Magnetohydrodynamic hydrogen electrical power generator

Abstract

To provide a power generator that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power.SOLUTION: A power generator includes: (i) a reaction cell for reactions involving atomic hydrogen hydrogen products identifiable by unique analytical and spectroscopic signatures; (ii) a molten metal injection system including a pump such as an electromagnetic pump that provides a molten metal stream to the reaction cell and a reservoir that receives the molten metal stream; and an addition system including an electrical power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics of the reaction and an energy gain. The power generator includes: (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma, (vi) a molten metal recovery system; and (vii) a power converter capable of (a) converting the high-power light output from a blackbody radiator of the cell into electricity using concentrator thermophotovoltaic cells or (b) converting the high energetic plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.SELECTED DRAWING: None

Description

Technical Field

[0001] Cross - reference to related applications This application claims priority based on U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 794,515 filed on January 18, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 803,283 filed on February 8, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 823,541 filed on March 25, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 828,341 filed on April 2, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 839,617 filed on April 27, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 844,643 filed on March 7, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 851,010 filed on May 21, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 868,838 filed on January 28, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 871,664 filed on June 8, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 879,389 filed on June 26, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 883,047 filed on August 5, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 890,007 filed on August 21, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 897,161 filed on September 20, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 903,528 filed on September 20, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 929,265 filed on November 1, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 935,559 filed on November 14, 2019, U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 948,173 filed on December 13, 2019, and U.S. Patent Application No. 62 / 954,355 filed on December 27, 2019, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

[0002] Field of the disclosure The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and more particularly, to systems, devices, and methods for power generation. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure generate optical power, plasma, and thermal power, and generate electrical power via a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, and related methods, photovoltaic power converters, plasma to electric power converters, photon to electric power converters, or thermal to electric power converters. Also, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use photovoltaic power converters to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power by igniting water or a water-based fuel source. In the present disclosure, these embodiments and other related embodiments are described in detail. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Background art Power generation can take various forms and utilize power from plasma. The success of commercializing plasma may depend on a power generation system that can efficiently generate plasma and capture the energy output (power) from the generated plasma.

[0004] Plasma can be formed during the ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms from which electrons have been stripped may be formed, and high photovoltaic power may be emitted. The high photovoltaic power of the plasma can be utilized by the power converters of the present disclosure. Ions and excited-state atoms can recombine to emit high-intensity light through electron relaxation. The high-intensity light can be converted into electricity using photovoltaic technology.

[0005] Summary of the disclosure The present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure, reactants capable of receiving, within the vessel, a reaction that generates sufficient energy to form plasma, (a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor, and (b) reactants comprising molten metal, a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant to the vessel, a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure within the vessel lower than atmospheric pressure when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel, At least one reservoir containing a portion of molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to supply molten metal into the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and a molten metal injector system including at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream, At least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current for supplying electrical power to at least one stream of molten metal when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or steam is flowing into the container, A reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction, Inverse A power converter or output system for converting a portion of the energy generated by the reaction (e.g., light and / or thermal output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or thermal power.

[0006] The power generation (power) system may include a blackbody radiator and a window for outputting light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be utilized to generate light (e.g., for illumination).

[0007] In some embodiments, the power generation system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas and a recombiner and / or dissociator for hydrogen and oxygen. For example, the power generation system includes a recombiner for hydrogen and oxygen, and the recombiner for hydrogen and oxygen includes a recombiner catalyst metal supported by an inner support material.

[0008] The power generation system can be operated with parameters that maximize a reaction, specifically a reaction capable of outputting sufficient energy to maintain the generation of plasma and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the pressure of the operating vessel ranges from 0.1 torr to 50 torr. In certain implementations, the mass flow rate of hydrogen exceeds that of oxygen in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times. In some embodiments, the pressure may exceed 50 torr, and a gas recirculation system may be further provided.

[0009] In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the vessel. In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the vessel. The inert gas can be used to extend the lifespan of certain in situ formed reactants (such as water at the time of generation).

[0010] The power generation system may include a water microinjector configured to inject water into the vessel such that the plasma generated from the energy output from the reaction contains water vapor. In some embodiments, the microinjector injects water into the vessel. In some embodiments, the H2 mole percentage is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of water vapor (e.g., water vapor injected by the microinjector).

[0011] The power generation system may further include a heater for melting a metal (e.g., gallium or silver or copper or a combination thereof) to form a molten metal. The power generation system may further include a molten metal recovery system configured to recover the molten metal after the reaction, including a molten metal overflow channel that collects the overflow from the non-injector molten metal reservoir.

[0012] The molten metal injection system may further include electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-molten metal reservoir, and the ignition system includes a source of power or ignition current that supplies opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes, where the power source supplies current and power flow to the molten metal stream to cause a reaction of the reactants and form plasma in the vessel.

[0013] The power supply typically supplies a high-current electrical energy sufficient for the reactants to react to form a plasma. In certain embodiments, the power supply includes at least one ultracapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. Typically, the molten metal pump system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal storage tank to a non-injection storage tank, during which a molten metal flow is generated. In some embodiments, the molten metal pump system is one or more electromagnetic pumps, each of the electromagnetic pumps (a) includes a DC or AC conduction type including a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through an electrode and an AC vector cross magnetic field source having a constant or in-phase AC vector, or (b) is provided with one of an induction type including an AC magnetic field source passing through a short-circuit loop of the molten metal that induces an AC current in the metal and an in-phase vector cross AC magnetic field. In some embodiments, the current from the molten metal ignition system power supply may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the molten metal flow to generate further ignition by ignition (for example, the ignition frequency is less than 10,000 Hz). The injector storage tank may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector storage tank may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

[0014] In various implementations, the non-injector storage tank is disposed (e.g., vertically) above the injector such that molten metal from the molten metal flow can be recovered into the storage tank and the molten metal flow is in electrical contact with the non-injector storage tank electrode, and is configured to generate a molten flow directed towards the non-injector storage tank, and further, the molten metal accumulates on the non-injector storage tank electrode. In some embodiments, the ignition current to the non-injector storage tank is (a) a sealed high-temperature cable feedthrough passing through the container, (b) an electrode busbar, and (c) an electrode may include. The ignition current density can be related to the shape of the container, at least because the shape of the container is related to the shape of the final plasma. In various embodiments, the container can have the shape of an hourglass (e.g., a shape in which the cross-section of the central portion of the inner surface area of the container has a cross-sectional area smaller than within 20% or 10% or 5% of the cross-sectional area of each distal end along the main axis), and can be vertically oriented (e.g., the main axis of the container is substantially parallel to gravity). Here, the injector reservoir is below the constricted portion, and the level of the molten metal in the reservoir is configured to be approximately proximal to the constricted portion of the hourglass to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the container is symmetric with respect to the main longitudinal axis. In some embodiments, the container has the shape of an hourglass and can include a high melting point metal liner. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of the container having the shape of an hourglass can include the positive electrode for the ignition current. The molten metal can include at least one of silver, gallium, silver-copper alloy, copper, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point below 700 °C. For example, the molten metal can include at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, preferably gallium, antimony, or alloys such as rose metal, cerrosafe, wood metal, field metal, cerrolow 136, cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and galinstan. In certain aspects, at least one of the components of the power generation system that contacts the molten metal (e.g., the reservoir, the electrode) is provided with the inclusion, coating, or coating of one or more alloy-resistant materials that exhibit resistance to the formation of an alloy with the molten metal. Exemplary alloy-resistant materials are tungsten, tantalum, SS347, and ceramics. In some embodiments, at least a part of the container is composed of ceramics and / or metals. The ceramics can include at least one of metal oxides, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics. In some embodiments, the metal of the container includes at least one of stainless steel and high melting point metals. The molten metal can react with water to form atomic hydrogen in situ. In various implementations, the molten metal is gallium, and the power generation system further includes a gallium regeneration system for regenerating gallium from gallium oxide (e.g., gallium oxide produced in the reaction). The gallium regeneration system can include at least one source of hydrogen gas and atomic hydrogen to reduce the gallium oxide to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the hydrogen gas is supplied to the gallium regeneration system from a source external to the power generation system. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas and / or atomic hydrogen are generated in situ. The gallium regeneration system can include an ignition system that supplies power to the gallium produced in the reaction (or a combination of gallium / gallium oxide). In some implementations, such power can electrolyze the gallium oxide on the surface of the gallium to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system can include an electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte containing an alkali or alkaline earth halide). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system can include a basic pH aqueous electrolysis system, means for transporting the gallium oxide to the system, and means for returning the gallium to a container (e.g., a molten metal storage tank). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system includes a skimmer and a bucket elevator for removing gallium oxide from the surface of the gallium. In various implementations, the power generation system can include an exhaust line to a vacuum pump for maintaining an exhaust flow, and further can include an electrostatic precipitation system within the exhaust line for collecting gallium oxide particles in the exhaust flow.

[0015] In some embodiments, the power system can further include at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to the wall of the container wall, a heat exchanger capable of transferring heat between the molten metal or between the molten metal storage tank).

[0016] In some embodiments, at least one power converter or power generation system of the reaction output may include at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, an electromagnetic fluid converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external combustion engine Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine, and further a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The container may include a light transmissive photovoltaic (PV) window for transmitting light from the interior of the container to the photovoltaic converter, at least one container shape, and at least one baffle having a rotating window that creates a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent the molten metal from coating the PV window. The rotating window includes a system for reducing gallium oxide, including at least one of a hydrogen reduction system and an electrolysis system. In some embodiments, the rotating window includes or consists of quartz, sapphire, magnesium fluoride, or a combination thereof. In some implementations, the rotating window is coated with a coating that suppresses the adhesion of at least one of gallium and gallium oxide. The rotating window coating may include at least one of diamond such as carbon, carbon, boron nitride, and alkali hydroxide.

[0017] A power converter or output system may comprise a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a nozzle connected to a vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and any gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may include silver. In embodiments having a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter may be capable of delivering oxygen gas upon interaction with silver in the molten metal stream to form silver particle nanoparticles (e.g., sized in the molecular region of less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm), and the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through a magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to provide an accumulation of kinetic energy of the power generated from the reaction. A reactant supply system may supply oxygen gas to the converter and control the delivery of the oxygen gas. In various implementations, at least a portion of the accumulation of the kinetic energy of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in a magnetohydrodynamic channel. Such converted electrical energy may result in the coalescence of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may coalesce as a molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen in a condenser portion of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as the MHD condenser), and the molten metal containing the absorbed oxygen is returned to an injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, oxygen may be released from the metal by a plasma within the vessel. In some embodiments, this plasma is maintained within the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to enhance the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal. In some embodiments, the plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to facilitate the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

[0018] The molten metal pump system may include a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, the first stage including a pump for the metal recirculation system and the second stage including a pump for the metal injector system.

[0019] The reactions induced by the reaction generate sufficient energy to initiate the formation of a plasma within the vessel. Those reactions are (a) 1900 - 2000 cm -1 and 5500 - 6200 cm -1A hydrogen product having Raman peaks in one or more of the ranges, and (b) A hydrogen product having a plurality of Raman peaks arranged at intervals that are integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV, and (c) A hydrogen product having an infrared peak at 1900 to 2000 cm -1 and (d) A hydrogen product having a plurality of infrared peaks arranged at intervals that are integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV, and (e) A hydrogen product having a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm with intervals that are integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.3 eV, and (f) A hydrogen product having a plurality of electron beam emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm with intervals that are integer multiples of 0.2 to 0.3 eV, and (g) A hydrogen product having a plurality of Raman spectrum peaks in the range of 5000 to 20,000 cm -1 and having intervals that are integer multiples of 1000 ± 200 cm -1 , and (h) A hydrogen product having a continuous Raman spectrum in the range of 40 to 8000 cm -1 , and (i) A hydrogen product having Raman peaks in the range of 1500 to 2000 cm -1 due to at least one of paramagnetic shift and nanoparticle shift, and (j) A hydrogen product having an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV, and (k) A hydrogen product that causes a high magnetic field MAS NMR matrix shift, and (l) A hydrogen product having a high magnetic field MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift exceeding -5 ppm relative to TMS, and (m) A hydrogen product containing a macrocondensate or polymer H n (n is an integer greater than 3), and (n) A macrocondensate or polymer H having a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of 16.12 to 16.13 n (n is an integer greater than 3), and (o) A hydrogen product containing a metal hydride in which the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W, and (p) H 16 and H 24 A hydrogen product containing at least one of them, and (q) An inorganic compound M x X y and H2, where M is a cation, X is an anion, and M(M x X y H2)n (n is an integer) A hydrogen product having at least one of the peaks of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and (r) K (K2H2CO3) n + and K (KOHH2) n + A hydrogen product containing at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2, each having at least one of the peaks of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), and (s) A magnetic hydrogen product containing a metal hydride, where the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and (t) A hydrogen product containing a metal oxide and further containing hydrogen, where the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility measurement, and (u) A hydrogen product containing a metal that is inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, and the EPR spectrum contains at least one of a g factor of about 2.0046 ± 20% and a proton splitting such as a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6×10 -2 eV, and (v) A hydrogen product whose EPR spectrum exhibits at least an electron-electron dipole splitting energy of about 9.9×10 -5 eV ± 20% and a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6×10 -5 eV ± 20%, and A hydrogen product containing a gas having a negative gas chromatography peak containing a hydrogen carrier, (x) A hydrogen product having a quadrupole moment / e of (1.70127a0 2 / p 2 ) ±10% (where p is an integer), (y) A protic hydrogen product containing a molecular dimer in which the rotational energy for the transition from an integer J to J + 1 in the range of (J + 1) 44.30 cm -1 ±20 cm -1 is reverse-rotating, and the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer containing deuterium is 1 / 2 of the rotational energy of the dimer containing protons, (z) (i) A hydrogen product containing a molecular dimer having at least one parameter from the group of a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 23 cm -1 ±10%, and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.0011 eV ± 10%, (aa) (i) A hydrogen product containing a molecular dimer having at least one parameter from the group of a separation distance of hydrogen molecules of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 23 cm -1 ±10%, and (iii) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.0019 eV ± 10%, (bb) (i) (J + 1) 44.30 cm -1 ±20 cm -1 , (ii) (J + 1) 22.15 cm -1 ±10 cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm -1 ±10% of the FTIR and Raman spectrum signatures and / or an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of about 1.028 Å ± 10% and / or a calorimetry of an evaporation energy of about 0.0011 eV ± 10% per hydrogen molecule, (cc) (i) (J + 1) 44.30 cm -1 ±10 cm -1 , (ii) (J + 1) 22.15 cm -1 ±10 cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm -1An X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of ±10% and / or 1.028 Å ± 10%, and / or a calorimetric measurement of an evaporation energy of about 0.019 eV ± 10% per hydrogen molecule, and a solid hydrogen product, (dd) A hydrogen product containing hydrogenated hydride ions that are magnetic and link magnetic fluxes in magnetic units in a bound energy region without boundaries, (ee) A hydrogen product in which high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) shows a chromatographic peak having a retention time longer than the carrier void volume time using an organic column using a solvent containing water, and detection of the peak by mass spectrometry such as ESI-ToF shows a fragment of at least one inorganic compound, A hydrogen product characterized as one or more of the above can be produced. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product (a) A hydrogen product having a continuous Raman spectrum in the range of 40 to 8000 cm -1 , (b) A hydrogen product having a Raman peak in the range of 1500 to 2000 cm -1 due to at least one of a paramagnetic shift and a nanoparticle shift, (c) A hydrogen product having a peak in X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV, (d) A hydrogen product containing a metal that is inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, and the EPR spectrum includes at least one of a proton splitting such as a g factor of about 2.0046 ± 20% and a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6 × 10 -2 eV, (e) A hydrogen product in which the EPR spectrum shows at least an electron-electron dipole splitting energy of about 9.9 × 10 -5 eV ± 20% and a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6 × 10 -5 eV ± 20%, (f) It can be characterized by one or more of hydrogen products that are magnetic and contain hydrogenated hydrogen ions that link magnetic flux in units of magnetic flux quanta in a bound energy region without boundaries, among one or more of the hydrogen products and the like. In some implementations, the reaction is (a) Having a Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) including at least one of a liberation band (liberation band) in a fingerprint region where there is no H2 rotational energy and other high energy characteristics within ±10% of 1940 cm -1 ; (b) Having a proton magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum ( 1 H MAS NMR) including a high magnetic field matrix peak; (c) Having a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) result showing at least one decomposition of a metal hydride and a hydrogen polymer in a temperature range of 100 °C to 1000 °C; (d) Having an electron beam excited luminescence spectrum including an H2(1 / 4) vibration band in a 260 nm region including a plurality of peaks separated from each other by 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; (e) Having an electron beam excited luminescence spectrum including an H2(1 / 4) vibration band in a 260 nm region including a series of peaks arranged at intervals of 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV from each other, and the peak intensity decreasing at extremely low temperatures in the range of 0 K to 150 K; (f) Having a photoluminescence Raman spectrum in which the second-order H2(1 / 4) rotational vibration band in the 260 nm region includes a plurality of peaks separated from each other by about 0.23 eV to 0.3 eV; (g) Having a photoluminescence Raman spectrum including a second-order H2(1 / 4) rotational vibration band including a plurality of peaks in the range of 5000 to 20,000 cm -1 having an interval that is an integer multiple of 1000 ± 200 cm; -1 ; (h) Having a Raman spectrum including an H2 rotational peak in one or more of 1940 cm -1 ±10% and 5820 cm -1 ±10%. (i) Having a continuous Raman spectrum in the range of 40 to 8000 cm -1 ; (j) Having a Raman spectrum in the range of 1500 to 2000 cm due to at least one of paramagnetic shift and nanoparticle shift -1 ; (k) Having an X-ray photoelectron spectrum (XPS) that includes the total energy of H2(1 / 4) at 490 to 500 eV (l) The hydrogen product interacts with K2CO3H(1 / 4)2 and KOHH2 (for example, in embodiments including a getter), and at least one of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrum (ToF-SIMS) has peaks of K(K2H2CO3) n + and K(KOHH2) n + respectively; (m) Having a quadrupole moment / e of (1.70127a0 2 / 4 2 ) ± 10% (n) Having an end-to-end rotational energy for transitions from integer J to J + 1 within the ranges of approximately (J + 1)44.30 cm -1 ± 20 cm -1 and approximately (J + 1)22.15 cm -1 ± 10 cm -1 respectively; (o) (i) Having at least one parameter from the group of: (i) a separation distance of H2 molecules of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) a vibrational energy between H2 molecules of 23 cm -1 ± 10%, and (iii) a van der Waals energy between H2 molecules of 0.0011 eV ± 10%; (p) (i) (J + 1)44.30 cm -1 ± 20 cm -1 , (ii) (J + 1)22.15 cm -1 ± 10 cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm -1Produce H2 that can be characterized as having at least one of an FTIR and Raman spectrum signature of ±10% and / or a calorimetric measurement of an evaporation energy of 0.0011 eV ± 10% per H2. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product can be formed into solid H2, (a) (i) a separation distance of H2 molecules of 1.028 Å ± 10%, (ii) 23 cm -1 ±10% of the vibrational energy between H2 molecules, and (iii) having at least one parameter from the group of van der Waals energies between H2(1 / 4) molecules of 0.019 eV ± 10%, (b) (i) (J + 1) 44.30 cm -1 ±20 cm -1 , (ii) (J + 1) 22.15 cm -1 ±10 cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm -1 ±10% of the FTIR and Raman spectrum signatures and / or an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing a hydrogen molecule separation of 1.028 Å ± 10% and / or a calorimetric measurement of an evaporation energy of 0.0019 eV ± 10% per H2. In various implementations, the hydrogen product can be characterized similar to products formed from various hydrino reactors, such as those formed by wire initiation in an atmosphere that compresses steam. Such products (a) include macrocondensates or polymer H n (where n is an integer greater than 3), (b) macrocondensates or polymer H with a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of 16.12 - 16.13 n (where n is an integer greater than 3), (c) include metal hydrides containing at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W, (d) include at least one of H 16 and H 24 , (e) an inorganic compound Mx X y and contains H2, where M is a cation, X is an anion, M(M x X y H(1 / 4)2)n (n is an integer) has at least one peak in electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), (f) is magnetic and contains at least one of a metal oxide further containing a metal hydride and hydrogen, the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and hydrogen is H(1 / 4), (g) contains at least one of a metal oxide further containing a metal hydride and hydrogen, the metal contains at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, H is H(1 / 4), and the product exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility measurement, (h) contains a metal that is inactive in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, and the EPR spectrum shows proton splitting such as a g factor of about 2.0046 ± 20% and a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6 × 10 -2 eV, (i) contains a hydrogen molecule dimer [H2]2, and the EPR spectrum shows at least an electron-electron dipole splitting energy of about 9.9 × 10 -5 eV ± 20% and a proton-electron dipole splitting energy of about 1.6 × 10 -5 eV ± 20%, or (j) contains or releases H2 (e.g., a hydrogen product) having a negative gas chromatography peak containing a hydrogen carrier.

[0020] In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the above reaction is (i) an element other than hydrogen, (ii) H + , ordinary H2, ordinary H - , and ordinary H +It includes at least one normal hydrogen species, organic molecular species of 3, and a hydrogen product combined with at least one of (iv) inorganic species. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product includes an oxyanion compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product (or the hydrogen product recovered from embodiments containing a getter) is (a) MH, MH2, or M2H2 (where M is an alkali cation and H or H2 is the hydrogen product), (b) MH n (where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is the hydrogen product), (c) MHX (where M is an alkali cation, X is either a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a single negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is the hydrogen product), (d) MHX (where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product), (e) MHX (where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product), (f) M2HX (where M is an alkali cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product), (g) MH n (where n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen product), (h) M2H n (where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen product), (i) M2XH n (where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen product), (j) M2X2H n (where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen product), (k) M2X3H (where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product), (l) M2XH n (where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n is at least one hydrogen product), (m) M2XX’H (where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X’ is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product), (n) MM’H n (where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product), (o) MM’XH n (where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product), (p) MM’XH (where M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product), (q) MM’XX’H (where M is an alkaline earth cation, M’ is an alkali metal cation, X and X’ are singly negatively charged anions, H is a hydrogen product), (r) MXX’H n (where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, X’ is a metal or metalloid, transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product), (s) MH n (where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n contains at least one hydrogen product), (t) MXH n(wherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation or an alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the compound contains at least one hydrogen product), (u)(MH m MCO3) n (wherein M is an alkali cation or another +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one hydrogen product), (v)(MH m MNO3) n + nX - )(wherein M is an alkali cation or another +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one hydrogen product), (w)(MHMNO3) n (wherein M is an alkali cation or another +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound contains at least one hydrogen product), (x)(MHMOH) n (wherein M is an alkali cation or another +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound contains at least one hydrogen product), (y)(MH m M’X) n (wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M’ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one hydrogen product), further, (z)(MH m M’X’) n + nX - ((wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M’ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X’ are singly or doubly negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one hydrogen product), It may contain at least one compound having a formula selected from the group of The anion of the hydrogen product formed by the reaction can be one or more single negatively charged anions including halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, nitrate ions, doubly negatively charged anions, carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfate ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product is embedded in a crystal lattice (e.g., by using a getter such as K2CO3 placed in a container or an exhaust line). For example, the hydrogen product may be embedded in a salt lattice. In various implementations, the salt lattice may include alkali salts, alkali halides, alkali hydroxides, alkaline earth salts, alkaline earth halides, alkaline earth hydroxides, or combinations thereof.

