Benzocyclobutene (BCB) may include an intermediate bonding layer. The bonding may be between a transparent material such as glass, like borosilicate glass, and a PV semiconductor material. A typical two-junction cell includes a top layer GaInP wafer bonded to a bottom layer of GaAs (GaInP / / GaAs). A typical four-junction cell includes GaInP / GaAs / GaInAsP / GaInAs on an InP substrate, where each junction is individually separated by a tunnel diode ( / ), or may be individually separated by a transparent wafer bond layer ( / / ) that provides separation like that of a cell given by GaInP / / GaAs / / GaInAsP / / GaInAs on InP. The PV cell may include InGaP / / GaAs / / InGaAsNSb / / conductive layer / / conductive layer / / GaSb / / InGaAsSb. The substrate may be GaAs or Ge. The PV cell may include Si-Ge-Sn and alloys. All combinations of diodes and wafer bonds are within the scope of the present disclosure. A typical four-junction cell with a conversion efficiency of 44.7% at 297 times the concentration of the AM1.5d spectrum is manufactured by Soitec of France. The PV cell may include a single junction.A typical single-junction PV cell may include a single-crystalline silicon cell such as one of those given by Sater et al. (B.L. Sater, N.D. Sater, "High-Voltage Silicon VMJ Solar Cells up to 1000 Suns Intensity", Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE, 19 - 24 May 2002, pp. 1019 - 1022), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, the single-junction cell may include GaAs or GaAs doped with other elements such as those from Group III and Group V. In one typical embodiment, the PV cell includes a triple-junction concentrator PV cell or a GaAs PV cell operating at about 1000 suns. In another typical embodiment, the PV cell includes c-Si operating at 250 suns. In one typical embodiment, the PV may include GaAs that is selectively responsive to wavelengths less than 900 nm, and at least one of InGaAs on InP, GaAs, and Ge that can be selectively responsive to wavelengths in the region between 900 nm and 1800 nm. Two types of PV cells including GaAs and InGaAs on InP may be used in combination to increase efficiency. To obtain the effect of a double-junction cell, two such single-junction type cells may be used. The combination may be implemented using at least one of a dichroic mirror, a dichroic filter, and a structure of just the cell or in combination with a mirror to achieve multiple reflections or reflections of light as given in the present disclosure. In one embodiment, each PV cell includes a polychromat layer that separates and classifies the incoming light and redirects it to irradiate specific layers within the multi-junction cell. In one typical embodiment, the cell includes an indium gallium phosphide layer for visible light and a gallium arsenide layer for infrared light to which the corresponding light is directed. The PV cell is GaAs. 1-x-y N x Bi y may include an alloy.

[0159] The PV cell may include silicon. The silicon PV cell may include a concentrator cell that may operate within an intensity range of about 5 to 2000 (Suns). The silicon PV cell may include crystalline silicon, and at least one surface may further include amorphous silicon that may have a bandgap different from that of the crystalline Si layer. The amorphous silicon may have a wider bandgap than the crystalline silicon. The amorphous silicon layer may perform at least one function of making the cell electrically transparent and preventing the recombination of electron-hole pairs at the surface. The silicon cell may include a multi-junction cell. The layer may include individual cells. At least one cell, such as a top cell including at least one of Ga, As, InP, Al, and In, may be ion sliced and mechanically stacked on a Si cell such as a Si bottom cell. At least one of the layers of the multi-junction cell and the cells connected in series may be provided with a bypass diode to minimize current and power losses due to current mismatches between the layers of the cells. The cell surface may be textured to promote the transmission of light into the cell. The cell may include an anti-reflection coating to enhance the penetration of light through the cell. The anti-reflection coating may further reflect wavelengths less than the bandgap energy. The coating may include a plurality of layers, such as about 2 to 20 layers. As the number of layers increases, the selectivity of bandpassing a desired wavelength range, such as light with energy exceeding the bandgap energy, and reflecting another range, such as wavelengths less than the bandgap energy, may be improved. The light reflected from the cell surface may be absorbed or may be reflected to at least one other cell that may absorb the light. The PV converter 26a may include a closed structure, such as a geodesic dome, that provides multiple reflections of the reflected light to increase the cross-sectional area for PV absorption and conversion. The geodesic dome may include a plurality of receiver units, such as triangular units covered with PV cells. The dome may function as an integrated sphere. The unconverted light may be recycled. The recycling of light may occur through reflections between those member receiver units of the geodesic dome.The surface may comprise a filter that reflects wavelengths below the bandgap energy of the cell. The cell may comprise a bottom mirror, such as a silver or gold bottom layer, that reflects unabsorbed light through the cell. Further, the unabsorbed light and the light reflected by the cell surface filter may be absorbed by a blackbody radiator and then possibly re-radiated to the PV cell. In one embodiment, the PV substrate may comprise a material transparent to light transmitted from the bottom cell to a reflector on the back side of the substrate. A typical triple-junction cell with a transparent substrate is InGaAsP (1.3 eV), InGaAsP (0.96 eV), InGaAs (0.73 eV), an InP substrate, and a copper or gold IR reflector. In one embodiment, the PV cell may comprise a concentrating silicon cell. The multi-junction III-V cells may be selected for higher voltages, or the Si cells may be selected for lower cost. The shadowing of the bus bars may be reduced by using a transparent conductor such as a transparent conductive oxide (TCO (TCOs)).

[0160] The PV cell may comprise a perovskite cell. A typical perovskite cell comprises Au, Ni, Al, Ti, GaN, CH3NH3SnI3, a monolayer h-BN, CH3NH3PbI 3-x Br x and a layer from top to bottom of HTM / GA, bottom contact (Au).

[0161] The cell may comprise a plurality of p-n junction cells, such as a cell comprising an AlN top layer and a GaN bottom layer for converting EUV and UV, respectively. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic cell may comprise a p-layer cell of GaN having heavy p-doping near the surface to avoid excessive attenuation of short-wavelength light such as UV and EUV. The n-type bottom layer may comprise AlGaN or AlN. In one embodiment, the PV cell comprises GaN and Al p-doped at a high concentration in the topmost layer of the p-n junction x Ga 1-xIt contains N, where the p-doped layer contains a two-dimensional hole gas. In one embodiment, the PV cell may include at least one of GaN, AlGaN, and AlN with a semiconductor junction. In one embodiment, the PV cell may include n-type AlGaN or AlN with a metal junction. In one embodiment, the PV cell responds to high-energy light that exceeds the bandgap of the PV material having a plurality of electron-hole pairs. The light intensity may be sufficient to saturate the recombination mechanism to improve the efficiency.

[0162] The converter may include at least one of a shallow ultra-thin p-n heterojunction photovoltaic cell each containing a p-type two-dimensional hole gas in GaN on (i) GaN, (ii) an AlGaN or AlN p-n junction, and (iii) an n-type AlGaN or AlN base region. Each may include an Al thin film layer, an n-type layer, a depletion layer, a lead to a metal thin film layer such as a p-type layer, and a lead to a metal thin film layer such as an Al thin film layer without a passivation layer by short-wavelength light and vacuum operation. In an embodiment of a photovoltaic cell including an n-type layer of AlGaN or AlN, a metal with an appropriate work function may replace the p layer including a Schottky barrier to include a Schottky barrier metal / semiconductor photovoltaic cell.

[0163] In another embodiment, the converter may include at least one of a photovoltaic (PV) cell, a photoelectric (PE) cell, and a hybrid of a PV cell and a PE cell. The PE cell may include a solid state cell such as a GaN PE cell. The PE cells may each comprise a photocathode, a gap layer, and an anode. A typical PE cell may include cesiated GaN (cathode) / AlN (separator or gap) / Al, Yb, or Eu (anode) which may be cesiated. The PV cells may each include at least one of the GaN, AlGaN, and AlN PV cells of the present disclosure. The PE cell may be the top layer and the PV cell may be the bottom layer of the hybrid. The PE cell may convert the shortest wavelength light. In one embodiment, at least one of the cathode and anode layers of the PE cell, and the p and n layers of the PV cell, may be inverted. The structure (architecture) may be modified to improve current collection. In one embodiment, the light emitted from fuel ignition is polarized and the converter is optimized to use a polarization selective material to optimize the penetration of light into the active layer of the cell. The light may be polarized by applying a field such as an electric or magnetic field by a corresponding electrode or magnet.

[0164] In one embodiment, the fuel may further include at least one of trapped hydrogen and trapped H2O, and may include a silver, copper, or Ag-Cu alloy melt. The emission of light may include mainly ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet light, such as light in the wavelength region from about 10 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may respond to at least a portion of the wavelength region from about 10 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may include a concentrating UV cell. The cell may respond to blackbody radiation. The blackbody radiation may correspond to at least one temperature range from about 1000 K to 6000 K. The incident light intensity may be within at least one range of about 2 to 100,000 suns and 10 to 10,000 suns. The cell may be operated in a temperature range known in the art, such as at least one temperature range below about 300 °C and below 150 °C. The PV cell may include at least one group III nitride, such as InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In one embodiment, the PV cell may include a plurality of junctions. The junctions may be stacked in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. The independent junctions may be mechanically stacked or wafer-bonded. A typical multi-junction PV cell includes at least two junctions including n-p doped semiconductors, such as a plurality from the group of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. The n-dopant of GaN may include oxygen and the p-dopant may include Mg. A typical triple-junction cell may include InGaN / / GaN / / AlGaN, where / / may mean a transparent wafer-bonding layer or mechanical stacking (stacking) that separates. The PV may be run at a high light intensity equivalent to that of concentrating photovoltaics (CPV). The substrate may be at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter two provide lattice matching for beast for CPV applications. The layer may be deposited using the metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) method known in the art.The cell may be cooled by a cold plate such as those used in diode lasers such as CPV or commercially available GaN diode lasers. The grid contacts may be attached to the front and back surfaces of the cell as in the case of CPV cells. In one embodiment, the surface of the PV cell such as those containing at least one of GaN, AlN, and GaAlN may be terminated. The termination layer may include at least one of H and F. The termination may reduce the defect carrier recombination effect. The surface may be terminated with a window such as AlN.

