Power generation systems and methods relating thereto

Abstract

To provide a power system.SOLUTION: A water arc plasma power system comprising: at least one closed reactor chamber; reactants comprising at least one of a source of H2O and H2O; at least one set of electrodes; a source of electrical power to deliver an initial high breakdown voltage of the H2O followed by a high current; and a heat exchange system; wherein the water power system generates arc plasma, light, and heat energy.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61 / 906,792, filed November 20, 2013, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61 / 909,216, filed November 26, 2013, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61 / 911,932, filed December 20, 2013, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61 / 924,697, filed January 7, 2014, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0002] The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and in particular to systems, devices, and methods for generating power. More particularly, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generating devices and systems, as well as generating plasma to an electric power converter or electric power via heat to an electric power converter, and related methods of generating plasma and thermal power. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate mechanical power and / or thermal energy. Furthermore, the present disclosure relates to electrochemical power systems that generate electric power and / or thermal energy. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in this disclosure. [Background technology]

[0003] Power generation can take many forms, harnessing power from plasmas. Successful commercialization of plasmas may depend on power generation systems that can efficiently form plasmas and capture the power of the generated plasma.

[0004] Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of superheated electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high-energy particles are emitted outward. The most energetic particles emitted are hydrogen ions, which can transfer kinetic energy to the plasma and to the disclosed electrical converter.

[0005] Power can also be generated through the use of systems or devices that harness energy from the ignition of fuel in a reaction vessel or combustion chamber. As mentioned above, these fuels can include water or water-based fuel sources. Examples of such systems or devices include internal combustion engines, which typically include one or more mechanisms for compressing gas and mixing the gas with fuel. The fuel and gas are then ignited in the combustion chamber. The expansion of the combustion gases exerts a force on a moving element, such as a piston or turbine blades. The high pressure and temperature generated by the expanding combustion gases move the piston or blades, generating mechanical power.

[0006] Internal combustion engines can be classified by the type of combustion process and the type of engine used for the combustion process. Combustion processes can include reciprocating, rotary, and continuous combustion. Different types of reciprocating combustion engines include two-stroke, four-stroke, six-stroke, diesel, Atkinson cycle, and Miller cycle. A Wankel engine is a type of rotary engine, and continuous combustion engines include gas turbine and jet engines. Other types of these engines may share one or more characteristics with the types listed above, and other engine variables will be considered by those skilled in the art. These may include, for example, motorjet engines.

[0007] Reciprocating engines typically operate in cycles with multiple strokes. The intake stroke draws one or more gases into the combustion chamber. Fuel is mixed with the gases, and the compression stroke compresses the gases. The gas-fuel mixture is then ignited, which subsequently expands and produces mechanical power during the power stroke. The resulting gases are then expelled from the combustion chamber during the exhaust stroke. The entire cycle then repeats. By balancing one piston or using multiple pistons, the process can provide continuous rotational power.

[0008] Different types of reciprocating engines generally operate on the cycle described above, with some modifications. For example, instead of the four-stroke cycle described above, a two-stroke engine combines the intake and compression strokes in one stroke, and the expansion and exhaust processes in another. Unlike four- or two-stroke engines, diesel engines operate without a spark plug and use only heat and pressure to ignite the air-fuel mixture. Atkinson engines use a modified crankshaft to provide greater efficiency. Here, the Miller cycle operates with a supercharger and a modified compression stroke.

[0009] Instead of a piston stroke, the Wankel engine uses a rotor that rotates asymmetrically within the combustion chamber. The rotation of the rotor, which is usually triangular in shape, draws gases into the combustion chamber through intake ports. As the rotor rotates, the asymmetric motion compresses the gases, which are then ignited in different sections of the combustion chamber. The gases expand into different sections of the combustion chamber as the rotor continues its rotation. Finally, the rotor expels exhaust gases through exhaust ports, and the cycle begins again.

[0010] Continuous combustion engines include gas turbines and jet engines, which use turbine blades to generate mechanical power. As with the engines described above, gas is first compressed, and then fuel is added to the compressed gas. The mixture is then combusted and allowed to expand, passing through turbine blades and rotating a shaft. The shaft can drive a propeller, a compressor, or both. Different types of continuous combustion engines include, for example, industrial gas turbines, auxiliary power units, compressed air storage, radial gas turbines, microturbines, turbojet, turbofan, turboprop, turboshaft, propfan, ramjet, and scramjet engines.

[0011] While the engines mentioned above rely on deflagration, other types of engines are also powered by an ignition process. Where detonation is a supersonic process, deflagration releases thermal energy via subsonic combustion. For example, pulse jet and pulse detonation engines use the detonation process. These types of engines often have few moving parts and are relatively simple in operation. Generally, a mixture of fuel and gas is drawn into the combustion chamber through an open valve, then the valve is closed and the mixture reacts to generate thrust. The valve then opens, fresh fuel and gas displaces the exhaust gases, and the process repeats. Some engines do not use valves but rely on engine configurations to achieve the same effect. The repeated reaction creates a pulsating force.