[0021] An electrode system is also provided, and the electrode system (a) a first electrode and a second electrode; (b) a flow of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode; (c) a circulation system including a pump that draws molten metal from a storage tank, transports it through a conduit (e.g., a tube), and generates a molten metal flow exiting the conduit; (d) a power source configured to apply a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode, The molten metal flow simultaneously contacts the first electrode and the second electrode to generate an electric current between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the power is sufficient to generate a current exceeding 100 A.

[0022] An electrical circuit is also provided, and the electrical circuit (a) heating means for generating molten metal; (b) pumping means for transporting molten metal from a container through a conduit and generating a molten metal flow exiting the conduit; (c) may include a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with power supply means for creating a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode, The molten metal stream is in simultaneous contact with the first electrode and the second electrode to form an electrical circuit therebetween. For example, in an electrical circuit including the first and second electrodes, an improvement may include passing the molten metal stream through the electrodes to enable a current to flow therebetween.

[0023] Further provided is a system (which may be used in the power generation system described herein) for generating plasma. These are that the system (a) a molten metal injector system configured to generate a flow of molten metal from a metal storage tank, (b) an electrode system for inducing and passing an electric current through the molten metal stream, (c) (i) a water injection system configured to contact a measured amount of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas, (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and (iii) at least one of a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, (d) a power source configured to supply the electric current, and may include, wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is supplied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system may further include a pumping system configured to transfer the metal collected after the production of the plasma to the metal storage tank. In some embodiments, the system is further a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide to the metal, and may include an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and the metal regeneration system in which an electrical bias is supplied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide to the metal. In a particular implementation, the system (a) a pumping system configured to transfer the metal collected after the production of the plasma to the metal storage tank, (b) A metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal, including an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and the metal regeneration system in which an electric bias is supplied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal, may be provided. The metal regenerated by the metal regeneration system is transported to the pumping system. In certain implementations, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

Brief Description of the Drawings

[0024] Brief description of the drawings The accompanying drawings incorporated herein and constituting a part thereof illustrate some embodiments of the present disclosure, and further serve to explain the principles of the disclosure together with the description.

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Mode for Carrying Out the Invention

[0077] Detailed description This specification discloses a power generation system and a power generation method for converting energy output from a reaction containing atomic hydrogen into electrical energy and / or thermal energy. These reactions may include a catalyst system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form a low energy state where the electron shell is closer to the atomic nucleus. The released energy is utilized for power generation, and furthermore, new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst that receives energy from hydrogen to undergo the corresponding energy release transitions.

[0078] In classical physics, closed-form solutions for the hydrogen atom, hydride ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and hydrogen molecule are obtained, and corresponding chemical species with fractional principal quantum numbers are predicted. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain chemical species (including itself) that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m·27.2 eV (where m is an integer). The predicted reactions involve resonance and non-radiative energy transfer to a catalyst that can otherwise accept energy from stable atomic hydrogen. The product is H(1 / p), called a "hydrino atom", a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen, where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ···, 1 / p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the hydrogen excited state. Each hydrino state includes an electron, a proton, and also photons, and due to the contribution of the electric field from the photons, the binding energy increases rather than decreases corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, an mH atom can function as a catalyst for m·27.2 eV of another (m + 1)H atom [submitted to R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics, September 2016 edition, https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / (“Mills GUTCP”)]. For example, an H atom can function as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV via spatial energy transfer such as magnetic or inductive electric dipole-dipole coupling, with a short wavelength cutoff of m 2 ·13.6 eV (91.2 / m 2It forms an intermediate that decays by the emission of a continuum band with energy of (nm). In addition to atomic H, molecules that have the same energy and whose molecular potential energy decreases by accepting m·27.2 eV from atomic H also function as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Next, by the same mechanism, nascent H2O molecules (not hydrogen-bonded in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of metal oxides are predicted to function as catalysts that form H(1 / 4) accompanied by the release of 204 eV of energy, including the transfer of 81.6 eV to HOH and the emission of continuum radiation with a cut-off at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV).

[0079] State H[a H In the H-atom catalytic reaction involving the transition to H[a / (p=m+1)], the H atom functions as a catalyst for m·27.2 eV of another (m + 1)-th H atom. Next, the reaction between m + 1 hydrogen atoms in which m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively receive m·27.2 eV from the (m + 1)-th hydrogen atom so that mH functions as a catalyst is m·27.2 eV + mH + H → + fast + me - + H * [a H / (m + 1)] + m·27.2 eV (1) H * [a H / (m + 1)] → H[a H / (m + 1)] + [(m + 1) 2 - 1 2 ·13.6 eV - m·27.2 eV (2) mH fast + + me - → mH + m·27.2 eV (3) is given by. Furthermore, the overall reaction is H → H[a H / (p=m + 1)] + [(m + 1) 2 -1 2 ·13.6 eV (4) is as follows.

[0080] The catalytic reaction regarding the potential energy of nascent H2O (m = 3) [submitted to R.Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / ] is 81.6 eV + H2O + H[a H → 2H fast + + O - + e - + H * [a H / 4] + 81.6 eV (5) H * [a H / 4] → H[a H / 4] + 122.4 eV (6) 2H fast + + O - + e - → H2O + 81.6 eV (7) is as follows. Furthermore, the overall reaction is H[a H → H[a H / 4] + 81.6 eV + 122.4 eV (8) is as follows. After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Equations (1) and (5)), the intermediate H having a center magnetic field m + 1 times that of the proton's center magnetic field and the radius of the H atom * [a H / (m + 1)] is formed. The above radius becomes a stable state having 1 / (m + 1) of the radius of a hydrogen atom in which electrons are accelerated in the radial direction and do not exert a catalytic action, M 2 · When 13.6 eV of energy is released, it is predicted to become smaller. H * [a H / (m + 1)] extreme ultraviolet continuous emission band by the intermediate (for example, Equations (2) and (6) are [Number] given by the short - wavelength cutoff and energy [Number] and is predicted to expand to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff. Here, H * [a H / 4] extreme ultraviolet continuous emission band due to the decay of the intermediate is E = m 2 · 13.6 = 9·13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) [here, in Equation (9), p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3] has a short - wavelength cutoff and is predicted to spread to longer wavelengths. The continuous emission band at 10.1 nm and at a longer wavelength for the theoretically predicted transition of H to a lower energy, the so - called "hydrino" state H(1 / 4), occurs only from a pulsed pinch gas discharge containing hydrogen. Another observation result predicted by Equations (1) and (5) is the formation of highly excited state H atoms by the recombination of fast H+. Fast atoms broaden the emission of Balmer α. The broadening of Balmer α lines above 50 eV reveals a population of hydrogen atoms with very high kinetic energy in a specific mixed hydrogen plasma and is an established phenomenon due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H has already been observed in a continuous H - emitting hydrogen pinch plasma.

[0081] It is possible to add a catalyst and a reaction for forming hydrinos. Specific chemical species (for example, He + , Ar + , Sr +, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n = integer) must be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. This reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer followed by continuous emission of q·13.6 eV or transfer of q·13.6 eV to H, forming highly excited H at very high temperatures and hydrogen atoms with lower energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to fractional principal quantum numbers. That is, in the formula for the main energy level of a hydrogen atom, E n = -(e 2 / (n 2 8πε0a H )) = -(13.598 eV / n 2 ) (10) n = 1, 2, 3,... (11) (where α H is the Bohr radius of a hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε o is the permittivity of free space), and the fractional quantum number, i.e., n = 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,..., 1 / p (12) (where p ≤ 137 is an integer) is the well-known integer n in the Rydberg equation for the hydrogen excitation state and represents a hydrogen atom in a low-energy state called a "hydrino". The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = 1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radiative, but non-radiative energy transfer allows transitions between the two non-radiative states, e.g., from n = 1 to n = 1 / 2. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by equations (10) and (12), where the corresponding radius of a hydrogen or hydrino atom is r = aH / p (13) (where p = 1, 2, 3,...) is given. To maintain energy, energy is transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in integer units of the potential energy of a normal n = 1 state hydrogen atom, and the radius is a Htransitions to / (m + p). A hydrino forms by reacting with a suitable catalyst having a net reaction enthalpy of m·27.2 eV (14) (where m is an integer). It is thought that the catalyst speed increases when the net reaction enthalpy exactly matches m·27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts with a net reaction enthalpy within ±10%, preferably within ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for most applications. m·27.2 eV (14) (where m is an integer) by reacting with a suitable catalyst having a net reaction enthalpy of m·27.2 eV (14) (where m is an integer). It is thought that the catalyst speed increases when the net reaction enthalpy exactly matches m·27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts with a net reaction enthalpy within ±10%, preferably within ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.

[0082] The catalytic reaction involves two steps of energy release, namely non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state and subsequent additional energy release. Thus, the general reaction is m·27.2 eV + Cat q- + H[a H / p] → Cat (q+r)+ + re - + H * [a H / (m + p)] + m·27.2 eV (15) H * [a H / (m + p)] → H[a H / (m + p)] + [(p + m) 2 - p 2 ·13.6 eV - m·27.2 eV (16) Cat (q+r)+ + re - → Cat q+ + m·27.2 eV (17) given by and the overall reaction is H[a H / p] → H[a H / (m + p)] + [(p + m) 2 - p 2 ·13.6 eV (18) is given by. q, r, m, and p are integers. H * [aH / (m + p)] has a central magnetic field equal to the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and (m + p) times that of the proton, and H[aH / (m + p)] is the corresponding stable state with a radius of 1 / (m + p) of hydrogen H.

[0083] The catalyst product H(1 / p) can react with electrons to form the hydrino hydride ion H - (1 / p). Alternatively, two H(1 / p) can react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2(1 / p). Specifically, the catalyst product H(1 / p) can also react with electrons to form a new hydride ion H B with the following binding energy E - (1 / p).

Number

Number

Number

Number

[0084] The high-field-shifted NMR peak is direct evidence for the existence of low-energy hydrogen with a smaller radius compared to normal hydride ions and increased diamagnetic shielding of the proton. This shift is obtained by adding the diamagnetic contributions of two electrons and the contribution of a photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)).

Number

[0085] H(1 / p) can react with protons. Also, two H(1 / p) can react to form H2(1 / p) + and H2(1 / p) respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and the molecular charge and current density function, bond distance, and energy are obtained from the Laplacian in elliptic coordinates with non-radiative limitations.

Number

[0086] The total energy E of a hydrogen molecular ion having a central magnetic field of +pe at each focus of the prolate ellipsoidal molecular orbital T is given as follows.

Number

Number

[0087] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Here, in addition to the ionized electrons, the ionization products may be at least one of those such as two protons and one electron, one H atom, one hydrino atom, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p), where the energy can be shifted by the matrix. + and the energy can be shifted by the matrix.

[0088] The NMR of the catalytic reaction - product gas provides the most definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2(1 / p). Generally, the 1 1H NMR resonance of H2(1 / p) is predicted to be on the high magnetic field side of that of H2 by a fraction of the radius in elliptical coordinates where the electrons are very close to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB T / B for H2(1 / p) is given by the sum of the photon magnetic field of intensity p and the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons (Mills' GUTCP equations (11.415 - 11.416)). [Number] In the formula, the first term is applied to H2 with p = 1, and p = integer > 1 is applied to H2(1 / p). Further, α is the fine structure constant. The experimental absolute H2 gas phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is in excellent agreement with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of -28.01 ppm (Equation (28)). The predicted molecular hydrino peak is shifted to the high magnetic field side, deviating from that of normal H2. In one embodiment, the peak is on the high magnetic field side of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may include the compound or, alone, normal H - , H, H2, or H + and may be greater than that known for at least one of them. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, where the shift of TMS is about -31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be within a tolerance of at least one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm at -(p28.01 + p 2 2.56) ppm (Equation (28)). The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be within a tolerance of at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10% at -(p28.01 + p21.49X10 -3 ) ppm (Equation (28)).

[0089] The vibrational energy E for the transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) from ν = 0 to ν = 1 is as follows. vib It is as follows. E vib = p 2 0.515902 eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0090] The rotational energy E for the transition of the hydrogenic molecule H2(1 / p) from J to J + 1 rot is expressed as follows. [Number] where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. The rovibrational emission of H2(1 / 4) was observed on electron beam-excited molecules in the gas and trapped in a solid matrix.

[0091] The p 2 dependence of the rotational energy results from the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c’ for H2(1 / p) is as follows. [Number]

[0092] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) can be measured by at least one of electron beam-excited luminescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as at least one of MOH, MX, M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halide) matrices.

[0093] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm -1 . The peak enhancement is made by using a conductive material including rough features or particle sizes comparable to the Raman laser wavelength to support surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) for displaying the IRE peak.

[0094] I. Catalyst In the present disclosure, the terms "hydrino reaction", "H catalyst", "H-catalyst reaction", "catalyst", etc. all refer to a reaction, such as the reaction of a catalyst and atomic H in formulas (15-18) defined by formula (14), when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and the hydrino formation reaction, and form a state of hydrogen having the energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12). Corresponding terms, such as "hydrino reactant", "hydrino reaction mixture", "catalyst mixture", "reactant for hydrino formation", "reactant that generates or forms low-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos", are also used in the same meaning.

[0095] The catalyst required for the catalytic low-energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure is in the form of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen without catalysis that is an integer multiple of the endothermic chemical reaction of 27.2 eV, and can receive energy from atomic H to cause a transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction may be ionization of one or more electrons from one type such as an atom or ion (e.g., in the case of Li→Li2 + m = 3), and may further include a concerted reaction with bond cleavage and ionization of one or more electrons from one or more partners of the initial bond (e.g., in the case of NaH→Na 2+ +H, m = 2). He + is ionized at 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV, and thus satisfies the catalyst criterion of being a chemical or physical process in which the enthalpy change is equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. Integer hydrogen atoms also function as catalysts that are integer multiples of 27.2 eV enthalpy. The catalyst can receive energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of about 27.2 eV±0.5 eV or (27.2 / 2)eV±0.5 eV.

[0096] In one embodiment, the catalyst includes an atom or ion M, where the ionization of t electrons from the atom or ion M to successive energy levels is such that the total ionization energy of the t electrons is either about m·27.2 eV or m·(27.2 / 2)eV (m is an integer).

[0097] In one embodiment, the catalyst contains the diatomic molecule MH, where the breaking of the M-H bond and the ionization of each t electron from atom M to the continuum energy results in the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electron being m·27.2 eV and m·(27.2 / 2) eV (where m is an integer).

[0098] In one embodiment, the catalyst is composed of molecules such as AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3, atoms or ions such as Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He + , Ti 2+ , Na + , Rb + , Sr + , Fe 3+ , Mo 2+ , Mo 4+ , In 3+ , He + , Ar + , Xe + , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + , and includes atoms, ions, and / or molecules selected from atoms or ions of Ne and H.

[0099] In other embodiments, the MH - type hydrogen catalyst that generates hydrino is provided by the transfer of electrons to an electron acceptor A, the breaking of the M-H bond, and the ionization of each t electron from atom M to the respective continuum energy level, where the total electron transfer energy is the difference between the electron affinity (EA) of MH and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of the t electron from M, which is approximately m·27.2 eV (m is an integer). The MH - type hydrogen catalyst that can provide a net reaction enthalpy of approximately m·27.2 eV is OH- , SiH - , CoH - , NiH - , and SeH - is.

[0100] In other embodiments, the MH type hydrogen catalyst that generates hydrino is provided by the transfer of electrons from a negatively chargeable donor A, the cleavage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from atom M to their respective continuous energy levels, and the total electron transfer energy including the difference in the ionization energy of MH and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M is made to be about m·27.2 eV (m is an integer). + In one embodiment, at least one of a molecule or a positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst that accepts about m·27.2 eV from atomic H as the potential energy of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion decreases by about m·27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are H2O, OH, the amide group NH2, and H2S.

[0101] O2 can function as a catalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of an oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. The reactions O2→O+O

[0102] , O2→O+O 2+ , O2→O+O 3+ , and 2O→2O + each provide about 2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy E h and constitute a catalytic reaction for forming hydrino by accepting these energies from H to form hydrino.

[0103] II. Hydrino E B =13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by H (where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer from 2 to 137) is a product of the H-catalytic reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by equations (10) and (12) will hereinafter be referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino". The radius a H / p (where a H is the radius of a normal hydrogen atom and p is an integer) of the hydrino is designated as H[a H / p]. A hydrogen atom with a radius a H will hereinafter be referred to as a "normal hydrogen atom" or "standard hydrogen atom". Normal atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0104] According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H - ) is provided in which the binding energy according to equation (19) is greater than the binding of a normal hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p = 2 to 23 and less than that for p = 24 (H - ). For p = 2 to p = 24 in equation (19), the hydride ion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions containing one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided herein.

[0105] Exemplary compounds containing one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds".

[0106] Normal hydrogen species are characterized by the binding energies of (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("normal hydride ion"), (b) hydrogen atom ("normal hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV, (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("normal hydrogen molecule"), (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("normal hydrogen molecular ion"), and (e) H3 + and (e) H3, 22.6 eV ("normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). In this specification, "standard" and "normal" are synonyms with respect to the form of hydrogen.

[0107] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, for example, (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 and the binding energy being in the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times of, for example, 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 (where p is an integer from 2 to 137), (b) a hydride ion (H ) having a binding energy of approximately and the binding energy being in the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times of, for example, - (where p is an integer from 2 to 24), (c) H4 + (1 / p), (d) a trihydrino molecular ion H3 2 having a binding energy of approximately 22.6 eV / (1 / p) and the binding energy being in the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times of, for example, approximately (22.6 / (1 / p) 2 ) eV (where p is an integer from 2 to 137), (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of approximately (15.3 / (1 / p) + ) eV and the binding energy being in the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times of, for example, (15.3 / (1 / p) 2 ) eV (where p is an integer from 2 to 137), and (f) a dihydrino having a binding energy of approximately (16.3 / (1 / p) 2 ) eV and the binding energy being in the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times of, for example, (16.3 / (1 / p) 2 ) eV (where p is an integer from 2 to 137),​​2 )A compound is provided that contains at least one binding energy-increasing hydrogen species of a dihydrino molecular ion within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times that of eV (where p is an integer, preferably 2 to 137).

[0108] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, (a) approximately

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[0109] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure where the compound contains a negatively charged binding energy-increasing hydrogen species, the compound further contains one or more cations such as a proton, normal H2 + , or normal H3 + .

[0110] This specification provides a method for preparing a compound containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds". The method involves reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net reaction enthalpy of approximately (m / 2)·27 eV (where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than about 400), to produce a hydrogen atom with a binding energy increment of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 (where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137). The additional product of the catalysis is energy. The hydrogen atom with an increased binding energy reacts with an electron source to produce a hydride ion with an increased binding energy. Reacting the hydride ion with one or more cations with an increased binding energy can produce a compound containing at least one hydride ion with an increased binding energy.

[0111] In one embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy can be achieved by hydrogen that transitions to a hydrino with a high p value in equation (18) in a process called an imbalance described in chapter 5 of Mills GUTCP, which is incorporated by reference. The hydrogen atoms H(1 / p)p = 1, 2, 3,... 137 can further transition to the low energy states given by equations (10) and (12), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom that resonantly and non-radiatively accepts m·27.2 eV, which is accompanied by an opposite change in its potential energy. The general general formula for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p + m)) induced by resonance transfer from m·27.2 eV given by equation (32) to H(1 / p') is H(1 / p’) + H(1 / p) → H + H(1 / (p + m)) + [2pm + m 2 - p’ 2 + 1]·13.6 eV) (32) is represented by.

[0112] EUV light from the hydrino process can dissociate dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms can function as a catalyst for the transition to a lower energy state. An exemplary reaction involves the catalysis of H(H / 1 / 17) by H(1 / 4), where H(1 / 4) can be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. The disproportionation reaction of hydrinos is predicted to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown in equations (5 - 8), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is H[a H / 4]. Consider the possibility of a transition reaction in a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas. Here, the first hydrogen-type atom H[a H / 4] is an H atom, and the second acceptor hydrogen-type atom H[a H / p’] that functions as a catalyst is H[a H / 4]. Since the potential energy of H[a H / 4] is 4 2 ·27.2 eV = 16·27.2 eV = 435.2 eV, the transition reaction is 16·27.2 eV + H[a H / 4] + H[a H / 1] → H fast + + e - + H * [a H / 17] + 16·27.2 eV (33) H * [a H / 17] → H[a H / 17] + 3481.6 eV (34) H fast + + e - → H[a H / 1] + 231.2 eV (35) represented as follows. Furthermore, the overall reaction is H[a H / 4] + H[a H / 1] → H[a H / 1] + H[a H / 17] + 3712.8 eV (36) is as follows.

[0113] H * [a H / (p + m)] The extreme ultraviolet continuous emission band by the intermediate (for example, Formula (16) and Formula (34)) has a short wavelength cut-off and

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[0114] The novel hydrogen composition of the substance is (a) (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) Since the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species is less than or negative compared to the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "binding energy-increased hydrogen species") having a binding energy greater than that of the corresponding normal hydrogen species which is unstable or not observed, and (b) includes at least one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "binding energy-increased hydrogen compounds".

[0115] "Other element" in this context means an element other than the binding energy-increased hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be a normal hydrogen species or an element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the binding energy-increased hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and the binding energy-increased hydrogen species are charged, and the other element provides a balanced charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular bonds and coordination bonds. The latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonds.

[0116] Also, (a) (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) Since the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species is less than or negative compared to the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "binding energy-increased hydrogen species") having a binding energy greater than that of the corresponding normal hydrogen species which is unstable or not observed, and (b) provides novel compounds and molecular ions containing at least one other element.