[0165] In one embodiment, at least one of the photovoltaic (PV) and photoelectric (PE) converters may have a protective window that is substantially transparent to the light to which it responds. The window may be at least 10% transparent to the responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may include a coating such as a UV-transparent coating on the PV or PE cell. The coating may be applied by vapor deposition such as evaporation. The coating may include a material of the UV window of the present disclosure such as a sapphire or MgF2 window. Other suitable windows include LiF and CaF2. Any window such as an MgF2 window can be made thin to limit EUV attenuation. In one embodiment, a PV material or a PE material such as a hard glassy material like GaN functions as a cleanable surface. A PV material such as GaN may function as a window. In one embodiment, the surface electrode of the PV cell or the PE cell may comprise a window. The electrode and the window may include aluminum. The window may include at least one of aluminum, carbon, graphite, zirconia, graphene, MgF2, alkaline earth fluorides, alkaline earth halides, Al2O3, and sapphire. The window may be very thin, such as about 1 Å to 100 Å, so as to be transparent to UV and EUV emissions from the cell. Typical thin transparent films are Al, Yb, and Eu thin films. The film may be deposited by MOCVD, evaporation, sputtering, and other methods known in the art.

[0166] In one embodiment, the cell may convert incident light into electricity by at least one mechanism such as at least one mechanism from the group of the photovoltaic effect, the photoelectric effect, the hot electron effect, and the thermoelectric effect. The converter may include a double layer cell each having a photoelectric (photoelectric) layer on top of the photovoltaic layer. Higher energy light such as extreme ultraviolet light may be selectively absorbed and converted by the top layer. The layer composed of multiple layers may include a UV window such as an MgF2 window. The UV window may protect ultraviolet (UV) PV from damage by ionizing radiation such as damage by soft X-ray radiation. In one embodiment, a low pressure cell gas may be added to selectively attenuate radiation that would damage the UV PV. Alternatively, this radiation may be at least partially converted into electricity and at least partially blocked from the UV PV by the photoelectron converter top layer. In another embodiment, a UV PV material such as GaN may convert at least a portion of the extreme ultraviolet light emission from the cell into electricity using at least one of the photovoltaic effect and the photoelectric effect.

[0167] The photovoltaic converter may include a PV cell that converts ultraviolet light into electricity. Typical ultraviolet PV cells include at least one of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonate) deposited on a p-type semiconductor polymer PEDOT-PSS:Nb-doped titanium oxide (SrTiO3:Nb) (PEDOT-PSS / SrTiO3:Nb heterostructure), GaN, GaN doped with a transition metal such as manganese, SiC, diamond, Si, and TiO2. Other typical PV photovoltaic cells include n-ZnO / p-GaN heterojunction cells.

[0168] To convert high-intensity light into electricity, the generator may include a Figure 55 (old: Figure 2I132) photovoltaic converter 26a and a light distribution system such as that shown therein. The light distribution system may include a plurality of translucent mirrors arranged in a louvre stack along the axis of propagation of the light emitted from the cell, where at each mirror member 23 of the stack, the light is at least partially reflected on a PC cell 15 that is aligned parallel to the direction of propagation of the light, as if receiving laterally reflected light. The photo-electric panel 15 may include at least one of a PE, PV, and a hot electron cell. The window to the converter may be transparent to short-wavelength light corresponding to a temperature of about 2800K to 4000K or light emitted from the cell such as blackbody radiation, where the power converter may comprise a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) power converter. The window to the PV converter may include at least one of sapphire, LiF, MgF2, and CaF2, other alkaline earth fluorides such as BaF2, CdF2, quartz, fused quartz, UV glass, borosilicate, and Infrasil (ThorLabs). The translucent mirror 23 may be transparent to short-wavelength light. The material may be the same as that of the window of the PV converter provided with a partial coating of a reflective material such as a mirror like a UV mirror. The translucent mirror 23 may include a checkerboard pattern of a reflective material such as a UV mirror, such as an SiC film or a LiF film or a thin fluoride film such as MgF2 on aluminum and at least one of Al coated with MgF2.

[0169] In one embodiment, the TPV conversion efficiency may be increased by using a selective emitter such as ytterbium on the surface of the blackbody emitter 5b4. Ytterbium is a representative member of a class of rare earth metals that emit a spectrum similar to a line emission spectrum instead of emitting the normal blackbody spectrum. This allows a relatively narrow emission energy spectrum to be matched very closely to the bandgap of the TPV cell.

[0170] In one embodiment, the generator further comprises an IGBT, or another switch of the present disclosure, or a switch known in the art, to turn off the ignition current when the hydrino reaction self-propagates by pyrolysis. The reaction may self-sustain at least one of the elevated cell and plasma temperatures, such as one that supports pyrolysis at a rate sufficient to maintain the temperature and the hydrino reaction rate. The plasma may include an optically thick plasma. The solvent may include a blackbody. The optically thick plasma may be achieved by maintaining a high gas pressure. In one exemplary embodiment, pyrolysis occurred at a tungsten electrode with a continuous ignition current in the range of 100 A to 1000 A with superimposed pulses in the range of about 2 kA to 10 kA, at an electrode temperature in the range of about 3000 K to 3700 K and a plasma blackbody temperature of 5000 K, upon ignition of each of molten silver and molten silver-copper (28 wt%) alloy. Pyrolysis may occur at a high temperature of at least one of the cell components and the plasma in contact with the plasma, such as the wall of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The temperature may be in at least one of the ranges of about 500 K to 10,000 K, 1000 K to 7000 K, and 1000 K to 5000 K. In another embodiment, at least one cell component (component), such as the reservoir 5c, may function as a coolant to cool the pyrolytic H to prevent it from returning to H2O.

[0171] The maintained blackbody temperature may be one that emits radiation that may be converted to electricity by a photovoltaic cell. In one exemplary embodiment, the blackbody temperature may be maintained in at least one range from about 1000K to 4000K. The photovoltaic cell may include a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cell. Exemplary photovoltaic cells for thermophotovoltaic conversion include crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphorus antimonide arsenide (InPAsSb) cells. Other exemplary cells are InGaAsP(1.3eV) / InGaAsP(0.96eV) / InGaAs(0.73eV) / InP substrate / copper or gold IR reflector and InAlGaAs(1.3eV) / InGaAs(0.96eV) / graded buffer layer / Ge subcell / copper or gold IR reflector. The PV cell may comprise a multi-junction GaAs cell stack on top of a multi-junction GaSb cell such as a 3J GaAs cell on a 2J GaSb cell. The converter may include a mirror for at least one of direct and redirected radiation onto the thermophotovoltaic converter. In one embodiment, the back mirror reflects unconverted radiation back to its source to contribute to the power re-radiated to the converter.Typical mirrors include at least one of conical materials such as aluminum and anodized aluminum, MgF2-coated Al, and thin fluoride films such as MgF2 or LiF films or SiC films on aluminum and sapphire, alumina such as alpha alumina which may be sputter-coated on a substrate such as stainless steel, MgF2-coated sapphire, borosilicate glass, alkali aluminosilicate glass such as Gorilla Glass, LiF, MgF2, and CaF2, and other alkaline earth halides such as fluorides like BaF2, CdF2, quartz, fused quartz, UV glass, borosilicates, Infrasil (ThorLabs), and ceramic glass which can be mirrored on the outer surface when transparent. Mirrors such as anodized aluminum mirrors may diffuse light to uniformly irradiate the PV converter. At least one of sapphire, alumina, borosilicate glass, LiF, MgF2, and CaF2, other alkaline earth fluorides such as fluorides like BaF2, CdF2, quartz, fused quartz, UV glass, borosilicates, and Infrasil (ThorLabs), and transparent materials such as ceramic glass may function as a window for the PV converter. Another embodiment of the TPV converter includes a blackbody emitter filter for passing wavelengths that match the bandgap of the PV and returning mismatched wavelengths to the emitter, where the emitter may include a hot cell component such as an electrode. The blackbody emitter 5b4 may be coated with a selective emitter such as a rare earth metal such as ytterbium that emits a spectrum that is more favorable for thermophotovoltaic conversion such as a spectrum similar to the line emission spectrum.

[0172] The bandgap of the cell is selected to optimize the electrical output efficiency for a given blackbody operating temperature and corresponding spectrum. In a typical embodiment operating at about 3000K or 3500K, the bandgap of the TPV cell junction is shown in Table 1.

[0173]

Table 1

[0174] To optimize the performance of a thermophotovoltaic converter including a multi-junction cell, the blackbody temperature of the light emitted from the cell may be maintained substantially constant, such as within about 10%. Next, the power output may be controlled by a power conditioning device having excess power stored in a device such as a battery or capacitor, or may be rejected so as to be rejected as heat. In another embodiment, the power from the plasma may be maintained by reducing the reaction rate by means of the present disclosure, such as by varying the emission frequency and current, the metal injection rate, and the injection rate of at least one of H2O and H2, where the blackbody temperature may be maintained by controlling the emissivity of the plasma. The emissivity of the plasma may be altered by changing the cell atmosphere, such as one that initially contains metal vapor by the addition of a cell gas such as a noble gas.