[0012] Power can also be generated through the use of electrochemical power systems, which can generate power in the form of electrical power and / or thermal energy. Such electrochemical power systems typically include electrodes and reactants that cause the flow of electrons, which are then harnessed. Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0013] This disclosure details a number of systems for generating various forms of power. In one embodiment, the disclosure relates to an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of electrical and thermal energy, the system including a vessel. The vessel includes: at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one bipolar plate, and a) at least one source of H2O; b) a source of oxygen; c) nH, O, O2, OH, OH, where n is an integer - and at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising at least one of the group selected from the group consisting of: d) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; a reactant comprising at least two components selected from a source of catalyst, one or more reactants that form at least one of the catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants that initiate a catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen; The electrochemical power system further includes an electrolysis system and an anode regeneration system.

[0014] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for directly generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one tank; a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and c) at least one of a conductor or a conductive matrix; and a reactant comprising at least one set of electrodes that confine the hydrino reactants; A source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high-current electrical energy; a recharging system; at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products; and at least one direct plasma-to-electricity converter and at least one thermal power to electrical power converter.

[0015] In a further embodiment, the present disclosure relates to an electrochemical power system including a cell, the cell comprising: at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least one electrolyte; a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; c) at least one of a conductor, a conductive matrix, a source of a conductor, and a source of a conductive matrix; and at least two reactants selected from at least one current source for generating a current including at least one of a high ion and electron current selected from an internal current source and an external current source; The electrochemical power system is characterized in that it generates at least one of electrical and thermal energy.

[0016] In an additional embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a water arc plasma power system, the water arc plasma power system comprising: at least one closed reaction vessel; a reactant comprising at least one of HO and a source of HO; at least one of the sets of electrodes; a source of electrical power to deliver the initial high breakdown voltage of H2O and provide a subsequent high current; and and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates the arc plasma, light, and heat energy.

[0017] In a further embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a mechanical power system, the mechanical power system comprising: a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; a fuel comprising: at least one fuel inlet having at least one valve; at least one of the exhaust ports having at least one valve; At least one of the pistons; At least one of the crankshafts; a high current source, and and at least two of the electrodes for conducting and confining a high current through the fuel.

[0018] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2Another embodiment relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source, a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, the plurality of electrodes configured to deliver electrical power to the solid fuel to generate a plasma, a fuel loading region configured to receive the solid fuel, and a plasma power converter positioned to receive at least a portion of the plasma. The power generation system includes a plurality of electrodes, a fuel-filled region configured to receive an electrically conductive fuel, the plurality of electrodes configured to apply a current to the electrically conductive fuel sufficient to add the electrically conductive fuel and generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, a delivery mechanism for moving the electrically conductive fuel into the fuel-filled region, and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert the plasma into a non-plasma form of power or convert the thermal form of power into an electrical form, or a mechanical converter for converting the thermal power into a non-thermal form of power, including electrical or mechanical power. A further embodiment relates to a method for generating power, the method including the steps of delivering a quantity of fuel to the fuel-filled region, the fuel-filled region being located within the plurality of electrodes, and applying a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm through the fuel by applying a current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat. 2 igniting the fuel by passing a current of 100 .mu.m through the fuel; receiving at least a portion of the plasma into a plasma-to-electric converter; converting the plasma into a different form of power using the plasma-to-electric converter; and outputting the different form of power.

[0019] An additional embodiment relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW, a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, and are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable, a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel, and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Additionally provided in this disclosure is a power generation system, wherein the power generation system has a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm. 2 a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, the plurality of electrodes at least partially surrounding a fuel, electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to receive an electric current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes being movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0020] Another embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW, a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, at least one of the electrodes including a compression mechanism, a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, the fuel-filled region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel-filled region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel received within the fuel-filled region to ignite the fuel, a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel-filled region, and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, the fuel-filled region being surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel-filled region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel received in the fuel-filled region to ignite the fuel; and a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel-filled region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0021] Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes, a fuel-filled region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel disposed within the fuel-filled region, a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel-filled region, a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power, a removal system for removing by-products of the ignited fuel, and a regeneration system operatively coupled to the removal system for recycling the removed by-products of the ignited fuel into recycled fuel. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system that has a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm. 2 a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to a source of electrical power; a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel-filled region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel-filled region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel-filled region; a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into electrical power; one or more output power terminals operably coupled to the plasma-to-electric power converter; and a power storage device.