[0117] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. The hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure, some embodiments of the hydrogen species with increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy smaller than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, but are also referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy". For example, the first binding energy of the hydride ion of formula (19) with p = 24 is smaller than the first binding energy of the normal hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of formula (19) for p = 24 is much larger than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0118] As used herein, (a) (i) having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of a hydrogen species where the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is smaller than or negative of the thermal energy under ambient conditions, so that the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed, a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "hydrogen species with increased binding energy"), and (b) also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions optionally containing at least one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy".

[0119] The hydrogen species with increased binding energy are formed by reacting at least one of one or more hydrino atoms, electrons, hydrino atoms, compounds containing at least one of the above hydrogen species with increased binding energy, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the hydrogen species with increased binding energy.

[0120] (a) (i) greater than the total energy of normal molecular hydrogen, or (ii) Since the binding energy of normal hydrogen species is less than or negative with respect to the thermal energy under ambient conditions, a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen species with increased binding energy") having a binding energy greater than that of the corresponding normal hydrogen species that are unstable or not observed, and (b) Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions containing, optionally, one other element. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy".

[0121] In one embodiment, (a) a hydride ion in which the binding energy according to formula (19) is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 to 23 and less than that for p = 24 ("hydride ion with increased binding energy" or "hydrino hydride ion"), (b) a hydrogen atom in which the binding energy is greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) ("hydrogen atom with increased binding energy" or "hydrino"), (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("hydrogen molecule with increased binding energy" or "dihydrino"), and (d) a hydrogen molecule ion in which the binding energy exceeds about 16.3 eV ("molecular hydrogen ion with increased binding energy" or "dihydrino molecular ion"), and a compound containing at least one of them is provided. In the present disclosure, hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy and compounds are also referred to as hydrogen species and compounds with lower energy. Hydrino contains hydrogen species with lower energy such as hydrogen compounds with increased binding energy or the like.

[0122] III. Chemical reactor The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for generating the bond energy increasing hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalysis are the electromotive force depending on the cell type and optionally plasma and light. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrogen reactor" or "hydrogen cell". The hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for generating hydrino. The cell for generating hydrino can take the form of a gas fuel cell such as a chemical reactor or a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, as well as an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and at least one source of HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a large surface area to increase at least one of the formation rate of HOH catalyst and H from ice and the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell and includes ice at at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0123] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a container, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source such as means for forming and supplying the container and H2O droplets. The droplets are movable between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma contains H and HOH which can react to form hydrino. The ignition rate and the corresponding energy output rate can be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The high voltage power source may include at least one high voltage capacitor that can be charged by the high voltage power source. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises means such as one power converter of the present invention such as at least one PV converter, and a heat engine for converting the electromotive force from the hydrino process such as light and heat into electricity.

[0124] Exemplary embodiments of cells for generating hydrino can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells comprises (i) a reactant containing a source of atomic hydrogen, (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof for producing hydrino, and (iii) a container for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst for generating hydrino. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to not only protium ( 1 H), but also deuterium ( 2 H), and tritium ( 3It also includes (H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors can include embodiments of the SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermoelectric cells of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are shown in the parts of this chemical reactor. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts can help form bound energy-increasing hydrogen species and compounds. The reactions and conditions can be adjusted from these exemplary cases to parameters such as reactants, reactant wt%, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Appropriate reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrino and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactors of the present disclosure by predicted continuous emission bands that are integer multiples of 13.6 eV, or otherwise, unexplainably large H kinetic energy measured by Doppler broadening of the H line, inversion of the H line, formation of plasma without a breakdown magnetic field, and abnormal plasma afterglow times reported in Mills Prior Publications. Data such as that regarding CIHT cells and solid fuels are independently verified by other researchers elsewhere. The formation of hydrino by the cells of the present disclosure has also been confirmed by electrical energy, which continuously outputs energy over a long time, is a multiple of the electrical input, and in most cases exceeds 10 times the input without an alternative source. The identification of the predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels showed a predicted high magnetic field shift matrix peak of about -4.4 ppm in MAS H NMR, ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS showing that H2(1 / 4) is complexed in the getter matrix as an m / e = M + n2 peak (M is the mass of the parent ion, n is an integer in electron beam excitation emission), electron beam excitation luminescence spectroscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy showing the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) having 16 times the energy of H2, i.e., the square of the quantum number p = 4, and the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) which is 16 times the H2 rotational energy, i.e., the square of the quantum number p = 4, of 1950 cm -1Raman and FTIR spectroscopy as shown, XPS showing that the predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) is 500 eV, and ToF-SIMS peaks with a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV corresponding to H that match the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) and the energy transferred to the third body, with a time-of-arrival before the m / e = 1 peak corresponding to H. This was done by Mills Prior Publications and R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell", International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell" (2014), the entirety of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0125] Using both a flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the generation of hydrinos by the cells of the present disclosure, such as cells containing solid fuel to generate thermoelectric power, was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels that exceeds the maximum theoretical energy by over 60-fold. MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) high-field matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. 1950 cm -1The Raman peaks starting at agreed with the free space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst" (2014), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0126] IV. SunCell and power converter A power generation system (also referred to herein as a "SunCell") that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, at least one container capable of maintaining a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure, reactants capable of receiving a reaction in the container that generates sufficient energy to form a plasma, (a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor, and (b) the reactants, including a molten metal, a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant to the container, a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure in the container below atmospheric pressure when one or more reactants are flowing into the container, at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to supply the molten metal into the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and a molten metal injector system including at least a non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream, at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current for supplying power to at least one stream of the molten metal when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor flows into the container, A reactant supply system that replenishes the reactants consumed in the reaction, and a power converter or output system that converts part of the energy generated by the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or heat output. A power converter or output system that converts part of the energy generated by the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or heat output, may be provided.

[0127] In some embodiments, the power generation system may include an optical rectenna such as that reported in A. Sharma, V. Singh, T. L. Bougher, B. A. Cola, "A carbon nanotube optical rectenna", Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027-1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and at least one thermal energy power converter. In further embodiments, the container may be capable of at least one of atmospheric pressure, higher than atmospheric pressure, and lower than atmospheric pressure. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma power converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a plasma dynamic power converter, an E (vector) × B (vector) direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon swarm microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In further embodiments, the at least one thermoelectric converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and a generator, a gas turbine and a generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric output converter. Exemplary thermoelectric output systems that may include a closed-loop cooling system or an open-loop system that rejects heat to the ambient atmosphere are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0128] In addition to the present disclosure's UV and thermophotovoltaic power, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermoelectrons, magnetohydrodynamics, turbines, microturbines, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, chemical and electrochemical power conversion systems. The Rankine cycle turbine may include supercritical CO2, organics such as perfluorinated hydrocarbons or fluorocarbons, or vapor of the working fluid. In a Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, SunCell® may provide heat energy output to at least one of a preheater, a reheater, a boiler, and an external combustion type heat exchanger stage of the turbine system. In one embodiment, the Brayton cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater incorporated into the combustion section of the turbine. The SunCell® turbine heater may include a duct that receives an air flow from at least one of a compressor and a recuperative heat exchanger, where the air is heated and the heated compressed flow is directed through the duct to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed, where the power converter further includes at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0129] The above power converter may be one described in Mills' prior art documents and Mills' prior applications. Hydrino reactants such as H sources, HOH sources, and SunCell® systems may be used in the present disclosure or in previous U.S. patent applications, such as a hydrogen catalytic reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, PCT application filed on April 24, 2008; a heterogeneous hydrogen catalytic reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, PCT application filed on July 29, 2009; a heterogeneous hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT application filed on March 18, 2010; an electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT / US11 / 28889, PCT application filed on March 17, 2011; an H2O-based electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT / US12 / 31369, PCT application filed on March 20, 2012; a CIHT power system, PCT / US13 / 041938, PCT application filed on May 21, 2013; a power generation system and method thereof, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, PCT application filed on January 10, 2014; a photovoltaic power generation system and method related thereto, PCT / US14 / 32584, PCT application filed on April 1, 2014; a power generation system and method related thereto, PCT / US2015 / 033165, PCT application filed on May 29, 2015; a method related to an ultraviolet power generation system, PCT / US2015 / 065826, PCT application filed on December 15, 2015; a thermophotovoltaic generator, PCT / US16 / 12620, PCT application filed on January 8, 2016; a thermophotovoltaic generator network, PCT / US2017 / 035025, PCT application filed on December 7, 2017; a thermophotovoltaic generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972, PCT application filed on January 18, 2017; an extreme and deep ultraviolet solar cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635, PCT application filed on January 5, 2018; a magnetohydrodynamic generator, PCT / US18 / 17765, PCT application filed on February 12, 2018; and a magnetohydrodynamic generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842, PCT application filed on May 29, 2018 (the "Mills prior applications"), and all of them are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0130] In one embodiment, H2O is ignited to form a hydrino with high energy release in at least one form of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) energy output (in this disclosure, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to hydrino and can appear as a burst, pulse, or other form of high energy release). H2O may include a fuel that can be ignited by the application of a large current, such as a current in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. This can be achieved by applying a high voltage, such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma such as an arc. Alternatively, the large current can pass through a conductive matrix, such as a molten metal like silver, that further includes hydrino reactants such as H and HOH or compounds or mixtures containing H2O with a high conductivity of the resulting solid fuel. (In this disclosure, the solid fuel is used to represent a reaction mixture that further reacts to form a catalyst such as HOH and H that forms hydrino. The plasma voltage may be as low as in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solids. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture may be in at least one state of gas, liquid, molten matrix, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gas suspension, air flow, such as at least one of molten silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper, and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, a solid fuel having a very low resistance includes a reaction mixture containing H2O. The low resistance is presumably due to the conductor components of the reaction mixture. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 ohms to 100 ohms, 10 -8 ohms to 10 ohms, 10 -3 ohms to 1 ohm, 10 -4 ohms to 10 -1 ohms, and 10 -4 ohms to 10 -2It is at least one within the Ohm's range. In another embodiment, the fuel with high resistance contains H2O of an added compound or material that is a small molar percentage or trace amount. In the latter case, a high current can be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing destruction to form a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0131] In one embodiment, the reactants may include a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and a source of H2O and a conductive matrix to form at least one of atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants containing a source of H2O may include bulk H2O, states other than bulk H2O, at least one compound that reacts to form H2O and releases bound H2O. Further, H2O exists in at least one of the states of absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physically adsorbed H2O, and hydrated water, and the bound H2O may include a compound that interacts with H2O. In an embodiment, the reactants may include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo release of at least one of bulk H2O, absorbed H2O, bound H2O, physically adsorbed H2O, and hydrated water. In other embodiments, at least one of the source of nascent H2O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen may include at least one of (a) at least one source of H2O, (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0132] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on high current applications or development. In embodiments of SunCell®, the reactants for forming hydrino are subjected to low voltage, high current, high power pulses that cause a very fast reaction rate and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak, the current is in the range of 100 A / cm 2 ~50,000 A / cm 2 at peak, and further the power is in the range of 1000 W / cm 2 ~750,000 W / cm 2is in the range. Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers within about 1 / 100 to 100 times of these parameters are appropriate. In one embodiment, the Hydrino reaction rate depends on high-current applications or development. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a large alternating current, direct current, or alternating current - direct current hybrid current within at least one range of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The direct current or peak alternating current density may be within at least one range of 100 A / cm 2 ~1,000,000 A / cm 2 1000 A / cm 2 ~100,000 A / cm 2 and 2000 A / cm 2 ~50,000 A / cm 2 The direct current or peak alternating current voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The alternating current frequency may be within the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be within at least one range selected from about 10 -6 seconds to 10 seconds, 10 -5 seconds to 1 second, 10 -4 seconds to 0.1 second, and 10 -3 seconds to 0.01 second.

[0133] In one embodiment, ionization of the catalyst occurs by energy transfer from atomic hydrogen catalyst to the hydrino state. The electrons ionized from the catalyst accumulate in the reaction mixture and the container, which can cause the accumulation of space charge. The space charge can change the energy level for subsequent energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, along with a decrease in the reaction rate. In one embodiment, the application of a high current removes the space charge and increases the hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, a high current such as an arc current heats reactants such as water that can function as a source of H and HOH catalysts to a very high temperature. The high temperature can cause thermal decomposition of water into at least one of H and at least one of HOH catalysts. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture of the SunCell® includes a source of H and a source of at least one catalyst such as at least one of nH (n is an integer) and HOH. At least one of nH and HOH may be formed by thermal decomposition or pyrolysis of at least one physical phase of water such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. The pyrolysis can occur at a high temperature such as at least one temperature range of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K.In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 - 4000 K, and as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J. Villermaux, the molar fraction of atomic H is high [J. Lede, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, "Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp. 675 - 679; H. H. G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, "The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677 - 688; S. Z. Baykara, "Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1451 - 1458; S. Z. Baykara, "Experimental solar water thermolysis", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1459 - 1469, which are incorporated herein by reference]. The thermal decomposition can be assisted by a solid surface such as one of the parts of the cell. The solid surface can be heated to a high temperature by the input energy and the plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction. It is possible to cool the pyrolysis gas, such as downstream of the ignition region, to prevent the reverse reaction of the product to the combined or starting water.The reaction mixture may include a coolant such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gas phase that is at a temperature lower than the temperature of the product gas. Cooling of the pyrolysis reaction product gas may be achieved by contacting the product with the coolant. The coolant may include at least one of a low temperature stream, water, and ice.

[0134] In one embodiment, the fuel or reactant may include at least one of a source of H, a source of H2, a source of catalyst, a source of H2O, and H2O. Suitable reactants may include a conductive metal matrix and at least one hydrate of an alkali hydrate, alkaline earth hydrate, and transition metal hydrate. This hydrate may include at least one of MgCl2·6H2O, BaI2·2H2O, and ZnCl2·4H2O. Alternatively, the reactant may include at least one of silver, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

[0135] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can be operated at low pressure to achieve a high gas temperature. Next, it is possible to increase the pressure by a reaction mixed gas supply source and a controller to increase the reaction rate. Due to the high temperature, at least one of the H-bonds and H2 covalent bonds of the water dimer undergoes thermal decomposition to maintain nascent HOH and atomic H. An exemplary threshold gas temperature to achieve thermal decomposition is about 3300 °C. In a plasma at a temperature higher than about 3300 °C, the H2O dimer bond is broken to form nascent HOH, which may function as a hydrino catalyst. At least one of the H2O vapor pressure, H2 pressure, and O2 pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be in at least one range of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atm, 0.1 Torr to 10 atm, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atm. The electromagnetic (EM) pumping speed can be in at least one range of about 0.01 mL / sec to 10,000 mL / sec, 0.1 mL / sec to 1000 mL / sec, and 0.1 mL / sec to 100 mL / sec. In an embodiment, by first maintaining at least one of a high ignition power and a low pressure, the plasma and the cell can be heated to achieve thermal decomposition. The initial power can include at least one of a high-frequency pulse, a high-duty cycle, a pulse with a higher voltage, a pulse with a higher current, and a continuous current. In one embodiment, it is possible to reduce at least one of the ignition powers, and after heating the plasma and the cell, the pressure can be increased to achieve thermal decomposition. In another embodiment, the SunCell® can include a plasma torch, a glow discharge, a microwave, or an RF plasma source for heating the hydrino reaction plasma and the cell to achieve thermal decomposition.

[0136] In an embodiment, the ignition system includes at least one switch that conducts current and interrupts the current when ignition is achieved. The flow of current can be initiated by contact with a molten metal stream. Switching can be performed electronically, for example, by means of at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. To optimize the hydrino generation energy output with respect to the input ignition energy, the current may be interrupted after ignition. The ignition system may include a switch that allows a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause ignition and turn off the energy output at the stage of generating plasma. In one embodiment, a power source that provides a short burst of high current electrical energy is selected to cause at least one range of high current alternating current, direct current, or alternating current - direct current hybrid in the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA, and 1 A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 、1000 A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 、and 2000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 and includes at least one of a direct current or peak alternating current density within at least one of the ranges, where the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, and the voltage is given by the value obtained by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel sample by the desired current, the above direct current or peak alternating current voltage is within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and further, the range of the alternating current frequency is at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0137] The system further comprises a starting power / source such as a battery, e.g., a lithium-ion battery. Alternatively, external power such as grid power may be provided for starting via a connection from an external power source to a generator. The connection may include an energy output bus bar. The starting power source may be at least one of power supply to a heater for maintaining a molten metal conductive matrix, power supply to an injection system, and power supply to an ignition system.

[0138] SunCell (registered trademark) obtains a high-pressure water electrolyzer, e.g., a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer having high-pressure water for providing high-pressure hydrogen. Each of the H2 and O2 chambers is provided with a recombiner for removing contaminant H2 and O2, respectively. The PEM may function as at least one of a separator plate and a salt bridge in the anode and cathode compartments, enabling hydrogen to be generated at the cathode and oxygen to be generated as a separate gas at the anode. The cathode may include a dichalcogenide hydrogen generation catalyst, e.g., one containing at least one of niobium and tantalum which may further contain sulfur, etc. The cathode may include those known in the art such as Pt or Ni. Hydrogen may be generated at high pressure and supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31, or may be supplied by permeation through a hydrogen-permeable membrane. SunCell (registered trademark) may be provided with an oxygen gas supply pipe from the anode compartment to the supply point of the oxygen gas to the storage container or vent. In one embodiment, SunCell (registered trademark) comprises a sensor, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller.

[0139] In another embodiment, the hydrogen fuel may be obtained by at least one of electrolysis of water, reforming of natural gas, a syngas reaction of reacting steam with carbon to produce H2 and CO and CO2, and other methods of hydrogen production known to those skilled in the art.

[0140] In another embodiment, hydrogen can be generated by thermolysis using the supplied water and the heat generated by the SunCell®. The thermolysis cycle can include one of those disclosed or one known in the art, such as based on one or at least one of a metal and its oxide, for example SnO / Sn and ZnO / Zn. In embodiments where the induction heater, EM pump, and ignition system only consume power at startup, hydrogen may be generated by thermolysis such that the parasitic power requirements are very low. The SunCell® can be equipped with a battery such as a lithium-ion battery to power systems such as gas sensors and supply power to control systems such as systems for reaction plasma gases.

[0141] Electromagnetic - fluid (MHD) converter Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions or a conductive medium in a crossed magnetic field is a technique well-known as electromagnetic fluid (MHD) power conversion. Positive and negative ions are subject to opposite Lorentz directions and are received at corresponding MHD electrodes, affecting the voltage between those electrodes. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas into which ions are injected from a nozzle to form a high-speed flow that passes through a magnetic field crossed by a set of MHD electrodes that cross the deflection field to receive the deflected ions. In one embodiment, the pressure is typically higher than atmospheric pressure to generate a plasma that expands and a highly conductive, high-pressure, high-temperature molten metal vapor to form a high-speed flow passing through the crossed magnetic field section of the MHD converter, and the directional mass flow can be achieved by the hydrino reaction. The high-speed flow may be axial or radial through the MHD converter. Confining magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles can further achieve a more directional flow.

[0142] Specifically, the MHD power generation system shown in FIGS. 1 to 12 includes at least two electrodes such as a disclosed hydrino reaction plasma source, for example, an EM pump 5ka, at least one container 5c, and a double molten metal injector 5k61, a source of hydrino reactants such as a HOH catalyst and a source of H, and an ignition system including a power source 2 that applies voltage and current to the electrodes to form plasma from the hydrino reactants, and an MHD generator. In one embodiment, the ignition system may include a source of voltage and current, for example, a DC power supply and a bank of capacitors, to achieve pulse ignition with a capacitance corresponding to a high current pulse. In an embodiment of the double molten metal injector, the current flows through the injected molten metal stream and ignites the plasma when the streams connect. The components of the MHD generator system including the hydrino reaction plasma source and the MHD generator are composed of at least one of oxidation-resistant materials such as oxidation-resistant metals, metals including oxidation-resistant coatings, and ceramics constituting the system, and also enable the system to be operated in air.

[0143] The electromagnetic fluid power generator shown in FIGS. 1 to 22 may include a source of magnetic flux across the z-axis, an axial molten metal vapor through the MHD converter 300, and the direction of the plasma flow. The conductive flow may have a preferential velocity along the z-axis due to the expansion of the gas along the z-axis. A more directional flow may be realized by a confinement magnet such as a Helmholtz coil or a magnetic bottle. Thus, the electrons and ions of the metal propagate into the region of the transverse magnetic flux. The Lorentz force on the propagating electrons and ions is

Number

[0144] The molten metal in the container 5c can be in at least one state of liquid and gas. The molten metal in the container 5c can be defined as an MHD working medium, and may be called so, or may be called molten metal. In this case, the molten metal can further be in at least one state of liquid and gas. Specific states such as molten metal, liquid metal, metal vapor, or gaseous metal can be used, and other physical states may exist. An exemplary molten metal is silver, which can be in at least one of the liquid and gas states. The MHD working medium can be at least one of the added metals, a compound, for example, one of those disclosed herein that can be in at least one of the liquid and gas states in the operating temperature range, and a gas, for example, a noble gas such as helium or argon, water, H2, and may further include an additive containing at least one of the other plasma gases disclosed herein. The additive to the MHD working medium can be in any desired ratio to the MHD working medium. In one embodiment, the ratio of the medium to the additive medium is selected to provide any desired electrical conversion performance of the MHD converter. The working medium such as silver or a silver-copper alloy may be used under supersaturated conditions.

[0145] In one embodiment, the MHD converter 300 includes at least one of Faraday, channel hole, and disk hole types. In an embodiment of channel hole MHD, the expansion or power generation channel 308 may be vertically oriented along the z-axis. A molten metal plasma such as silver vapor and plasma flow through an accelerator section such as a throttle or nozzle throat 307, followed by an expansion section 308. The channel may include a solenoid magnet 306 such as a superconducting magnet or a permanent magnet in a Halbach array transverse to the flow direction along the x-axis. The optimal magnetic field of a duct-shaped MHD generator may be of a saddle shape. The magnet may be fixed by an MHD magnet mounting bracket 306a. The magnet may include a liquid cryogen or may include a cryogenic refrigerator with or without a liquid cryogen. The cryogenic refrigerator may include a dry dilution refrigerator. The magnet may include a return path for the magnetic field of a yoke such as a C-shaped or rectangular back yoke, for example. An exemplary permanent magnet material is SmCo, and exemplary yoke materials are magnetic CRS, cold rolled steel, or iron. The generator may include at least one set of electrodes such as segment electrodes 304 along the y-axis to receive transverse Lorentz deflection ions that generate a voltage across both ends of the MHD electrodes 304 across the magnetic field (B vector). In another embodiment, at least one channel such as the power generation channel 308 may include a shape other than having a planar wall such as a cylindrical wall channel. The generation of electromagnetic fluid is disclosed by Walsh [E.M. Walsh, Energy Conversion Electromechanical, Direct, Nuclear, Ronald Press Company, NY, NY, (1967), pp. 221-248], the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. By increasing the magnetic field strength, it is possible to increase the Lorentz force to a desired strength. It is possible to increase the magnetic flux of the MHD magnet 306. In one embodiment, the magnetic flux may be in at least one range of about 0.01 T to 15 T, 0.05 T to 10 T, 0.1 T to 5 T, 0.1 T to 2 T, and 0.1 T to 1 T.