[0175] In one embodiment, cell gases such as the pressures of steam, hydrogen, and oxygen and the total pressure are sensed by corresponding sensors or gauges. In one embodiment, at least one of the gas pressures, such as at least one of the water and hydrogen pressures, is sensed by monitoring at least one parameter of the cell that changes in response to a change in at least one of the pressures of these cell gases. While monitoring the effects of changes due to the gas supply, by changing one or more pressures, at least one of the desired water and hydrogen pressures may be achieved. Typical monitored parameters that change with the gas include the electrical behavior of the ignition circuit and the optical output of the cell. At least one of the ignition current and the optical output may be maximized at at least one of the desired pressures of hydrogen and steam. At least one of a photodetector such as a diode and the output of a PV converter may measure the optical output of the cell. At least one of a voltage and a current meter may monitor the electrical behavior of the ignition circuit. The generator may include a pressure control system such as one that includes software, a processor such as a computer, and a controller that receives input data from the monitoring of the parameters and adjusts the gas pressure to achieve optimization of the desired power output of the generator. In one embodiment that includes a fuel metal containing copper, hydrogen may be maintained at a pressure to achieve the reduction of copper oxide from the reaction of copper with oxygen from the reaction of H2O to hydrino and oxygen, where the steam pressure is adjusted to optimize the generator output by monitoring the parameters. In one embodiment, the hydrogen pressure may be controlled at a substantially constant pressure by supplying H2 by electrolysis. The electrolysis current may be maintained at a substantially constant current. Hydrogen may be supplied at a rate that reacts with substantially all of the hydrino reaction oxygen products. Excess hydrogen may diffuse through the cell wall to maintain a constant pressure across the reaction with the hydrino reaction and oxygen products. Hydrogen may penetrate through the hollow cathode into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the pressure control system controls the H2 and H2O pressures in response to the ignition current and frequency and the optical output to optimize at least one of them.The light may be monitored with a diode, a power meter, or a spectrometer. The ignition current may be monitored with a multimeter or a digital oscilloscope. The injector speed of the molten metal of the electromagnetic pump 5k may be controlled to optimize at least one of the electrical behavior of the ignition circuit and the optical output of the cell.

[0176] In another embodiment, the sensor may measure a plurality of components. In one typical embodiment, the cell gas and the total pressure are measured using a mass spectrometer, such as a quadrupole mass spectrometer, like a residual gas analyzer. The mass spectrometer may be sensed in batch or trend mode. The water or humidity sensor may include at least one of an absolute humidity sensor, a capacitive humidity sensor, and a resistive humidity sensor. A sensor capable of analyzing a plurality of gases includes a plasma source, such as a microwave chamber and a generator, where the plasma-excited cell gas emits light, such as visible light and infrared light. The gas and concentration are determined by spectral emission, such as the characteristic lines and intensities of the gas components. The gas may be cooled before sampling. Before analyzing the cell gas for gas composition, the metal vapor may be removed from the cell gas. The metal vapor in the cell, including at least one of silver and copper, is cooled so that the metal vapor condenses and the cell gas can flow into the sensor in the absence of the metal vapor. Here, the SF-CIHT cell, also called an SF-CIHT generator, may include a channel, such as a tube for the flow of gas from the cell, where the tube includes an inlet from the cell, an outlet for the flow of condensed metal vapor, and an outlet for non-condensable gas to at least one gas sensor. The tube may be cooled. The cooling may be achieved by heat transfer, where the tube is heat-absorbed by a cooled cell component, such as the magnet of an electrode electromagnetic pump. The tube may be actively cooled by means such as water cooling and passive means such as a heat pipe. The cell gas containing metal vapor enters the tube, where the lower temperature of the tube causes the metal vapor to condense. The condensed metal may flow to a conical reservoir by means such as at least one of gravity flow and pumping so that the gas to be sensed can flow into the sensor in the absence of the metal vapor. Alternatively, the gas pressure may be measured in the outer chamber 5b3a, where the gas may penetrate into the response cell chamber 5b31.The transmission may also be through the blackbody radiator 5b4.

[0177] In one embodiment, the generator includes a blackbody radiator 5b4 that may function as a tank including a reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the PV converter 26a includes PV cells 15 inside a metal enclosure (chamber) that includes a cell chamber 5b3 that houses the blackbody radiator 5b4. The PV cooling plate may be outside the cell chamber. At least one of the chambers 5b3, 5b3a, and 5b31 can maintain at least one pressure of a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure, atmospheric pressure, and a pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. The PV converter may further include at least one set of electrical feedthroughs for delivering electrical power from the PV cells inside the inner surface of the cell chamber to the outside of the cell chamber. The feedthrough may be at least one of airtightness and vacuum or pressure possibility.

[0178] In one embodiment, at least one cell component such as the reservoir 5c may be insulated / heat-insulated. The heat-insulating material may include other forms of heat-insulating materials such as MgO, refractory bricks, Al2O3, zirconium oxide such as Zicar, alumina-reinforced heat-insulating material (AETB) such as AETB 12 heat-insulating material, ZAL-45, and SiC carbon aerogel (AFSiC). The typical AETB12 insulator thickness is about 0.5 to 5 cm. The heat-insulating material may be enclosed between two layers such as an outer heat-insulating wall including different materials or the same material as stainless steel and an inner refractory metal or material cell component wall. The cell component may be cooled. The outer heat-insulating material enclosure wall may be provided with a cooling system such as one that transfers heat to a cooler or radiator 31.

[0179] In one embodiment, the cooler may include a radiator 31, and may further include at least one coolant pump 31k and at least one fan 31j1 for cooling the radiator and circulating the coolant. The radiator may be air-cooled. Typical radiators include automotive or truck radiators. The cooler may further include a coolant reservoir or tank 31l. The tank 31ll may function as a flow buffer. The cooling system may include a bypass valve for returning (returning) the flow from the tank to the radiator. In one embodiment, the cooling system includes a bypass loop for recirculating the coolant between the tank and the radiator when the radiator inlet line pressure is low due to a decrease or stop in pumping in the cooling line, and at least one of a radiator overpressure or overflow line between the radiator and the tank. The cooling system may further include at least one check valve within the bypass loop. The cooling system may further include a radiator overflow valve such as a check valve and an overflow line from the radiator to the overflow tank 31l. The radiator may function as a tank. Coolers such as the radiator 31 and the fan 31j1 may have flow to and from the tank 31l. The cooling system may include a tank inlet line from the radiator to the tank 31l for delivering the cooled coolant. The coolant may be pumped from the tank 31l to a common tank outlet manifold that may supply cold coolant to each component to be cooled. The radiator 31 may function as a tank, but here the radiator outlet supplies cold coolant. Alternatively, each component to be cooled, such as an induction coupled heater, an EM pump magnet 5k4, and a PV converter 26a, may have a separate coolant flow loop with a tank cooled by a cooler such as a radiator and a fan. Each loop may include a separate pump of a plurality of pumps 31k or one valve of one pump and a plurality of valves 31m.Each loop may receive flow from a separate pump 31k that regulates the flow within the loop. Alternatively, each loop may receive flow from a pump 31k that supplies flow to a plurality of loops, where each loop includes a valve 31m, such as a solenoid valve, that regulates the flow within the loop. The flow through each loop may be independently controlled by a controller, such as at least one of a thermocouple, a flow meter, a controllable valve, a pump controller, and a computer, such as a thermal sensor.

[0180] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 is sealed to confine at least one of a metal vapor of a fuel melt, such as Ag or Ag-Cu alloy vapor, and a source of oxygen, such as an oxide, and at least one of a fuel gas, such as hydrogen and water vapor. The outer surface of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include a blackbody radiator 5b4 that may include a material that can operate at a very high temperature, such as within the range of about 1000 °C to 4000 °C. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 may include a material having a melting point higher than the melting point of a molten metal, such as silver. Typical materials are at least one of metals and alloys from the following group, which include WC, TaW, CuNi, Hastelloy C, Hastelloy X, Inconel, Incoloy, carbon steel, stainless steel, chromium molybdenum steel, such as modified 9Cr-1Mo-V (P91), 21 / 4Cr-1Mo steel (P22), Nd, Ac, Au, Sm, Cu, Pm, U, Mn, doped Be, Gd, Cm, Tb, doped Si, Dy, Ni, Ho, Co, Er, Y, Fe, Sc, Tm, Pd, Pa, Lu, Ti, Pt, Zr, Cr, V, Rh, Hf, Tc, Ru, doped B, Ir, Nb, Mo, Ta, Os, Re, W, carbon, SiC, MgO, alumina, Hf-Ta-C, ceramics such as boron nitride, and other high temperature materials known in the art that can function as a blackbody.

