System and method for quantum computing

Abstract

To provide a non-classical (for example, quantum) computing system and method utilizing dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.SOLUTION: A non-classical (for example, quantum) computing system and method according to the present disclosure utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1A

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 201,756, entitled "Solid Spin Quantum Computers," filed May 12, 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0002] The disclosed embodiments generally relate to non-classical (eg, quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits. [Background technology]

[0003] Nonclassical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform computational operations on data. Compared to classical computers, which utilize binary digits (bits) that always have a defined state (0 or 1), nonclassical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) that can exist in a superposition of basis states (i.e., some linear combination of a basis state |0> and a basis state |1>, where the basis states |0> and |1> are orthonormal). Various qubits in a nonclassical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits may be correlated such that an operation on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubit). Quantum operations can be performed to direct the states of qubits to probabilistically converge to a particular final state that represents a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, nonclassical computers can converge to a solution faster than is possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this "quantum advantage" may enable non-classical computers to solve problems that would be intractable using any known classical computer, such as factoring large relatively prime numbers (e.g., to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for specific terms within large amounts of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules. Summary of the Invention

[0004] In some embodiments, the present disclosure describes non-classical (eg, quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.

[0005] It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the disclosed embodiments, as claimed.

[0006] The accompanying drawings, which form a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments and, together with the description, serve to explain certain principles and features of the disclosed embodiments. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0007] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1A illustrates a top view of a system for performing non-classical computation, according to various embodiments. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1B shows a side view of the system of FIG. 1A, according to various embodiments. [Figure 2A] FIG. 2A shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram for a triplet ground state (GST) molecule, according to various embodiments. [Figure 2B] FIG. 2B shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram for a triplet excited state (EST) molecule, according to various embodiments. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 illustrates a system for performing non-classical computation using the system of FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B, according to various embodiments. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 shows a flowchart illustrating a method for performing non-classical computation, according to various embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0008] Exemplary embodiments will now be described in detail and discussed with reference to the accompanying drawings. Unless otherwise defined, technical and / or scientific terms have the meanings commonly understood by those skilled in the art. The disclosed embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the disclosed embodiments. It will be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and changes may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosed embodiments. Accordingly, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are not intended to be necessarily limiting.

[0009] As used herein, the term "or" is intended to convey both disjunctive and conjunctive meaning. For example, the phrase "A or B" is intended to be interpreted as including element A alone, element B alone, and the combination of elements A and B.

[0010] In the Figures (also "FIGs." or "Figs."), like numbers refer to like elements.

[0011] Nonclassical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform computational operations on data. Compared to classical computers, which utilize binary digits (bits) that always have a defined state (0 or 1), nonclassical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) that can exist in a superposition of basis states (i.e., some linear combination of a basis state |0> and a basis state |1>). Various qubits in a nonclassical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits may be correlated such that an operation on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubit). Quantum operations can be performed to direct the states of the qubits to probabilistically converge to a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, nonclassical computers can converge to a solution faster than is possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this "quantum advantage" may enable non-classical computers to solve problems that would be intractable using any known classical computer, such as factoring large relatively prime numbers (e.g., to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for specific terms within large amounts of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules.

[0012] Numerous chemical and physical systems have been proposed for use as quantum bits in nonclassical computers. For example, significant resources have been directed toward superconducting quantum bits that utilize Josephson junctions (i.e., superconductor-insulator-superconductor transitions). These superconducting quantum bits utilize different quantum tunneling modes through the Josephson junctions as ground states. These superconducting quantum bits can be fabricated using well-known semiconductor fabrication techniques, allowing for relatively simple circuit designs. However, superconducting quantum bits suffer from several drawbacks. For example, superconducting quantum bits typically must be cooled to just a few degrees above absolute zero, requiring complex cryogenic systems. The use of these complex cryogenic temperatures also makes it difficult to entangle more than a few quantum bits, limiting the ultimate computational power of superconducting quantum bit-based nonclassical computers.

[0013] Numerous other systems have been used as qubits, including arrays of trapped ions, arrays of trapped neutral atoms, and chemical defects in solid lattices. One system proposed for use in quantum computing is the so-called nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond. The electron spin associated with the NV center can be optically initialized, and its spin state can be read out by fluorescence detection. Furthermore, electron spin can be manipulated by microwave (MW) or radio frequency (RF) irradiation and can exhibit relatively long relaxation and coherence times. However, existing NV quantum computers can only support a limited number of qubits before the adverse effects associated with increasing qubit numbers lead to decreased relaxation and coherence times, negating the very properties that make NV quantum computers attractive in the first place. This is due to the lack of carbon-13 ( 13 C) The natural abundance of spin is 1.1% in diamond. 13 Increasing the C spin isotope concentration 13 The number of C spins increases, which leads to poorer NV center properties. 13The random distribution of C spins leads to coupling on a very large scale, with some 13 The C spins are very strongly coupled to the NV center (e.g., adjacent 13 C spin). This can make it difficult to manipulate and control the NV centers. Furthermore, all NV centers 13 Due to the random distribution of C spins, different related 13 Because of the C spin bus, NV qubits operate almost exclusively with single NV spins, resulting in low signal-to-noise (SNR) and requiring multiple non-classical calculations to achieve a measurable signal. Furthermore, it can be difficult to prepare highly crystalline diamond with controlled NV doping rates, making it difficult to prepare diamond controllably doped with NV centers.

[0014] Thus, there is a need for qubits based on chemical or physical systems that avoid the problems associated with known qubits. Ideally, such chemical or physical systems should be relatively simple to fabricate on a single device, support hundreds or thousands of qubits, allow each qubit to be manipulated independently of all other qubits, and have a coherence lifetime substantially longer than the time required to perform a quantum operation on each qubit. Systems consistent with disclosed embodiments can meet some or all of these criteria and thus provide a technological improvement in the implementation of non-classical computing.

[0015] As used herein, the terms "nonclassical computation," "nonclassical procedure," "nonclassical operation," and "nonclassical computer" generally refer to any system or method for performing a computational procedure outside the paradigm of classical computation. A nonclassical computation, nonclassical procedure, nonclassical operation, or nonclassical computer may include quantum computation, quantum procedure, quantum operation, or quantum computer.

[0016] As used herein, the terms “quantum computation,” “quantum procedure,” “quantum operation,” and “quantum computer” generally refer to any method or system for performing computations using quantum mechanical operations on a Hilbert space represented by a quantum device (such as unitary transformations on a quantum channel or completely positive trace-preserving (CPTP) maps). Thus, quantum and classical (or digital) computations may be similar in the following aspects: both computations may involve a sequence of instructions that are performed on input information and then provide an output. Various paradigms of quantum computing may decompose quantum operations into sequences of elementary quantum operations that simultaneously affect a subset of the qubits of a quantum device. Quantum operations may be selected, for example, based on their locality or ease of physical implementation. A quantum procedure or computation may then consist of a sequence of such instructions, which may represent different quantum evolutions on a quantum device in various applications. For example, procedures for calculating or simulating quantum chemistry may represent quantum states, as well as annihilation and creation operators for electron spin-orbitals, by using qubits (such as two-level quantum systems) and universal quantum gate sets (such as Hadamard, Controlled Not (CNOT), and π / 8 rotation) via the so-called Jordan-Wigner or Blavi-Kitaev transformations.

[0017] Further examples of quantum procedures or computations may include procedures for optimization, such as quantum approximate optimization algorithms (QAOAs) or quantum minimum finding. QAOAs may include performing rotations of single qubits and entanglement gates of multiple qubits. In quantum adiabatic computations, instructions may follow a stochastic or non-stochastic path of evolution of an initial quantum system to a final one. Quantum-inspired procedures may include simulated annealing, parallel tempering, master equation solvers, Monte Carlo procedures, quantum algorithms for approximating maximal independent sets, and the like. Quantum-classical or hybrid algorithms or procedures may include procedures such as variational quantum eigensolvers (VQEs) and variational and adiabatically navigated quantum eigensolvers (VanQver).

[0018] In general, examples of quantum procedures or calculations may include any of the procedures or calculations described in MA Nielsen and IL Chuang, Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press (2013), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0019] The quantum computer may comprise one or more of an adiabatic quantum computer, a quantum gate array, a one-way quantum computer, a topological quantum computer, a quantum Turing machine, a quantum annealer, an Ising solver, or a gate model of quantum computing.

[0020] Doped host materials as qubits for performing nonclassical computations Provided herein are systems and methods for performing non-classical computation. The systems and methods generally utilize dopant molecules contained in an organic host material. The dopant molecules generally function as quantum bits and are associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold may include a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold or a triplet excited state (EST) electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold generally includes three triplet states that can be linearly coupled to form the ground state of a quantum bit (e.g., with respect to a laboratory reference frame, a rotating reference frame, or another suitable time-independent or time-dependent reference frame). The ground state generally has a long lifetime at temperatures obtainable using liquid helium-based cryogenic systems. The dopant molecules are positioned within the host material to enable relatively strong coupling between nearest-neighbor dopant molecules, which may enable the diffusion of information across the quantum bit network by entanglement. The quantum states of the various dopant molecules may be individually manipulated using optical, MW, or RF techniques, allowing for individual control of each qubit to perform non-classical computations.

[0021] 1A shows a top view of a system 100 for performing non-classical computing, according to various embodiments. In the example shown, system 100 includes at least one host material 110. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes at least one organic molecule.