[0146] In one embodiment, the disk generator includes a plasma inlet for maintaining a plasma flow from the reaction cell chamber to the center of the disk, a duct wound around the edge for collecting molten metal, and perhaps further includes a recirculator and a gas recirculated to the reaction cell chamber by the recirculator. The magnetic excitation field may include a pair of circular Helmholtz coils above and below the disk. The magnet can supply simple parallel magnetic field lines and may be relatively close to the plasma compared to other designs. Further, the strength of the magnetic field increases as the cube of the distance. The Faraday current can flow almost completely short-circuited around the disk. The disk MHD generator may further include ring electrodes, and a Hall effect current can flow between the ring electrodes near the center and the ring electrodes near the periphery.

[0147] To avoid electrical short-circuiting of the MHD electrodes by molten metal vapor, the electrodes 304 (FIG. 1) may each include conductors attached to conductive posts 305 covered with electrical insulators that function as standoffs for the conductors 305a and further function as spacers for the electrodes from the walls of the power generation channel. The electrodes 304 can be segmented and can include a cathode 302 and an anode 303. Except for the standoffs 305, the electrodes may be freely suspended within the power generation channel 308. The spacing of the electrodes along the vertical axis may be sufficient to prevent short-circuiting of the molten metal. The electrodes may include refractory conductors such as W or Mo. The conductors 305a can be connected to wires that can be insulated with refractory insulators such as BN. The wires may be coupled to a harness that passes through the channel with an MHD busbar penetration flange 301 that may include metal. Outside the MHD converter, the harness can be connected to a power consolidator and an inverter. In one embodiment, the MHD electrodes 304 include liquid electrodes such as liquid silver electrodes. In one embodiment, the ignition system may include a liquid electrode. The ignition system may be DC or AC. The reactor may include a ceramic such as quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or Pyrex (registered trademark). The liquid electrode may further include a ceramic frit filled with a molten metal such as silver.

[0148] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction mixture may include at least one of oxygen, steam, and hydrogen. The MHD components may include ceramics such as metal oxides such as at least one of zirconia and hafnia that are stable in an oxidizing atmosphere, or materials such as silica or quartz. The seal between ceramic components may include graphite or a ceramic weave. In one embodiment, at least one component of the generator may include a ceramic, which may include at least one of metal oxides, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics such as Li2O×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (LAS system), MgO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (MAS system), ZnO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (ZAS system). The ceramic components of SunCell® may be joined by means disclosed, for example, ceramic adhesives for two or more ceramic components, brazing of ceramics to metal components, slip nut seals, gasket seals, wet seals. The gasket seal may include two flanges sealed with a gasket. The flanges are pulled out together with fasteners such as bolts. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a material that may be less susceptible to corrosion or degradation during operation. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a conductive ceramic such as a conductive solid oxide. In another embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a liquid electrode. The liquid electrode may include a metal that is liquid at the electrode operating temperature. The liquid metal may include a working medium metal such as molten silver. The molten electrode metal may include a matrix impregnated with a molten metal. The matrix may include a corrosion-resistant material such as a metal such as W, carbon, a conductive ceramic, or another refractory material disclosed herein. The negative electrode may include a solid high-melting-point metal. The negative polarity may protect the negative electrode from oxidation. The positive electrode may include a liquid electrode.

[0149] In one embodiment, the conductive ceramic electrode can include one of carbides such as ZrC, HfC, WC, or borides such as ZrB2, or composites such as ZrC-ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2-SiC, and 20% SiC composite of ZrB2, and can operate up to 1800 °C. The electrode may contain carbon. In one embodiment, the plurality of liquid electrodes may be supplied with liquid metal through a common manifold. The liquid metal can be pumped by an EM pump. The liquid electrode may contain molten metal impregnated in a non-reactive matrix such as a ceramic matrix such as a metal oxide matrix. Alternatively, the liquid metal may be pumped through the matrix to continuously supply molten metal. In one embodiment, the electrode may contain continuously injected molten metal such as an ignition electrode. The injector may contain a non-reactive refractory material such as a metal oxide such as ZrO2. In one embodiment, each liquid electrode may contain a molten metal stream exposed to the plasma of the MHD channel.

[0150] The MHD magnet 306 can include at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnetic magnet. The electromagnetic magnet 306 can be at least one of a non-cooled, water-cooled, and superconducting magnet with corresponding cryogenic management. Exemplary magnets are solenoid or saddle coils that can magnetize the MHD channel 308, and racetrack coils that can magnetize disk channels. The superconducting magnet system can include at least one cryogenic cooler and a cryogen dewar system. The superconducting magnet system 306 includes: (i) a superconducting coil in which a superconductor such as NbTi or NbSn is wound on a normal conductor such as copper wire and can be protected from a temporary local quench of the superconducting state caused by means such as vibration or from high-temperature superconductors (HTS) such as YBa2Cu3O7, generally called YBCO-123 or simply YBCO; (ii) a liquid helium dewar that supplies liquid helium to both sides of the coil; (iii) a liquid nitrogen dewar where liquid nitrogen is present at the inner and outer radii of the solenoid magnet, and both the liquid helium dewar and the liquid nitrogen dewar may include a radiation baffle and a radiation shield, and may include at least one of copper, stainless steel, and aluminum on the walls and a high-vacuum thermal insulation material; and (iv) an inlet of each magnet that can connect a cryopump and a compressor that can be powered by the power output of a SunCell® generator via a power output terminal.

[0151] In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter is a segmented Faraday generator. In another embodiment, a transverse current formed by the Lorentz deflection of an ion flow undergoes further Lorentz deflection in a direction parallel to the input flow (z-axis) of the ions and is relatively displaced along the z-axis, generating a Hall voltage between at least a first MHD electrode and a second MHD electrode. Such a device is known in the art as an embodiment of a Hall generator of a magnetohydrodynamic power converter. Similar devices having MHD electrodes angled with respect to the z-axis in the xy plane include another embodiment of the present invention and are called diagonal generators having a "window frame" structure. In any case, the voltage drives a current through an electrical load. Embodiments of segmented Faraday generators, Hall generators, and diagonal generators are given by Petrick. J.F. Louis, V.I. Kovbasyuk, Open-cycle Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Generation, M Petrick, and B.Ya Shumyatsky, Editors, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois (1978), pp. 157-163. The complete disclosure thereof is incorporated by reference.

[0152] SunCell (registered trademark) may include at least one MHD working medium return conduit 310, one return reservoir 311, and a corresponding pump 312. The pump 312 may be constituted by an electromagnetic (EM) pump. SunCell (registered trademark) may be constituted by a double molten metal conduit 310, a return reservoir 311, and a corresponding EM pump 312. The corresponding inlet riser 5qa may control the molten metal liquid level in each return reservoir 311. The return EM pump 312 may pump the MHD working medium from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 back to the reservoir 311 and then back to the corresponding injector reservoir 5c. In another embodiment, the molten metal return flow passes through the return conduit 310 directly to the corresponding return EM pump 312 and then to the corresponding injector reservoir 5c. In one embodiment, an MHD working medium such as silver is pumped against a pressure gradient of about 10 atmospheres to complete a molten metal flow circuit including injection, ignition, expansion, and return flow. To achieve high pressure, the EM pump includes a series of stages. SunCell (registered trademark) may optionally include a double molten metal injector system including a pair of reservoirs 5c, each of the pair of reservoirs 5c being provided with an EM pump injector 5ka and 5k61 and an inlet riser 5qa to control the molten metal liquid level in the corresponding reservoir 5c. The return flow may enter the base 5kk1 of the corresponding EM pump assembly 5kk.

[0153] The MHD generator includes a condenser channel section 309 that receives the expansion flow, and the generator may further include a return flow channel or conduit 310. Here, the MHD working medium such as silver vapor is cooled when at least one of temperature, pressure, and energy is lost in the condenser section, and then returns to the storage tank through the channel or conduit 310. The generator may include at least one return pump 312 and a return pump pipe 313 for pumping the return flow to the storage tank 5c and the EM pump injector 5ka. The return pump and the pump pipe can deliver at least one of liquid, vapor, and gas. The return pump 312 and the return pump pipe 313 may include an electromagnetic (EM) pump and an EM pump pipe. The inlet to the EM pump may have a diameter larger than the diameter of the outlet pump pipe to increase the pump outlet pressure. In one embodiment, the return pump may include an injector of the EM pump injector electrode 5ka. In an example of a double molten metal injector, the generator includes a return storage tank 311 and a corresponding return pump such as a return EM pump 312. The return storage tank 311 can balance the return molten metal such as the molten silver flow and condense or separate the silver vapor mixed with the liquid silver. The storage tank 311 may include a heat exchanger for condensing the silver vapor. The storage tank 311 may include a first-stage electromagnetic pump for preferentially pumping the liquid silver to separate the liquid from the gaseous silver. In one embodiment, the liquid metal can be selectively injected into the return EM pump 312 by centrifugal force. The return conduit or the return container may include a centrifugal separation section. The container of the centrifuge may be formed to taper from the inlet to the outlet, so that the centrifugal force is greater at the upper part than at the lower part, forcing the molten metal to move downward and separate from gases such as metal vapor and any working medium gas. Alternatively, the SunCell (registered trademark) may be attached to a centrifugal separation table that rotates about an axis perpendicular to the flow direction of the return molten metal to generate a centrifugal force for separating the liquid species and the gaseous species.

[0154] In one embodiment, the condensed metal vapor flows into two independent return reservoirs 311, and each return EM pump 312 feeds the molten metal into the corresponding vessel 5c. In one embodiment, at least one of the two return reservoirs 311 and the EM pump reservoir 5c comprises one of the disclosed ones, such as the inlet riser 5qa, of a liquid level control system. In one embodiment, the return molten metal can be sucked into the return reservoir 311 at a faster or slower rate depending on the liquid level in the return vessel. Here, the suction rate is controlled by a corresponding liquid level control system such as the inlet riser.

[0155] In one embodiment, the MHD converter 300 may further include at least one heater such as an inductively coupled heater. The heater can preheat components in contact with at least one of the MHD working medium, such as the reaction cell spacer 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD generator section 308, the MHD condenser section 309, the return conduit 310, the return storage tank 311, the return EM pump 312, and the return EM pump pipe 313. The heater may include at least one actuator for operating and stopping the heater. The heater may include at least one of a plurality of coils and coil sections. The coil may include those known in the art. The coil section may include at least one split coil such as one of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include at least one cooling system such as a heat exchanger 316. The MHD converter may include at least one cell and at least one of a group of MHD components, such as the chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD magnet 306, the MHD electrode 304, the MHD generator section 308, the MHD condenser section 309, the return conduit 310, the return storage tank 311, the return EM pump 312, and the return EM pump pipe 313. The cooler can eliminate heat loss from the MHD flow channel, such as heat loss from at least one of the chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD generator section 308, and the MHD condenser section 309. The cooler can remove heat from at least one of the MHD working medium return systems, such as the return conduit 310, the return storage tank 311, the return EM pump 312, and the return EM pump pipe 313. The cooler may include a radiation heat exchanger that can reject heat to the ambient atmosphere.

[0156] In one embodiment, the cooler may include a recirculator or a reheater that transfers energy from the condenser 309 to at least one of the storage tank 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD channel 308. The transferred energy such as heat may be, for example, from residual heat energy and pressure energy, and the latent heat of vaporization of a working medium including at least one of gases such as vaporized metal, kinetic aerosol, and noble gas. The heat pipe is an active two-phase device that can transfer a large heat flux of, for example, up to 20 MW / m over a distance of several meters with a temperature drop of a fraction of a degree. Therefore, only a small amount of working fluid can be used to dramatically reduce the thermal stress on the material. Heat pipes of sodium and lithium can transfer a large heat flux and can maintain a nearly isothermal state along the axial direction. Lithium heat pipes can transfer up to 200 MW / m. 2 In one embodiment, the heat pipe, for example, made of a molten metal such as a liquid alkali metal such as sodium or lithium, is placed in a high melting point metal such as W, transfers heat from the condenser 309, and can recirculate it to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or the nozzle 307. In one embodiment, at least one heat pipe recovers and recirculates the latent heat of vaporization of silver so that the recovered heat energy output becomes part of the energy input to the MHD channel 308. 2

[0157] In one embodiment, at least one of the components of the SunCell® that make up the MHD converter includes a heat pipe for at least one of the heat transfers from one part of the SunCell® generator to another part, and transfers heat from a heater such as an induction coupling heater to the SunCell® components, such as the EM pump tube 5k6, the storage tank 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and to the MHD molten metal return system, such as the MHD return conduit 310, the MHD return storage tank 311, the MHD return EM pump 312, and the MHD return EM tube. Alternatively, the SunCell® or at least one component may be heated in an oven as known in the art. In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component may be heated, at least for startup.

[0158] The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 has an operating temperature up to 1400 °C and comprises a Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire containing a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) having a high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element, such as a resistance wire element, may include a NiCr alloy operating in the range of 1100 °C to 1200 °C, which is at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may include at least one of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2), such as Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC, which can operate in the range of 1500 °C to 1800 °C in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element can have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may be composed of SiC that can operate at a temperature of up to 1625 °C.

[0159] The SunCell® heater 415 may include an internal heater that can be introduced through a thermowell or recess in a component wall that is open on the outside but closed on the inside of the SunCell® component. The SunCell® heater 415 may include an internal resistive heater through which power can be coupled to the internal heater by magnetic induction across the wall of the heated SunCell® or by a liquid electrode passing through the wall of a component of the heated SunCell®.

[0160] The SunCell® heater may include insulation to improve at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may be removed after startup to more effectively transfer heat to a desired receiving side, such as the ambient environment, or a heat exchanger. The insulation may be removed mechanically. The insulation may include a vacuum-compatible chamber and pump, and the insulation is applied by vacuum suction and reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas like helium. A vacuum chamber capable of adding or evacuating a heat-conducting gas such as helium may function as an adjustable insulation. The SunCell® may include a gas circulation system, and its startup can cause forced convection heat transfer to switch from an insulated mode to a non-insulated mode.

[0161] In another embodiment, the SunCell® includes a particulate insulation and at least one insulated container having at least one chamber around a component that is insulated to contain the insulation during warm-up of the SunCell®. Exemplary particulate insulations include at least one of sand and ceramic beads, such as alumina silicate beads like alumina or mullite beads. The beads may be removed after warm-up. The beads may be removed by gravity flow, and the housing may include a chute for bead removal. The beads can also be removed mechanically with a bead transport device such as an auger, conveyor, or pneumatic pump. The particulate insulation may further include a fluidizing agent such as a liquid like water to increase flow when filling the insulated container. The liquid may be removed before heating and added during transfer of the insulation. The insulating liquid mixture may include a slurry. The SunCell® may include at least one additional container for filling or emptying the insulation from the insulated container. The filling container may include means for maintaining a slurry, such as a stirrer.

[0162] In one embodiment, the SunCell (registered trademark) further includes a liquid heat insulation container, a liquid heat insulating material, and a pump around the components to be insulated, and the reversible heat insulating material may include a liquid that is discharged or discharged after startup. The liquid heat insulation container may include thin-walled quartz. An exemplary liquid heat insulating material is gallium having a heat transfer coefficient of 29 W / mK, and the other is mercury having a heat transfer coefficient of 8.3 W / mK. The liquid heat insulating material may include at least one radiation shield such as liquid gallium that reflects heat radiation. In another embodiment, the liquid insulator may include a molten salt such as a eutectic mixture of salts, such as a mixture of at least two of a plurality of alkali and alkaline earth halides, carbonates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfates, and nitrates. The liquid insulator may include a pressurized liquid or a supercritical liquid such as CO2 or water.

[0163] In one embodiment, the reversible heat insulating material may include a material that significantly increases its thermal conductivity with temperature over a range from the melting of a molten metal such as silver to about the operating temperature of the SunCell (registered trademark). The reversible heat insulating material may include a solid compound that is insulating during heating and becomes thermally conductive at a temperature exceeding a desired starting temperature. Quartz is an exemplary insulating material whose thermal conductivity significantly increases from the melting point of silver to a desired operating temperature of about 1000 ° C to 1600 ° C, which is the desired operating temperature of the quartz SunCell (registered trademark). Adjusting the thickness of the quartz heat insulating material can achieve the desired operation of the heat insulating material during startup and the heat transfer to the load during operation. Another exemplary embodiment includes a highly porous translucent ceramic material.

[0164] In another embodiment, heat is mainly the loss from the heated SunCell® due to heat dissipation. The heat insulator may include at least one of a vacuum chamber housing the SunCell® and a heat radiation shield. The heat radiation shield may be removed after startup. The SunCell® may be provided with a mechanism for performing at least one of rotation and translation of the heat shield. The heat shield may further include a backing layer of a heat insulating material such as silica or alumina heat insulator. In an exemplary embodiment, the heat radiation shield may be rotated to reduce the reflective surface area. In another embodiment, the heat radiation shield may further include a heating element such as a MoSi2 heating element.

[0165] In one embodiment, the silver in the EM pump section 405 can be melted by resistive heating by an induced current as induced in the EM pump tubes 405 and 406. The current can be induced by the EM pump transformer winding 401. The EM pump tube 405 is pre-filled with silver before startup. In one embodiment, the heat of the hydrino reaction can heat up one SunCell® component. In an exemplary embodiment, a heater such as an inductively coupled heater heats the EM pump tube 5k6, the storage tank 5c, and at least the lower part of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Due to the heat dissipation of the hydrino reaction, at least one of the other at least one component, for example, the upper part of the reaction cell 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, the MHD condenser 309, and the MHD molten metal return system (for example, the MHD return conduit 310, the MHD return storage tank 311, the MHD return EM pump 312, and the MHD return EM tube) can be heated.

[0166] A source of hydrino reactants, such as at least one of H2O, H2, CO2, and CO, can permeate through at least one of the permeable cell components, such as cell chamber 5b31, storage tank 5c, MHD expansion channel 308, and MHD condenser 309. The hydrino reaction gas can be introduced into the molten metal stream at at least one location via, for example, EM pump tube 5k6, MHD expansion channel 308, MHD condenser 309, MHD return conduit 310, return storage tank 311, MHD return pump 312, MHD return EM pump tube 313, etc. A gas injector, such as a mass flow controller, can be injected at high pressure into the high-pressure side of the MHD converter via, for example, at least one of EM pump tube 5k6, MHD return pump 312, and MHD return EM pump tube 313. The gas injector can inject the hydrino reactants at low pressure at at least one location, such as via MHD condenser 309, MHD return conduit 310, and return storage tank 311, into the low-pressure side of the MHD converter. In one embodiment, to prevent the molten metal from flowing backward into a water supply device, such as a mass flow controller, at least one of water and steam can be injected through EM pump tube 5k4 by a flow controller that further includes a pressure arrester and a backflow prevention valve. Water can be injected through a selectively permeable membrane, such as a ceramic or carbon membrane.

[0167] In one embodiment, the converter may include a PV converter, and the hydrino reactant injector may supply reactants by at least one means such as penetration or injection at the operating pressure of the delivery site. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a source of hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen gas, and these two gases may be combined to provide water vapor into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The source of hydrogen and the source of oxygen may each include at least one of a corresponding tank, a supply pipe that directly or indirectly flows the gas into the reaction cell chamber 5b31, a flow regulator, a flow controller, a computer, a flow sensor, and at least one valve. In the latter case, the gas may flow into at least one of a chamber in gas communication with the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as an EM pump 5ka, a container 5c, a nozzle 307, an MHD channel 308, and other MHD converter components (return supply pipe 310a, conduit 313a, pump 312a, etc.). In one embodiment, at least one of H2 and O2 may be injected into the injection portion of the EM pump pipe 5k61. H2 and O2 may be injected from the individual EM pump pipes of the dual EM pump injector. Alternatively, a gas such as at least one of oxygen and hydrogen may be added into the cell through an injector in a region with a lower silver vapor pressure, such as the MHD channel 308 or the MHD condenser 309. At least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be injected through a selective membrane in a ceramic membrane such as a nanoporous ceramic membrane. Oxygen may be coated with Bi 26 Mo 10 O 69 to increase the oxygen permeability of BaCo 0.7 Fe 0.2 Nb 0.1 O 3-δ(BCFN) may be supplied through one of the disclosed oxygen permeable membranes, such as an oxygen permeable membrane. Hydrogen may be supplied through a hydrogen permeable membrane, such as a palladium-silver alloy membrane. SunCell® may include an electrolytic cell, such as a high-pressure electrolytic cell. The electrolytic cell may include a proton exchange membrane through which pure hydrogen can be supplied by the cathode compartment. Pure oxygen can be supplied from the anode compartment. In one embodiment, the EM pump component is coated with a non-oxidizing coating or an oxidation protective coating, and further, hydrogen and oxygen are separately injected under controlled conditions using two mass flow controllers, where the flow may be controlled based on the cell concentration sensed by the corresponding gas sensor.

[0168] The hydrino reaction mixture in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may further include at least one source of oxygen of a compound containing H2O and oxygen. The source of oxygen, such as a compound containing oxygen, may be in excess to maintain oxygen substantially constant, and during cell operation, a small portion reversibly reacts with a source of H, such as H2 gas, to form an HOH catalyst. Exemplary compounds containing oxygen are MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, ZrO2, HfO2, Al2O3, Li2O, LiVO3, Bi2O3, Al2O3, WO3, and others of the present disclosure. The oxygen source compound may be used to stabilize oxide ceramics, such as hafnia, magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxide (CaO), strontium oxide (SrO), tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5), boron oxide (B2O3), TiO2, cerium oxide (Ce2O3), strontium zirconate (SrZrO3), magnesium zirconate (MgZrO3), calcium zirconate (CaZrO3), and barium zirconate (BaZrO3), such as yttrium or yttrium oxide (Y2O3).