[0181] The blackbody radiator absorbs power from the plasma to heat it to its high operating temperature. In an example of a thermophotovoltaic, the blackbody radiator 5b4 supplies light incident on the PV converter 26a. The blackbody radiator may have a high emissivity, such as close to 1. In one example, the emissivity may be adjusted to cause a blackbody power that matches the capabilities of the PV converter. In a typical example, the emissivity may be increased or decreased by the means of the present disclosure. In a typical case of a metallic blackbody radiator 5b4, the surface may be oxidized and / or roughened to increase the emissivity. The emissivity may be non-linear with wavelength such that short wavelength emission is advantageous from its outer surface. At least one of a filter, a lens, and a mirror within the gap between the blackbody radiator 5b4 and the PV converter 26a may be selective to pass short wavelength light to the PV converter and return infrared light to the radiator 5b4. In one typical example, the operating temperature of the W or carbon blackbody radiator 5b4 is that of a W incandescent bulb up to 3700K. If the emissivity is 1, according to the Stefan-Boltzmann equation, the power of the blackbody radiator is 10.6 MW / m 2 up to. In one example, the blackbody radiation is incident on a PV converter 26a that includes a concentrating photovoltaic cell 15 such as those of the present disclosure that respond to corresponding radiation such as that which responds to visible and near infrared light. The cell may include a multi-junction cell such as a dual or triple junction cell that includes III / V semiconductors such as those of the present disclosure.

[0182] The SF-CIHT generator may further include a blackbody temperature sensor and a blackbody temperature controller. The blackbody temperature of the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be maintained and adjusted to optimize the conversion of blackbody light to electricity. The blackbody temperature of the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be sensed by a sensor such as at least one of a spectrometer, a pyrometer, a PV converter 26a, and a power meter that uses emissivity to determine the blackbody temperature. A controller, such as one that includes a computer and a hydrino reaction parameter sensor and controller, may control the power from the hydrino reaction by means of the present disclosure. In a typical example of controlling the temperature and stability of the blackbody temperature, the hydrino reaction rate is controlled by controlling at least one of the water vapor pressure, the hydrogen pressure, the fuel injection rate, the ignition frequency, and the ignition voltage and current. For a given hydrino reaction power from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 that heats the blackbody radiator 5b4, the desired operating blackbody temperature of the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be achieved by at least one of selecting and controlling the emissivity of at least one of the inner and outer surfaces of the blackbody radiator 5b4. In one example, the radiant power from the blackbody radiator 5b4 is spectral and power-matching to the PV converter 26a. In one example, the emissivity of the outer surface is selected to be in the range of about 0.1 to 1, such that the top cover 5b4 irradiates the PV converter with power that does not exceed its maximum allowable incident power at the desired blackbody temperature. The blackbody temperature may be selected to better match the photovoltaic conversion reactivity of the PV cell such that the conversion efficiency is maximized. The emissivity may change by modification of the outer surface of the blackbody radiator 5b4. The emissivity may be increased or decreased by applying a coating with an increased or decreased emissivity. In one typical example, a pyrolytic carbon coating may be applied to the blackbody radiator 5b4 to increase its emissivity. The emissivity may also be increased by at least one of oxidizing and roughening the W surface, and the emissivity may be decreased by at least one of reducing the oxidized surface and polishing the rough W surface.The generator may comprise a source of oxidizing gas such as at least one of oxygen and H2O, a source of reducing gas such as hydrogen, and means for controlling the composition and pressure of the atmosphere within the cell chamber. The generator may comprise a gas supply controller, a gas supply device, a pump, and a gas sensor such as a pressure gauge, for controlling the composition and pressure of the gas in order to control the emissivity of the blackbody radiator 5b4.

[0183] The blackbody radiator 5b4 and the PV converter 26a may be separated by a gap such as a gas or a vacuum gap so that the PV converter does not overheat due to heat conduction to the PV converter. The blackbody radiator 5b4 can include a number of suitable shapes such as those including a flat plate or a dome. The shape may be selected for at least one of structural integrity and optimization of light transmission to the PV region. Typical shapes are cubes, right cylinders, polygons, and geodesic spheres. The blackbody radiator 5b4 such as carbon may include parts (pieces) such as plates that may be adhesively bonded together. The blackbody radiator 5b4 that may include carbon and the typical cubic reaction cell chamber 5b31 can include a cube machined from a solid cube of carbon and divided into two halves adhesively bonded to each other.

[0184] The base of the cavity may have a shape such as a conical channel that allows the molten metal to flow back into the reservoir. The base may be thicker such that the upper wall functions as a heat insulator so that the power radiates preferentially from the non-base surface. The cavity may comprise a wall whose thickness varies along the perimeter in order to generate a desired temperature profile along the outer surface including the blackbody radiator 5b4. In a typical embodiment, the cubic reaction cell chamber b31 may comprise a wall including a spherical section centered on each wall in order to generate a uniform blackbody temperature on the outer surface. The spherical section may be machined into the shape of the wall or adhered to the flat inner wall surface. The spherical radius of the spherical section may be selected to achieve the desired blackbody surface temperature profile.

[0185] To increase the electrical output and efficiency of the cell, the area of the blackbody emitter 5b4 and the receiving PV converter 26a may be optimally matched. In one embodiment, other cell components (components) such as the reservoir 5c may include materials such as refractory materials like carbon, BN, SiC, or W that function as blackbody radiators to the PV converter disposed peripherally to the component (component) receiving the blackbody radiation. At least one of the cell components (components) such as the blackbody radiator 54b and the reservoir 5c may include a geometric shape that optimizes the stacking of the PV cells 15 to receive light from the component (component). In one typical embodiment, the cell component (component) may include a cut surface such as a polygon such as at least one of a triangle, pentagon, hexagon, square, and rectangle having a matching geometric shape of the PV cell 15. The geometric shapes of the blackbody radiator and the PV converter may be selected to optimize the transfer of photons from the former to the latter considering parameters such as the effect corresponding to the PV efficiency and the angle of incidence of the illuminating photons. In one embodiment, the PV converter 26a may include means for moving a PV cell such as a PV carousel so as to cause a higher uniformity of the time-averaged radiation incident on the cell. The PV carousel may rotate an axisymmetric PC converter such as one including a lateral polygon ring around the symmetric or z-axis. The polygon may include a hexagon. The rotation may be caused by a mechanical drive connection, a pneumatic motor, an electromagnetic drive, or other drives known to those skilled in the art.

[0186] The surface of the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be modified to change the emissivity with corresponding changes due to the power radiated from the blackbody radiator. The emissivity of the blackbody radiator may be changed by (i) changing the gloss, roughness, or texture of the surface, (ii) adding a carbide coating or a pyrolytic coating such as at least one of tungsten, tantalum, and hafnium carbides to carbon, and (iii) adding a clad such as a W clad to the carbon blackbody radiator. In the latter case, the W may be mechanically attached to the carbon by a fixture such as a screw with an expansion means such as a slot. In a typical embodiment, the emissivity of TaC such as a TaC coating, tiling, or cladding on the carbon blackbody radiator 5b4 is about 0.2 relative to about 1 of carbon.

[0187] The blackbody radiator 5b4 is a cube ( Figures 57 - 61 (old: Figures 2I134 - 2I138)) A cavity of a first geometric shape, such as a spherical cavity 5b31, may be provided within a solid shape of a second geometric shape. In another embodiment, the first cavity 5b31 of the first shape may be inside a second cavity 5b4a1 of the second shape. A typical embodiment includes a spherical shell cavity within a hollow cubic cavity. The corresponding second cavity 5b4a1 may include a blackbody cavity including a blackbody radiation outer surface 5b4a. The interior of the second cavity may be heated to the blackbody temperature by the first cavity inside the first shape. The blackbody radiation from the corresponding second blackbody radiator 5b4a may be the incident PV cell 15 that may be organized into a matching geometric structure. The cells may be arranged in an array having a matching geometric shape. In one embodiment, the optical power received within the PV cell is reduced to a tolerable intensity radiated at the operating temperature of the blackbody radiator by at least one of the following, which are increasing the spacing between the second cavity and the PV cell, using a PV cell with a partial mirror on the surface to reflect a portion of the incident light, using a secondary radiator such as tungsten rather than carbon having a reduced emissivity, and having a pinhole that only partially transmits the blackbody radiation from the primary or secondary blackbody radiator to the PV cell, and using a reflector in front of the PV cell that ideally reflects the non-transmitted light. In one embodiment, the geometry of the secondary radiator 5b4a and the matching geometric shape PV converter 26a may be selected to reduce the complexity of the PV cold plate, PV cooler, or PV heat exchanger 26b. A typical cubic shape may minimize the number of PV cold plates, maximize the size of the PV cold plates, and result in low complexity for electrical interconnections and coolant line connections such as those to the inlet 31b and outlet 31c of the PV coolant system.

[0188] The W secondary blackbody radiator may be protected from sublimation by means to support a halogen cycle. In one embodiment, the chamber 5b3( Figure 3 (old: Figure 2I80)) The gas in the chamber surrounding the W blackbody radiator may contain a halogen source such as I2 or Br2, or a hydrocarbon bromine compound that forms a complex with sublimated tungsten. The complex may decompose on the high-temperature tungsten surface and redeposit tungsten onto the blackbody radiator 5b4. The window on the PV cell 15, which may be multilayered, may support a temperature gradient that supports the volatilization of tungsten-halogen species to support the halogen cycle.

[0189] In one embodiment, a carbon cell component, such as the carbon blackbody radiator 5b4, may be protected from sublimation by applying an external pressure. In a typical embodiment, carbon is stable against sublimation up to 4500 K by applying a pressure of about 100 atmospheres. The pressure may be applied by a high-pressure gas such as at least one of an inert gas, hydrogen, and a molten metal vapor such as silver vapor.