[0022] An additional embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source of at least 5,000 kW, a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source, a fuel loading area configured to receive fuel, the fuel loading area surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel loading area, a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading area, a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into electrical power, a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system, and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. A further embodiment relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source having at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electric power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel filling region; a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system.

[0023] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system including an electric power source of at least about 5,000 kW, a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electric power source, a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, the fuel-filled region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel-filled region, and a partial vacuum pressure within the fuel-filled region, a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel-filled region, and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Another embodiment relates to a power generation system including an electric power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm. 2 a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to a source of electrical power; a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel-filled region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes, the plurality of electrodes configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel-filled region, and wherein the pressure within the fuel-filled region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel-filled region; and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0024] A further embodiment relates to a power generation system including an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump, a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to a source of at least 5,000 kW of electrical power, a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power, and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power to electrical power. Also disclosed is a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least 5,000 A / cm 2 a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power to electrical power.

[0025] An additional embodiment relates to a method of generating power, the method including the steps of filling a fuel-filled region, the fuel-filled region including a plurality of electrodes, with fuel; and applying at least about 2,000 A / cm to the plurality of electrodes for application to the fuel to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power. 2to the arc plasma, at least one of passing the arc plasma through a plasma-to-electric converter to generate electric power and passing the thermal power through the plasma-to-electric converter to generate electric power, and outputting at least a portion of the generated electric power. Also disclosed is a power generation system including an at least 5,000 kW electric power source, a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the power source, the plurality of electrodes configured to deliver the electric power to a water-based fuel containing a majority of HO to generate thermal power, and a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal power to electric power. Additionally, another embodiment relates to a power generation system. The power generation system includes an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW, a plurality of spaced electrodes, a fuel loading area configured to receive a water-based fuel containing a majority of HO, the fuel loading area including at least one compression mechanism of the plurality of electrodes, the fuel loading area being surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of at least one electrode is biased toward the fuel loading area, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the water-based fuel received in the fuel loading area to ignite the fuel, a delivery mechanism for moving the water-based fuel into the fuel loading area, and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0026] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, and a piston disposed within the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

[0027] An additional embodiment relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, the ignition chamber including an exhaust port, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the ignition chamber to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the ignition chamber, and a submerged turbine in communication with the exhaust port and configured to rotate to output mechanical power.

[0028] A further embodiment relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, the impeller including a hollow region configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, the hollow region including an intake port configured to receive a working fluid, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the hollow region, and a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the hollow region to ignite the solid fuel and to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power.

[0029] An additional embodiment relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, a movable element configured to rotate to output mechanical power, where the movable element at least partially defines an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the ignition chamber, and a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power.

[0030] A further embodiment relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, a plurality of ignition chambers, each of the plurality of ignition chambers configured to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver solid fuel to the plurality of ignition chambers, and a plurality of electrodes connected to the electrical power source, at least one of the plurality of electrodes associated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and configured to supply electrical power to the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power.

[0031] An embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of arc, plasma, and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to power the fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, and a piston fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

[0032] Additionally, the present disclosure relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power, the ignition chamber including an outlet port, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver water-based fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to power the fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, and a submerged turbine in communication with the outlet port and configured to rotate to output mechanical power.

[0033] An embodiment also relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, the impeller including a hollow region configured to generate at least one of arc, plasma, and thermal power, and an intake port configured to receive a working fluid, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a water-based fuel to the hollow region, and a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply electrical power to the hollow region to ignite the water-based fuel and to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power.

[0034] The present disclosure also relates to a system for generating mechanical power, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, a plurality of ignition chambers, each of the plurality of ignition chambers configured to generate at least one of arc plasma and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver water-based fuel to the plurality of ignition chambers, and a plurality of electrodes connected to the electrical power source, at least one of the plurality of electrodes associated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers and configured to deliver electrical power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power.

[0035] Also provided herein is an ignition chamber including a shell defining a hollow chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power; a fuel receptacle in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, the fuel receptacle electrically coupled to a pair of electrodes and a movable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber. Additionally disclosed is an ignition chamber including a shell defining a hollow chamber and an injection device in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, the injection device configured to inject fuel into the hollow chamber; A pair of electrodes electrically connected to the cavity chamber and configured to provide electrical power to the fuel sufficient to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power within the cavity chamber, and a movable element within a fluid in communication with the cavity chamber.

[0036] An embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a method for generating mechanical power, the method including delivering a solid fuel to an ignition chamber, applying a voltage of less than about 10 V to pass a current of at least about 5,000 A through the solid fuel and ignite the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power, mixing the at least one of plasma and thermal power with a working fluid, and directing the working fluid toward a moving element to move the moving element and output mechanical power.