[0169] In one embodiment, hydrogen can be injected as a gas through a gas injector. The hydrogen gas can be maintained within a high pressure, for example, in the range of 1 to 100 atmospheres, to reduce the required flow rate to maintain the desired output. In another embodiment, hydrogen can be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by permeating or diffusing through a permeable membrane. This membrane can include polymers, silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, ceramics such as carbon, or metals such as Pd-Ag alloys, niobium, Ni, Ti, stainless steel, or other hydrogen-permeable materials known in the art, for example, those reported by McLeod [L.S. McLeod McLeod, "Hydrogen permeation through microfabricated palladium-silver alloy membranes", doctoral thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, December 2008, https: / / smartech.gatech.edu / bitstream / handle / 1853 / 31672 / mcleod_logan_s_200812_phd.pdf], the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference. The H2 permeability can be increased by at least one of increasing the pressure difference between the supply side of the H2 permeable membrane, such as a Pd or Pd-Ag membrane, and the reaction cell separation 5b31, increasing the area of the membrane, decreasing the thickness of the membrane, and increasing the temperature of the membrane. The membrane can be provided with a lattice or perforated backing to provide a structural support for operating under at least one of the conditions of a higher pressure difference, such as in the range of about 1 to 500 atmospheres, a wider area in the range of about 0.01 cm 2 ~10 m 2 , a decreased thickness in the range of 10 nm to 1 cm, and a high temperature in the range of about 30 °C to 3000 °C. The lattice can include a metal that does not react with hydrogen. The lattice can be resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. An exemplary embodiment has a permeability coefficient of 5×10 -11 mm -2 s -1 Pa -1 , an area of 1×10 -3 m 2 , a thickness of 1×10 -4The Pd-Ag alloy film of m operates at a pressure difference of 1×10 7 Pa and a temperature of 300 °C to provide a hydrogen flow rate of about 0.01 mol / s. In one embodiment, an increase in the hydrogen permeation rate can be achieved by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane.

[0170] In one embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell (registered trademark) and the MHD converter, including internal compartments such as a storage tank 5c, a reaction cell chamber 5b31, a nozzle 307, an MHD channel 308, an MHD condenser 309, and other MHD converter components (return supply pipe 310a, conduit 313a, pump 312a, etc.), is housed in a gas-tight housing or enclosure. The gas-selective membrane may include one of the semi-permeable ceramics of the present disclosure. The cell gas may include at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and a noble gas such as argon or helium. The outer housing may be provided with a pressure sensor for each gas. The SunCell (registered trademark) may be provided with a supply source and a controller for each gas. The supply source of a noble gas such as argon may include a tank. The supply source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may include an electrolytic cell such as a high-pressure electrolytic cell. The gas controller may include at least one of a flow controller, a gas regulator, and a computer. The gas pressure inside the housing can be controlled to control the gas pressure of each gas inside the cell, such as the storage tank, the reaction cell chamber, and the MHD converter components. The pressure of each gas can be in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 20 atmospheres. In the exemplary embodiments shown in FIGS. 9-21, the MHD channel 308 and the MHD condenser 309, which may be linear, branched, or deformed, include a gas housing 309b, a pressure gauge 309c, and an exhaust assembly 309e including a gas supply and gas inlet conduit, a gas outlet conduit, and a flange, where the gas permeable membrane 309d may be attached to the wall of the MHD condenser 309. The mount may include a sintered joint, a metallized ceramic joint, a brazed joint, or others of the present disclosure. The gas housing 309b may further include an access port. The gas housing 309b may include a oxidation-resistant metal, such as a metal like SS625, or an oxidation-resistant coating on a metal, such as an iridium coating on a metal with an appropriate CTE like molybdenum. Alternatively, the gas housing 309b may include a ceramic, such as a metal oxide ceramic like zirconia, alumina, magnesia, hafnia, quartz, or another ceramic of the present disclosure. The ceramic through-hole passing through the housing 309b of a metal gas such as the MHD return conduit 310 may be cooled.This through-hole may include a carbon seal, and the seal temperature is lower than the carbonization temperature of the metal and the carbon reduction temperature of the ceramic. Since the molten metal is at a high temperature, the seal may be removed and cooled.

[0171] In an exemplary embodiment, the initial and final temperatures of the blackbody plasma during MHD power conversion are 3000K and 1300K. In one embodiment, the MHD generator is cooled on the low-pressure side and maintains the plasma flow. The holes or power generation channels 308 may be cooled. The cooling means may be one of those of the present disclosure. The MHD converter 300 may include a heat exchanger 316 such as a radiative heat exchanger, which radiates energy as a function of its temperature and may be designed to maintain a desired minimum channel temperature range, such as in the range of about 1000°C to 1500°C. The radiative heat exchanger may have a large surface area to minimize at least one of its size and weight. The radiative heat exchanger 316 may include a plurality of surfaces configured as facets of a pyramid or prism to increase the radiative surface area. The radiative heat exchanger may operate in air. The surface of the radiative heat exchanger may be coated with a material having at least one of the following characteristics: (i) being capable of high-temperature operation, such as with a refractory; (ii) having a high emissivity; (iii) being stable against oxidation and providing a high surface area, such as a textured surface with unobstructed or unimpeded emission. Exemplary materials are oxide ceramics such as MgO, ZrO2, HfO2, Al2O3, and other oxidation-stabilized ceramics such as ZrC-ZrB2 and ZrC-ZrB2-SiC composites.

[0172] The generator may further include a heat accumulator or a regenerative heat exchanger. In one embodiment, the flow passes through in a countercurrent state and then returns to the injection system, receives heat in the expansion section 308 or other heat loss areas, and preheats the metal to be injected into the reacted reaction cell chamber 5b31 to maintain the reaction cell chamber temperature. In one embodiment, at least one working medium, such as at least one of silver and noble metals, a storage tank 5c, cell components such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and MHD converter components, such as at least one of the MHD condenser section 309 or other high-temperature components, such as the storage tank 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD generator section 308, the MHD condenser section 309, may be heated by a heat exchanger, and the heat exchanger receives heat from at least one of the other at least one cell MHD components, such as the storage tank 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD generator section 308, and the MHD condenser section 309. The heat accumulator or the regenerative heat exchanger can transfer heat from one component to another component.

[0173] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a molten metal overflow system, such as an overflow tank, at least one pump, a cell molten metal storage amount sensor, a molten metal storage amount controller, a heater, a temperature control system, and a molten metal storage amount, for storing molten metal as needed and supplying it to the SunCell® as determined by at least one sensor and a controller. The molten metal storage amount controller of the overflow system may include the molten metal level controllers of the present disclosure, such as the inlet riser and the EM pump. The overflow system may include at least one of the MHD return conduit 310, the return storage tank 311, the return EM pump 312, and the return EM pump pipe 313.

[0174] Electromagnetic pumps can each include one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals, namely, an AC or DC conduction pump in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established throughout a tube containing the liquid metal and an AC or DC current is supplied to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube walls, and an induction pump that induces a current requiring a moving field, similar to the case of an induction motor where a current can cross an applied AC electric field. The induction pump can include three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and helical. The pump can include other known ones in the art, such as mechanical and thermoelectric pumps. The pump can include a centrifugal pump with a motor-driven impeller. The power to the electromagnetic pump can be constant or pulsed, each causing a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal. The pulsed injection can be driven by a program or a function generator. The pulsed injection can maintain a pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber.

[0175] In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 includes a flow chopper that causes intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The chopper can include a valve, such as an electronically controlled valve that further includes a controller. The valve can include an electromagnetic valve. Alternatively, the chopper can include a rotating disk with at least one passage that rotates to periodically cross the flow of molten metal so that the molten metal can flow through the passage, but the flow is blocked by the crossing of the rotating disk without the passage.

[0176] The molten metal pump may include a moving magnet pump (MMP), such as those described in M.G. Hvasta, W.K. Nollet, M.H. Anderson, "Designing moving magnet pumps for high-temperature, liquid-metal systems" Nuclear Engineering and Design, Volume 327, (2018), pp. 228-237 (incorporated by reference in its entirety). The MMP can generate a traveling magnetic field with at least one of a rotating array of permanent magnets and a polyphase magnetic field coil. In one embodiment, the MMP may include a multistage pump, such as a two-stage pump for MHD recirculation and ignition injection. The two-stage MMP pump may include a motor, such as an electric motor that rotates a shaft. The two-stage MMP further includes two drums, each having a set of magnets mounted circumferentially with alternating polarities fixed to the surface of each drum, and a ceramic container having a U-shaped portion for housing the drums. Each drum is rotated by a shaft and the molten metal flows within the ceramic container. In another embodiment of the MMP, the alternating magnet drums are replaced by two disks with alternating polarity magnets on each disk surface on opposite sides of a sandwich strip ceramic container containing the molten metal pumped by the rotation of the disks. In another embodiment, the container may include a magnetically permeable material, such as a non-ferrous metal like stainless steel or one of the ceramics of the present disclosure. The magnets are cooled by means such as air cooling or water cooling to enable operation at high temperatures.

[0177] An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, and the heating and cooling systems can be modified to support pumping of molten silver. The heater of the EM pump tube having an inlet and an outlet and a container containing silver may be heated by a heater as disclosed, such as a resistive or inductively coupled heater. The heater, such as a resistive or inductively coupled heater, may be external to the EM pump tube and further includes heat transfer means for transferring heat from the heater to the EM pump tube, such as a heat pipe. The heat pipe may operate at a high temperature, such as by a lithium working fluid. The electromagnet of the EM pump can be cooled by a system as disclosed, such as a water cooling loop and a cooling device.

[0178] In one embodiment (Figs. 4 - 22), the EM pump 400 can include an AC, induction type, and the Lorentz force applied to the silver is generated by the time - varying current flowing through the silver and the cross - synchronous time - varying magnetic field. The time - varying current flowing through the silver can be generated by the Faraday induction of the first time - varying magnetic field generated by the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a. The source of the first time - varying magnetic field can include the primary transformer winding 401, and the silver can function as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single - turn short - circuit winding including the EM pump tube portion of the current loop 405 and the EM pump current loop return portion 406. The primary winding 401 can include an AC electromagnet, and the first time - varying magnetic field is conducted through the magnetic circuit or the EM pump transformer yoke 402 via the circumferential loops of the silver 405 and 406, which are induction current loops. The silver may be contained in containers, such as ceramic containers 405 and 406 including the ceramics of the present disclosure, such as silicon nitride (MP 1900 °C), quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnia. A protective SiO2 layer may be formed on the silicon nitrite by controlled passive oxidation. The containers can include channels 405 and 406 surrounding the magnetic circuit or the EM pump transformer yoke 402. The containers can include a flattened portion 405 to impart to the induced current the component of the flow in a direction perpendicular to the synchronous time - varying magnetic field and the desired direction of the pump flow in accordance with the corresponding Lorentz force. The cross - synchronous time - varying magnetic field can be generated by an assembly 403c including the EM pump electromagnetic circuit or AC electromagnet 403 and the EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The magnetic yoke 404 can have a gap in the flattened portion of the container 405 containing the silver. The electromagnet 401 of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a and the electromagnet 403 of the EM pump electromagnetic assembly 403c can be powered by a single - phase AC power source or other suitable power sources known in the art. The magnets can be arranged near the curved portions of the loops such that the desired current vector components are present. The phases of the AC currents supplying power to the transformer winding 401 and the electromagnet winding 403 can be synchronized to maintain the desired direction of the Lorentz pumping force. The power sources of the transformer winding 401 and the electromagnet winding 403 can be the same power source or different power sources.Synchronization of the induced current and the magnetic field may be effected by analog means such as delay line components or both via digital means known in the art. In one embodiment, the EM pump may comprise a single transformer providing induction of the current in both closed current loops 405 and 406 and comprising a plurality of yokes functioning as electromagnets and yokes 403 and 404. Since a single transformer is used, the corresponding induced current and the alternating magnetic field may be in phase.

[0179] In one embodiment (Figs. 2 - 22), the induced current loop may include the path through silver within the inlet EM pump tube 5k6, the EM pump tube portion of the current loop 405, the outlet EM pump tube 5k6, and, in embodiments including these components, the inlet riser tube 5qa and the walls of the injector 561 within the vessel 5c. The EM pump may include a monitoring and control system, e.g., for feedback control of SunCell power generation using the current and voltage of the primary winding and pumping parameters. Examples of measured feedback parameters may include the temperature in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the power in the MHD converter. The monitoring and control system may include corresponding sensors, controllers, and computers. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may be at least one monitored and controlled by a wireless device such as a mobile phone. The SunCell® may include an antenna for transmitting and receiving data and control signals.

[0180] In an embodiment of the MHD converter having only one pair of electromagnetic pumps 400, each MHD return conduit 310 is extended and connected to the inlet of the corresponding electromagnetic pump 5kk. This connection may include a junction such as a Y-junction having the input of the MHD return conduit 310 and a boss 308 at the bottom of the container such as a boss of the container bottom plate assembly 409. In an embodiment including a pressurized SunCell (registered trademark) having an MHD converter, the injection side of the EM pump, the storage tank, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 operate under conditions of higher pressure compared to the MHD return conduit 310. The inlet of each EM pump includes only the MHD return conduit 310. The connection may include a junction such as a Y-junction having the input of the MHD return conduit 310 and the boss at the base of the container, and the pump output prevents backflow from the inlet flow from the container to the MHD return conduit 310.

[0181] In one embodiment of the MHD generator, the injection EM pump and the MHD return EM pump may include any disclosure such as a DC or AC conduction pump and an AC induction pump. In an exemplary embodiment of the MHD generator (FIG. 5), the injection EM pump may include an induction EM pump 400, and the MHD return EM pump 312 may include an induction EM pump or a DC conduction EM pump. In another embodiment, the injection pump may also function as the MHD return EM pump. The MHD return conduit 310 may input to the EM pump at a position of lower pressure than the inlet from the container. The inlet from the MHD return conduit 310 may enter the EM pump at a position suitable for the low pressure in the MHD condenser 309 and the MHD return conduit 310. The inlet from the container 5c may enter a position of an EM pump tube with higher pressure, such as a position where the pressure is the operating pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 that requires pressure. The EM pump pressure of the injector section 5k61 may be at least that of the desired reaction cell chamber pressure. The inlet may be attached to the EM pump in the tubes and current loop sections 5k6, 405, or 406.

[0182] The EM pump includes a multi-stage pump (Figs. 6 to 21). The multi-stage EM pump is capable of receiving the flow of the charged metal, for example, from the MHD return conduit 310, and from the bottom of the container 5c at different pump stages, and each stage corresponds to a pressure that substantially permits only the molten metal flow from the EM pump outlet and the injector 5k61 forward only. In one embodiment, the multi-stage EM pump assembly 400a (Fig. 6) includes at least one EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a including a transformer winding 401 and a transformer yoke 402 via induction current loops 405 and 406, and further includes at least one alternating current EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c including an alternating current electromagnet 403 and an EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The induction current loop may include an EM pump tube portion 405 and an EM pump current loop return portion 406. The electromagnetic yoke 404 may have a gap in the flat portion of the container of the current loop 405 including the pumped molten metal such as silver or the EM pump tube portion. In the embodiment shown in Fig. 7, the induction current loop including the EM pump tube portion 405 has an inlet and an outlet arranged offset from the bend of the return flow of the EM pump current loop return portion 406, and the induced current is more lateral with respect to the magnetic flux of the electromagnets 403a and 403b in order to optimize the Lorentz pumping force that is lateral to both the current and the magnetic flux. The pumped metal melts in the EM pump tube portion 405 and solidifies in the EM pump current loop return portion 406.

[0183] In one embodiment, the multi-stage EM pump may include a plurality of alternating current (AC) EM pump electromagnetic circuits 403c that supply a magnetic flux perpendicular to both the current and the metal flow. The multi-stage EM pump can receive an inlet along the EM pump tube portion of the current loop 405 where the inlet pressure is suitable for the local pump pressure to achieve a forward pump flow in which the pressure increases at the next AC EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c stage. In an exemplary embodiment, the MHD return conduit 310 enters the current loop, such as the EM pump tube portion of the current loop 405, at the inlet before the first AC electromagnet circuit 403c that includes the AC electromagnet 403a and the EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404a. The inlet flow from the vessel 5c can enter after the first pump and before the second pump of the AC EM pump electromagnet circuit 403c, which includes the AC electromagnet 403b and the EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404b, where the pumps maintain the molten metal pressure in the current loop 405 that maintains the desired flow from each inlet to the next pump stage or the pump outlet and the injector 5k61. The pressure of each pump stage can be controlled by controlling the current of the corresponding AC electromagnet of the AC electromagnet circuit. An exemplary transformer includes a silicon steel laminated transformer core 402, and exemplary EM pump electromagnetic yokes 404a and 404b each comprise a stack of sheets of laminated silicon steel (oriented steel).

[0184] In one embodiment, the EM pump current loop return portion 406, such as a ceramic channel, may include a molten metal flow restrictor or may be filled with a solid conductor while preventing backflow of the molten metal from the high-pressure portion to the low-pressure portion of the EM pump tube so that the current of the current loop is completely closed. The solid may include metals such as the disclosed stainless steels such as Haynes 230, Pyromet® alloy 625, Carpenter L-605 alloy, BioDur® Carpenter CCM® alloy, Haynes 230, 310SS, or 625SS. The solid may include high melting point metals. The solid may include oxidation-resistant metals. The solid may include a coating such as a metal or a conductive cap layer or iridium to avoid oxidation of the solid conductor.

[0185] In one embodiment, the solid conductor of conduit 406 that provides a return current path while preventing the flow of silver black includes a solid molten metal such as solid silver. This solid silver can be maintained by maintaining a temperature below the melting point of silver at one or more locations along the path of conduit 406 so as to remain in a solid state in at least a portion of conduit 406 and prevent the flow of silver within conduit 406. Conduit 406 can include at least one heat exchanger, such as a coolant loop, that is a portion away from the high temperature portion 405 with little or no heating or insulation material so that the temperature of at least a portion of the conduit 406 can be maintained below the melting point of the molten metal.

[0186] In one embodiment, at least one magnetic winding of the transformer and the electromagnet is spaced apart from the EM pump tube portion of the current loop 405 containing the metal stream by extending at least one of the transformer magnetic yoke 402 and the electromagnetic circuit yoke 404. Such an extension enables at least one of more efficient heating such as inductive coupling heating of the EM pump tube 405 and more efficient cooling of at least one of the transformer winding 401, the transformer yoke 402, and the electromagnetic circuit 403c including the AC electromagnet 403 and the EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. In the case of a two-stage EM pump, the magnetic circuit may include AC electromagnets 403a and 403b and EM pump electromagnetic yokes 404a and 404b. At least one of the transformer yoke 402 and the electromagnetic yoke 404 may include a ferromagnetic material having a high Curie temperature such as iron or cobalt. The winding may include a ceramic-coated wire, for example, a high-temperature insulated wire such as a ceramic-coated wire, for example, Ceramawire HT. At least one of the EM pump transformer winding circuit or assembly 401a and the EM pump electromagnetic circuit or assembly 403c may include one of the disclosed water-cooling systems such as one of the magnets 5k4 of the DC conduction EM pump (Figs. 2-3). At least one of the induction EM pumps 400b may include an air-cooling system 400b (Figs. 9-10). At least one of the induction EM pumps 400b may include an air-cooling system 400b (Fig. 11). At least one of the induction EM pumps 400c may include a water-cooling system (Fig. 2I192). The cooling system may include a heat pipe as in one example of the disclosure. The cooling system may include a ceramic jacket that functions as a coolant conduit. The coolant system may include a coolant pump and a heat exchanger to remove heat to the load or the surroundings. The jacket may at least partially house the component to be cooled. The yoke cooling system may include an internal coolant conduit. The coolant may include water. The coolant may include silicone oil.

[0187] The exemplary transformer comprises a silicon steel laminated transformer core. The ignition transformer can include (i) a number of turns within at least one range of about 10 to 10,000, 100 to 5,000, and 500 to 25,000 turns, (ii) a power within at least one range of about 10 W to 1 MW, 100 W to 500 kW, 1 kW to 100 kW, and 1 kW to 20 kW, and (iii) a primary winding current within at least one range of about 0.1 A to 10,000 A, 1 A to 5 kA, 1 A to 1 kA, and 1 to 500 A. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition current is in a voltage range of about 6 V to 10 V, the current is about 1,000 A, and thus, a 50-turn winding operates at about 500 V and 20 A to provide an ignition current of 10 V at 1,000 A. The EM pump magnet can include a magnetic flux within at least one range of about 0.01 T to 10 T, 0.1 T to 5 T, and 0.1 T to 2 T. In an exemplary embodiment, a magnet wire having a diameter of about 0.5 mm is maintained at less than about 200 °C.

[0188] In one embodiment that includes a SunCell® that does not form an alloy or react with aluminum at the cell operating temperature, the molten metal can include aluminum. In an exemplary embodiment, a SunCell® as shown in FIGS. 4 - 21 includes components in contact with molten aluminum metal such as a reaction cell chamber 5b31 and an EM pump tube 5k6 that include quartz or ceramic, where the SunCell® further comprises an inductive EM pump and an inductive ignition system.

[0189] At least one supply pipe (Figs. 9 - 21) of at least one of the MHD return conduit 310, the EM pump vessel supply pipe 416, and the EM pump injection supply pipe 417 can be heated by a resistive or inductively coupled heater. The inductively coupled heater can be composed of an antenna 415 that wraps around the supply pipe, where the antenna may be water-cooled. Components wrapped by the inductively coupled heater antenna 5f or 415 may include an inner layer of thermal insulation. The inductively coupled heater antenna can perform two functions of heating and water-cooling to maintain the desired temperature of the corresponding component. SunCell may further include a structure support 418 that protects heat shields for components such as the MHD magnet housing 306a, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, a power supply, sensors, and control supply pipes 419 attached to the structure support 418, as well as 420 related to the EM pump vessel supply pipe 416 and the EM pump injection supply pipe 417.

[0190] In one embodiment, an ignition busbar such as 5k2a may include an electrode that contacts a portion of the solidified molten metal such as the wet seal joint of the storage tank 5c. In another embodiment, the ignition system includes an induction system (Figs. 8 - 21), where a power supply is supplied to the conductive molten metal to initiate the ignition of the hydrino reaction, providing an induced current, voltage, and power. The ignition system may include an electrodeless system, and the ignition current is applied by induction by an inductive ignition transformer assembly 410. The induced current can flow through intersecting molten streams from a plurality of injectors maintained by a pump such as the EM pump 400. In one embodiment, the storage tank 5c may further include a ceramic cross-connection channel 414 such as a channel between the bases of the storage tank 5c. The inductive ignition transformer assembly 410 may include an inductive ignition transformer winding 411 and inductive ignition. The transformer yoke 412 may extend through an induced current loop formed by the storage tank 5c, intersecting molten streams from a plurality of molten metal injectors, and the cross-connection channel 414. The inductive ignition transformer assembly 410 may be similar to that of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a.