[0190] In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 may include a spherical dome that may be connected to the reservoir 5c. The blackbody radiator may be a shape other than spherical, such as a cube, and may be coated or clad with a material that varies its emissivity to better match the radiant power to the capabilities of the PV cell. A typical clad blackbody radiator 5b4 includes a carbon cube clad with a refractory material having a lower emissivity than carbon with a low vapor pressure from vaporization or sublimation at the blackbody operating temperature. At least one of the cell components, such as at least one of the reservoir 5c, the blackbody radiator 5b4, and the blackbody radiator cladding, may include at least one of the following, which are refractory metals such as graphite (sublimation point = 3642 °C), tungsten (MP = 3422 °C), or tantalum (MP = 3020 °C), ceramics, ultra-high temperature ceramics, and ceramic matrix composites (composites) such as at least one of borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides of early transition metals such as hafnium diboride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO2), niobium diboride (NbB2), and tantalum carbide (TaC) and their related composites (composites).Typical ceramics with desirable high melting points include magnesium oxide (MgO) (MP = 2852 °C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (MP = 2715 °C), boron nitride (BN) (MP = 2973 °C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (MP = 2715 °C), hafnium diboride (HfB2) (MP = 3380 °C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (MP = 3900 °C), Ta4HfC5 (MP = 4000 °C), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5 (4215 °C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (MP = 3385 °C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (MP = 3246 °C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (MP = 3400 °C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (MP = 2950 °C), titanium diboride (TiB2) (MP = 3225 °C), titanium carbide (TiC) (MP = 3100 °C), titanium nitride (TiN) (MP = 2950 °C), silicon carbide (SiC) (MP = 2820 °C), tantalum diboride (TaB2) (MP = 3040 °C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (MP = 3800 °C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (MP = 2700 °C), niobium carbide (NbC) (MP = 3490 °C), niobium nitride (NbN) (MP = 2573 °C), vanadium carbide (VC) (MP = 2810 °C), and vanadium nitride (VN) (MP = 2050 °C), and those including superalloys, nickel-based superalloys including chromium, cobalt, and rhenium, those including ceramic matrix composites, one or more such turbine blade materials from the group of U - 500, Rene 77, Rene N5, Rene N6, PWA 1484, CMSX - 4, CMSX - 10, Inconel, IN - 738, GTD - 111, EPM - 102, and PWA 1497. Ceramics such as MgO and ZrO may be resistant to reaction with H2. In a typical example, the emissivity of TaC such as TaC coating, tiling, or cladding on a carbon blackbody radiator 5b4 is about 0.2 relative to about 1 of carbon. Typical cell components (components) such as reservoirs include MgO, alumina, ZrO, ZrB2, SiC, or BN. A typical blackbody radiator 5b4 may include carbon or tungsten.Cell component materials such as graphite may be coated with a refractory metal such as tungsten or a ceramic such as ZrB2, TaC, HfC, WC, or another high-temperature or refractory material such as those of the present disclosure or known in the art. Another graphite surface coating may include diamond-like carbon that may be formed on the surface by plasma treatment of the cone. The treatment method may include those known in the art for depositing diamond-like carbon on a substrate. In one embodiment, silver vapor may be deposited on the surface by precoating or during operation to protect the cone surface from corrosion. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include a cell gas such as at least one of H2O, H2, CO, and CO2 and reaction products of carbon to suppress further reaction of carbon. In one embodiment, at least one component such as the pump tube 5k6 and the lower portion of the EM pump assembly 5kk may include a high-temperature steel such as Haynes 230. In one embodiment, a noble gas-H2 plasma such as argon-H2 (3 to 5%) maintained by a hydrino reaction may convert the graphite form of carbon into at least one of a diamond-like form or diamond.

[0191] Cell components such as the reservoir 5C or the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be formed by casting, milling, hot pressing, sintering, plasma sintering, infiltration, spark plasma sintering, 3D printing by powder bed laser melting, and other methods known to those skilled in the art. In certain embodiments, at least one component such as the outer housing 5b3a may be manufactured by stamping or stamp pressing a component material such as metal.

[0192] In the case of hot electrons and thermoelectric embodiments, the hot electrons or thermoelectric converter may be in direct contact with the hot blackbody radiator 5b4. The blackbody radiator 5b4 may also transfer heat to a heat engine, such as a Rankine, Brayton, or Stirling heat engine or heater, that may function as a thermoelectric converter. In one embodiment, a medium other than a standard medium, such as water or air, may be used as the working medium of the heat engine. In a typical example, hydrocarbons or supercritical carbon dioxide may replace water in the Rankine cycle of a turbine generator, and air in an external combustor design may be used as the working medium of the Brayton cycle of a turbine generator. A typical supercritical carbon dioxide cycle generator may include that of Echogen Power Systems (https: / / www.dresser-rand.com / products-solutions / systems-solutions / waste-heat-recovery-system / http: / / www.echogen.com / _CE / pagecontent / Documents / News / Echogen_brochure_2016.pdf). Alternatively, the hot cover 5b4 may function as a heat source or heater or light source. The heat flow to the heat engine or heater may be direct or indirect, where the SF-CIHT generator may further include a heat exchanger or heat transfer means such as one of the present disclosure. In another example, the SunCell® may include an electromagnetic hydrodynamic (MHD) or plasma hydrodynamic (PHD) electrical generator, where the high-pressure plasma generated in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 flows into the MHD or PHD generator and is converted to electricity. The return flow may enter into the reaction cell chamber.

[0193] At least one of the cell chambers 5b3 or 5b3a1 and the reaction cell chamber 3b31 may be evacuated by a pump 13a through a pump line such as 13b. A corresponding pump line valve may be used to select the tank to be pumped. The cell may further comprise one or more high-temperature compatible sensors for at least one of oxygen, hydrogen, water vapor, metal vapor, CO2, gaseous oxides such as CO, and total pressure. The pressures of water and hydrogen may be controlled by the means disclosed in the present invention to match a desired pressure such as the water vapor pressure within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. In a typical embodiment, the valve opening is controlled to supply a flow rate to maintain the desired pressure of the gas by feedback using the measured pressure of the gas, and the valve and gas supply maintain the desired gas pressure. H2O and H2 may be supplied by a hydrogen tank and line 31l, an H2O / vapor tank and line 31l, a hydrogen supply line 5ua, an argon tank 5u1 and supply line 5u1a, and an H2, argon, and H2O / vapor injector that may be through an EM pump tube, which may include an electrolysis system for supplying H2. Oxygen generated within the cell may react with the supplied hydrogen to form water instead of pumping out or gettering the oxygen. The hydrino gas may diffuse through the walls and joints of the cell or flow out of a selective gas valve.

[0194] In another embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 is operated under an inert atmosphere. The SF-CIHT generator may include a computer for reading and controlling the pressure, a pump, at least one valve, a flow regulator, a pressure regulator, at least one pressure gauge, and a source of inert gas such as a tank. The inert gas pressure may be within the range of about 1 Torr to 10 atm.

[0195] In one embodiment, after startup, the heater may be disengaged and cooling may be engaged to maintain cell components (components) such as reservoir 5c, EM pump, and PV converter 26a at their operating temperatures as provided in the present disclosure.

[0196] In an embodiment, Figures 1, 2, and 3 - 72 (old: Figures 2I28, 2I69, and 2I80 - 2I149)The SF-CIHT cell or generator, also called SunCell (registered trademark) as shown, comprises six basic low-maintenance systems, some of which have no moving parts and are operable for long periods, but they include: (i) an electrode electromagnetic pump that includes a molten metal or melt and, optionally, a magnet that initially directs an ignition plasma stream, for a first molten silver or silver-copper alloy, a startup inductively coupled heater including a power supply 5m, leads 5p, and an antenna coil 5f; (ii) a fuel injector such as one that includes a hydrogen supply such as a hydrogen permeation supply through a blackbody radiator, where hydrogen may be obtained from water by electrolysis or pyrolysis, and the injection system includes an electromagnetic pump 5ka for injecting molten silver or molten silver-copper alloy and a source of oxygen such as oxides like CO2, CO, LiVO3 or another oxide of the present disclosure, and alternatively, the gas injector may include a port through an EM pump tube 5k6 for injecting at least one of steam and hydrogen gas; (iii) an ignition system that generates a low voltage, high current flow across a pair of electrodes 8 into which molten metal, hydrogen, and an oxide, or at least one of molten metal and H2O and hydrogen gas are injected to form a glowing emission plasma; (iv) a blackbody radiator 5b4 heated to incandescence temperature by the plasma; (v) an opto-electrical converter 26a that includes a so-called concentrating photovoltaic cell 15 that receives light from the blackbody radiator and operates at a high light intensity exceeding 1000 Suns; and (vi) a fuel recovery and thermal management system that returns molten metal to the injection system following ignition and cools at least one cell component such as the inductive heating antenna 5f, the EM pump magnet 5k4, and the PV converter 26a. In another embodiment, the light from the ignition plasma may directly irradiate the PV converter 26a and be converted to electricity. In another embodiment, the EM pump 5ka may include a thermoelectric pump, a mechanical pump such as a gear pump like a ceramic gear pump, or another one known in the art such as one capable of operating at a high temperature within a temperature range of about 900 °C to 2000 °C.