[0022] In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a monocrystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a polycrystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a liquid crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises an amorphous host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a powder host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 comprises a frozen solution host material. In some embodiments, the frozen solution host material comprises a solution that is cryogenically frozen. For example, in some embodiments, the frozen solution host material is frozen at a temperature of at least about 1 Kelvin (K), 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K, or more, up to about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K, or less, or a temperature between any two of the foregoing values.

[0023] In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises a linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the linear or branched alkane comprises a C4 to C20 linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the linear or branched alkane comprises a C4 linear or branched alkane, a C5 linear or branched alkane, a C6 linear or branched alkane, a C7 linear or branched alkane, a C8 linear or branched alkane, a C9 linear or branched alkane, a C10 linear or branched alkane, a C11 linear or branched alkane, a C12 linear or branched alkane, a C13 linear or branched alkane, a C14 linear or branched alkane, a C16 linear or branched alkane, a C17 linear or branched alkane, a C18 linear or branched alkane, a C19 linear or branched alkane, or a C20 linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises an aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups. In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises a diaryl ketone. In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises naphthalene, anthracene, p-terphenyl, benzoic acid, fluorene, biphenyl, benzene, n-hexane, biphenylene, ortho-terphenylene, meta-terphenylene, para-terphenylene, or benzophenone.

[0024] In some embodiments, the host material comprises an isotopically enriched host material. In some embodiments, the host material is isotopically enriched with a particular atomic isotope. In some embodiments, the isotope is hydrogen ( 1 H), deuterium ( 2 H), carbon-13( 13 C), nitrogen-15( 15 N), Fluorine-19( 19 F), silicon-29( 29 Si), or phosphorus-31( 31In some embodiments, the host material comprises at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, up to about 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, , 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less abundance, or an abundance within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, isotopic enrichment allows for improved control over the magnetic environment of the dopant molecules 120 described herein.

[0025] In some embodiments, the host material 110 does not include diamond or graphite.

[0026] In some embodiments, the host material 110 is configured to contain a plurality of dopant molecules 120 described herein.

[0027] In the example shown, system 100 includes a plurality of dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are contained within a host material 110. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a qubit for use in performing non-classical computation. The quantum states of the qubits are described in further detail in Figures 2A and 2B.

[0028] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an organic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an organometallic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an inorganic complex molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a GST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with a GST electronic manifold, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an EST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with an EST electronic manifold, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2B. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with a PETS electronic manifold, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2B.

[0029] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an [n]acene molecule, where n is at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more, and up to about 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values, such as from about 2 to about 3, from about 2 to about 4, from about 2 to about 5, from about 2 to about 6, from about 3 to about 4, from about 3 to about 5, from about 3 to about 6, from about 4 to about 5, from about 4 to about 6, or from about 5 to about 6. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a xanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a thioxanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a donor-acceptor molecule (comprising a donor moiety comprising an electron-rich functional group such as an amine group or a carbazole group, and an acceptor moiety comprising an electron-deficient functional group such as an aromatic nitrile, pyrazine, triazine, benzophenone, or sulfone group). In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

[0030] In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound to at least one other dopant molecule 120 by a bonding interaction 130. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound by a bonding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bonded to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120.

[0031] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is bound to at least one other dopant molecule by a bonding interaction 130. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bound by a bonding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bonded to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the set of dopant molecules 120 to which each dopant molecule 120 is bonded is referred to as its "nearest neighbors."

[0032] In some embodiments, the bonding interaction 130 comprises an electronic bonding interaction. In some embodiments, the bonding interaction 130 comprises an electronic dipole bonding interaction. In some embodiments, the bonding interaction 130 has a bond strength. In some embodiments, the coupling strength is at least about 100 Hertz (Hz), 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 kilohertz (kHz), 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 5 kHz, 6 kHz, 7 kHz, 8 kHz, 9 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 40 kHz, 50 kHz, 60 kHz, 70 kHz, 80 kHz, 90 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, 500 kHz, 600 kHz, 700 kHz, 800 kHz, 900 kHz, 1 megahertz (MHz), 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, or more. or greater, up to about 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, 900 kHz, 800 kHz, 700 kHz, 600 kHz, 500 kHz, 400 kHz, 300 kHz, 200 kHz, 100 kHz, 90 kHz, 80 kHz, 70 kHz, 60 kHz, 50 kHz, 40 kHz, 30 kHz, 20 kHz, 10 kHz, 9 kHz, 8 kHz, 7 kHz, 6 kHz, 5 kHz, 4 kHz, 3 kHz, 2 kHz, 1 kHz, 900 Hz, 800 Hz, 700 Hz, 600 Hz, 500 Hz, 400 Hz, 300 Hz, 200 Hz, 100 Hz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, the bonding strength is about 100 Hz to about 1,000 kHz, about 100 Hz to about 100 kHz, about 100 Hz to about 10 kHz, about 100 Hz to about 1 kHz, about 1 kHz to about 1,000 kHz, about 1 kHz to about 100 kHz, about 1 kHz to about 10 kHz, about 10 kHz to about 1,000 kHz, about 10 kHz to about 100 kHz, or about 100 kHz to about 1,000 kHz. In some embodiments, the bonding interactions 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 are identical. In some embodiments, the bonding interactions 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 are different.

[0033] In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are separated by an average distance 140. In some embodiments, the average distance 140 is at least about 0.3 nanometers (nm), 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, or more, up to about 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, 0.9 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.3 nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, the average distance 140 is between about 0.3 nm and about 1 nm, between about 0.3 nm and about 10 nm, or between about 1 nm and about 10 nm.

[0034] In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 is at least about 1×10 6 Dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm -3 ), 2×10 6 μm -3 , 3×10 6 μm -3 , 4×10 6 μm -3 , 5×10 6 μm -3 , 6×10 6 μm -3 , 7×10 6 μm -3 , 8×10 6 μm -3 , 9×10 6 μm -3 , 1×10 7 μm -3 , 2 × 10 7 μm -3 , 3×10 7 μm -3 , 4×10 7 μm -3 , 5×10 7 μm -3 , 6×10 7 μm -3 , 7×10 7 μm -3、8×10 7 μm -3 、9×10 7 μm -3 、1×10 8 μm -3 、2×10 8 μm -3 、3×10 8 μm -3 、4×10 8 μm -3 、5×10 8 μm -3 、6×10 8 μm -3 、7×10 8 μm -3 、8×10 8 μm -3 、9×10 8 μm -3 、1×10 9 μm -3 、2×10 9 μm -3 、3×10 9 μm -3 、4×10 9 μm -3 、5×10 9 μm -3 、6×10 9 μm -3 、7×10 9 μm -3 、8×10 9 μm -3 、9×10 9 μm -3 、1×10 10 μm -3 、2×10 10 μm -3 、3×10 10 μm -3 、4×10 10 μm -3 、5×10 10 μm -3 、6×10 10 μm -3 、7×10 10 μm -3 、8×10 10 μm -3 、9×10 10 μm -3 、1×10 11 μm -3 、2×1011 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 4×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 12 μm -3 、 or more, up to about 1×10 12 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 四乘十 11 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 2×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 10 μm -3 、 8×10 10 μm -3 、 7×10 10 μm -3 、 6×10 10 μm -3 、 5×10 10 μm -3 、 4×10 10 μm -3 、 3×10 10 μm -3 、 2×10 10 μm -3 、 1×10 10 μm -3 、 9×10 9 ]、μm -3 、 8×10 9 μm -3 、 7×10 It should be noted that there may be some inaccuracies in the translation due to the lack of clear context for some parts. If possible, it is recommended to provide more detailed information for a more accurate translation.9 μm -3 、6×10 9 μm -3 、5×10 9 μm -3 、 4×10 9 μm -3 、3×10 9 μm -3 、2×10 9 μm -3 、1×10 9 μm -3 、9×10 8 μm -3 、8×10 8 μm -3 、7×10 8 μm -3 、6×10 8 μm -3 、5×10 8 μm -3 、4×10 8 μm -3 、3×10 8 μm -3 、2×10 8 μm -3 、1×10 8 μm -3 、9×10 7 μm -3 、8×10 7 μm -3 、7×10 7 μm -3 、6×10 7 μm -3 、5×10 7 μm -3 、4×10 7 μm -3 、3×10 7 μm -3 、2×10 7 μm -3 、1×10 7 μm -3 、9×10 6 μm -3 、8×10 6 μm -3 、7×10 6 μm -3 、6×10 6 μm -3 、5×10 6 μm -3 、4×10 6μm -3 , 3×10 6 μm -3 , 2 × 10 6 μm -3 , 1×10 6 μm -3 , or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0035] 1A as including nine dopant molecules 120, system 100 may include any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, system 100 may include at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, or 30,000 dopant molecules. , 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, 200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,000, 600,000, 7000,000, 800,000, 900,000, 1,000,000 or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 1,000,000, 900,000, 800,000, 700,000, 600,000, 500,000, 400,000, 300,000, 200,000, 100,000, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4, The dopant molecules 120 may include 000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0036] While FIG. 1A depicts dopant molecules 120 arranged in an array, this depiction is not intended to be limiting. In some embodiments, each of the dopant molecules 120 can have any number of nearest neighbors described herein. In some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 can have different numbers of nearest neighbors. For example, one dopant molecule 120 can have eight nearest neighbors, while another dopant molecule 120 can have two nearest neighbors. In some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are arranged in a regular, irregular, or disordered array. In some embodiments, the spatial arrangement of the nearest neighbors around each of the dopant molecules 120 is different. In some embodiments, the separation between each nearest neighbor and each of the dopant molecules 120 is different.

[0037] 1B shows a side view of a system 100, according to various embodiments. In the illustrated example, the system 100 includes at least one host material 110 and a plurality of dopant molecules 120.