[0191] In one embodiment, the ignition power source can include an alternating current, induction type, and the current of the molten metal such as silver is generated by Faraday induction of a time-varying magnetic field passing through the silver. The source of the time-varying magnetic field may include a primary transformer winding, an inductive ignition transformer winding 411, and silver can function at least partially as a secondary transformer winding such as a single-turn short-circuit winding. The primary winding 411 can include an alternating current electromagnet, where the inductive ignition transformer yoke 412 conducts a time-varying magnetic field through a circumferential conduction loop or circuit containing molten silver. In one embodiment, the inductive ignition system can include a plurality of closed magnetic loop yokes 412 that maintain a time-varying magnetic flux through the secondary including the molten silver circuit. At least one yoke and the corresponding magnetic circuit can include the winding 411, and the additional magnetic flux of the plurality of yokes 412 each having the winding 411 can generate induced current and voltage in parallel. The number of primary winding turns of the winding 411 of each yoke 412 can be selected to achieve a desired secondary voltage from the voltage applied to each winding, and the desired secondary current can be achieved by selecting the number of closed-loop yokes 412 with the corresponding winding 411, where the voltage is independent of the number of yokes and windings, and parallel current is added.

[0192] The transformer electromagnet may be powered by a single-phase alternating current power supply or other suitable power source known in the art. The transformer frequency can be increased to reduce the size of the transformer yoke 412. The frequency of the transformer can be within a range of at least about 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. The transformer power supply may include a VFD variable frequency drive. The storage tank 5c may include a molten metal channel such as an intersection connection channel 414 that connects two storage tanks 5c. The current loop surrounding the transformer yoke 412 can include the molten silver contained in the storage tank 5c, the intersection connection channel 414, the silver in the injector tube 5k61, and the injected flow of molten silver that intersects and completely closes the induced current loop. The induced current loop may further at least partially include the molten silver contained in at least one of the EM pump components such as the inlet riser tube 5qa, the EM pump tube 5k6, the boss, and the injector 5k61.

[0193] The cross-connection channel 414 can be at a desired level of molten metal such as silver within the container. Alternatively, the cross-connection channel 414 can be at a position lower than the desired container molten metal level so that the channel is continuously filled with molten metal during operation. The cross-connection channel 414 can be arranged towards the base of the storage tank 5c. The channel forms part of an induction current loop or circuit, further promoting the flow of molten metal from one container with a high silver level to another container with a low level, and maintaining the desired levels in both storage tanks 5c. Due to the difference in the head pressure of the molten metal, the metal flow between the storage tanks can maintain their respective levels. The current loop can include an intersecting molten stream, an injector tube 5k61, a column of molten metal in the storage tank 5c, and a cross-connection channel 414 connecting the storage tank 5c at a level lower than the desired molten silver level or the target level. The current loop can surround a transformer yoke 412 that generates current by Faraday induction. In another embodiment, at least one EM pump transformer yoke 402 further includes an induction melting transformer yoke 412, and can generate an induced ignition current by further supplying a time-varying magnetic field through an ignition molten metal loop, for example, formed by the intersecting molten metal flow and molten metal included in the storage tank and the cross-connection channel 414. The storage tank 5c and the channel 414 can include an electrical insulator such as ceramic. The induction ignition transformer yoke 412 can be provided with a cover 413 that can include at least one of an electrical insulator and a thermal insulator such as a ceramic cover. The portion of the induction ignition transformer yoke 412 extending between the storage tanks and including a circumferentially wound induction coupling heater antenna such as a helical coil can be thermally or electrically shielded by the cover 413. At least one ceramic of the storage tank 5c, the channel 414, and the cover 413 can be one of those disclosed herein, for example, silicon nitride (MP 1900 °C), quartz such as fused quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnia. A protective SiO2 layer can be formed on silicon nitrite by controlled passivation oxidation.

[0194] In one embodiment, the cross-connection channel 414 keeps the silver level in the container substantially constant. SunCell® may further include a submerged nozzle 5q of the injector 5k61. Since the molten metal liquid level in each container 5c is substantially constant, the depth of each submerged nozzle, and thus the head pressure injected by the injector injection, can remain essentially constant. In embodiments including the cross-connection channel 414, it is possible to remove the inlet riser 5qa and replace it with a port to the container boss 408 or the EM pump container supply pipe 416.

[0195] SunCell® can be provided with a heat source for heating at least one component during startup. The heat source can be selected from at least one of an inductive EM pump and an inductive ignition system to avoid overheating of at least one yoke. The heat source can allow for efficient heat transfer to an external heat exchanger in an embodiment of the heat energy source of SunCell®. Heat can maintain the molten metal in a molten metal injection system such as a dual molten metal injection system including an EM pump. In one embodiment, SunCell® comprises at least one of a heater or heat source, such as a chemical heat source like a catalytic chemical heat source, a flame or combustion heat source, a resistance heater like a refractory filament heater, a radiant heat source like an infrared light source such as a heating lamp and a high-power diode light source, and an inductively coupled heater.

[0196] The radiant heat source may include means for scanning the radiant energy output across the surface to be heated. The scanning means may include a scanning mirror. The scanning means may comprise at least one mirror, and further may comprise means for moving the mirror over a plurality of positions, such as mechanical, pneumatic, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and other actuators known in the art.

[0197] In one embodiment, the heater 415 may include a resistive heater, such as a wire like Kanthal or others disclosed herein. The resistive heater may include a refractory resistive filament or wire that can be wound around the component to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may include high temperature conductors such as carbon, nichrome, 300 series stainless steel, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The filament or wire may be embedded in an embedding material to protect it from oxidation. Heating elements such as filaments, wires, and meshes may be operated in a vacuum to protect them from oxidation. An exemplary heater includes a Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, which is a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating at a maximum temperature of 1400 °C and having a high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM, which forms a heat-resistant oxide film resistant to oxidation and carburizing environments and can be operated up to 1475 °C. The heat loss rate at 1375 K and an emissivity of 1 is 200 kW / m 2 or 0.2 W / cm 2 . The power of a commercially available resistive heater operating at 1475 K is 4.6 W / cm 2 . Heating can be enhanced by using thermal insulation outside the heating element.

[0198] The heater 415 can be a resistance heater or an induction coupling heater. An exemplary heater 415 includes a Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, which is a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating at an operating temperature up to 1400 °C and having a high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alcrothal. Heating elements such as resistance wire elements can include NiCr alloys that operate in the range of 1100 °C to 1200 °C, such as at least one of Nichrome 80, Nichrome 70, Nichrome 60, and Nichrome 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 can include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2), for example, at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC, and can operate in the range of 1500 °C to 1800 °C in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element can include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element can have an oxidation-resistant coating such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistance heater 415 may include SiC and can operate at a temperature of up to 1625 °C. The heater may include a heat insulator to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The heat insulator can include ceramics known to those skilled in the art, such as a heat insulator including aluminosilicate. The heat insulator may be at least one of removable or reversible. The heat insulator may be removed after startup to more effectively transfer heat to a desired receiving side such as the surrounding ambient or a heat exchanger. The heat insulator may be removed mechanically. The heat insulator may be provided with a vacuum-compatible vacuum vessel and pump, the heat insulator is applied by evacuation, and the heat insulator is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas like helium. A vacuum chamber capable of adding or exhausting a heat transfer gas such as helium can function as an adjustable heat insulator.

[0199] The resistive heater 415 can be powered by at least one of series and parallel wired circuits to selectively heat different components of the SunCell®. The resistive heating wire may comprise a twisted pair to prevent interference from induction systems such as at least one inductive EM pump, inductive ignition systems, and systems that cause time-varying fields such as electromagnets. The resistive heating wire can be oriented such that the linked time-changing magnetic flux is minimized. This heating wire can be oriented such that the closed loop lies in a plane parallel to the magnetic flux.

[0200] At least one of the catalytic chemical heat source and the flame or combustion heat source may include a fuel such as hydrocarbons like propane and oxygen or hydrogen and oxygen. The SunCell® may include an electrolyzer capable of supplying a stoichiometric mixture of H2 and O2. The electrolyzer may include a gas separator to separately supply at least one of H2 or O2. The electrolyzer may comprise, for example, a high-pressure electrolysis section having a proton exchange membrane for at least one separate source of H2 and O2. The electrolysis section may be powered by a battery at startup. The SunCell® may include a gas storage and supply device for H2 and O2 gases from H2O electrolysis. The gas storage device may store over time at least one of the H2 and O2 gases resulting from H2O electrolysis. The electrolytic energy output over time may be provided by the SunCell® or a battery. The gas storage device may release the gas as fuel to the heater at a rate that achieves a higher power than the power available from the battery. The efficiency of electrolysis is greater than 90%. The recombination and combustion of hydrogen and oxygen on the catalyst is nearly 100% efficient. The flame heater may include at least one burner and means for moving or scanning at least one burner over a plurality of positions such that the flame covers a larger area. The scanner may include a cam and at least one of mechanical, pneumatic, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and other actuators known in the art.

[0201] In one embodiment, the heating device comprises at least one pipe, a manifold, and at least one housing, and supplies at least one fuel or fuel mixture, such as at least one of H2 and O2, to a surface impregnated with a catalyst to burn the fuel gas on the surface of at least one component of SunCell® to serve as a heat source. The maximum temperature of the stoichiometric mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is about 2800°C. The surface of the component to be heated may be coated with a hydrogen-oxygen recombination catalyst such as Raney nickel, copper oxide, or a noble metal such as platinum, palladium, ruthenium, iridium, rhenium, or rhodium. An exemplary catalyst surface is at least one of alumina, silica, quartz, and alumina-silicate coated with Pd, Pt, or Ru. The flame heater may include a heated filament, and the high temperature of the filament may be at least partially maintained by a hydrogen-oxygen recombination reaction.

[0202] In one embodiment, the source of H2+O2 gas may comprise a design such as a commercial device like an oxyhydrogen torch system, e.g., a Honguang H160 gas oxyhydrogen flame generator. Considering an H2O electrolysis voltage of 1.48V and a typical electrolysis efficiency of about 90%, the current required is approximately 0.75A per 1W burner. In one embodiment, a plurality of burners may be supplied by a common gas supply pipe arranged to supply a stoichiometric mixture of H2+O2. The flame heater may include a plurality of such gas supply pipes and burners. The supply pipes and burners are arranged in a suitable structure to achieve the desired heating of the SunCell® components. This structure may include at least one helix, such as the single helical oxyhydrogen flame 423 shown in FIGS. 20 - 21 having gas supply pipe 424 and a plurality of burners or nozzles 425. In an alternative design also shown in FIGS. 20 - 21, the oxyhydrogen flame heater 423 may include a plurality of gas supply pipes 424 and a plurality of burners or nozzles 425 to achieve a series of annular rings around the SunCell® component to be heated. A further exemplary structure for obtaining good heating surface coverage of the SunCell® component is a double or triple helix such as DNA. A linearly shaped component such as the MHD return conduit 310 may be heated by at least one linear burner structure.

[0203] In one embodiment, a heater such as a resistive, burner, or heat exchanger type may be heated from inside a SunCell component such as inside the container 5c, through an internal well that may be cast at the bottom of the container.

[0204] The ignition current can vary with time, such as an alternating current of about 60 Hz, but can have other characteristics and waveforms. For example, it can have a frequency in at least one range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, a peak current in at least one range of about 1 A to 100 MA, 10 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and a peak voltage in at least one range of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V. Here, the waveform can include a duty cycle within at least one range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, 10% to 50%, and can include a sine wave, square wave, triangle, or other desired waveform. To minimize the skin effect at high frequencies, windings such as 411 of the ignition system comprise at least one of braided wires, multi-stranded wires, and Litz wires.

[0205] In one embodiment, controlling the frequency of the ignition current controls the reaction rate of the hydrino reaction. The frequency of the ignition current can be controlled by controlling the frequency of the power supply to the inductive ignition winding 411. The ignition current can be an induced current caused by a time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying magnetic field can affect the hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is controlled by controlling at least one of the intensity and frequency of the time-varying magnetic field. The intensity and frequency of the time-varying magnetic field can be controlled by controlling the power supply to the inductive ignition winding 411.

[0206] In one embodiment, the ignition frequency can be adjusted so that a frequency corresponding to hydrino power generation occurs in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD channel 308. The frequency of the power output, such as an alternating current of about 60 Hz, can be controlled by controlling the ignition frequency. The ignition frequency can be adjusted by changing the frequency of the time-varying magnetic field of the induction ignition transformer assembly 410. The frequency of the induction ignition transformer assembly 410 can be adjusted by changing the frequency of the current in the inductive ignition transformer winding 411, and the frequency of the power supplied to the winding 411 can be changed. The time-varying power of the MHD channel 308 can prevent the formation of shock waves in the aerosol jet. In another embodiment, the time-varying ignition can drive time-varying hydrino power generation and result in a time-varying power output. The MHD converter can output alternating current power that may also include DC components. The alternating current components can be used to supply power to one or more of the windings of the transformer and the electromagnet, such as at least one of the windings of the EM pump, for example, the transformer winding circuit 401a and the electromagnet windings of the EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c.

[0207] The pressurized SunCell® equipped with an MHD converter can operate without relying on gravity. The EM pump, such as 400 (such as the two-stage air-cooled EM pump 400b), can be placed in a position that optimizes at least one of the packing and minimization of the molten metal inlet and outlet conduits or supply pipes. An exemplary packaging is such that the EM pump is placed intermediate between the end of the MHD condenser 309 and the base of the storage tank 5c (Figs. 12-19).

[0208] In one embodiment, the working medium includes a metal and a gas that are soluble in molten metal at low temperatures and insoluble or poorly soluble in molten metal at high temperatures. In an exemplary embodiment, the working medium may include at least one of silver and oxygen. In one embodiment, the oxygen pressure in the reaction cell chamber is maintained at a pressure that substantially prevents a molten metal such as silver from vaporizing. The hydrino reaction plasma can heat oxygen and liquid silver to a desired temperature such as 3500 K. The mixture containing the working medium flows through a tapered MHD channel under a pressure such as 25 atmospheres, and the pressure and temperature decrease as thermal energy is converted into electricity. As the temperature drops, a molten metal such as silver can absorb a gas such as oxygen. Next, the liquid is pumped back into the container and recirculated in the reaction cell chamber, where oxygen is released by plasma heating and the desired reaction cell chamber pressure and temperature conditions required for driving MHD conversion are maintained. In one embodiment, the temperature of the silver at the outlet of the MHD channel is approximately the same as the melting point of the molten metal, where the solubility of oxygen is about 20 cm 3 of oxygen per 1 cm of silver at 1 atmosphere of O2 3 (STP). The recirculation pumping output of the liquid containing dissolved gas may be much smaller than that of the free gas. Further, the gas cooling requirements for reducing the pressure and temperature of the free gas during the thermodynamic energy output cycle and the MHD converter volume may be significantly reduced.

[0209] In one embodiment, the working medium metal can form an aerosol of nanoparticles. The formation of nanoparticles can be facilitated by the presence of a gas in contact with the working medium. In one embodiment, the molten metal and the working medium contain silver that forms silver nanoparticles in the presence of oxygen. The nanoparticles can be accelerated within the MHD nozzle 307, and the kinetic energy of the jet is converted into electricity in the MHD channel 308. The pressure of oxygen can be sufficient to function as the accelerating gas within the MHD nozzle 307. In one embodiment, the silver aerosol is substantially pure liquid and oxygen at the outlet of the MHD nozzle 307. The solubility of oxygen atoms in silver increases as the temperature approaches the melting point, and the solubility is up to 25% silver molar fraction (J. Assal, B. Hallstedt, and L. J. Gauckler, "Thermodynamic assessment of the silver - oxygen system", J. Am Ceram. Soc. Vol. 80(12), (1997), pp. 3054 - 3060). Silver absorbs oxygen in the MHD channel 308 such as at the outlet, and both liquid silver and oxygen are recycled. Oxygen can be recycled as the gas absorbed in the molten silver. In one embodiment, the reaction releases oxygen and regenerates the reaction chamber 5b31. The temperature of silver above the melting point also functions as a means for recycling or regenerating the thermal energy output. In one embodiment, the silver aerosol is accelerated within a convergent - divergent nozzle such as a Laval nozzle by at least one gas such as oxygen and a noble gas such as argon or helium. The MHD working medium is a medium having kinetic energy and electrical conductivity flowing through the MHD channel, and can include a silver aerosol, an accelerating gas, and silver vapor. When the working medium contains oxygen and silver, the working medium can further contain oxygen absorbed in liquid silver which can be in the form of fine liquid particles or an aerosol. The working medium can be recycled at the ends of the MHD channel by a recirculator and a compressor such as at least one of the pumps such as the EM pump 312 (Figure 22). The recirculator including the MHD return gas pump or compressor 312a can further include the MHD return gas conduit 310a, the MHD return gas storage tank 311a, and the MHD return gas pipe 313a.The recirculator can recirculate at least one of silver vapor, liquid silver, and the accelerating gas within the working medium. The liquid silver may be in the form of an aerosol so that substantially all types of recirculation of the working medium can be recirculated by a gas pump such as a compressor. The accelerating gas may contain oxygen for forming liquid silver or maintaining it as a silver aerosol to facilitate recirculation by a gas pump. An accelerating gas such as oxygen may constitute a majority of the mole fraction of the working medium. The accelerating gas mole fraction may be within at least one of the ranges of about 50 - 99 mol%, 50 - 95 mol%, and 50 - 90 mol%. In another embodiment, the liquid silver can be recirculated by a liquid metal pump such as an EM pump as in one of the present disclosures. In one embodiment, at least one of the accelerating gas such as oxygen and the liquid metal such as silver is recirculated by an EM pump, where oxygen can be absorbed by the molten silver to facilitate its pumping by the EM pump.

[0210] In one embodiment, the MHD converter comprises a kind of liquid metal magnetohydrodynamics (LMMHD) converter, and the kinetic energy of the conductive plasma jet from the nozzle 307 is converted into electricity by the MHD excitation 308. The kinetic energy input power P input at the inlet of magnetohydrodynamics is

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[0211] In one embodiment, the LMMHD cycle includes a powerful high-conductivity jet flow form containing oxygen and silver nanoparticle aerosol promoted by two unique properties of silver and oxygen at the melting point of silver. In the presence of oxygen, molten silver forms nanoparticles that behave like large molecules approximately following the ideal gas law at high speeds. Since the aerosol is formed at the melting point of silver (962 °C), molecular gases with thermodynamic properties similar to silver atoms can be formed at temperatures much lower than 2162 °C, which is the boiling point of silver. This unique property of silver promotes the thermodynamic cycle and avoids the input of very highly valued heat of 254 kJ / mole lost at the end of the MHD channel during condensation and recycling in conventional gas expansion cycles. Furthermore, molten silver at the melting point temperature can absorb a large amount of oxygen gas, which dissolves in the melt at the end of the MHD channel and is further sent with the molten silver by an electromagnetic (EM) pump and recycled to the reaction cell chamber. Oxygen is released by the high temperature in the reaction cell chamber and functions as a promoting gas for the resulting oxygen and silver aerosol. The heat output released by the hydrino reaction in the reaction cell chamber causes a high-pressure rise, and furthermore, a high-powder silver plasma jet exits the MHD nozzle and enters the MHD channel, where the MHD kinetic energy is converted into electricity. Its efficiency can be very high because (i) the channel efficiency approaches the load factor as shown in Equation (52), (ii) the residual kinetic energy dissipated in the channel heats the aerosol and is conserved as an addition to the thermal energy storage of the aerosol, condensing or coalescing at the end of the MHD channel and returning to the reaction cell chamber together with the total energy storage, and (iv) the accelerator gas is returned not by very energy-intensive multistage intermediate cooling gas compression of the gas but by a very low-power electromagnetic pumping of the molten metal carrying the gas in solution. The pump output (Equation (50)) of a 0.5 kg / s silver aerosol flow that can supply 252 kW of power is Mass flow rate [Number] to 5×10 5 N / m 2It is given by dividing the product of the reaction chamber pressure P in (Equation (56)) by the density ρ of silver, which is 10.5 g / cm 3 by it.

Number

[0212] The solubility of atmospheric oxygen in silver increases as the temperature approaches the melting point, and the solubility is up to about 40 to 50 volumes of oxygen with respect to the volume of silver (Figure 23). Further, the solubility of oxygen in silver increases with the oxygen atmospheric pressure in equilibrium with the dissolved oxygen. A high mole fraction of oxygen in silver can be achieved by, for example, as shown in J. Assal, B. Hallstedt, and L. J. Gauckler, "Thermodynamic assessment of the silver-oxygen system", J. Am Ceram. Soc., Vol 80(12), (1997), pp. 3054-3060, at a high O2 pressure. For example, at a temperature of 804 K, an oxygen partial pressure of 526 bar (5.26×10 7 Pa), and an oxygen mole fraction of 0.25 in the liquid phase, there is a eutectic between Ag and Ag2O

[0213] The incorporation of oxygen atoms into silver increases dramatically beyond what can be achieved by gas solvation at a given oxygen pressure and silver temperature by converting molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen (A. de Rooij, “The oxidation of silver by atomic oxygen”, Product Assurance and Safety Department), ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, ESA Journal 1989, (Vol. 13), pp. 363 - 382). Since oxygen is absorbed by silver as atoms, the relationship of oxygen solubility in liquid silver is approximately proportional to the square root of the gaseous oxygen pressure. When O atoms instead of O2 molecules are involved in the oxidation reaction with silver, AgO and Ag2O are thermodynamically stable even at very low O2 pressures, AgO is more stable than Ag2O, and furthermore, although it is thermodynamically possible to oxidize Ag2O to AgO, this seems impossible with O2 molecules. To utilize the excellent solubility of O atoms in the MHD cycle, the MHD channel plasma jet may be maintained by the hydrino reaction to keep the formation of O atoms from O2 molecules. It is possible to form a composition such as a eutectic containing 0.25 mole fraction of oxygen incorporated into molten silver at the end of the MHD channel and pump it into the reaction cell chamber to recycle silver and oxygen. The MHD cycle further includes the release of oxygen in the reaction cell chamber with a dramatic increase in temperature and pressure due to the hydrino plasma reaction and subsequent isentropic expansion in the MHD nozzle section to form a nearly isobaric flow of the aerosol jet and the jet in the MHD channel.