[0037] A further embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a method for generating mechanical power, the method including delivering a water-based fuel to an ignition chamber, applying a voltage of at least about 2 kV to the water-based fuel by passing a current of at least about 5,000 A through the water-based fuel to ignite the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power, mixing the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power with a working fluid, and directing the working fluid toward a moving element to move the moving element and output mechanical power.

[0038] A method of generating mechanical power is also disclosed that includes providing a solid fuel to an ignition chamber, providing at least about 5,000 A to an electrode electrically connected to the solid fuel, igniting the solid fuel to generate at least one of plasma and thermal power in the ignition chamber, and converting at least some of the at least one of the plasma and thermal power into mechanical power.An additional method of generating mechanical power is disclosed that includes providing a water-based fuel to an ignition chamber, providing at least about 5,000 A to an electrode electrically connected to the solid water-based fuel, igniting the water-based fuel to form at least one of arc plasma and thermal power in the ignition chamber, and converting at least some of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power into mechanical power.

[0039] An additional embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a machine configured for land-based transportation, the machine including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a movable element fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber, and a drive shaft mechanically connected to the movable element and configured to supply mechanical power to a transportation element.

[0040] An additional embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a machine configured for air transportation, including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to power the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber, and a viation element mechanically connected to the movable element and configured to provide propulsion in a flight environment.

[0041] An embodiment of the present disclosure also relates to a machine configured for marine transport, the machine including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to power the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber, and a marine element mechanically connected to the movable element and configured to provide propulsion in a marine environment.

[0042] An additional embodiment of the present disclosure again relates to work machines including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver fuel to the ignition chamber, a pair of electrodes connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel to generate at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, a movable element fluidly connected to the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber, and a work element mechanically connected to the movable element and configured to supply mechanical power. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0043] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a CIHT cell according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a CIHT cell dipolar plate according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a carrousel reloading system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4A] FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a hopper reloading system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4B] FIG. 4B is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a source of electrical power that also functions as a startup power source and showing electrodes that also function as structure elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of the operation of a magnetohydrodynamic power converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic power converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of systems integration for electrical SF-CIHT cell applications according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of system integration for thermal and hybrid electric-thermal SF-CIHT cell applications according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 9] FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram of an internal SF-CIHT cell engine according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram of a HO arc plasma cell power generator with a partial enlarged view showing the inside of the arc plasma vessel according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0044] [Figure 11] FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of an experimental HO arc plasma cell power generator according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 12] FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13A] FIG. 13A illustrates an exemplary power generation system in an open state, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13B] FIG. 13B depicts the exemplary power generation system of FIG. 13A in a closed state. [Figure 13C] FIG. 13C illustrates an exemplary power generation system in an open state, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13D] FIG. 13D depicts the exemplary power generation system of FIG. 13C in a closed state. [Figure 14A] FIG. 14A illustrates various views of an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 14B] FIG. 14B illustrates various views of an exemplary power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15A] FIG. 15A illustrates an exemplary configuration of components in a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15B] FIG. 15B illustrates an exemplary configuration of components in a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15C] FIG. 15C illustrates an exemplary configuration of components in a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15D] FIG. 15D illustrates an exemplary configuration of components in a power generation system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 16] FIG. 16 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 17A] FIG. 17A illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 17B] FIG. 17B depicts an alternative configuration of the components of the exemplary power generation system of FIG. 17A. [Figure 18A] FIG. 18A illustrates an exemplary electrode of a power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 18B] FIG. 18B depicts an alternative configuration of the exemplary electrode of FIG. 18A. [Figure 19] FIG. 19 illustrates an exemplary plasma converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 20] FIG. 20 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0045] [Figure 21] FIG. 21 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 22] FIG. 22 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 23]FIG. 23 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 24] FIG. 24 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] FIG. 25 illustrates an exemplary power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 26] FIG. 26 illustrates an exemplary mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 27] FIG. 27 is an illustration of an enlarged view of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 28] FIG. 28 is a schematic diagram of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 29] FIG. 29 is a schematic diagram of a portion of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 30] FIG. 30 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0046] [Figure 31] FIG. 31 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 32] FIG. 32 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 33A] FIG. 33A is a different view of an impeller according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 33B] FIG. 33B is a different view of an impeller according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 34] FIG. 34 is an illustration of a mechanical power generation system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 35A] FIG. 35A is a different view of a fuel delivery device and ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 35B] FIG. 35B is a different view of a fuel delivery device and ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 36]FIG. 36 is an illustration of a chamber arrangement and fuel delivery device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 37A] FIG. 37A is an illustration of different embodiments of a fuel reservoir and electrode according to the present disclosure. [Figure 37B] FIG. 37B is an illustration of another embodiment of a fuel reservoir and electrode according to the present disclosure. [Figure 37C] FIG. 37C is an illustration of another embodiment of a fuel reservoir and electrode according to the present disclosure. [Figure 38A] FIG. 38A is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 38B] FIG. 38B is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 39] FIG. 39 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 40] FIG. 40 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 41] FIG. 41 is an illustration of an ignition chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0047] Disclosed herein is a catalytic system for releasing energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, where the electron shells assume positions closer to the nucleus. The released power is utilized for power generation, and additionally, new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by the laws of classical physics and require a catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transitions.