[0038] In the example shown, the host material 110 comprises a thickness 150. In some embodiments, the host material 110 comprises a thin film, i.e., in some embodiments, the thickness 150 is at least about 0.3 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1,000 nm, or more, and up to about 1,000nm, 900nm, 800nm, 700nm, 600nm, 500nm, 400nm, 300nm, 200nm, 100nm, 90nm, 80nm, 70nm, 60nm, 50nm, 40nm, 30nm, 20nm, 10nm, 9nm, 8nm, 7nm, 6nm, 5nm, 4nm, 3nm, 2nm, 1nm, 0.9nm, 0.8nm, 0.7nm, 0.6nm, 0.5nm, 0.4nm, 0.3nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, thickness 150 is about 0.3 nm to about 1 nm, about 0.3 nm to about 10 nm, about 0.3 nm to about 100 nm, about 0.3 nm to about 1,000 nm, about 1 nm to about 10 nm, about 1 nm to about 10 nm, about 1 nm to about 100 nm, about 1 nm to about 1,000 nm, about 10 nm to about 100 nm, about 10 nm to about 1,000 nm, or about 100 nm to about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the use of a thin film host material 110 enables the formation of a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer of dopant molecules 120, as described herein.

[0039] In some embodiments, the thin film is formed on a substrate (not shown in FIG. 1B ). In some embodiments, the substrate comprises a host material 110. In some embodiments, the substrate comprises a microfabricated material such as silicon, glass, or sapphire. In some embodiments, the thin film is formed using one or more microfabrication techniques, such as wet cleaning, piranha cleaning, RCA cleaning, passivation, spin coating, dip coating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atmospheric pressure CVD, low pressure CVD, ultra-high vacuum CVD, aerosol-assisted CVD, direct liquid injection CVD, hot-wall CVD, cold-wall CVD, microwave plasma-assisted CVD, plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), remote PECVD, low-energy PECVD, atomic layer CVD, combustion CVD, rapid thermal CVD, photoinitiated CVD, laser CVD, vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, evaporative deposition, pulsed laser deposition, pulsed electron deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, etching, wet etching, dry etching, reactive ion etching (RIE), deep RIE, atomic layer etching, or self-assembly (to form self-assembled monolayers).

[0040] In some embodiments, the host material 110 has a thickness of at least about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer (μm), 2 μm, 3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm, 6 μm, 7 μm, 8 μm, 9 μm, 10 μm, 110 nm, 120 nm, 130 nm, 140 nm, 150 nm, 160 nm, 170 nm, 180 nm, 190 nm, 200 nm, 210 nm, 220 nm, 230 nm, 240 nm, 250 nm, 260 nm, 270 nm, 280 nm, 290 nm, 300 nm, 310 nm, 320 nm, 330 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 360 nm, 370 nm, 380 nm, 390 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 100 nm, 110 nm, 120 nm, 130 nm, 140 nm, 150 nm, 160 nm, 170 nm, 180 nm, 190 nm, 200 nm, 210 nm, 220 nm, 230 nm, 240 nm, 250 m, 4μm, 5μm, 6μm, 7μm, 8μm, 9μm, 10μm, 20μm, 30μm, 40μm, 50μm, 60μm, 70μm, 80μm, 90μm, 100μm, 200μm, 300μm, 4 00μm, 500μm, 600μm, 700μm, 800μm, 900μm, 1 millimeter (mm), 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 7mm, 8mm, 9mm, 10mm or more , up to approximately 10mm, 9mm, 8mm, 7mm, 6mm, 5mm, 4mm, 3mm, 2mm, 1mm, 900μm, 800μm, 700μm, 600μm, 500μm, 400μm, 300μm, 20 0μm, 100μm, 90μm, 80μm, 70μm, 60μm, 50μm, 40μm, 30μm, 20μm, 10μm, 9μm, 8μm, 7μm, 6μm, 5μm, 4μm, 3μm, 2μm, 1μm, In some embodiments, the host material 110 has a thickness 150 of 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the host material 110 is not formed on a substrate.

[0041] In the example shown, multiple dopant molecules 120 are arranged in a quasi-2D layer. In some embodiments, the quasi-2D layer comprises a thin slice of space in which multiple dopant molecules 120 are confined. In some embodiments, vectors can be drawn between pairs of dopant molecules 120 in the quasi-2D layer. In some embodiments, the vectors form an angle with a plane defined by the host material 110. In some embodiments, the angle is at least about 0 degrees, 1 degree, 2 degrees, 3 degrees, 4 degrees, 5 degrees, 6 degrees, 7 degrees, 8 degrees, 9 degrees, 10 degrees, 15 degrees, 20 degrees, 25 degrees, 30 degrees, 35 degrees, 40 degrees, 45 degrees, 50 degrees, 55 degrees, 60 degrees, 65 degrees, 70 degrees, 75 degrees, 80 degrees, 85 degrees, or 90 degrees, up to about 90 degrees, 85 degrees, 80 degrees, 75 degrees, 70 degrees, 65 degrees, 60 degrees, 55 degrees, 50 degrees, 45 degrees, 40 degrees, 35 degrees, 30 degrees, 25 degrees, 20 degrees, 15 degrees, 10 degrees, 9 degrees, 8 degrees, 7 degrees, 6 degrees, 5 degrees, 4 degrees, 3 degrees, 2 degrees, 1 degree, or 0 degrees, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, by arranging the multiple dopant molecules 120 in a quasi-2D layer, the extent to which each of the multiple dopant molecules 120 must interact with nearest neighbors located substantially above or below them is reduced, simplifying the quantum dynamics of the multiple dopant molecules 120.

[0042] 1B depicts a quasi-2D layer including a thin slice of space in which multiple dopant molecules 120 are confined, disclosed embodiments are not so limited. In some embodiments, multiple dopant molecules 120 may be disposed within a thicker layer. In such a thicker layer, each of multiple dopant molecules 120 may interact with nearest neighbors located substantially above or below them.

[0043] Electron triplet states for use as qubit ground states 2A shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram 200 for a GST molecule. In some embodiments, the GST molecule is used as a qubit (e.g., a qubit described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B). In the example shown, the GST molecule is associated with a GST electronic manifold 210, a first singlet electronic state 220, a second singlet electronic state 230, and an EST electronic manifold 240. In some embodiments, the GST electronic manifold 210 includes a first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, and a third triplet state 213. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213 represent the lowest energy electronic states of the GST molecule. In some embodiments, first triplet state 211 is denoted by |T1>, second triplet state 212 is denoted by |T2>, and third triplet state 213 is denoted by |T3>. In some embodiments, EST electronic manifold 240 includes first triplet state 241, second triplet state 242, and third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, first singlet electronic state 220, second singlet electronic state 230, and EST electronic manifold 240 each represent higher energy electronic states than the GST molecule. As shown in FIG. 2A , in some embodiments, second singlet electronic state 230 is lower in energy than EST electronic manifold 240. However, in other embodiments, second singlet electronic state 230 is higher in energy than EST electronic manifold 240.

[0044] In some embodiments, at thermal equilibrium, GST electronic state 210 is highly occupied (i.e., the electronic wave function of the GST molecule is heavily biased toward GST electronic state 210, with relatively equal contributions to first triplet state 211, second triplet state 212, and third triplet state 213), while first singlet electronic state 220, second electronic singlet state 230, first triplet state 241, second triplet state 242, and third triplet state 243 are not highly occupied.

[0045] In some embodiments, the GST molecules are configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the population from the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, or the third triplet state 213 to the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, or the third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, the GST molecules are configured to relax via radiative decay back to the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, or the third triplet state 213, or to the first singlet electronic state 220 or the second singlet electronic state 230 via intersystem crossing (ISC). In some embodiments, successive absorptions of electromagnetic energy selectively drive the population to any combination of the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution. In this manner, any combination of first triplet state 211, second triplet state 212, and third triplet state 213 can be "hyperpolarized," as described herein.

[0046] FIG. 2B shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram 250 for an EST molecule. In some embodiments, the EST molecule is used as a qubit (e.g., the qubits described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B). In the example shown, the EST molecule is associated with a ground-state singlet electronic state 260, an EST electronic manifold 270, and an excited-state singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST electronic manifold 270 includes a first triplet state 271, a second triplet state 272, and a third triplet state 273. In some embodiments, the ground-state singlet electronic state 260 represents the lowest-energy electronic state of the EST molecule, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 represent the next-to-next-lowest-energy electronic states of the EST molecule, and the excited-state singlet electronic state 280 represents the next-to-lowest-energy electronic state of the EST molecule. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 271 is denoted by |T1>, the second triplet state 272 is denoted by |T2>, and the third triplet state 273 is denoted by |T3>.

[0047] In some embodiments, at thermal equilibrium, the ground state singlet electronic state 260 is highly occupied (i.e., the electronic wave function of the EST molecule is heavily biased toward the ground state singlet electronic state 260), while the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 are not highly occupied.

[0048] In some embodiments, the EST molecules are configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the population from the ground singlet electronic state 260 to the excited singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST molecules are configured to relax via radiative decay back to the ground singlet electronic state 260 or via intersystem crossing (ISC) back to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273. In some embodiments, successive absorptions of electromagnetic energy selectively drive the population to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution.

[0049] Alternatively, in some embodiments, the EST molecules are configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the population directly from the ground state singlet electronic state 260 to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution. In either manner, any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 can be "hyperpolarized" as described herein.