[0214] In order to convert the thermal and pressure-volume energy storage in the reaction cell chamber into the kinetic energy in the MHD channel by isentropic expansion, oxygen needs to effectively accelerate the silver in the converging-diverging nozzle. One of the main failure modes of LMMHD is the slippage of the accelerator gas through large liquid metal particles. Ideally, the metal particles operate as molecules, and the conversion of the thermal energy of the plasma jet flowing into the MHD channel into kinetic energy follows approximately the ideal gas law of isentropic expansion by the most efficient means possible. Consider the case where the atmosphere in the reaction cell chamber is oxygen, the injected molten metal is silver, and further oxygen promotes the formation of an aerosol of silver nanoparticles. The silver nanoparticles are in the free molecule regime when they are small compared to the mean free path of the suspension gas. Mathematically, K n = 2λ / d Ag (54) The Knudsen number Kn given by is Kn>>1, where λ is the mean path of the floating oxygen gas and d Ag is the diameter of the silver particle. According to Levine [I. Levine, Physical Chemistry, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1978), pp. 420-421], for a gas A with diameter d B and mole fraction f B colliding with a second gas B with diameter d A the mean path λ A is

Equation

[0215] When the gas parameters are a temperature T of 6000K, a pressure P of 5 atmospheres (5×10 5 N / m 2 ), a gas fraction f of 0.02 corresponding to 2 mol% oxygen, and a silver gas fraction f O2 of 0.98 corresponding to 75 mol% silver, the molecular diameter d Ag given by equation (55) is 1.2×10 O2 is 1.2×10 -10The suspension gas oxygen of m and the diameter d Ag is 5×10 -9 The average path λ at which silver particles of m collide O2 is

Equation

[0216] In an exemplary MHD thermodynamic cycle, (i) silver nanoparticles are formed within the reaction cell chamber, where the nanoparticles can be transported by at least one of thermophoresis and temperature gradient that selects those within the molecular region, (ii) the hydrino plasma reaction in the presence of the released O2 forms a high-temperature and high-pressure 25 mol% O2 and 70 mol% silver nanoparticle gas, and this silver nanoparticle gas flows into the nozzle inlet, (iii) 25 mol% O and 75 mol% silver nanoparticle gas expand in the nozzle, (iv) the kinetic energy resulting from the jet is converted into electricity in the MHD channel, (v) the nanoparticles grow in size within the MHD channel and coalesce into liquid silver at the end of the MHD channel, (vi) the liquid silver absorbs 25 mol% O, and further (vii) the EM pump sends the liquid mixture back to the reaction cell chamber.

[0217] In the case of a gaseous mixture of oxygen and silver nanoparticles, since the temperatures of oxygen and silver nanoparticles are the same in the free molecular region, the ideal gas equation is applied to estimate the acceleration of the gas mixture in nozzle expansion, where the mixture of O2 and nanoparticles has a common temperature and a common kinetic energy. It may be treated as an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas / vapor in a converging-diverging nozzle. The stagnation point temperature T0, the stagnation point pressure p0, the gas constant Rv 、 and the specific heat ratio k, the thermodynamic parameters can be calculated using the equation of Liepmann and Roshko [Liepmann, H.W. and A. Roshko, Elements of Gas Dynamics, Wiley (1957)]. The stagnation speed of sound c0 and density ρ0 are

Number

Number

Number

[0218] Since the molecular weight of the nanoparticles is large, the MHD conversion parameters are similar to those of LMHD. The MHD working medium has a high density and moves at a low speed compared to the expansion of the gas.

[0219] Considering that silver forms appropriate nanoparticles in the molecular region and has the ability to absorb an appropriate mass of oxygen to recycle the accelerator gas (oxygen in this case) without using turbomachinery, the feasibility of the oxygen and silver nanoparticle aerosol MHD cycle depends on the kinetics of the aerosol formation rate and the rate at which oxygen can be absorbed into and degassed from the molten silver. Corresponding kinetic studies were conducted and it was found that the kinetics are appropriate. In one embodiment, another metal such as gallium metal and gallium nanoparticles may be used instead of silver metal and silver nanoparticles.

[0220] In one embodiment, the solubility of oxygen in silver can be increased beyond the solubility achieved by gaseous solvation at a given oxygen pressure by applying at least one of an electric field, a potential, and a plasma to the molten silver. In one embodiment, electrolysis or a plasma can be applied to the molten silver to increase the O2 solubility in the liquid silver, and the molten silver can include an electrolysis or plasma electrode. Application of at least one of an electric field, a potential, a plasma to the molten silver, e.g., application of O2 electrolysis or a plasma, can also increase the rate at which O2 dissolves in the silver. In one embodiment, a SunCell™ can include a source of at least one of an electric field, a potential, and a plasma to the molten silver. The source can include at least one of a power source and a plasma energy output such as a glow discharge, RF, microwave plasma energy output. The molten silver may include an electrode such as a cathode. The molten silver or solid silver may include an anode. Oxygen can be reduced at the anode and react with and be absorbed by the silver. In another embodiment, the molten silver can include an anode. The silver can be oxidized at the anode and react with oxygen to absorb the oxygen.

[0221] In one embodiment, a SunCell™ further includes an oxygen sensor and an oxygen control system such as means for diluting oxygen with a noble gas and means for pumping out the noble gas. The former can include at least one of a noble gas tank, a valve, a regulator, and a pump. The latter can include at least one of a valve and a pump.

[0222] The atmosphere of the MHD condenser section 309 may contain a very low silver vapor pressure and may mainly contain oxygen. The silver vapor pressure can be low, such as within at least one of the ranges of an operating temperature of about 970°C to 2000°C, 970°C to 1800°C, 970°C to 1600°C, and 970°C to 1400°C. SunCell® may include means for removing silver aerosol within the MHD condenser section 309. The means for aerosol removal may include means for combining silver aerosol, such as a cyclone separator. The cyclone separator may include the MHD return reservoir 311 or the MHD return gas reservoir 311a. Silver containing dissolved oxygen can be recycled to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by pumping, where the pump may include an electromagnetic pump. Oxygen can be released from the silver in the reaction cell chamber due to a higher temperature and the absence of at least one of an electric field, potential, and plasma applied to the molten silver. In an exemplary embodiment, at a low operating temperature, such as about 1200°C, the silver pressure in the MHD condenser section is very low, and further, a cyclone separator is used to combine silver aerosol into silver liquid, and this liquid functions as a negative electrode to electrolyze O2 into the liquid silver.

[0223] In one embodiment, the MHD cycle includes an isentropic expansion in the MHD nozzle section 307 to form an aerosol jet flow and an isobaric flow of the jet within the MHD channel 308. The aerosol can be accelerated within the nozzle 307 by an accelerating gas such as at least one of H2O2, H2O, or a noble gas. In one embodiment, the pressure of the accelerating gas within the MHD condenser section 309 can maintain the plasma of the accelerating gas, where the pressure ratio of the accelerating gas of the reaction accelerator to the accelerating gas of the MHD condenser section is greater than 1. The pressure ratio can be within at least one of the ranges of about 1.5 to 1000, 2 to 500, and 10 to 20. Exemplary pressures of the oxygen accelerating gas in the reaction chamber and the MHD condenser section are within the ranges of about 1 to 10 atmospheres and 0.1 to 1 atmosphere, respectively. The reaction cell chamber includes the ratio of O to O2 maintained with some of the released plasma to increase the vapor phase with a corresponding increase in the kinetic energy of the jet caused by the accelerator. Some of the O recombines to O2 in at least one of the MHD channel 308 and the MHD condenser section 309, increasing the pressure gradient from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the MHD condenser section 309 and increasing the kinetic energy of the jet and the converted power. The gas temperature of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the MHD condenser section may be in a range where the metal vapor pressure is low, such as below 2200 °C in the case of silver vapor. In one embodiment, the mole fraction of the accelerating gas such as oxygen compared to a molten metal such as silver is within at least one of the ranges of about 1 to 95 mol%, 10 to 90 mol%, and 20 to 90 mol%. A higher mole% accelerating gas can provide a higher jet kinetic energy at the outlet of the MHD nozzle 307.

[0224] In one embodiment, the aerosol may include molten metal nanoparticles such as silver or gallium nanoparticles. These particles may have a diameter within at least one of the ranges of about 1 nm to 100 microns, 1 nm to 10 microns, 1 nm to 1 micron, 1 nm to 100 nm, and 1 nm to 10 nm. In one embodiment, the working medium of the MHD converter may include a mixture of metal nanoparticles such as silver nanoparticles and a gas such as oxygen gas, where at least one functions as a carrier or expansion assist gas and helps to form or maintain the stability of the nanoparticles. In another embodiment, the working medium may include metal nanoparticles. The atmosphere of the nanoparticles may be maintained by keeping at least one of the cell and plasma temperatures higher than the temperature that maintains the vapor pressure of the nanoparticles at a desired vapor pressure within at least one of the ranges of, for example, about 1 to 100 atmospheres, 1 to 20 atmospheres, and 1 to 10 atmospheres. At least one of the cell and plasma temperatures may be within at least one of the ranges of 1000 °C to 6000 °C, 1000 °C to 5000 °C, 1000 °C to 4000 °C, 1000 °C to 3000 °C, and 1000 °C to 2500 °C.

[0225] In one embodiment, the atmosphere of the reaction cell isolation 5b31 is maintained by parameters such as oxygen partial pressure, total pressure, temperature, gas composition such as adding a noble gas in addition to at least one of oxygen, hydrogen, and water vapor, and the flow rate of the hydrino reaction that promotes the formation of aerosol particles small enough to be in the molecular regime. In one embodiment, at least one of a suspended gas such as silver and particles such as silver particles can be charged to suppress collisions between chemical species so that the gas mixture exhibits molecular regime behavior. Silver may contain an additive to facilitate charging of the particles. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include size selection means to separate the nanoparticle stream by size. The size selection means may selectively maintain a nanoparticle stream that is of a size suitable for molecular regime behavior at the nozzle 307 inlet. The size selection means for selecting particles of molecular regime size may include an electric field such as a cyclone separator, a gravity separator, a baffle system, a screen, a thermophoretic separator, or an electric or magnetic field separator in front of the inlet to the nozzle 307. In the case of thermophoresis, large particles may exhibit a positive thermodiffusion effect, and large nanoparticles move from the high-temperature central region of the plasma to the lower-temperature reaction chamber cell 5b31. The plasma may be selectively directed to flow from the high-temperature central portion to the nozzle inlet or may be sent through a conduit.

[0226] The nanoparticles are formed by the vaporization of a metal due to the strong local energy output density of the hydrino reaction and are rapidly cooled in another cooler section of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which can reach a temperature lower than the boiling point of the metal at ambient pressure in one part of the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the nanoparticles, such as silver or gallium nanoparticles, can be formed by the evaporation and condensation of a metal in an oxygen-containing atmosphere, and an oxide layer can be formed on the surface of the nanoparticles. The oxide layer can prevent the aggregation of the nanoparticles in the aerosol state. The oxide layer can prevent the aggregation of the nanoparticles in the aerosol state. To control the size of the nanoparticles, at least one of the oxygen concentration, the metal evaporation rate, the reaction cell temperature and pressure, and the temperature and pressure gradients can be controlled. This size can be controlled such that the nanoparticles reach the size of the molecular region. The nanoparticles are accelerated in the MHD section 307, the corresponding kinetic energy is converted into electric power in the MHD channel section 308, and the nanoparticles are aggregated in the MHD condensation section 309. The SunCell® can include a coalescence surface in the condensation section. The nanoparticles affect the coalescence surface, coalesce, and the resulting liquid metal, which may contain absorbed oxygen, flows into the MHD return EM pump 312 and is pumped back into the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0227] In one embodiment, the SunCell™ may include reduction means for at least partially reducing an oxide coating on metal nanoparticles. The reduction may enable the nanoparticles to coagulate or coalesce. Due to this coalescence, the resulting liquid may be returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by the MHD return EM pump 312. The reduction means may include an atomic hydrogen source such as a hydrogen plasma or a chemical dissociant source of atomic hydrogen. The plasma source may include a glow, arc, microwave, RF, or other plasma source known in the present disclosure or in the art. The hydrogen plasma source may include a glow discharge plasma source including a plurality of microhollow cathodes operable in one atmosphere such as one disclosed. The chemical dissociant functioning as an atomic hydrogen source may include a noble metal hydrogen dissociant supported on a ceramic, such as Pt on alumina or silica beads as one disclosed. The chemical dissociant may recombine H2+O2. The hydrogen dissociant may include (i) Pt, Ni, Rh, Pd, Ir, Ru, Au, Ag, Re, Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Mo, or W supported by SiO2, (ii) Pt, Rh, Pd, Ir, Ru, Au, Re, Ag, Cu, Ni, Co, Zn, Mo, W, Sn, In, Ga supported by zeolite, and (iii) at least one of at least one of noble metals, noble metal alloys, noble metal mixtures, and rare earth metals supported by mullite, SiC, SiC, TiO2, ZrO2, CeO2, Al2O3, SiO2, and mixed oxides. The hydrogen dissociant may include supported bimetals such as those including Pt, PdIr, Rh, and Ru. Representative bimetal catalysts for the hydrogen dissociant are supported on Pd-Ru, Pd-Pt, Pd-Ir, Pt-Ir, Pt-Ru, and Pt-Rh. The catalytic hydrogen dissociant may include materials of a catalytic converter such as supported Pt. The reduction means may be disposed in at least one of the MHD condenser 309 and the MHD return reservoir 311.

[0228] In one embodiment, the aerosol accelerated in the MHD section 307 may include at least one of a gas mixture, such as oxygen, H2, and noble gases in the molecular region, silver or gallium nanoparticles, and large particles such as silver or gallium particles having a diameter of about 10 nm to 1 mm. At least one of the gas in the molecular region and the nanoparticles functions as a carrier gas, and when at least one of the gas in the molecular region and the nanoparticles is accelerated in the MHD nozzle section 307, larger particles are accelerated. The gas and nanoparticles in the molecular region may include a molar fraction and a pressure-thermal energy storage amount of the aerosol mixture sufficient to achieve high kinetic energy conversion in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The molar percentage of the gas and nanoparticles in the molecular region may be in at least one of the ranges of about 1% to 100%, 5% to 90%, 5% to 80%, 5% to 70%, 5% to 60%, 5% to 50%, 5% to 40%, 5% to 30%, 5% to 20%, and 5% to 10%.

[0229] In one embodiment, the nanoparticles are transported by an electromagnetic field such as at least one of thermophoresis or a thermal gradient and at least one of an electric field and a magnetic field. The nanoparticles can be charged so that the electric field becomes effective. Charging can be achieved by applying a coating such as an oxide coating by controlled oxygen addition.

[0230] In one embodiment, at least one of the silver aerosols combines such that the conductivity of the ambient atmosphere around the MHD condenser 309 is such that an electric field, potential, or plasma is applied to the oxygen gas so that oxygen is absorbed by the silver and recycled to the reaction cell chamber, and further, the hydrino reaction plasma is not maintained in the MHD condenser 309. In one embodiment, the SunCell™ may include means for applying a discharge to the vapor phase in the MHD condenser 309. The discharge may include at least one of glow, arc, RF, microwave, laser, and other plasma-forming means or discharges known in the art that can dissociate O2 into atomic O. The discharge means may include at least one of a discharge energy output supply or plasma generator, a discharge electrode or at least one antenna, and at least one of a wall penetration such as a liquid electrode penetration or an inductive coupling power connector. In another embodiment, the source of atomic oxygen may include a high-temperature generator where O2 is absorbed on the surface of the silver film, diffuses through the film, dissociates into atomic O, and provides O atoms on the opposite surface. The means for desorption by which the oxygen atoms desorb and can then be absorbed by the molten silver may include a low-energy electron beam.

[0231] In one embodiment, high-pressure glow discharge can be maintained by micro-hollow cathode discharge. The micro-hollow cathode discharge can be maintained between two closely spaced electrodes having an aperture with a diameter of about 100 microns. An exemplary DC discharge can be maintained up to approximately atmospheric pressure. In one embodiment, a high gas pressure and large volume plasma can be maintained by superposition of individual glow discharges operating in parallel. The electron density in the plasma can be increased at a given current by adding metal species such as cesium with a low ionization potential. The increase in electron density can also be achieved by adding chemical species such as rhenium metal and other electron gun thermionic emitters, for example, filament materials from which electrons are thermally emitted such as triated metals or cesium-treated metals. In one embodiment, the plasma voltage rises such that each electron of the plasma current collides with at least one of additional gases or chemical species such as aerosol particles of silver, acceleration gas, or cesium vapor to generate a plurality of electrons. The plasma current can be at least one of DC or AC. The AC power source is transmitted by an induction power source and a receiving side, respectively, outside and inside the chamber of the MHD condenser unit.

[0232] In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include a container such as the MHD return reservoir 311 or the MHD return gas reservoir 311a to increase at least one of the residence time and the silver area so that oxygen is absorbed by silver and then recycled to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The size of the container can be selected to achieve the desired oxygen absorption. The MHD return reservoir 311 or the MHD return gas reservoir 311a may further include a cyclone separator. The cyclone separator can coalesce the aerosol particles of silver. The container may include an electrolysis or plasma discharge pump.

[0233] In one embodiment, SunCell® may include means for at least partially reducing an oxide coating on metal nanoparticles such as silver or gallium nanoparticles. Partial removal of the oxide coat may facilitate coalescence of the nanoparticles in a desired region of the SunCell®, such as the MHD condenser section 309. Reduction may be achieved by reacting the particles with hydrogen. Hydrogen gas may be introduced into the MHD condenser section at a controlled pressure and temperature to achieve at least partial reduction. SunCell® may include the means of the present disclosure for maintaining a hydrogen-containing plasma to at least partially reduce the oxide coating. Additional oxygen that is not hydrogen-reduced is absorbed by the fused molten metal and returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to supply oxygen to the cycle of formation and reduction of surface oxides of the nanoparticles.

[0234] In embodiments of a closed liquid electromagnetic hydrodynamic cycle, the simplest way to apply Lorentz's law to a moving conductor with crossed electrodes and a magnetic field without moving parts allows for an MHD power conversion efficiency approaching the load factor W (the ratio of the total load electric field to the open circuit electric field). Since the MHD efficiency can approach W = 1, the conversion of the plasma power factor to electricity can approach the efficiency of the conversion from pressure-thermal to kinetic energy, where a corresponding nozzle efficiency of 99% is realized. Exemplary operating parameters are at least 100 atmospheres background O2 pressure, a molar fraction absorption of 25 mol% O in silver at the outlet of the MHD channel, N = 20 silver atoms per nanoparticle, W = 0.98, a mass flow rate of 1 kg / s, 10 6 S / m gas conductivity, a uniform magnetic field of 2 T, and an inlet pressure, temperature, and velocity equal to 1 atmosphere, 1000 K, and 1000 m / s, respectively. With these parameters, MHD power of 471 kW is extracted from a 16 cm long channel with a maximum cross-sectional area of 4 cm 2 and a gas outlet temperature of 1800 K, and heat is recovered by gas absorption into the molten silver. The silver is recycled with a small amount of power using an electromagnetic pump without moving parts. Since the channel volume is 20.4 cm 3 the corresponding MHD power density is approximately 23.1 kW / cm 3(23.1 MW / liter), which can be very favorably compared to the typical output density within the range of only about 30 kW / liter of state-of-the-art high-speed large diesel engines. In other embodiments, an increase in N, which is the number of silver atoms per nanoparticle, results in a longer channel due to the lower velocity of a fixed amount of stored kinetic energy and the corresponding decreased decelerating Lorentz force, achieving a similar power conversion.

[0235] In one embodiment, the molten metal may include any conductive metal or alloy known in the art. The melting point of the molten metal or alloy may be low. Exemplary metals and alloys are gallium, indium, tin, zinc, and galinstan alloy. An example of a typical eutectic mixture is 68% Ga, 22% In, and 10% Sn (by weight), but the ratio may vary between 62 - 95% Ga, 5 - 22% In, and 0 - 16% Sn (by weight). In embodiments where the metal can react with at least one of oxygen and water to form the corresponding metal oxide, the hydrino reaction mixture may include a molten metal, a metal oxide, and hydrogen. The metal oxide may include those that thermally decompose to release oxygen to the metal, such as at least one of the oxides of Sn, Zn, and Fe. The metal oxide may function as a source of oxygen for forming the HOH catalyst. Oxygen is recycled between the metal oxide and the HOH catalyst, and hydrino can be formed by replenishing the consumed hydrogen. The cell material can be selected to be non-reactive at the operating temperature of the cell. Alternatively, the cell may be operated at a temperature lower than the temperature at which the material reacts with at least one of H2O2 and H2O. The cell material may include at least one of stainless steel, ceramics such as silicon nitride, borides such as SiC, BN, YB2, silicides, and oxides such as Pyrex, quartz, MgO, Al2O3, and ZrO2. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell may include at least one of BN and carbon with an operating temperature of less than about 500 - 600 °C. In one embodiment, at least one component of the power generation system may include a ceramic, and the ceramic may include at least one of A and B. It may include at least one of metal oxides, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics such as the Li2O×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (LAS system), the MgO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (MAS system), and the ZnO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (ZAS system).

[0236] In one embodiment, the injection metal can have a low melting point, such as having a melting point of less than 700 °C. For example, it can be at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or rose metal, cerrosafe, wood metal, field metal, cerrolow 136, cerrolow 117, alloys such as Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and galinstan. At least one component such as the storage tank 5c can include ceramics such as zirconia, alumina, quartz, or Pyrex. It is possible to metallize the ends of the storage tank to facilitate connection to the metal container bottom plate or the base of the electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk1. The joint between the container and the base of the electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk1 can include solders such as brazing or silver solder. Alternatively, the joint may include a gasketed flange seal. The EM pump includes ignition connections such as a metal EM pump tube 5k6, an ignition electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2, and an ignition electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2a. At least one of injection and ignition of the molten metal can be driven by a DC current, where the injection pump can include a DC EM pump. At least one of the DC EM pump tube 5k6, the reservoir support 5kk1, the EM pump bus bar 5k2, and the ignition bus bar 5k2a can include a metal such as stainless steel. The ignition bus bar 5k2a can be connected to at least one of the reservoir support 5kk1 and the DC EM pump tube 5k6. The reaction cell chamber 5b31 can include ceramics such as zirconia, alumina, quartz, or Pyrex (registered trademark). Alternatively, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can include SiC-coated carbon. The SunCell (registered trademark) can include an inlet riser tube 5qa such as one having a plurality of holes or channels or slots that change from top to bottom to regulate the molten metal flowing in as the reservoir level decreases. The regulation can function to balance the reservoir level while avoiding extreme differences in levels. The initial filling level of the molten metal and the height of the bottom of the inlet can be selected to set the maximum and minimum heights of the reservoir.