[0048] Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for the hydrogen atom, hydride ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and hydrogen molecule, predicting corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Using Maxwell's equations, the electron's structure is derived as a boundary-value problem, involving a time-varying electromagnetic field source current between transitions, constraining the electron in the bound n=1 state from being unable to release energy. The reaction predicted by the H atom solution involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting energy, to form hydrogen in a lower energy state than previously thought possible. Specifically, classical physics predicts that E h When is 1 Hartree, E h It is predicted that atomic hydrogen may undergo catalytic reactions with certain atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides that provide reactions with net enthalpies that are integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, which is 27.2 eV. Specific species (e.g., He) that are identifiable on the basis of their known electronic energy levels are also predicted. + , Ar + , Sr + , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent HO, nH (n = integer) are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer of q 13.6 eV to H to form an excited state of H, which is lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number, and is anomalously hot, followed by a q 13.6 eV continuum emission. That is, in the equation for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom, E n = -(e 2 / n 2 8πε0a H ) = -(13.598eV / n 2 ) (1) n = 1, 2, 3, ... (2) where a His the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε0 is the dielectric constant of vacuum, the fractional quantum numbers are: n = 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ... , 1 / p (3) Here, p, an integer ≤ 137, replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for excited hydrogen to represent a lower-energy state of hydrogen atom called a "hydrino." And like the excited state with an analytical solution to Maxwell's equations, the hydrino atom also contains one electron, one proton, and one photon. However, the electric field in the latter increases in response to the absorption of energy, rather than decreasing the central field as in the excited state, and the resulting hydrino proton-electron interaction is stable rather than radiative.

[0049] The n=1 state of hydrogen and the n=1 / integer states of hydrogen are non-radiative, but transitions between two non-radiative states, e.g., n=1 to n=1 / 2, are possible by non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special state of the stable states given by equations (1) and (3), and the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by: r = a H / p (4) where p = 1, 2, 3, .... To conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atoms to the catalyst in units of m 27.2eV, m = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (5) And the radius is a H / (m + p). Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release: nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. The rate of catalytic reactions is believed to increase when the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m 27.2 eV. Catalysts with net enthalpies of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m 27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalytic reactions of hydrino atoms to lower energy states, the enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV (Eq. (5)) is relativistically corrected by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino atom.

[0050] The general reaction is represented by the following equation: m 27.2 eV + Cat q- +H[a H / p] → Cat (q+r)+ +re - H * [a H / (m+p)] +m 27.2 eV (6) H * [a H / (m+p)] → H[a H / (m+p)]+[(m+p) 2 -p 2 ] 13.6 eV -m 27.2 eV (7) Cat (q+r)+ +re- → Cat q+ +m 27.2 eV (8) And the overall reaction is as follows: H[a H / p] → H[a H / (m+p)]+[(m+p) 2 -p 2 ]·13.6eV (9) q, r, m, and p are integers. * [a H / (m+p)] has the radius of a hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equal to (m+p) times that of a proton, and H[a H / (m+p)] is the corresponding stable state with a radius 1 / (m+p) of that of H. When the electron undergoes a radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius 1 / (m+p) of this distance, energy is released as a characteristic emission of light or as third-body kinetic energy. The emission is expressed as [(p+m) 2 -p 2 -2m]·13.6eV or 91.2 / [(m+p) 2 -p 2 This may be in the form of extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation, ending at -2 nm and extending to longer wavelengths. In addition to the radiation, resonant kinetic energy transfer to form fast H may occur. Subsequent excitation of these fast H (n = 1) atoms by collisions with background H, with the corresponding fast H (n = 3) atoms being ejected, gives rise to broadened Balmer alpha radiation. Instead, fast H is the direct product of its catalytic H or hydrino counterpart, but the resonant energy transfer acceptor is considered potential energy rather than ionization energy. Energy conservation gives a proton with kinetic energy corresponding to half the potential energy in the former case, and a catalytic ion that is essentially stationary in the latter case. The recombination radiation of fast protons with H, consistent with an excess power balance, gives rise to broadened Balmer alpha radiation disproportionate to the hot hydrogen stock.