[0050] Regardless of whether the qubit comprises a GST molecule or an EST molecule, in some embodiments, a linear combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> may be utilized as the basis state of the qubit for non-classical computation. Thus, a qubit may include a first qubit ground state that is a first linear combination (e.g., with respect to a laboratory reference frame, a rotating reference frame, or another suitable time-independent or time-dependent reference frame) of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> (e.g., the first qubit ground state |0>=α1|T1>+α2|T2>+α3|T3>), and a second qubit ground state that is a second linear combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> (e.g., the second qubit ground state |1>=β1|T1>+β2|T2>+β3|T3>). Generally, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 are each defined by the normalization condition |α1| 2 +|α2| 2 +|α3| 2 =1 and |β1| 2 +|β2| 2 +|β3| 2 = 1. Furthermore, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 should generally be selected such that the basis states of the first qubit and the second qubit are different (e.g., orthogonal) from one another.

[0051] In some embodiments, the lifetime (e.g., coherence lifetime or relaxation lifetime) of the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit is at least about 100 microseconds (μs), 200 μs, 300 μs, 400 μs, 500 μs, 600 μs, 700 μs, 800 μs, 900 μs, 1 millisecond (ms), 2 milliseconds, 3 milliseconds, 4 milliseconds, 5 milliseconds, 6 milliseconds, 7 milliseconds, 8 milliseconds, 9 milliseconds, 10 milliseconds, 15 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 25 milliseconds, 30 milliseconds, 35 milliseconds, 40 milliseconds, 45 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 55 milliseconds, 60 milliseconds, 65 milliseconds, 70 milliseconds, 75 milliseconds, 80 milliseconds, 85 milliseconds, 90 milliseconds, 10 ... 5ms, 70ms, 75ms, 80ms, 85ms, 90ms, 95ms, 100ms, 125ms, 150ms, 175ms, 200ms, 225ms, 250ms, 275ms, 300ms, 325ms, 350ms, 375ms, 400ms, 425ms, 450ms, 475ms, 500ms, 525ms, 550ms, 575ms, 600ms, 625ms, 650ms, 675ms, 700ms, 725ms, 800ms, 825ms, 850ms, 875ms Seconds, 900ms, 925ms, 950ms, 975ms, 1 second (s), 2 seconds, 3 seconds, 4 seconds, 5 seconds, 6 seconds, 7 seconds, 8 seconds, 9 seconds, 10 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds, 40 seconds, 50 seconds, 1 minute (min), 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes, 6 minutes, 7 minutes, 8 minutes, 9 minutes, 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, 40 minutes, 50 minutes, 1 hour (h), 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 9 hours, 10 hours or more, up to about 10 hours, 9 hours, 8 hours, 7 hours, 6 hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, 50 minutes, 40 minutes, 30 minutes, 20 minutes, 10 minutes, 9 minutes, 8 minutes, 7 minutes, 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 50 seconds, 40 seconds, 30 seconds, 20 seconds, 10 seconds, 9 seconds, 8 seconds, 7 seconds, 6 seconds, 5 seconds, 4 seconds, 3 seconds, 2 seconds, 1 second, 975 milliseconds, 950 milliseconds, 925 milliseconds, 900 milliseconds, 875 milliseconds, 850 milliseconds, 825 milliseconds, 800 milliseconds, 775 milliseconds, 750 milliseconds, 725 milliseconds, 700 milliseconds, 675 milliseconds, 650 milliseconds, 625 milliseconds, 600 milliseconds, 575 milliseconds, 550 milliseconds, 525 milliseconds, 500 milliseconds, 475 milliseconds, 450 milliseconds, 425 milliseconds, 400 milliseconds, 375 milliseconds,350 ms, 325 ms, 300 ms, 275 ms, 250 ms, 225 ms, 200 ms, 175 ms, 150 ms, 125 ms, 100 ms, 95 ms, 90 ms, 85 ms, 80 ms, 75 ms, 70 ms, 65 ms, 60 ms, 55 ms, 50 ms, 45 ms, 40 ms, 35 ms, 30 ms, 25 ms, 20 ms, 15 ms, 10 ms, 9 ms, 8 ms, 7 ms, 6 ms, 5 ms, 4 ms, 3 ms, 2 ms, 1 ms, 900 μs, 800 μs, 700 μs, 600 μs, 500 μs, 400 μs, 300 μs, 200 μs, 100 μs, or less, or a lifetime within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0052] In some embodiments, the lifetime is defined as the half-life for the electronic states of the qubit to return from a hyperpolarized electronic state population to a thermal equilibrium electronic state population. In some embodiments, the lifetime is measured at the intended operating temperature of the qubit, such as a temperature of at least about 1 K, 2 K, 3 K, 4 K, 5 K, 6 K, 7 K, 8 K, 9 K, 10 K, 15 K, 20 K, 25 K, 30 K, 35 K, 40 K, 45 K, 50 K, or more, up to about 50 K, 45 K, 40 K, 35 K, 30 K, 25 K, 20 K, 15 K, 10 K, 9 K, 8 K, 7 K, 6 K, 5 K, 4 K, 3 K, 2 K, 1 K, or less, or a temperature between any two of the foregoing values ​​(e.g., about 4 K to about 20 K). 1A and 1B (e.g., binding interaction 130 shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B) is greater than a multiple of the inverse of the lifetime, hi some embodiments, the multiple is at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more, up to about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0053] Optical hyperpolarization and initialization of qubit states In some embodiments, hyperpolarization enables non-classical computations to be performed with a high SNR. In some embodiments, hyperpolarization enables a qubit to be initialized with the basis state of the first qubit or the basis state of the second qubit (or any linear combination thereof) to thereby initialize a non-classical computation. In some embodiments, hyperpolarization enables coherent manipulation of the quantum states of the qubits to perform non-classical computations.

[0054] In some embodiments, the hyperpolarization allows one or more qubits to be placed in a particular quantum state (e.g., the basis state of the first qubit, the basis state of the second qubit, or any linear combination thereof). In some embodiments, the qubits are initialized after such hyperpolarization.

[0055] In the context of GST or EST molecules, in some embodiments, hyperpolarization describes a state in which the absolute value of the difference between one population of electronic states (e.g., the first singlet electronic state of a GST molecule or the ground-state singlet electronic state of an EST molecule) and another population of electronic states (e.g., any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> of a GST or EST molecule) exceeds the absolute value of the corresponding difference at thermal equilibrium.

[0056] In some embodiments, the population difference between two electronic states is the difference between the populations of the two electronic states divided by the total population of the two electronic states. The population difference may be expressed as a fractional population difference or a percentage population difference. In some embodiments, the population difference (expressed as a percentage) is at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or more, up to about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0057] As described herein, in some embodiments, the qubits (either the GST molecules or the EST molecules) are configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the ensemble into any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3>, thereby generating hyperpolarization. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy has a center wavelength selected to drive the ensemble into any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3>. In some embodiments, the center wavelength is in the infrared (IR), visible, or ultraviolet (UV) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In some embodiments, the center wavelength is at least about 200 nm, 210 nm, 220 nm, 230 nm, 240 nm, 250 nm, 260 nm, 270 nm, 280 nm, 290 nm, 300 nm, 310 nm, 320 nm, 330 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 360 nm, 370 nm, 380 nm, 390 nm, 400 nm, 410 nm, 420 nm, 430 nm, 440 nm, 450 nm, 460 nm, 470 nm, 480 nm, 490 nm, 500 nm, 510 nm, 520 nm, 530 nm, 540 nm, 550 nm, 560 nm, 570 nm, 580 nm, 590 nm, 600 nm, 610 nm, 620 nm, 630 nm, 640 nm, 650 nm, 660 nm, 670 nm, 680 nm, 690 nm, 700 nm, 710 nm, 720 nm, 730 nm, 740 nm, 750 nm, 760 nm, 770 nm, 780 nm, 790 nm, 800 nm, 810 nm, 820 nm, 830 nm, 840 nm, 850 nm, 860 nm, 870 nm, 880 nm, 890 nm, 900 nm, 910 nm, 920 nm, 930 nm, 940 nm, 950 nm, 960 nm, 970 nm, 980 nm, 990 nm, 1000 nm, 1010 nm, 1020 nm nm, 610nm, 620nm, 630nm, 640nm, 650nm, 660nm, 670nm, 680nm, 685nm, 690nm, 700nm, 710nm, 720nm, 730nm, 740nm, 750nm, 760nm, 770nm, 780nm, 790nm, 800nm, 810nm, 820nm, 830nm, 840nm, 850nm, 860nm, 870nm, 880nm, 890nm, 900nm, 910nm, 920nm, 930nm, 940nm, 950nm, 960nm, 970nm, 980nm, 990nm, 1,000nm or higher, up to about 1,000nm, 990nm, 980nm, 970nm, 960nm, 950nm, 940nm, 930nm, 920nm, 910nm, 900nm , 890nm, 880nm, 870nm, 860nm, 850nm, 840nm, 830nm, 820nm, 810nm, 800nm, 790nm , 780nm, 770nm, 760nm, 750nm, 740nm, 730nm, 720nm, 710nm, 700nm, 690nm, 680nm , 670nm, 660nm, 650nm, 640nm, 630nm, 620nm, 610nm, 600nm, 590nm, 580nm, 570nm , 560nm, 550nm, 540nm, 530nm, 520nm, 510nm, 500nm, 490nm, 480nm, 470nm, 460nm, 450nm, 440nm, 430nm, 420nm, 410nm, 400nm, 390nm, 380nm, 370nm, 360nm, 350nm, 340nm, 330nm, 320nm, 310nm, 300nm, 290nm, 280nm, 270nm, 260nm, 250nm, 240nm, 230nm, 220nm, 210nm, 200nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0058] Optical initialization of individual qubits 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 experience different physicochemical environments due to different positions or orientations within host material 110. In some embodiments, the different physicochemical environments cause different dopant molecules 120 to have slightly different electronic energy level structures. For example, returning to the discussion of FIG. 2A, the energy difference between any two of first triplet state 211, second triplet state 212, third triplet state 213, first singlet electronic state 220, second singlet state 230, first triplet state 241, second triplet state 242, and third triplet state 243 may depend on the physicochemical environment of the associated dopant molecules, which may shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states. Similarly, returning to the discussion of Figure 2B, the energy difference between any two of the ground state singlet electronic state 260, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 may depend on the physicochemical environment of the associated dopant molecule, which may shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states.