[0237] In one embodiment, the molten metal includes an alloy such as gallium or a Ga-In-Sn alloy. A SunCell™ having a low melting point metal that melts at 300° C. or lower may include a mechanical pump for injecting the molten metal into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The mechanical pump can be replaced with an EM pump such as an induction EM pump 400 at an operating temperature below the maximum capacity of the mechanical pump, and the EM pump can be used when the operating temperature is high. Typically, the mechanical pump operates up to a temperature limit of about 300° C. However, a ceramic gear pump operates up to 1400° C. Operation at a low temperature such as below 300° C. is optimal for hot water and low pressure water flow applications, and the heater of the SunCell™ includes a heat exchanger 114 as shown in FIG. 24. Reactant gases such as H2 and O2 can be added to a cell such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by diffusing through the gas permeable membrane 309d from the tank 422 and the supply pipe 422.

[0238] Embodiments of a SunCell® heater or heat output generator (FIG. 24) comprise a spherical reactor cell 5b31 with a spatially separated circumferential hemispherical heat exchanger 114 that includes panels or portions 114a that receive heat from radiation from a spherical reactor 5b4. Each panel may include a portion of a spherical surface defined by two great circles passing through the poles of the sphere. The heat exchanger 114 may further comprise a manifold 114b, such as a toroidal manifold, with coolant lines 114c and a coolant outlet manifold 114f from each of the panels 114a of the heat exchanger. Each coolant line 114c may include a coolant inlet port 114d and a coolant outlet port 114e. The heat output generator may further comprise a gas cylinder 421 having an inlet and an outlet 309e and a gas supply pipe 422 that extends through the upper portion of the heat exchanger 114 to a gas permeable membrane 309d at the upper portion of the spherical cell 5b31. The gas supply pipe 422 may pass through a coolant collection manifold 114b at the upper portion of the heat exchanger 114. In another embodiment of a SunCell® heater (FIG. 24), the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be cylindrical with a cylindrical heat exchanger 114. The gas cylinder 421 may be outside of the heat exchanger 114, and the gas supply pipe 422 may connect to a semipermeable gas membrane 309d at the upper portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by passing through the heat exchanger 114. At least one reaction cell chamber 5b31, the gas membrane 309d at the upper portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and at least a portion of the gas supply pipe 422 may include ceramic. The gas supply pipe 422 connecting to the gas cylinder 421 may include a metal such as stainless steel. The ceramic portion and the metal portion of the gas supply pipe 422 may be joined by a gas supply pipe ceramic to a metal flange 422a that may include a gasket such as a carbon gasket. Cold water may be supplied to an inlet 113 and heated in the heat exchanger 114 to form steam that is collected in a boiler 116 and exits through a steam outlet 111. The heat output generator may further comprise a double molten metal injector including an induction EM pump 400, a reservoir 5c, and a reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0239] In embodiments such as SunCell (registered trademark) with an ignition system including an ignition busbar such as an ignition electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2a, the electrical resistance decreases and the ignition current increases. SunCell (registered trademark) may include an ignition busbar that directly contacts a molten metal such as a storage tank 5c. The ignition busbar may include a through portion of the container support plate 5b8 to directly contact a molten metal such as silver or gallium. SunCell (registered trademark) may include a submerged electrode such as a submerged EM pump injector 5k61, which provides direct electrical contact between the molten metal in the container and the molten metal of the stream created by the corresponding electromagnetic pump. The electrical circuit of at least one injected molten metal stream includes an ignition busbar 5k2a that penetrates the container support plate 5b8, the molten metal in the storage tank 5c, and the molten metal in the container that contacts the corresponding stream from the submerged EM pump injector, and the stream penetrates the molten metal and reaches the reverse stream or the corresponding counter electrode. The upper part of the container may have a sufficient area to provide a sufficient volume of molten metal to avoid fluctuations in injection, and the volume is given by the area × immersion depth. Fluctuations in injection may be caused by fluctuations in the flow rate of the return molten metal stream, which affect at least one of the immersion depth and the turbulent flow at the molten metal surface.

[0240] The plasma reaction is observed to be much stronger at the positive electrode, as predicted based on the arc current mechanism of ion recombination, significantly improving the reaction rate of the hydrino reaction. In a hydrino reactor, the positive electrode is unique as opposed to a glow discharge, and the negative electrode is where the plasma energy output dissipates and a glow occurs. In one embodiment, the injector storage tank 5c may further include a part of the bottom of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the counter electrode may include an extension or pedestal 5c1 including a raised pedestal electrode that is electrically insulated from the injector storage tank and the electrode and includes a non-injector storage tank. The counter electrode or non-injector electrode may include an electrical insulator and may further include a drip edge to provide electrical insulation. The injector electrode and the counter electrode may be negative and positive, respectively.

[0241] In an exemplary embodiment, a SunCell® having a pedestal electrode as shown in FIG. 25 includes: (i) an injector reservoir 5c, an EM pump tube 5k6, and a nozzle 5q, a reservoir bottom plate 409a, and a spherical reaction cell chamber 5b31 dome; (ii) a non-injector reservoir including a sleeve reservoir 409d that may include SS welded to a lower hemisphere 5b41 having a sleeve reservoir flange 409e at an end of the sleeve reservoir 409d; (iii) an electrical insulator insert reservoir 409f composed of an upper pedestal 5c and a lower insert reservoir flange 409g that fits into the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, where the insert reservoir 409f, the pedestal 5c that may further include a drip edge 5c1a, and the insert reservoir flange 409g may include drip boron nitride, or stabilized silicon carbide, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or quartz such as BN-CaO or BN-ZrO2, or a ceramic coated with a protective coating such as a high melting point metal, carbon, or SiC or ZrB2 carbon; and (iv) a reservoir bottom plate 409a whose bottom plate is bolted to the sleeve reservoir flange 409e and sandwiches the insert reservoir flange 409g, and includes SS having a through-hole for the ignition busbar 10a1 and the ignition busbar 10. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include a vacuum housing that surrounds and seals the joint, including the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, the insert reservoir flange 409g, and the reservoir base plate 409a, where the housing is electrically insulated from the electrode busbar 10.

[0242] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 25, the inverted pedestal 5c2, the ignition busbar, and the electrode 10 are directed toward substantially the center of the cell 5b3 and are oriented in the negative direction of the z-axis. Optionally, at least one counter injector electrode 5k61 injects molten metal from the container 5c along the positive z-direction with respect to gravity. The injected molten metal flow can, if necessary, maintain a coating or pool of liquid metal on the pedestal 5c2 against gravity. The pool or coating can at least partially cover the electrode 10. The pool or coating can protect the electrode from damage such as corrosion or melting. In the latter case, it is possible to increase the EM pumping speed and enhance electrode cooling by the flowing injected molten metal. It is also possible to dissipate local hot spots and prevent melting by increasing the area and thickness of the electrode. The pedestal can be positively biased and the injector electrode can be negatively biased. In another embodiment, the pedestal can be negatively biased and the injector electrode can be positively biased, and the injector electrode can be immersed in the molten metal. A molten metal such as gallium can fill a part of the lower part of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In addition to the coating or pool of the injected molten metal, the electrode 10, such as a W electrode, can be protected from corrosion by the applied negative bias. In one embodiment, the electrode 10 can include a coating such as an inert conductive coating like a rhenium coating to protect the electrode from corrosion. In one embodiment, the electrode can be cooled. Cooling can reduce at least one of the electrode corrosion rate and the alloy formation rate with the molten metal. Cooling can be achieved by means such as centerline water cooling. In one embodiment, the surface area of the inversion electrode is increased by increasing the size of the surface that contacts at least one of the plasma and the molten metal flow from the injector electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, a large plate or cup is attached to the end of the electrode 10. In another embodiment, the injector electrode can be immersed to increase the area of the counter electrode. FIG. 25 shows an exemplary spherical reaction cell chamber. Other shapes such as rectangular, cubic, cylindrical, and conical are within the scope of the present disclosure.In one embodiment, the bottom of the reaction cell chamber connected to the upper part of the storage tank may be inclined like a cone so as to facilitate the mixing of the molten metal when entering the inlet of the EM pump. In one embodiment, at least a part of the outer surface of the reaction cell chamber may be covered with a material having a high heat transfer coefficient such as copper so as to avoid hot spots on the reaction cell chamber wall portion. In one embodiment, SunCell (registered trademark) includes a plurality of pumps such as an EM pump to prevent the plasma in the reaction cell chamber from melting the wall by injecting molten metal into the reaction cell chamber wall to maintain the molten metal wall. In another embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall includes a liner 5b31a such as BN, fused silica, or a quartz liner to avoid hot spots. An exemplary reaction cell chamber includes a cubic upper part lined with a quartz plate and a spherical lower part including an EM pump at the lower part, and the spherical lower part promotes the mixing of the molten metal.

[0243] In one embodiment, the sleeve container 409d may include an electrical insulator that fits the ignition bus bar and the electrode 10, and as a result, the molten metal is exclusively included only in the cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted pedestal 5c2. The insertion container 409f having the insertion container flange 409g may be attached to the reaction cell chamber 5b3 by the container bottom plate 409a, the sleeve container 409d, and the sleeve container flange 409e. The electrode may penetrate the container bottom plate 409a through the electrode penetration part 10a1.

[0244] In another embodiment, the insertion reservoir flange 409g may be replaced with a feed-through provided on the reservoir bottom plate 409a that electrically insulates the bus bar 10 of the feed-through and the pedestal 5cl or the insertion reservoir 409f from the reservoir bottom plate 409a. The feed-through may be welded to the reservoir bottom plate. An exemplary feed-through including the bus bar 10 is #FA10775 of Solid Sealing Technology, Inc. The bus bar 10 may be coupled to the electrode 8, or the bus bar 10 and the electrode 8 may be configured from integral molding. The reservoir bottom plate may be directly coupled to the sleeve reservoir flange. The union may include a Conflat flange that is bolted with an intervening gasket. The flange may include a knife edge for sealing a soft metal gasket such as a copper gasket. The ceramic pedestal 5c1 including the insertion reservoir 409f may be countersunk into the drilled reservoir bottom plate 409a, and the connection between the pedestal and the reservoir bottom plate may be sealed with a gasket such as a carbon gasket or another of the present disclosure. The electrode 8 and the bus bar 10 may include end plates at the ends where the plasma discharge occurs. The connection between the pedestal and the reservoir bottom plate may be sealed by applying pressure to the gasket to push the disk, whereby the disk applies pressure to the gasket. The disk may be screwed onto the end of the electrode 8 so that pressure is applied to the gasket when the disk is rotated. The feed-through may include an annular collar that connects to the bus bar and the electrode. The annular collar may include a fixing screw that locks the electrode in a predetermined position when tightened. That position may be fixed by the gasket under the tension applied by the end disk pulling the pedestal upward. The pedestal 5c1 may include a shaft for accessing the set screw. The shaft may be threaded with a non-conductive fixing screw of a ceramic such as BN that includes BN such as BN-ZrO2, for example, so as to seal the outer surface of the pedestal. In another embodiment, the bus bar 10 and the electrode 8 may include rods with butt-end connectable ends.In one embodiment, pedestal 5c1 may have two or more threaded shafts, and by tightening the shafts against bus bar 10 or electrode 8, it is fixed in place under tension. The tension may provide at least one of connection of bus bar 10 and electrode 8 and pressure on the gasket. Alternatively, the counter electrode includes a shortened insulating pedestal 5c1, where at least one of electrode 8 and bus bar 10 includes a male thread, washer, and corresponding female nut such that they are tightened against the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 with nuts and washers. Alternatively, electrode 8 may include a male thread that passes through a mating female thread at one end of bus bar 10, and further the electrode includes a fixing washer that tightens the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 against pedestal washer and reservoir bottom plate 409a that may be countersunk. The counter electrode may include other means for fixing pedestals, bus bars, and electrodes known to those skilled in the art.

[0245] In another embodiment, at least one seal, such as (i) a seal between insertion reservoir flange 409g and sleeve reservoir flange 409e and (ii) a seal between reservoir bottom plate 409a and sleeve reservoir flange 409, may include a wet seal (FIG. 25). In the latter case, insertion reservoir flange 409g is replaceable with a feedthrough attached to reservoir bottom plate 409a that electrically insulates bus bar 10 of pedestal 5c1 from reservoir bottom plate 409a, and the wet seal may include it between reservoir bottom plate 409a and the feedthrough. The wet seal may include solid gallium oxide for gallium to form an oxide with a melting point of 1900 °C.

[0246] In one embodiment, hydrogen can be supplied to the cell through a hydrogen permeable membrane such as a structurally enhanced Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. The hydrogen permeation rate through the hydrogen permeable membrane can be increased by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. SunCell® may include a semi-permeable membrane that may include an electrode of the plasma cell, such as the cathode of the plasma cell. SunCell® as shown in FIG. 25 may further include an outer sealed plasma chamber including an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of cell 5b3, and a portion of the metal wall of cell 5b3 includes an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber may include a chamber around cell 5b3, such as a housing, where the wall of cell 5b3 may include a plasma cell electrode and the housing or an independent electrode within the chamber may include a counter electrode. SunCell® may further include a plasma power source, a plasma control system, a gas supply source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regulator, and a vacuum pump.

[0247] In one embodiment, SunCell® includes an interference eliminator that includes means for reducing or eliminating interference between the power source and the ignition circuit and power to the EM pump 5kk. The interference eliminator may include at least one of one or more circuit elements and one or more controllers for adjusting the relative voltage, current, polarity, waveform, and duty cycle of the ignition and EM pump currents to prevent interference between two corresponding power sources.

[0248] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes means for increasing the electrical resistance of the metal flow within the injector portion of the EM pump tube 5k61. The means for increasing the electrical resistance may include a current limiter that minimizes the effect of the metal flow on the EM pump 5kk. The current resistor can be placed near the EM pump magnet 5k4 and the bus bar 5k2, such that the current resistor does not interfere with the ignition current that can be supplied to the metal flow after the current resistor. The current resistor may include a plurality of vanes or paddles that rotate to allow the flow of molten metal. The paddle or vane may be attached to a shaft. The paddle or vane may include an insulator as a ceramic such as boron nitride, quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or other ceramics known in the present disclosure or in the art. In one embodiment, the current resistor includes a current breaker to the EM pump flow, an insulator paddle wheel such as of ceramic, e.g., of BN. The current breaker may be housed in a housing that includes a protrusion on a portion of the injector portion of the EM pump tube 5k61. The shaft of the paddle wheel may be fixed to the inner wall of the housing. In an embodiment for biasing the direction of rotation in a desired direction, at least one of the paddles or vanes may be curved or cup-shaped, and the paddle wheel may be offset from the center of the flow of the EM pump tube. The housing may accommodate the offset. In one embodiment, the current breaker may be placed on at least one of the inlet side and the injection outlet side of the EM pump. The EM pump tube may include a protrusion or portion having a larger diameter to form a reservoir for reducing the unsteady molten metal flow. The reservoir can receive the flow after passing through the current breaker. In one embodiment, the current breaker may function to interrupt the current passing through the molten metal in both the inlet and outlet EM pump tubes. The current breaker may comprise a single paddle wheel that revives the inlet flow in one half and receives the outflow in the other half of the wheel. Each of the inlet and outlet tubes may include a reservoir downstream of the flow. The outlet flow may serve to rotate the wheel to facilitate the inlet flow that may be impeded by the current breaker such as the paddle wheel.

[0249] In one embodiment, the current limiter may include an auger inside the EM pump tube that has a helical pitch whose axis is aligned with the direction of flow and that facilitates rotation of a desired auger shaft based on the direction of flow. The current limiter may include an Archimedean screw pump type in which rotation is achieved by a molten metal flow propelled by the EM pump. The auger may include an electrical insulator, such as one of the ceramics of the present disclosure. The auger may be one that includes a metal such as carbon or stainless steel, which may be coated with an insulator such as alumina, silica, mullite, BN, or another of the present disclosure. For low temperature operation below the melting point of the auger, the auger may include Teflon®, Viton, Delrin, or another high temperature polymer known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube portion that houses the auger may include a larger diameter with a corresponding larger diameter auger to reduce resistance to the flow of molten metal. The auger may be provided with a mount that allows it to be fixed in place and rotated. Each end auger mount may include a slip bearing on a shaft that traverses the diameter of the housing of the EM pump tube portion that houses the auger. The mount may include a material resistant to the formation of an alloy with gallium, such as stainless steel, tantalum, or tungsten. In one embodiment, the injection portion of the EM pump tube is composed of an electrical insulator such as a ceramic. The nozzle may be recessed to prioritize electrical contact between the ignition power and the injected molten metal flow.

[0250] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes at least one EM pump including a corresponding power source and at least one ignition system including a corresponding power source. In one embodiment, these corresponding power sources are of different frequencies, and if there is a common conduction circuit such as a circuit having molten metal as a common electrical contact, the ignition power from the ignition power source is separated from the EM pump power from the EM pump power source. In an exemplary embodiment, an AC conduction EM pump may be separated from a DC conduction ignition current, or alternatively, a DC conduction EM pump may be separated from an AC conduction ignition current. Alternatively, at least one of the EM pump and the ignition current may include an inductive AC current maintained by a corresponding AC transformer, where the plurality of transformers are designed not to couple. Electrical coupling may also be excluded in embodiments including mechanical pumps such as magnetic coupling, impellers, pistons, rotating magnets, peristalsis, or other types of mechanical pumps known in the art or linear induction EM pumps, where the frequencies of the ignition current and the corresponding power source include any frequency and the current may be of a conductive or inductive type.

[0251] The SunCell® may further include a PV converter and a window portion to send light to the photovoltaic (PV) converter. In one embodiment shown in FIGS. 26-27, the SunCell® includes a reaction cell chamber 5b31 having a tapered cross-section along a vertical axis and a PV window portion 5b4 at the tapered apex. The window portion with a mating taper may include any desired shape that accommodates a PV array 26a, such as circular (FIG. 26) or square or rectangular (FIG. 27). The taper suppresses metallization of the PV window portion 5b4 to enable efficient conversion of light to electricity by the photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a. The PV converter 26a may include a high-density receiver array of concentrator PV cells, such as the PV cells of the present disclosure, and may further include a cooling system, such as one with a microchannel plate. The PV window portion 5b4 may include a coating that suppresses metallization. The PV window portion may be cooled to prevent thermal degradation of the PV window coating. The SunCell® may include at least one partial inverted pedestal 5c2 having a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted pedestal 5c2 as shown in FIG. 25. However, the vertical axis of each of the pedestal and the electrode 10 may be oriented at an angle with respect to the vertical or z-axis. The angle may be within the range of 1° to 90°. In one embodiment, at least one counter injector electrode 5k61 injects molten metal from the reservoir 5c obliquely in the positive z-direction with respect to gravity, if necessary. The injection pump may be provided by an EM pump assembly 5kk attached to an EM pump assembly slide table 409c. In an exemplary embodiment, the partial inverted pedestal 5c2 and the counter injector electrode 5k61 are arranged on an axis at 135° with respect to the horizontal or x-axis as shown in FIG. 26, or oriented on an axis at 45° with respect to the horizontal or x-axis as shown in FIG. 27. An insertion reservoir 409f having an insertion reservoir flange 409g may be attached to the cell chamber 5b3 by a reservoir bottom plate 409a, a sleeve reservoir 409d, and a sleeve reservoir flange 409e. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a through an electrode penetration portion 10a1. The nozzle 5q of the injector electrode may be positioned below the liquid level of a liquid metal, such as liquid gallium, included at the bottom of the reaction cell chamber 5b and the reservoir 5c.The gas can be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or exhausted through a gas port such as 409h of the chamber.

[0252] In an alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 28, the SunCell® includes a reaction cell chamber 5b31 having a tapered cross-section along a negative vertical axis and a PV window portion 5b4 at the large-diameter end of a taper (the opposite taper to the embodiment shown in FIGS. 26-27) including the upper part of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a reaction cell chamber 5b31 including a positive cylindrical shape. The injector nozzle and pedestal counter electrode can be oriented on the vertical axis at both ends of the cylinder or along a line inclined with respect to the vertical axis.

[0253] In one embodiment, the PV window portion can include a plurality of narrow channels or tubes that can be bundled together. Each channel can include a PV window portion at an end remote from the reaction cell chamber. The channels can be oriented vertically. Molten metal propelled along the axis of the channel can be prevented from reaching the PV window portion by at least one of the mechanical reactance of the gas in the tube and gravity. The initial kinetic energy of the particles moving upward can be converted into gravitational energy as the upward movement stops. The channel area can be in at least one range of about 0.01 cm 2 ~10 cm 2 、0.05 cm 2 ~5 cm 2 、and 0.1 cm 2 ~1 cm 2 within at least one of the ranges.

[0254] In one embodiment, the PV window portion includes a light-transmissive window portion and at least one mirror or reflector that physically blocks the light-transmissive window portion from being coated by the molten metal while reflecting light so that the light enters the light-transmissive window portion by moving along an indirect path. The light-transmissive window portion may include a material such as quartz, sapphire, glass, or another window material of the present disclosure. The molten metal of the cell may include one of low emissivity such as molten gallium or molten silver. The reflector may include a surface coated with the molten metal such that the coated surface mainly reflects the incident light from the cell and directs the light to enter the window. The reflector may include a plurality of such surfaces such as a smooth metal plate. The metal particles can flow along a straight path and can avoid bouncing off a plurality of reflectors. Thus, the reflector may block the flow of the metal to the window. The reflector can be oriented at any desired angle in any desired arrangement that provides an indirect li...

Claims

1. (a)A molten metal injector system configured to generate a flow of molten metal from the molten metal contained in a molten metal storage tank; (b)An electrode system configured to induce an electric current in the flow of molten metal to produce a metal oxide; (c)A power source configured to supply the electric current; (d)A metal recycling system configured to recover the molten metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into a metal, where the metal recycling system includes: a. An anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, where a potential difference is supplied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal, and / or b. A hydrogen reduction reactor configured to supply hydrogen gas to the metal oxide to reduce the metal oxide into a metal; (e)A pumping system configured to transfer the metal produced by the metal recycling system to the molten metal storage tank.

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the metal recycling system includes a storage tank for the recycled metal, and the pumping system is configured to transfer the recycled metal from the storage tank for the recycled metal.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the pumping system includes an electromagnetic pump configured to selectively return the metal.

4. The system according to claim 3, wherein the electromagnetic pump includes an inlet filter configured to block the metal oxide.

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