[0051] In this disclosure, hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction of a catalyst, such as that of equations (6-9), defined by equation (5), with atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given by equations (1) and (3). Corresponding terms such as reactant, reactant for hydrino formation, catalyst mixture, hydrino reaction mixture, hydrino reactant, which form or produce lower energy states of hydrogen or hydrinos, are also used interchangeably when referring to a reaction mixture that catalyzes H to hydrino states or H states having energy levels given by equations (1) and (3).

[0052] The catalytic transition to lower energy hydrogen of the present disclosure requires a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction where m is an integer number of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV, that accepts energy from atomic H to effect the transition. Endothermic catalytic reactions involve the transfer of atoms or ions, such as Li → Li 2+ There may be one or more ionizations from the first bond (e.g., NaH → Na 2+ +H) from one or more of the partners (m=2) may further include a concerted bond cleavage reaction with ionization of one or more electrons. +meets the criterion for a catalyst: a chemical or physical process involving an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV because it ionizes at 54.417 eV, or 2·27.2 eV. Integer numbers of hydrogen atoms may also act as catalysts for integer multiples of 27.2 eV enthalpy. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p) p=1, 2, 3, 137 can undergo further transitions to lower energy states given by equations (1) and (3), but the transition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more additional H atoms, which resonantly and nonradiatively accept m·27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in their potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) induced by the resonant transfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1 / p') is given as follows: H(1 / p')+H(1 / p) → H+H(1 / (m+p))+[2pm+m 2 -p' 2 +1]·13.6 eV (10)

[0053] Hydrogen atoms may act as catalysts, with m = 1, m = 2, and m = 3 for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, acting as catalysts for one, two, and three atoms. The rate for two atoms to catalyze 2H may be high when an extremely fast H2 collides with one molecule, such that the two atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept 54.4 eV from the third collision partner hydrogen atom to form 2H. By the same mechanism, the collision of two hot H2 provides 3H, which acts as a catalyst for the fourth one at 3 27.2 eV. Large energy releases, product gas H2(1 / 4), highly excited H2 states, unusual (>100 eV) Balmer alpha broadening, and EUV continuum at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm are observed, consistent with predictions.

[0054] H(1 / 4) is the preferred hydrino state based on the selection rules for its formation and its multipolarization. Thus, in the case where H(1 / 3) is formed, the transition to H(1 / 4) may be rapidly catalyzed by H according to equation (10). Similarly, H(1 / 4) is the preferred state for catalytic energies equal to or greater than 81.6 eV, corresponding to m=3 in equation (5). In this case, energy transfer to the catalyst occurs via the H in equation (7). * (1 / 4) intermediate, as well as an integer multiple of 27.2 eV from the decay of that intermediate. For example, a catalyst with an enthalpy of 108.8 eV would have a H * (1 / 4) decay, but also receives 81.6 eV. * The remaining decay energy of 95.2 eV is released to the environment to form the preferred state H(1 / 4), which then reacts to form H2(1 / 4).

[0055] A preferred catalyst can therefore provide a net positive enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst resonantly accepts non-radiative energy transfer from the hydrogen atom and releases energy to the surroundings to affect electronic transitions to fractional quantum energy levels. As a result of the non-radiative energy transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and releases additional energy until it achieves a lower energy non-radiative state with the principal energy levels given by equations (1) and (3). Thus, for n given by equation (3), r n =na H The catalytic release of energy from the hydrogen atom occurs with a corresponding decrease in the size of the hydrogen atom. For example, the catalytic reaction of H(n=1) to H(n=1 / 4) releases 204 eV, and the hydrogen radius is a H From (1 / 4)a H decreases to.

[0056] The catalytic product, H(1 / p), is the hydrino hydride ion, H -Alternatively, two H(1 / p) may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p). In particular, the catalytic product H(1 / p) also reacts with an electron to form the corresponding hydrino H(1 / p). B A new hydride ion H(1 / p) with - may react with electrons to form , where E B is as follows:

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number

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[0057] The upfield shift of the NMR peak is direct evidence for the existence of a lower energy hydrogen state with a reduced radius compared to the normal hydride ion and an increase in the diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the magnitude p of the photon field (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)).

number

[0058] H(1 / p) may react with a proton, and two H(1 / p) may react, respectively, to form H2(1 / p). + and H2(1 / p). The elementary molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates under nonradiative constraints.

number

[0059] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital. T becomes:

number

number

[0060] Bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D is the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T This is the difference between E D = E(2H(1 / p))-E T (16) where E(2H(1 / p)) = -p 2 27.20eV (17)

[0061] E D is given by equations (16-17) and (15). E D = -p 2 27.20 eV-E T = -p 2 27.20 eV -(-p 2 31.351eV-p 3 0.326469eV) = p 2 4.151eV+p 3 0.326469eV (18)

[0062] H2(1 / p) was characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where the products of ionization in addition to the ionized electron were two protons and one electron, one H atom, one hydrino atom, one molecular ion, a hydrogen molecular ion, and H2(1 / p) + , the energy of which may be shifted by the matrix.