[0059] 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 may allow for individual addressing of each dopant molecule 120. For example, if the bandwidth of the optical energy used to initialize each dopant molecule is sufficiently narrow (e.g., the bandwidth is small compared to the difference between the wavelength required to initialize a given dopant molecule 120 and the wavelength required to initialize other dopant molecules 120), each dopant molecule 120 may be optically addressed individually.

[0060] For example, the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120 may have different electronic energy level structures. Thus, in some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a first electromagnetic energy having a first center wavelength, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a second electromagnetic energy having a second center wavelength. In some embodiments, the first or second center wavelength includes any center wavelength described herein. In some embodiments, the first and second center wavelengths are different from one another.

[0061] In some embodiments, a first central wavelength is associated with a first wavelength range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first full width at half maximum (FWHM). In some embodiments, a second central wavelength is associated with a second wavelength range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth or the second bandwidth is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, 20 MHz, 25 MHz, 30 MHz, 35 MHz, 40 MHz, 45 MHz, 50 MHz, 55 MHz, 60 MHz, 65 MHz, 70 MHz, 75 MHz, 80 MHz, 85 MHz, 90 MHz, 95 MHz, 100 MHz, or more, up to about 100 MHz, 95 MHz, 90 MHz, 85 MHz, 80 MHz, 75 MHz, 70 MHz, 65 MHz, 60 MHz, 55 MHz, 50 MHz, 45 MHz, 40 MHz, 35 MHz, 30 MHz, 25 MHz, 20 MHz, 15 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0062] In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range are different. In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range do not overlap (e.g., within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to or wider than the bandwidth of the light source directed at the first dopant molecules 120 and the second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range allows the first dopant molecules 120 to absorb optical energy, while the second dopant molecules 120 do not. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range allows the second dopant molecules 120 to absorb optical energy, while the first dopant molecules 120 do not absorb optical energy. This procedure may be referred to as “individual optical initialization” of the first and second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the individual optical initialization of the first and second dopant molecules 120 causes the first and second dopant molecules 120 to emit different amounts of optical energy. In some embodiments, measuring the optical energy collapses the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule into an electronic energy eigenstate of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule to a desired initial quantum state.

[0063] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the principles of individual optical initialization described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, individual optical initialization may be performed on at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000 It may be applied to 0, 9,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0064] Such individual optical initialization may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, such dopant molecules 120 may be separated from one another by a distance relatively small compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from one another by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure proper coupling between nearest-neighbor dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist may be approximately 500 nm, such that the optical energy impinges on approximately 5,000 qubits. Thus, individual optical initialization may enable the manipulation of individual qubits even when the optical energy is directed at hundreds or thousands of qubits.

[0065] In some embodiments, individual optical initialization of qubits may allow for individual initialization of qubits in the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit (or any linear combination thereof), thereby initializing non-classical computation.

[0066] RF or MW manipulation of individual qubits In some embodiments, the first and second qubit states described herein are separated by an energy difference in the RF or MW portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, in some embodiments, manipulation of the quantum state of each qubit may be performed using RF or MW energy. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the different physicochemical environments of the different dopant molecules 120 result in wavelength or frequency shifts that are not large enough to allow for individual optical initialization of each qubit. In such embodiments, multiple qubits may first be optically initialized simultaneously, for example, using a broadband light source, as described herein. In some embodiments, the quantum state of each qubit is then individually manipulated using RF or MW energy.

[0067] In some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first center frequency, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second center frequency. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 20 MHz, 30 MHz, 40 MHz, 50 MHz, 60 MHz, 70 MHz, 80 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 MHz, 200 MHz, 300 MHz, 400 MHz, 500 MHz, 600 MHz, 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1 gigahertz (GHz), 2 GHz, 3 GHz, 4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz, 7 GHz, 8 GHz, 9 GHz, 10 GHz, 20 GHz, 30 GHz, 40 GHz, 50 GHz, 60 GHz, 70 GHz, 80 GHz, 90 GHz, 100 GHz, or more. , up to about 100 GHz, 90 GHz, 80 GHz, 70 GHz, 60 GHz, 50 GHz, 40 GHz, 30 GHz, 20 GHz, 10 GHz, 9 GHz, 8 GHz, 7 GHz, 6 GHz, 5 GHz, 4 GHz, 3 GHz, 2 GHz, 1 GHz, 900 MHz, 800 MHz, 700 MHz, 600 MHz, 500 MHz, 400 MHz, 300 MHz, 200 MHz, 100 MHz, 90 MHz, 80 MHz, 70 MHz, 60 MHz, 50 MHz, 40 MHz, 30 MHz, 20 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency is in the RF or MW portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

[0068] In some embodiments, the first and second center frequencies are different from one another. In some embodiments, the first center frequency is associated with a first frequency range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second center frequency is associated with a second frequency range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth depends on the power of the RF energy or MW energy supplied to the first or second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth comprises a natural bandwidth of the first or second dopant molecule 120.For example, in some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth is at least about 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 5 kHz, 6 kHz, 7 kHz, 8 kHz, 9 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 40 kHz, 50 kHz, 60 kHz, 70 kHz, 80 kHz, 90 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, 500 kHz, 600 kHz, 700 kHz, 800 kHz, 900 kHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 20 MHz, 30 MHz, 40 MHz, 50 MHz, 60 MHz, 70 MHz, 80 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 MHz, or more. The frequency range is from about 100 MHz, 90 MHz, 80 MHz, 70 MHz, 60 MHz, 50 MHz, 40 MHz, 30 MHz, 20 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, 900 kHz, 800 kHz, 700 kHz, 600 kHz, 500 kHz, 400 kHz, 300 kHz, 200 kHz, 100 kHz, 90 kHz, 80 kHz, 70 kHz, 60 kHz, 50 kHz, 40 kHz, 30 kHz, 20 kHz, 10 kHz, 9 kHz, 8 kHz, 7 kHz, 6 kHz, 5 kHz, 4 kHz, 3 kHz, 2 kHz, 1 kHz, 900 Hz, 800 Hz, 700 Hz, 600 Hz, 500 Hz, 400 Hz, 300 Hz, 200 Hz, 100 Hz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0069] In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range are different. In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range do not overlap (e.g., within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to or narrower than the bandwidth of the RF or MW energy directed to the first dopant molecules 120 and the second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first frequency range and the second frequency range allows the first dopant molecules 120 to absorb RF or MW energy, while the second dopant molecules 120 do not absorb RF or MW energy. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first frequency range and the second frequency range allows the second dopant molecules 120 to absorb RF or MW energy, while the first dopant molecules 120 do not absorb RF or MW energy. This procedure may be referred to as “individual RF or MW manipulation” of the first and second dopant molecules 120 .

[0070] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the principles of individual RF or MW manipulation described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, individual RF or MW manipulation may be used to manipulate at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120. 000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0071] Such individual RF or MW manipulation may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, such dopant molecules 120 may be separated from one another by a distance that is relatively small compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from one another by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure proper coupling between nearest-neighbor dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist, as described herein, may span hundreds or thousands of qubits.

[0072] Thus, individual RF or MW manipulation may enable individual coherent manipulation of the quantum state of each qubit after optical initialization of the qubits (individually or simultaneously). In some embodiments, the coherent manipulation includes the implementation of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0073] Storage of nonclassical information in nuclear spin degrees of freedom. In some embodiments, non-classical information (e.g., obtained during or after performing any of the non-classical operations described herein) may be transferred from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule 120 to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120 or at least one nearby molecule (referred to as a "nearby host molecule") contained within the host material 110. In some embodiments, the information may be transferred by implementing a swap gate between the electronic state and the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the swap gate may be implemented by applying RF energy or MW energy to at least one dopant molecule 120 and the nuclear spin state, as described herein.

[0074] In some embodiments, transferring non-classical information to nuclear spin states provides increased readout fidelity, initialization fidelity, or lifetime, thereby improving the overall fidelity of the non-classical computation.

[0075] In some embodiments, one or more of the dopant molecules 120 may be excited to a higher-level electronic triplet state (i.e., an electronic triplet state having a higher energy than either of the states shown in FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B) by application of electromagnetic energy. In some embodiments, one or more of the dopant molecules 120 may then relax from the higher-level electronic triplet state at a relatively high ISC rate, allowing the electronic state of one or more of the dopant molecules 120 to rapidly relax to a singlet state. For example, the EST molecule described herein with respect to FIG. 2B may be optically pumped from the EST electronic manifold 270 to a higher-level electronic triplet state and then decay to the ground-state singlet electronic state 260. In some embodiments, such an “inverse ISC” (RISC) procedure allows one or more dopant molecules to be selectively returned to a singlet state after transfer of non-classical information to the nuclear spin state. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure reduces magnetic noise associated with the electronic spin of the PETS molecule, thereby extending the lifetime of the PETS molecule. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure comprises a "triplet shelving" procedure (as described in A.A. Demissie et al, "Triplet Shelving in Fluorescein and its Derivatives Provides Delayed, Background-Free Fluorescence" J. Phys. Chem A 124(7), 1437-1443 (2020), https: / / doi.org / 10.1021 / acs.jpca.9b11040, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes).