[0197] In another embodiment, the blackbody radiator for 26a to the PV converter may include high-temperature materials such as carbon, refractory metals such as W and Re, or ceramics such as borides, carbides, or nitrides of transition elements such as hafnium, zirconium, tantalum, and titanium, Ta4HfC5 (M.P. = 4000 °C), TaB2, HfC, BN, HfB2, HfN, ZrC, TaC, ZrB2, TiC, TaN, NbC, ThO2, oxides such as MgO, MoSi2, W-Re-Hf-C alloys and others of the present disclosure. The blackbody radiator may include a geometry that efficiently transfers light to the PV and optimizes PV cell packing, where the power to the light flows from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. A typical blackbody radiator may include a polygonal or spherical dome. The blackbody radiator may be separated from the PV converter 26a by a gas or vacuum gap with PV cells arranged to receive blackbody light from the blackbody radiator.

[0198] The generator may be sealable against the atmosphere and may further include a surrounding chamber capable of maintaining at least one of a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure, the same as atmospheric pressure, and higher than atmospheric pressure. The generator may include a spherical pressure or vacuum chamber around the periphery of the dome including the cell chamber 5b3, where the PV converter includes a housing or pressure tank. The cell chamber may be made of suitable materials known to those skilled in the art that provide structural strength, sealing, and heat transfer. In a typical embodiment, the cell chamber includes at least one of stainless steel and copper. The PV cells may cover the interior of the cell chamber, and a PV cooling system such as the heat exchanger 87 may cover the outer surface of the cell chamber. In an embodiment of thermophotovoltaic power generation, the PV converter 26a may include a selectivity filter for visible wavelengths to the PV converter 26a such as a photonic crystal.

[0199] In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator includes a spherical dome 5b4. In one example, the inner surface of the graphite sphere is coated with a high-temperature-capable carbide such as Ta4HfC5 (M.P. = 4000 °C), tungsten carbide, niobium carbide, tantalum carbide, zirconium carbide, titanium carbide, or hafnium carbide. The corresponding metal may react with the carbon on the graphite surface to form the corresponding metal carbide surface. The dome 5b4 may be separated from the PV converter 26a by a gas or vacuum gap. In embodiments that reduce the light intensity incident on the PV cell, the PV cell may be placed further away from the blackbody radiator. For example, the radius of the surrounding spherical chamber may be increased to reduce the intensity of the light emitted from the inner spherical blackbody radiator, where the PV cell is attached to the inner surface of the surrounding spherical chamber ( Figure 66 (old: Figure 2I143) ). The PV converter may include a dense receiver array (DRA) consisting of a plurality of PV cells. The DRA may include a geodesic shape. Each individual PV cell may include at least one of a triangle, pentagon, hexagon, and other polygons. The cells forming the dome or spherical shape may be organized in a geodesic pattern. In a typical example of a secondary blackbody radiator operating at an elevated temperature such as 3500 K, the emissivity of the light spot is the emissivity multiplied by about 8.5 MW / m 2 . In this case, the emissivity of the carbon dome 5b4, which has an emissivity of about 1, may be reduced to about 0.35 by applying a tungsten carbide coating. The blackbody radiator 5b4 may have a clad 26c of a different material to make the emissivity more desirable ( Figure 66 (old: Figure 2I143)) may be provided. In a typical embodiment, the emissivity of TaC, such as a TaC coating, tiling, or cladding on the carbon blackbody radiator 5b4, is about 0.2 relative to about 1 of carbon. In another embodiment, PV cells, such as those including an outer geodesic dome, may be at least one angled and may include a reflective coating that reduces the light absorbed by the PV cell to a level within the strength capacity of the PV cell. At least one of the PV circuit elements, such as at least one of the group of PV cell electrodes, interconnects, and bus bars, may include a material having a high emissivity, such as a polished conductor, such as polished aluminum, silver, gold, or copper. The PV circuit elements may reflect radiation from the blackbody radiator 5b4 to the blackbody radiator 5b4 such that the PV circuit elements do not significantly contribute to the PV power conversion losses due to shadowing.

[0200] In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 may comprise a plurality of separable sections such as a separable upper hemisphere and lower hemisphere. The two hemispheres may be joined by a flange. By techniques known in the art such as W powder sintering, spark plasma sintering, casting, and 3D printing by powder bed laser melting, the W body may be manufactured. The lower chamber 5b5 may be joined by a hemispherical flange. The cell chamber may be attached to the lower chamber by a flange capable of at least one of vacuum, atmospheric pressure, and pressures higher than vacuum. The lower chamber may be sealed from at least one of the cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber. Gas may penetrate between the cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber. Gas exchange may balance the pressures in the two chambers. A gas such as at least one of noble gases such as hydrogen and argon may be added to the cell chamber to supply gas to the cell reaction chamber by penetration or flow. The penetration and flow may be selective for a desired gas such as argon-H2. A metal vapor such as silver metal vapor may be non-permeable or flow-limiting such that it remains only selectively within the cell reaction chamber. The metal vapor pressure may be controlled by maintaining the reservoir 5c at a temperature that condenses the metal vapor and maintains the vapor pressure at a desired level. The generator may be started at a gas pressure such as argon-H2 gas below the operating pressure such as atmospheric pressure so that no overpressure develops when the cell heats up and the gas expands. The gas pressure may be controlled by a controller such as a computer, pressure sensor, valve, flow meter, and vacuum pump of the present disclosure.

[0201] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction is sustained by silver vapor that functions as a conductive matrix. At least one of continuous injection, at least a portion of which becomes vapor, and direct boiling of silver from reservoir 5c may supply the silver vapor. The electrodes may supply a high current to the reaction to remove electrons and initiate the hydrino reaction. Heat from the hydrino reaction may assist in supplying metal vapor, such as silver metal vapor, to the reaction cell chamber.

[0202] The ignition power supply may comprise at least one of a capacitor and an inductor. The ignition circuit may include a transformer. The transformer may output a high current. The generator may comprise an inverter that receives DC power from a PV converter and outputs AC. The generator may include a DC-DC voltage and current conditioner to vary the voltage and current from the PV converter input to the inverter. The AC input to the transformer may be from the inverter. The inverter may operate at a desired frequency, such as within the range of about 1 to 10,000 Hz. In one embodiment, the PV converter 26a outputs DC power that may be supplied directly to the inverter or DC power that may be adjusted prior to input to the inverter. The inverted power, such as 60 Hz AC, may supply power directly to the electrodes or may be input to a transformer to increase the current. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power 2 supplies a continuous DC or AC current to the electrodes. The electrodes and the electromagnetic pump may support continuous ignition of the injected melt, such as molten Ag, that may include a source of oxygen, such as an oxide. Hydrogen may be added by passing through a blackbody radiator.

[0203] Load following may be achieved by the means of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 for the PV converter 26a may radiate its stored energy very quickly when the power from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 is adjusted downward. In one embodiment, the radiator acts as an incandescent filament with a similar light-off time upon interruption of the power flow from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the radiator 5b4. In another embodiment, the electrical load following may be achieved by operating a radiator with an approximately constant power flow corresponding to an approximately constant operating temperature, where the unnecessary power to the load is dissipated or released within a resistive element such as an SiC resistor or other heating elements of the present disclosure.

[0204] In one embodiment, the generator may comprise a smart control system that intelligently activates and deactivates the loads of a plurality of loads to control the peak aggregate load. The generator may comprise a plurality of generators that may be combined for at least one of reliability and supplying peak power. At least one of smart metering and control may be achieved by telemetry such as using a personal computer equipped with a mobile phone or WiFi.

[0205] In one embodiment, the blackbody light from the blackbody radiator 5b4 is directed randomly. The light may travel to and fro between the blackbody radiator 5b4 and the PV cell 15 and may be subject to at least one of reflection, absorption, and re-irradiation. To achieve the desired PV absorption and photo-electric conversion, the PV cell may be optimally angled and tilted. The reflectivity of the PV cover glass may be varied as a function of position. The change in reflectivity may be achieved using a PV window with spatially variable reflectivity. The variability may be achieved by a coating. A typical coating is a MgF2-ZnS anti-reflection coating. The PV cell may be geometrically arranged to achieve the desired absorption and reflection of the PV cell, including power-flow interactions between at least two of the blackbody radiator 5b4 and the PV cell, between multiple PV cells, and between multiple PV cells and the blackbody radiator 5b4. In one embodiment, the PC cell may be arranged on a surface with a variable radius as a function of surface angle, such as a puckered surface like a puckered geodesic dome. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 may have elements at an angle relative to each other for at least one of directing, absorbing, and reflecting radiation to or from the PV cell. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator 5b4 may be provided with element emitter plates on the blackbody radiator surface to match the PV orientation in order to achieve the desired transfer of power to the PV cell. At least one of the blackbody radiator, reflector, or absorber surface may have at least one of a surface area selected to achieve the desired power flow (flow) to the PV converter including the emissivity, reflectivity, absorption coefficient, and the radiator and the PV cell. The power flow (flow) may include radiation bounce-back between the PV cell and the blackbody radiator. In one embodiment, at least one of the emissivity and surface area of the inner surface to outer surface of the blackbody radiator 5b4 is selected to achieve the desired power flow (flow) to the PV cell relative to the power flow (flow) into the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0206] In one embodiment, high-energy light, such as at least one of UV and EUV, may dissociate at least one of H2O and H2 within reaction cell chamber 5b31 to increase the rate of the hydrino reaction. The dissociation may be an alternative to the effect of pyrolysis.