[0063] NMR of catalytic product gases provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be upfield from that of H2 by the fractional radius in ellipsoidal coordinates where the electrons are very close to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB for H2(1 / p) is T / B is given by the sum of the contributions of the photon field of magnitude p and the diamagnetism of the two electrons (Mills GUTCP formula (11.415-11.416)).

number

[0064] Vibrational energy E for the transition from υ=0 to υ=1 in the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) vib becomes: E vib = p 2 0.51590eV (21) where p is an integer.

[0065] Rotational energy E for the J to J+1 transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) rot becomes:

number

[0066] rotational energy p 2 The dependence is due to the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c' for H2(1 / p) is:

number

[0067] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excited optical emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halogen) matrices.

[0068] I. Catalyst He + , Ar + , Sr +Li, K, NaH, nH (n = integer), and HO are predicted to function as catalysts because they meet the criteria for a catalyst, i.e., a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. In particular, catalytic systems are powered by the ionization of t electrons from atoms to successive energy levels, such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electron ionizations is approximately m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Furthermore, a further catalytic transition occurs when H(1 / 2) is first formed: This may occur as n = 1 / 2 → 1 / 3, 1 / 3 → 1 / 4, 1 / 4 → 1 / 5, etc. Once a catalytic reaction occurs, H or H(1 / p) acts as a catalyst for another H or H(1 / p') (p may be equal to p').

[0069] Hydrogen and hydrinos may function as catalysts. Hydrogen atoms, H(1 / p), p = 1, 2, 3, 137, may undergo transitions to lower energy states given by equations (1) and (3), but one atom's transition is catalyzed by a second atom resonantly and nonradiatively accepting m 27.2 eV with a simultaneous opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (m+p)), induced by the resonant transfer of m 27.2 eV to H(1 / p'), is given by equation (10). Thus, a hydrogen atom may function as a catalyst, but one, two, and three atoms, m = 1, m = 2, and m = 3, respectively, act as catalysts for the other. The rate for two- or three-atom catalysis will be appreciable only at high H densities, but high H densities are not rare. High hydrogen atom densities that allow 2H or 3H to act as energy acceptors for 3H or 4H may be achievable under some circumstances, such as on the surfaces of the Sun and stars due to temperature and gravity-driven densities, on metal surfaces supporting multiple monolayers, and in highly dissociated plasmas, particularly pinched hydrogen plasmas. Additionally, three-body H interactions can be readily achieved when two H atoms result from collisions between H and hot H. This event can commonly occur in plasmas with high densities of very fast H. This is evidenced by the exceptional intensity of atomic H emission. In such cases, energy transfer can occur from one hydrogen atom to two other hydrogen atoms within sufficient proximity, typically a few angstroms, via multipole coupling. The reaction between three hydrogen atoms, in which two hydrogen atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept 54.4 eV from a third hydrogen atom, with 2H acting as a catalyst, is given by: 54.4eV+2H+H → 2H + fast +2e - +H * [a H / 3]+54.4eV (24) H * [a H / 3] → H[a H / 3]+54.4eV (25) 2H + fast +2e - → 2H+54.4eV (26)

[0070] The overall reaction is as follows: H → H[a H / 3]+[3 2 -1 2 ]·13.6 eV (27) where H * [a H / 3] has a central field equal to the radius of the hydrogen atom and three times that of the proton, and H[a H / 3] is the corresponding stable state with a radius one-third that of H. As the electron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius one-third this distance, energy is released as a characteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy.

[0071] [a H In another H-atom catalyzed reaction involving a direct transition to the [H / 4] state, two hot H2 molecules collide and dissociate, with three atoms acting as a catalyst for the fourth atom at 3 27.2 eV. The reaction between four hydrogen atoms is then given by the following, with these three atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accepting 81.6 eV from the fourth hydrogen atom, with 3H acting as a catalyst: 81.6eV+3H+H → 3H + fast +3e - +H * [a H / 4]+81.6eV (28) H * [a H / 4] → H[a H / 4]+122.4eV (29) 3H + fast +3e - → 3H+81.6eV (30)

[0072] The overall reaction is as follows: H → H[a H / 4]+[4 2 -1 2 ]·13.6 eV (31)

[0073] H in equation (28) * [a H / 4] intermediate, an extreme ultraviolet continuum band is predicted to have a short-wavelength cutoff at 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) and extend to longer wavelengths. This continuum band has been confirmed experimentally. In general, the m 27.2 eV uptake leads to the conversion of H to H[a H / (p=m+1)] has a short wavelength cutoff and energy