[0076] Optical readout of individual qubits In some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 may, after non-classical operation, enable individual optical readout of the quantum state of each dopant molecule 120. For example, the quantum state of each dopant molecule 120 may be individually optically readout based on the wavelength of light emitted by the dopant molecule 120, which may vary based on the physicochemical environment of each dopant molecule 120.

[0077] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is configured to absorb and emit light. In some embodiments, the optical properties of the light emitted by each dopant molecule 120 correlate with the quantum state of the associated dopant molecule 120. For example, in some embodiments, a dopant molecule 120 in a first qubit state absorbs and emits light having a first property, while a dopant molecule 120 in a second qubit state absorbs and emits light having a second property. In some embodiments, a dopant molecule in a linear superposition between the first qubit state and the second qubit state absorbs and emits light having a linear superposition of the first property and the second property. In some embodiments, the first property is different from the second property. Thus, in some embodiments, measuring the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120 allows for the quantum state of the dopant molecule 120 to be determined at the time of measurement. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the intensity of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the polarization state of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second characteristic comprises a wavelength of light emitted by the dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the first or second characteristic comprises a frequency of light emitted by the dopant molecules 120.

[0078] System for initializing, manipulating, and reading out quantum bit states of dopant molecules 3 illustrates a system 300 for performing non-classical computations using system 100 of FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B , according to various embodiments. In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 is configured to include system 100 described herein with respect to FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B . In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes system 100. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 does not include system 100. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 is configured to cool the system 100 to an operating temperature, such as at least about 1 K, 2 K, 3 K, 4 K, 5 K, 6 K, 7 K, 8 K, 9 K, 10 K, 15 K, 20 K, 25 K, 30 K, 35 K, 40 K, 45 K, 50 K, or more, up to about 50 K, 45 K, 40 K, 35 K, 30 K, 25 K, 20 K, 15 K, 10 K, 9 K, 8 K, 7 K, 6 K, 5 K, 4 K, 3 K, 2 K, 1 K, or less, or a temperature between any two of the foregoing values ​​(e.g., about 4 K to about 20 K). In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one helium cryocooler. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one closed-cycle helium cryocooler. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one window (not shown in FIG. 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as light energy) to pass therethrough. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one electrical feedthrough (not shown in FIG. 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as RF energy or MW energy) to pass therethrough.

[0079] In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one initialization unit 320. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to direct third electromagnetic energy 322 to at least one dopant molecule (not shown in FIG. 3 ) of system 100. In some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to any linear combination of a first qubit state and a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one wavelength between about 200 nm and about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule in any manner described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 comprises confocal optics, a confocal microscope, or a wide-field microscope. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to measure electromagnetic energy (not shown in FIG. 3 ) emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the third electromagnetic energy 322. In some embodiments, the measured electromagnetic energy indicates whether the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule was properly initialized. In some embodiments, measuring the emitted electromagnetic energy collapses the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule into an electronic energy eigenstate of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule to a desired initial quantum state. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply the third electromagnetic energy 322 in response to the measured electromagnetic energy. For example, in some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply the third electromagnetic energy 322 to the at least one dopant molecule if the measured electromagnetic energy indicates that the at least one dopant molecule was not properly initialized.

[0080] In the illustrated example, system 300 includes a single initialization unit 320. However, in some embodiments, system 300 includes multiple initialization units 320. In some embodiments, the system 300 includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, or more initialization units 320, and up to about 100,000 0, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 initialization unit 320, or a number of initialization units 320 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each initialization unit 320 may store at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits, and up to about 10,000, 9, The quantum state of any one of the qubits may be initialized to any of the following values: 000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0081] In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one non-classical operation unit 330. In some embodiments, non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy 332 to at least one dopant molecule of system 100. In some embodiments, fourth electromagnetic energy 332 is configured to perform at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one frequency between about 1 MHz and about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to perform any non-classical operation described in any manner as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit 330 comprises at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0082] In the example shown, the system 300 comprises a single non-classical operation unit 330. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 comprises multiple non-classical operation units 330. In some embodiments, the system 300 comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more non-classical operational units 330, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 non-classical operational unit 330, or a number of non-classical operational units 330 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to perform non-classical operations on at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0083] In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one storage unit 340. In some embodiments, at least one storage unit 340 is configured to apply fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and sixth electromagnetic energy 344 to at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are collectively configured to transfer information from an electronic state of at least one dopant molecule to a nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are collectively configured to apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one frequency between about 1 kHz and about 100 MHz. In some embodiments, sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency described herein. For example, in some embodiments, sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one frequency between about 1 MHz and about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, storage unit 340 includes at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0084] In the example shown, the system 300 includes a single storage unit 340. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 includes multiple storage units 340. In some embodiments, the system 300 includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more storage units 340, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 storage unit 340, or a number of storage units 340 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each storage unit 340 is configured to transfer information from electronic states to nuclear spin states of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0085] In some embodiments, the system 300 does not include a storage unit 340 .

[0086] In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one detection unit 350. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to detect an electronic state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to detect a nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to direct seventh electromagnetic energy 352 to at least one dopant molecule, thereby resulting in at least one non-classical behavior, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one wavelength between about 200 nm and about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy 352. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 comprises a confocal optical system, a confocal microscope, a wide-field microscope, a spectrometer, an optical spectrometer, a fluorescence spectrometer, a UV-visible spectrometer, a polarimeter, or a polarized camera.

[0087] In the example shown, the system 300 comprises a single detection unit 350. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 comprises multiple detection units 350. In some embodiments, the system 300 includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, or more detection units 350, and up to about 100,000 0, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 detection unit 350, or a number of detection units 350 within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, each detection unit 350 has at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits, and up to about 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits. In some embodiments, the present invention is configured to detect the electronic or nuclear spin states of qubits of 1,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0088] In some embodiments, system 300 includes at least one polarizing beam splitter 360. In some embodiments, polarizing beam splitter 360 is configured to direct third electromagnetic energy 322 from initialization unit 320 to system 100. In some embodiments, polarizing beam splitter 360 is configured to direct seventh electromagnetic energy 352 from detection unit 350 to system 100 and to direct light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to seventh electromagnetic energy 352 from system 100 to detection unit 350.

[0089] In some embodiments, system 300 includes one or more magnetic field sources (not shown in FIG. 3). In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources are configured to generate one or more magnetic fields or magnetic field gradients in the vicinity of system 100. In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources each include a permanent magnet, an electromagnet, or a superconducting magnet. In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources include one or more solenoids, Helmholtz coils, anti-Helmholtz coils, saddle coils, Halbach arrays, etc. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are included within cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources is at least about 1 microtesla (μT), 2 μT, 3 μT, 4 μT, 5 μT, 6 μT, 7 μT, 8 μT, 9 μT, 10 μT, 20 μT, 30 μT, 40 μT, 50 μT, 60 μT, 70 μT, 80 μT, 90 μT, 100 μT, 200 μT, 300 μT, 400 μT, 500 μT, 600 μT, 700 μT, 800 μT, 900 μT T, 1 millitesla (mT), 2mT, 3mT, 4mT, 5mT, 6mT, 7mT, 8mT, 9mT, 10mT, 20mT, 30mT, 40mT, 50mT, 60mT, 70mT, 80mT, 90mT, 100mT, 200mT, 300mT, 400mT, 500mT, 600mT, 700mT, 800mT, 900mT, 1 Tesla (T), or more, up to about 1T, 900mT. , 800mT, 700mT, 600mT, 500mT, 400mT, 300mT, 200mT, 100mT, 90mT, 80mT, 70mT, 60mT, 50mT, 40mT, 30mT, 2 0mT, 10mT, 9mT, 8mT, 7mT, 6mT, 5mT, 4mT, 3mT, 2mT, 1mT, 900μT, 800μT, 700μT, 600μT, 500μT, 400μT, 300μT , 200 μT, 100 μT, 90 μT, 80 μT, 70 μT, 60 μT, 50 μT, 40 μT, 30 μT, 20 μT, 10 μT, 9 μT, 8 μT, 7 μT, 6 μT, 5 μT, 4 μT, 3 μT, 2 μT, 1 μT, or less (across the system 100), or an average magnetic field strength within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources is configured to generate an average magnetic field strength (across the system 100) of at least about 1 microTesla / meter (μTm -1 ), 2μTm-1 , 3μTm -1 , 4μTm -1 , 5μTm -1 , 6μTm -1 , 7μTm -1 , 8μTm -1 , 9μTm -1 , 10μTm -1 , 20μTm -1 , 30μTm -1 , 40μTm -1 , 50μTm -1 , 60μTm -1 , 70μTm -1 , 80μTm -1 , 90μTm -1 , 100μTm -1 , 200μTm -1 , 300μTm -1 , 400μTm -1 , 500μTm -1 , 600μTm -1 , 700μTm -1 , 800μTm -1 , 900μTm -1 , 1 microtesla / meter (mTm -1 ), 2mTm -1 , 3mTm -1 , 4mTm -1 , 5mTm -1 , 6mTm -1 , 7mTm -1 , 8mTm -1 , 9mTm -1 , 10mTm -1 , 20mTm -1 , 30mTm -1 , 40mTm -1 , 50mTm -1 , 60mTm -1 , 70mTm -1 , 80mTm -1 , 90mTm -1 , 100mTm -1 , 200mTm -1 , 300mTm -1 , 400mTm -1 , 500mTm -1 , 600mTm -1 , 700mTm -1 , 800mTm -1, 900mTm -1 , 1,000mTm -1 , or more, up to about 1,000 mTm -1 , 900mTm -1 , 800mTm -1 , 700mTm -1 , 600mTm -1 , 500mTm -1 , 400mTm -1 , 300mTm -1 , 200mTm -1 , 100mTm -1 , 90mTm -1 , 80mTm -1 , 70mTm -1 , 60mTm -1 , 50mTm -1 , 40mTm -1 , 30mTm -1 , 20mTm -1 , 10mTm -1 , 9mTm -1 , 8mTm -1 , 7mTm -1 , 6mTm -1 , 5mTm -1 , 4mTm -1 , 3mTm -1 , 2mTm -1 , 1mTm -1 , 900μTm -1 , 800μTm -1 , 700μTm -1 , 600μTm -1 , 500μTm -1 , 400μTm -1 , 300μTm -1 , 200μTm -1 , 100μTm -1 , 90μTm -1 , 80μTm -1 , 70μTm -1 , 60μTm -1 , 50μTm -1 , 40μTm -1 , 30μTm -1 , 20μTm -1 , 10μTm -1 , 9μTm -1 , 8μTm -1 , 7μTm -1 , 6μTm-1 , 5μTm -1 , 4μTm -1 , 3μTm -1 , 2μTm -1 , 1 μTm -1 , or less than, or within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0090] Methods for performing non-classical computations FIG. 4 shows a flowchart illustrating a method 400 for performing non-classical calculations, according to various embodiments. In some embodiments, method 400 is performed using system 100 of FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B or system 300 of FIG. 3. At 410, a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material is obtained. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules comprises any dopant molecule described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the host material comprises any host material described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure comprising a triplet electronic manifold, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B. In some embodiments, the triplet electronic manifold comprises a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B.