[0207] In another embodiment, the generator operates to maintain a high metal vapor pressure within reaction cell chamber 5b31. The high metal vapor pressure may do either one of creating an optically thick plasma that converts UV and EUV radiation from the hydrino reaction to blackbody radiation, and functioning as a reactant, such as a conductive matrix for the hydrino reaction, to increase the reaction rate. The hydrino reaction may propagate within a reaction cell chamber supported by the pyrolysis of water. At least one of the metal vapor and blackbody temperature may be high, such as in the range from 1000K to 10,000K, to support the pyrolysis of water to increase the hydrino reaction rate. The hydrino reaction may occur in at least one of the gas phase and plasma phase. The metal may be injected by an electromagnetic pump and vaporized by at least one of the ignition current and heat from the hydrino reaction. The reaction conditions, current, and metal injection rate may be adjusted to achieve the desired metal vapor pressure.

[0208] Operation of the generator at a temperature above the boiling point of the metal source of the metal vapor may result in a reaction cell - chamber pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. The metal vapor pressure may be controlled by at least one of controlling the amount of metal vapor supplied to the chamber by an electromagnetic (EM) pump and controlling the temperature of cell components such as a cell reservoir. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell - chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c may comprise at least one baffle that causes a convective current of hot vapor from one zone of the reaction cell - chamber, where the vapor has a maximum temperature such as within the zone where the hydrino reaction occurs against the cooler liquid metal surface of the reservoir 5c. Heat circulation may control the silver vapor pressure by condensing the vapor, where the vapor pressure may be determined by at least one of the vapor pressure dependence on the temperature of the liquid silver to be controlled and the transport rate. The reservoir may be deep enough to maintain the level of the liquid silver. The reservoir may be cooled by a heat exchanger to maintain the liquid silver. The temperature may be controlled using cooling such as water cooling. In a typical embodiment, a straight baffle extending from the reservoir into the reaction cell - chamber may separate the outer cold flow from the inner hot flow. In another embodiment, when the desired metal vapor pressure is achieved, the EM pump may be controlled to stop pumping. Instead, the pressure of the cell - chamber 5b3 or 5b3a1 may be made to match the pressure of the reaction cell - chamber 5b31 such that a desired acceptable pressure gradient exists across the chamber. The difference in chamber pressure may be reduced or equalized or balanced by adding a gas such as a noble gas to the cell - chamber from a gas supply controlled by valves, regulators, controllers, and pressure sensors. In one embodiment, the gas is permeable between the cell - chamber 5b3 or 5b3a1 and the reaction cell - chamber 5b31. Instead of the metal vapor, the chamber gas may move to equalize the pressures of the two chambers. Both chambers may be pressurized to a high pressure with a gas such as a noble gas.The pressure may be higher than the maximum operating partial pressure of the metal vapor. The maximum metal vapor partial pressure may correspond to the maximum operating temperature. During operation, the metal vapor pressure may be increased so that the gas flows selectively from the reaction cell chamber 5b3 to the cell chamber 5b3 or 5b3a1 until the pressure equilibrates or vice versa. In one embodiment, the gas pressure between the two chambers automatically equilibrates. The equilibrium may be achieved by the selective mobility of the gas between the chambers. In one embodiment, a displacement in pressure is avoided so that a large pressure difference is avoided.

[0209] The pressure in the cell chamber may be maintained higher than the pressure in the reaction cell chamber. The greater pressure in the outer cell chamber may function to mechanically hold together the cell component blackbody radiator 56b4 and the reservoir 5c.

[0210] In one embodiment, the metal vapor is maintained at a steady-state pressure where condensation of the vapor is minimized. The electromagnetic pump may stop at the desired metal vapor pressure. The EM pump may be operated intermittently to pump to maintain the desired steady-state pressure. The metal vapor pressure may be maintained within at least one of the ranges of 0.01 Torr to 200 atm, 0.1 Torr to 100 atm, and 1 Torr to 50 atm.

[0211] In an embodiment for achieving high hydrino power, the electrode electromagnetic pumping operation is controlled to control ignition current parameters such as waveform, peak current, peak voltage, constant current, and constant voltage. In one embodiment, the waveform may be any desired one that optimizes the desired power output and efficiency. The waveform may be constant current, constant voltage, constant power (electric power), sawtooth, square wave, sine wave, trapezoid, triangle, ramp-up with cutoff, ramp-up - ramp-down, and other waveforms known in the art. If the waveform has a portion with approximately zero voltage or current, the duty cycle may be in the range of about 1% to 99%. The frequency may be any desired one, such as at least one range from about 0.001 Hz to 1 MHz, 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz, and 0.1 Hz to 10 kHz. The peak current of the waveform may be within at least one range from about 10 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 20 kA. The voltage may be given by the product of resistance and current. In one embodiment, the source of power (electrical power) 2 may include an ignition capacitor bank 90. In one embodiment, the source of power (electrical power) 2 such as a capacitor bank may be cooled. The cooling system may comprise one of the present disclosures such as a radiator.

[0212] In one embodiment, the source of power (electrical power) 2 comprises a capacitor bank with a different number of series and parallel capacitors to supply an optimal electrode voltage and current. The PV converter may charge the capacitor bank to a desired optimal voltage and maintain an optimal current. The ignition voltage may be increased by increasing the resistance between the electrodes. The electrode resistance may be increased by operating the electrodes at a higher temperature, such as within a temperature range of about 1000K to 3700K. By controlling the ignition process and electrode cooling, the electrode temperature may be controlled to maintain a desired temperature. The voltage may be in at least one range of about 1V to 500V, 1V to 100V, 1V to 50V, and 1V to 20V. The current may be in at least one range of about 10A to 100kA, 100A to 10kA, and 100A to 5kA. In a typical embodiment, the voltage is about 16V at a constant current between 150A and 250A. In one embodiment, the power from the hydrino reaction is higher at the positive electrode because the hydrino reaction rate is higher. The higher rate may be due to a more effective removal of electrons from the reaction plasma by the positive electrode. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction depends on the thermodynamically favorable removal of electrons at a higher applied electrode voltage. The removal of electrons may also be enhanced by grounding the cell components (components) in contact with the reaction plasma. The generator may comprise an additional ground electrode or a positively biased electrode. The capacitor may be housed within the housing 90 of the ignition capacitor ( Figure 12 (old: Figure 2I89) ).

[0213] The ignition voltage may be increased such that it is within at least one of the ranges of about 1V to 100V, 1V to 50V, and 1V to 25V. The current may be pulsed or continuous. The current may be within at least one of the ranges of about 50A to 100kA, 100A to 10kA, and 300A to 5kA. The evaporated melt may supply a conductive path to remove electrons from the hydrino catalytic reaction to increase the reaction rate. In a typical embodiment, the silver vapor pressure is increased such that it is within the range of about 0.5 atm to 100 atm by evaporation in the temperature range of about 2162 °C to 4000 °C.

[0214] In one embodiment, the SunCell™ may include a liquid electrode. The electrode may include a liquid metal. The liquid metal may include a molten metal of a fuel. The injection system may include at least two reservoirs 5c and at least two electromagnetic pumps that are substantially electrically insulated from each other. The nozzles 5q of each of the plurality of injection systems may be oriented to intersect a plurality of molten metal streams. Each stream may have a connection to a terminal of an electrical source 2 to supply voltage and current to the intersecting streams. Current may flow from one nozzle 5q through its molten metal stream to the other stream and nozzle 5q and back to the corresponding terminal of the electrical source 2. The cell includes a molten metal return system that facilitates the return of the injected molten metal to a plurality of reservoirs. In one embodiment, the molten metal return system minimizes at least one short circuit of the ignition current and the injection current through the molten metal. The reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include a floor that directs the return flow of the injected molten metal to separate reservoirs 5c such that the silver connecting the reservoirs is substantially separated within the separate reservoirs 5c to minimize an electrical short circuit through the silver. The resistance to electrical conduction may be substantially higher through the return flow of silver between the reservoirs than through the intersecting silver such that most of the current flows through the intersecting streams. The cell may include a reservoir electrical insulator or separator that may include an electrical insulator such as ceramic or a low-conductivity refractory material such as graphite.

[0215] The hydrino reaction may cause the generation of a high concentration of electrons that may slow down further hydrino generation, thereby inhibiting the hydrino reaction rate. The current at the ignition electrode 8 may remove electrons. In one embodiment, when it is a positive electrode or anode due to the priority of the electrons to be removed at the anode that causes a high hydrino reaction rate and local overheating, a solid electrode such as a solid refractory metal electrode is likely to melt. In one embodiment, the electrode includes a hybrid of a liquid electrode and a solid electrode. The anode may include a liquid metal electrode, and the cathode may include a solid electrode such as a W electrode, and vice versa. The liquid metal anode may include at least one EM pump and a nozzle where the liquid metal is ejected to contact the cathode to complete the ignition electrical circuit.