[0091] At 420, each dopant molecule is configured as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the first qubit state comprises a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, as described herein. In some embodiments, the second qubit state comprises a second linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, wherein the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, as described herein. In some embodiments, the first qubit state or the second qubit state has any lifetime described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3 at any temperature described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule is bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electronic dipole bonding interaction having any dipole bond strength described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3.

[0092] At 430, a non-classical computation is performed on at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, performing the non-classical computation includes directing a third electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing a quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to a first qubit state or a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3, applying a fourth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule, and detecting an electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining a result of the at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy includes any third electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy includes any fourth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the at least one non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0093] In some embodiments, performing the non-classical calculation further includes applying a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule prior to detecting the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are collectively configured to transfer information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy includes any fifth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy includes any sixth electromagnetic energy described herein.

[0094] In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule comprises applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby resulting in at least one non-classical behavior, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy comprises any seventh electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule further comprises detecting light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3.

[0095] Enumeration of Embodiments The foregoing non-limiting embodiments disclosed herein include the following:

[0096] Embodiment 1. A system for performing non-classical computation, comprising: at least one host material comprising at least one organic molecule; A plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, each dopant molecule includes a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state; each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold; the triplet electron manifold comprises a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the first qubit state comprises a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the second qubit state comprises a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, the first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature between 4 Kelvin (K) and 20 K; a plurality of dopant molecules, at least one of the dopant molecules being bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole bonding interaction having a dipole bonding strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz).

[0097] Embodiment 2. The system of embodiment 1, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0098] Embodiment 3. The system of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the host material comprises a C4 to C20 straight-chain or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0099] Embodiment 4. The system of any one of embodiments 1-3, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0100] Embodiment 5. The system of any one of embodiments 1-4, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic hybrid molecule.

[0101] Embodiment 6. The system of any one of embodiments 1-5, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule, where n is 2-6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

[0102] Embodiment 7. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 6, wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer.

[0103] Embodiment 8. The system of embodiment 7, wherein the quasi-2D layer comprises a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0104] Embodiment 9. The system of any one of embodiments 1-8, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by electronic dipole bonding interactions having a dipole bond strength.

[0105] Embodiment 10. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 9, wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0106] Embodiment 11. A plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a cubic micrometer (μm 3 ) at least 10 per 6 11. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 10, wherein the dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of

[0107] Embodiment 12. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 11, a first dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first center wavelength or a first center frequency; a second dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second center wavelength or a second center frequency; A system in which the first center wavelength or first center frequency is different from the second center wavelength or second center frequency.

[0108] Embodiment 13. The system of embodiment 12, a first center wavelength or a first center frequency associated with a first wavelength range or a first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth; a second center wavelength or second center frequency associated with a second wavelength range or second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth; A system wherein the first wavelength range or first frequency range within the first FWHM bandwidth and the second wavelength range or second frequency range within the second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

[0109] Embodiment 14. The system of embodiment 13, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 megahertz (MHz).

[0110] Embodiment 15. A system described in any one of embodiments 12 to 14, wherein the first central wavelength or the second central wavelength is 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0111] Embodiment 16. The system of embodiment 13, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 gigahertz (GHz).

[0112] Embodiment 17. The system described in embodiment 16, wherein the first center frequency or the second center frequency is 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0113] Embodiment 18. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0114] Embodiment 19. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0115] Embodiment 20. The system of embodiment 19, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0116] Embodiment 21. A system described in any one of embodiments 1 to 20, wherein the dipole bond strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0117] Embodiment 22. A system described in any one of embodiments 1 to 21, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct third electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state.

[0118] Embodiment 23. The system described in embodiment 22, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0119] Embodiment 24. The system of any one of embodiments 1 to 23, further comprising at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule.

[0120] Embodiment 25. The system described in embodiment 24, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0121] Embodiment 26. A system described in embodiment 24 or 25, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0122] Embodiment 27. A system described in any one of embodiments 24 to 26, wherein after performing at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation is correlated with the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0123] Embodiment 28. The system of embodiment 27, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy being collectively configured to transfer information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0124] Embodiment 29. The system of embodiment 28, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0125] Embodiment 30. A system described in embodiment 28 or 29, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0126] Embodiment 31. A system described in any one of embodiments 1 to 30, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining at least one result of non-classical behavior.

[0127] Embodiment 32. The system of embodiment 31, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby resulting in at least one non-classical behavior.

[0128] Embodiment 33. A system described in embodiment 31 or 32, wherein at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0129] Embodiment 34. The system of embodiment 33, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first quantum bit state and a second optical property associated with a second quantum bit state, the first optical property being different from the second optical property.

[0130] Embodiment 35. The system of embodiment 34, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property comprises the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

[0131] Embodiment 36. A system described in any one of embodiments 1 to 35, further comprising a cryogenic unit comprising at least one host material and configured to cool the at least one host material to a temperature of up to 20K.

[0132] Embodiment 37. The system of embodiment 36, wherein the cryogenic unit comprises a helium cryogenic refrigerator or a closed-cycle helium cryogenic refrigerator.

[0133] Embodiment 38. A system comprising: 1. A cryogenic unit comprising: containing at least one host material comprising at least one organic molecule, the host molecule containing a plurality of dopant molecules contained therein; each dopant molecule includes a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state; each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold; the triplet electron manifold comprises a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the first qubit state comprises a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the second qubit state comprises a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, the first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms); at least one dopant molecule is bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole bonding interaction having a dipole bonding strength of at least 1 kHz; a cryogenic unit configured to cool at least one host material to a temperature of at most 20 K; at least one initialization unit configured to direct third electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing a quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state; at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule; and at least one detection unit configured to detect an electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining at least one result of non-classical behavior.

[0134] Embodiment 39. The system of embodiment 38, wherein the cryogenic unit comprises a helium cryogenic refrigerator or a closed-cycle helium cryogenic refrigerator.

[0135] Embodiment 40. The system described in embodiment 38 or 39, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0136] Embodiment 41. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 40, wherein at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0137] Embodiment 42. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 41, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0138] Embodiment 43. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 42, wherein after performing at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation is correlated with the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0139] Embodiment 44. The system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 43, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transfer information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0140] Embodiment 45. The system described in embodiment 44, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0141] Embodiment 46. A system described in embodiment 44 or 45, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0142] Embodiment 47. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 46, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby resulting in at least one non-classical behavior.

[0143] Embodiment 48. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 47, wherein at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0144] Embodiment 49. The system described in embodiment 48, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first quantum bit state and a second optical property associated with a second quantum bit state, the first optical property being different from the second optical property.

[0145] Embodiment 50. The system of embodiment 49, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property comprises the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

[0146] Embodiment 51. The system of any one of embodiments 38 to 50, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0147] Embodiment 52. The system of any one of embodiments 38 to 51, wherein the host material comprises a C4 to C20 straight-chain or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0148] Embodiment 53. The system of any one of embodiments 38 to 52, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0149] Embodiment 54. The system of any one of embodiments 38-53, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic hybrid molecule.

[0150] Embodiment 55. The system of any one of embodiments 38-54, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule, where n is 2-6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

[0151] Embodiment 56. A system according to any one of embodiments 38 to 54, wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer.

[0152] Embodiment 57. The system of embodiment 56, wherein the quasi-2D layer comprises a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0153] Embodiment 58. The system of any one of embodiments 38 to 57, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by electronic dipole bonding interactions having a dipole bond strength.