[0216] In one embodiment, when the hydrino reaction propagates in the absence of an electrical power input, the ignition power ends. The hydrino reaction may propagate within a reaction cell chamber supported by the pyrolysis of water. The reaction that does not depend on the ignition power may self-propagate under appropriate reaction conditions. The reaction conditions may include at least one of high temperature and appropriate reactant concentration. At least one of the hydrino reaction conditions and the current may be controlled to achieve a high temperature at at least a part of the electrode to achieve pyrolysis. At least one of the reaction temperature and the temperature of a part of the electrode may be as high as within at least one of the ranges from about 1000 °C to 20,000 °C, from 1000 °C to 15,000 °C, and from 1000 °C to 10,000 °C. The appropriate reaction concentration may include a water vapor pressure within at least one of the ranges from about 0.1 Torr to 10,000 Torr, from 0.2 Torr to 1000 Torr, from 0.5 Torr to 100 Torr, and from 0.5 Torr to 10 Torr. The appropriate reaction concentration may include a hydrogen pressure within at least one of the ranges from about 0.1 Torr to 10,000 Torr, from 0.2 Torr to 1000 Torr, from 0.5 Torr to 100 Torr, and from 0.5 Torr to 10 Torr. The appropriate reaction concentration may include a metal vapor pressure within at least one of the ranges from about 1 Torr to 100,000 Torr, from 10 Torr to 10,000 Torr, and from 1 Torr to 760 Torr. The reaction cell chamber may be maintained at a temperature that maintains a metal vapor pressure that optimizes the hydrino reaction rate.

[0217] In one embodiment, a compound may be added to a molten metal, such as molten Ag or an AgCu alloy, to lower at least one of its melting point and viscosity. The compound may include a fluxing agent such as borax. In one embodiment, a solid fuel such as one of the present disclosure may be added to the molten metal. In one embodiment, the molten metal, such as molten silver, copper, or an AgCu alloy, may include a composition that binds or disperses water in a metal, such as a fluxing agent that may be a hydrate of borax hydrated to various degrees, such as dehydrated borax, pentahydrate, and decahydrate. The melt may include a fluxing agent for removing oxides from the inside of the pump tube. The removal may maintain good electrical contact between the molten metal and the pump tube 5k6 in the region of the electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2.

[0218] In one embodiment, a compound containing a source of oxygen may be added to a molten metal such as molten silver, copper, or an AgCu alloy. In one embodiment, the metal melt contains a metal that does not adhere to a conical reservoir and a cell component such as a cone or dome. The metal may include an alloy such as an Ag-Cu or Ag-Cu-Ni alloy such as AgCu(28wt%). The compound may be melted at the operating temperature of the reservoir 5c and the electromagnetic pump so as to effect at least one of dissolution and mixing in the molten metal. The compound may effect at least one of dissolution and mixing in the molten metal at a temperature lower than its melting point. Typical compounds containing a source of oxygen include metal oxides or oxides such as oxides of Group 13, 14, 15, 16, or 17. Typical metals of the metal oxides are at least one of those having low water reactivity such as those of the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. The corresponding oxides may react thermodynamically favorably with hydrogen to form an HOH catalyst.Typical metal oxides and their corresponding melting points are sodium tetraborate decahydrate (melting point = 743 °C, anhydrous), CuO (melting point = 1326 °C), NiO (melting point = 1955 °C), PbO (melting point = 888 °C), Sb2O3 (melting point = 656 °C), Bi2O3 (melting point = 817 °C), Co2O3 (melting point = 1900 °C), CdO (melting point = 900 - 1000 °C), GeO2 (melting point = 1115 °C), Fe2O3 (melting point = 1539 - 1565 °C), MoO3 (melting point = 795 °C), TeO2 (melting point = 732 °C), SnO2 (melting point = 1630 °C), WO3 (melting point = 1473 °C), WO2 (melting point = 1700 °C), ZnO (melting point = 1975 °C), TiO2 (melting point = 1843 °C), Al2O3 (melting point = 2072 °C), alkaline earth oxides, rare earth oxides, transition metal oxides, inner transition metal oxides, alkali oxides such as Li2O (melting point = 1438 °C), Na2O (melting point = 1132 °C), K2O (melting point = 740 °C), Rb2O (melting point => 500 °C), Cs2O (melting point = 490 °C), boron oxides such as B2O3 (melting point = 450 °C), V2O5 (melting point = 690 °C), VO (melting point = 1789 °C), Nb2O5 (melting point = 1512 °C), NbO2 (melting point = 1915 °C), SiO2 (melting point = 1713 °C), Ga2O3 (melting point = 1900 °C), In2O5 (melting point = 1910 °C), Li2WO4 (melting point = 740 °C), Li2B4O7 (melting point = 917 °C), Na2MoO4 (melting point = 687 °C), LiVO3 (melting point = 605 °C), Li2VO3, Mn2O5 (melting point = 1567 °C), and Ag2WO4 (melting point = 620 °C). Further typical oxides include mixtures of oxides such as mixtures containing at least two of Li2O and Na2O and alkali oxides such as Al2O3, B2O3, and VO2. This mixture can provide more desirable physical properties such as a lower melting point or a higher boiling point. The oxides may be dried. In typical examples of oxygen sources such as Bi2O3 or Li2WO4, the hydrogen reduction reaction of the oxygen source is thermodynamically favorable, and the reaction of the reduction product forming the oxygen source with water can occur under operating conditions such as red heat conditions. In a typical example, upon red heat, bismuth reacts with water to form bismuth(III) oxide (2Bi(s) + 3H2O(g) → Bi2O3(s) + 3H2(g)).In one embodiment, the oxide is vaporized into the gas phase or plasma. The number of moles of the oxide within the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may limit its vapor pressure. In one embodiment, the oxygen source forming the HOH catalyst can include a plurality of oxides. Each of the plurality of oxides may be volatile so as to function as a source of the HOH catalyst within a specific temperature range. For example, LiVO3 may function as the main oxygen source above its melting point and below the melting point of a second oxygen source such as a second oxide. The second oxide may function as an oxygen source at a higher temperature such that it exceeds its melting point. Typical second oxides are Al2O3, ZrO, MgO, alkaline earth oxides, and rare earth oxides. The oxide may be essentially all gas at an operating temperature such as 3000K. The pressure may be adjusted by the number of moles added to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The ratio of the oxide vapor pressure and the silver vapor pressure may be adjusted to optimize the hydrino reaction conditions and rates.

[0219] In one embodiment, the oxygen source may include at least one inorganic compound such as H2O, CO, CO2, N2O, NO, NO2, N2O3, N2O4, N2O5, SO, SO2, SO3, PO, PO2, P2O3, P2O5. The source of oxygen, such as at least one of CO2 and CO, may be a gas at room temperature. The oxygen source, such as a gas, may be within the outer pressure tank chamber 5b31a. The oxygen source may include a gas. The gas may effect at least one of diffusion or permeation from the outer pressure tank chamber 5b31a to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and diffusion or permeation from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the outer pressure tank chamber 5b31a. The oxygen source gas concentration within the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be controlled by controlling its pressure within the outer pressure tank chamber 5b31a. The oxygen source gas may be added to the reaction cell chamber as a gas inside the reaction cell chamber by a supply line. The supply line may enter a colder region such as within the EM pump tube at the bottom of the reservoir. The oxygen source gas may be supplied by the decomposition or vaporization of a solid or liquid such as frozen CO2, carbonate, or carbonic acid. The pressure within at least one of the outer pressure tank chamber 5b31a and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be measured by a pressure gauge such as one of the present disclosure. The gas pressure may be controlled by a controller and a gas source.

[0220] The reaction cell chamber 5b31 gas may further contain H2 that passes through the blackbody radiator 5b4 or is supplied through an EM pump tube or another inlet. Another gas such as at least one of CO2, CO, and H2O may be supplied by at least one of the flow through the permeation and inlets such as the EM pump tube. H2O may include at least one of water vapor and gaseous water or steam. The gas in the outer chamber that penetrates the blackbody radiator such as the carbon blackbody radiator 5b4 and is supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include at least one of H2, H2O, CO, and CO2. The gas may undergo at least one of diffusion or permeation from the outer pressure chamber 5b31a to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and diffusion or permeation from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the outer pressure chamber 5b31a. By controlling the corresponding gas pressure in the outer chamber, the concentration of each gas in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be controlled. The pressure or the concentration of each gas in the reaction cel...

Claims

1. a) Two molten metal reservoirs each including an injector tube and an electromagnetic pump, wherein each electromagnetic pump and injector tube generate a stream of molten metal from the molten metal contained in the reservoir, b) A source of electrical power that supplies opposite voltages to the two molten metal reservoirs, wherein the stream of molten metal intersects the source and current is caused to flow through the intersecting streams of molten metal. A system characterized by this.

2. The system of Claim 1, wherein each reservoir includes a molten metal level controller. A system characterized by this.

3. The system of Claim 1, wherein the molten metal level controller includes an inlet riser tube. A system characterized by this.

4. The system of Claim 1, wherein each electromagnetic pump (i) A DC or AC conduction type including a DC or AC current supplied to the molten metal through an electrode and a magnetic field in the same phase, and (ii) A system characterized by including either a source of alternating magnetic field passing through a short - circuit loop of the molten metal and a source of alternating magnetic field in the same phase, which is an induction type.

5. The system of Claim 4, wherein the electromagnetic pump of the induction type includes a ceramic channel forming a short - circuit loop of the molten metal. A system characterized by this.

6. The system of Claim 1, wherein the system further includes a molten metal return system that facilitates the return of molten metal from the molten metal stream to the two molten metal reservoirs. A system characterized by this.

7. The system of Claim 6, wherein the molten metal return system includes a floor that guides the return flow of molten metal into a separated reservoir. A system characterized by this.

8. The system of Claim 7, wherein the electrical conduction resistance is higher through the return molten metal flow than through the intersecting molten streams such that most of the current flows through the intersecting streams. A system characterized by this.

9. The system of Claim 1, further including a reservoir electrical insulator that electrically insulates the two reservoirs. A system characterized by this.

10. The system of Claim 9, wherein the electrical insulator is ceramic or refractory material. A system characterized by this.

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