[0154] Embodiment 59. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 58, wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0155] Embodiment 60. A plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a cubic micrometer (μm 3 ) at least 10 per 6 60. The system of any one of embodiments 38-59, wherein the dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of

[0156] Embodiment 61. The system of any one of embodiments 38-60, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0157] Embodiment 62. The system of any one of embodiments 38 to 60, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0158] Embodiment 63. The system of embodiment 62, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0159] Embodiment 64. A system described in any one of embodiments 38 to 63, wherein the dipole bond strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0160] Embodiment 65. A method for performing non-classical computation, comprising: obtaining a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, each dopant molecule being associated with an electronic energy level structure comprising a triplet electron manifold, the triplet electron manifold comprising a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; configuring each dopant molecule as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, wherein the first qubit state comprises a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, and the second qubit state comprises a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the first qubit state being different from the second qubit state, and wherein the first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature between 4 Kelvin (K) and 20 K, and at least one dopant molecule is coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole coupling interaction having a dipole coupling strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz); performing non-classical calculations on at least one dopant molecule.

[0161] Embodiment 66. Performing non-classical calculations on at least one dopant molecule comprises: directing third electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing a quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state; applying a fourth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical action on the at least one dopant molecule; 66. The method of embodiment 65, comprising detecting an electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or a nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining a result of at least one non-classical behavior.

[0162] Embodiment 67. The method of embodiment 66, wherein the third electromagnetic energy comprises at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0163] Embodiment 68. The method of embodiment 66 or 67, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0164] Embodiment 69. The method of any one of embodiments 66 to 68, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0165] Embodiment 70. The method of any one of embodiments 66-69, further comprising applying a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule prior to detecting the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are collectively configured to transfer information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0166] Embodiment 71. The method of embodiment 70, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0167] Embodiment 72. The method of embodiment 70 or 71, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0168] Embodiment 73. The method of any one of embodiments 66 to 72, wherein detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule comprises applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby resulting in at least one non-classical behavior.

[0169] Embodiment 74. The method of embodiment 73, wherein detecting the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule further comprises detecting light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0170] Embodiment 75. The method of embodiment 74, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first quantum bit state and a second optical property associated with a second quantum bit state, the first optical property being different from the second optical property.

[0171] Embodiment 76. The method of embodiment 75, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property comprises intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

[0172] Embodiment 77 The method of any one of embodiments 66 to 76, further comprising cooling at least one host material to a temperature of at most 20K.

[0173] Embodiment 78. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 77, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0174] Embodiment 79. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 78, wherein the host material comprises a C4 to C20 straight-chain or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0175] Embodiment 80. The method of any one of embodiments 65-79, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0176] Embodiment 81. The method of any one of embodiments 65-80, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic hybrid molecule.

[0177] Embodiment 82. The method of any one of embodiments 65-81, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule, where n is 2-6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

[0178] Embodiment 83. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 82, wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer.

[0179] Embodiment 84. The method of embodiment 83, wherein the quasi-2D layer comprises a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0180] Embodiment 85. The method of any one of embodiments 65-84, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by electronic dipole bonding interactions having a dipole bond strength.

[0181] Embodiment 86. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 85, wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0182] Embodiment 87. A plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a cubic micrometer (μm 3 ) at least 10 per 6 87. The method of any one of embodiments 65-86, wherein the dopant molecule is contained in at least one host material at a concentration of

[0183] Embodiment 88 The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 87, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0184] Embodiment 89. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 88, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0185] Embodiment 90. The method of embodiment 89, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0186] Embodiment 91. The method of any one of embodiments 65 to 90, wherein the dipole bond strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0187] Example Example 1 – Formation of Pentacene:Naphthalene Crystals Over 50 grams (g) of 99% pure naphthalene was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and further purified by sublimation. Pentacene-d14 (pentacene with deuterium at all 14 hydrogen sites) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification. The self-seeding vertical Bridgman method was used to grow pentacene-doped naphthalene single crystals. A double-walled ampoule was used, with the inner wall having a capillary opening into the space between the walls. The ampoule filled with naphthalene and pentacene was then moved through a steep temperature gradient, including the melting temperature of naphthalene. This temperature gradient was achieved by a bath with two liquid phases heated to different temperatures. As the ampoule was lowered into the upper and warmer parts of the bath, the pentacene-naphthalene mixture dissolved into a homogeneous liquid. When the bottom of the ampoule reached the phase separation point of the heated bath, crystallization initiated in the space between the ampoule walls. Here, solidification occurred at multiple nuclei, leading to a polycrystalline region within the space between the walls. By slowly moving the ampoule through the region, the number of nucleation events was kept to a minimum, resulting in polycrystals with relatively large grains. As the ampoule was further lowered, the capillary on the inner wall came into contact with the polycrystals. Ideally, only a single grain orientation formed within the capillary. This self-seeding process supported the emergence of a single crystal within the inner wall of the ampoule.

[0188] The foregoing description has been presented for purposes of illustration. It is not exhaustive and is not limited to the precise form or embodiment disclosed. Modifications and adaptations of the embodiments will be apparent from consideration of the specification and practice of the disclosed embodiments. For example, while the described implementations include hardware, systems and methods consistent with the present disclosure can be implemented using both hardware and software. Further, while certain components are described as being coupled to each other, such components may also be integrated with each other or distributed in any suitable manner.

[0189] Furthermore, although exemplary embodiments are described herein, the scope includes any and all embodiments having equivalent elements, modifications, omissions, combinations (e.g., of aspects across various embodiments), adaptations, or alterations based on the present disclosure. Claim elements should be construed broadly based on the language used in the claims and not limited to the examples described herein or during the prosecution of the application, which examples should be construed as non-exclusive. Furthermore, the steps of the methods of the present disclosure can be modified in any manner, including rearranging steps or inserting or deleting steps.

[0190] The features and advantages of the present disclosure will be apparent from the detailed specification, and accordingly, the appended claims are intended to cover all systems and methods that fall within the true spirit and scope of the present disclosure. As used herein, the indefinite articles "a" and "an" mean "one or more." Similarly, the use of a plural term does not necessarily imply a plurality, unless ambiguous in a given context. Moreover, since numerous modifications and variations will readily occur from a study of this disclosure, it is not desired to limit the disclosure to the exact construction and operation illustrated and described. Accordingly, all suitable modifications and equivalents may be utilized to fall within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0191] As used herein, unless specifically stated otherwise, the term "or" includes all possible combinations unless impracticable. For example, if a component is stated to include A or B, the component may include A, or B, or A and B, unless specifically stated otherwise or impracticable. As a second example, if a component is stated to include A, B, or C, the component may include A, or B, or C, or A and B, or A and C, or B and C, or A and B and C, unless specifically stated otherwise or impracticable.

[0192] Other embodiments will be apparent from consideration of the specification and practice of the embodiments disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the disclosed embodiments being indicated by the following claims.

Claims

1. 1. A system for performing non-classical computation, comprising: at least one host material comprising at least one organic molecule; a plurality of dopant molecules contained in the at least one host material, each dopant molecule includes a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state; each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold; the triplet electron manifold comprises a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the first qubit state comprises a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the second qubit state comprises a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state; the first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature between 4 Kelvin (K) and 20 K; a plurality of dopant molecules, at least one of the dopant molecules being bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole bonding interaction having a dipole bonding strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz).

2. The system of claim 1 , wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

3. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the host material comprises a C4 to C20 straight-chain or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

4. The system of claim 1 , wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

5. The system of claim 1 , wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic hybrid molecule.

6. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule, where n is 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

7. The system of claim 1 , wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer.

8. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by the electronic dipole bonding interactions having the dipole bond strength.

9. The system of claim 1 , wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

10. The plurality of dopant molecules are spaced apart from each other within a cubic micrometer (μm ３ ) at least 10 per ６ 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the dopant molecules are contained in the at least one host material at a concentration of

11. a first dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first center wavelength or a first center frequency; a second dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second center wavelength or a second center frequency; The system of claim 1 , wherein the first center wavelength or the first center frequency is different from the second center wavelength or the second center frequency.

12. the first central wavelength or the first central frequency is associated with a first wavelength range or a first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth; the second center wavelength or the second center frequency is associated with a second wavelength range or a second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth; 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the first wavelength range or first frequency range within the first FWHM bandwidth and the second wavelength range or second frequency range within the second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

13. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 megahertz (MHz), and the first center wavelength or the second center wavelength is between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

14. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 gigahertz (GHz), and the first center frequency or the second center frequency is between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

15. The system of claim 1 , wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a triplet excited state electron manifold.

16. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the triplet electron manifold comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

17. The system of claim 1 , wherein the dipole coupling strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

18. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct third electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing a quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state.

19. 20. The system of claim 18, wherein the third electromagnetic energy comprises at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

20. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the at least one non-classical operation comprises at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

21. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

22. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein after performing the at least one non-classical operation, a result of the at least one non-classical operation correlates with an electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule.

23. 23. The system of claim 22, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy collectively configured to transfer information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

24. 24. The system of claim 23, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to collectively apply a swap gate to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring the information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

25. 24. The system of claim 23, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy comprises at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy comprises at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

26. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect an electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or a nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining at least one result of non-classical behavior.

27. 27. The system of claim 26, wherein the at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule to thereby obtain the result of the at least one non-classical behavior, and to detect light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

28. 28. The system of claim 27, wherein the light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with the first qubit state and a second optical property associated with the second qubit state, the first optical property being different from the second optical property.

29. 30. The system of claim 28, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property comprises an intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

30. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a cryogenic unit configured to contain the at least one host material and to cool the at least one host material to a temperature of up to 20K.

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