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[0074] The potential energy of HO is 81.6 eV (Eq. (43)) [Mills GUT]. By the same mechanism, nascent HO molecules (not hydrogen bound in solid, liquid, or gaseous states) may function as catalysts (Eqs. (44-47)). Continuum emission at 10.1 nm and longer wavelengths, corresponding to the theoretically predicted transition of H to a lower-energy state, the so-called "hydrino" state, was observed only from pulsed-pinch hydrogen discharges, first performed by Black Light Power, Inc. (BLP) and then replicated at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA). Continuum emission in the 10-30 nm region, matching the predicted transition of H to the hydrino state, was observed only from pulsed-pinch hydrogen discharges with metal oxides that are thermodynamically favored to undergo H reduction to form the HOH catalyst. However, the unfavorable reactions did not show any continuum emission, even though the low melting point metals tested are highly favorable for forming metal ion plasmas with intense short wavelength continuum emission in more powerful plasma sources.

[0075] Instead, resonant kinetic energy transfer to form fast H may occur, consistent with the observation of anomalous broadening of the Balmer α line corresponding to high kinetic energy H. Energy transfer to two H also results in pumping of the excited state of the catalyst, and fast H is produced directly as given by the classic equations (24), (28), and (47) and by resonant kinetic energy transfer.

[0076] II. Hydrino A hydrogen atom with a bond energy given by the following formula is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present disclosure: Binding energy = 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 (34) where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably between 2 and 137. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom with the binding energy given in equation (34) is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino." Radius a H / p(a in the formula H The symbolic designation for a hydrino (where p is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is H[a H / p]. Radius a H The hydrogen atom is hereinafter referred to as "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "normal hydrogen atom." Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0077] Hydrinos are formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst with a net enthalpy of reaction of: m 27.2 eV (35) where m is an integer. The rate of the catalytic reaction is believed to increase as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m 27.2 eV. Catalysts with net enthalpies of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m 27.2 eV have been found to be adequate for most applications.

[0078] This catalytic reaction is carried out by the hydrogen atom with a size of r n =na H For example, the catalytic reaction of H(n=1) to H(n=1 / 2) releases 40.8 eV, and the hydrogen radius is a H From (1 / 2)a HThe catalytic system is provided by the ionization of t electrons from each atom down to a continuous energy level, where the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. As a power source, the energy released during a catalytic reaction is much greater than the energy taken up by the catalyst. The energy released is greater than in conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen gases undergo combustion to form water, the known enthalpy of water formation is ΔH f = -286 kJ / mole or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. H2(g)+(1 / 2)O2(g) → H2O(l) (36) In contrast, each ordinary hydrogen atom (n = 1) that undergoes catalysis releases a net 40.8 eV. Further catalytic transitions may then occur: n = 1 / 2 → 1 / 3, 1 / 3 → 1 / 4, 1 / 4 → 1 / 5, etc. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze in a process called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of inorganic ion catalysis. However, hydrino-catalyzed reactions have faster reaction rates than inorganic ion catalysis because the enthalpy is better matched to m 27.2 eV.

[0079] III. Hydrino Catalysts and Hydrino Products Hydrino catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction (where t electrons are ionized from an atom or ion) of approximately m 27.2 eV to produce hydrinos, where m is an integer, are given in Table 1. The atom or ion given in the first column is ionized to provide a net enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV, given in the tenth column, where m is given in the eleventh column. The electrons contributing to the ionization are given along with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bond energy). The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is given by IP n and is given by CRC. This means that, for example, Li+5.39172eV→Li + +e - and Li+ +75.6402eV→Li 2+ +e - The first ionization potential, IP1 = 5.39172 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP2 = 75.6402 eV, are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for the double ionization of Li is 81.0319 eV, as given in the tenth column, but m = 3 in equation (5), as given in the eleventh column.

[0080] [Table 1]

[0081] The hydrino hydride ion of the present disclosure is, i.e., about 13.6 / n 2 Hydrinos, which are hydrogen atoms with a binding energy of 100 eV, can be formed by the reaction of an electron source with a hydrogen atom, where n=1 / p, where p is an integer greater than 1. The hydrino hydride ion is H - (n=1 / p) or H - It is expressed as (1 / p). H[a H / p]+e - → H - (n=1 / p) (37) H[a H / p]+e - → H - (1 / p) (38)

[0082] The hydrino hydride ion is distinguished from the ordinary hydride ion, which contains an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons with a binding energy of approximately 0.8 eV. The latter will be referred to hereafter as the "ordinary hydride ion" or "plain hydrogen ion." The hydrino hydride ion contains a hydrogen nucleus containing protium, deuterium, or tritium and two electrons with indistinguishable binding energies according to equations (39) and (40).

[0083] The binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion can be expressed as:

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number

number

number

[0084] Hydrino hydride ion H - The binding energies of (n=1 / p) are shown in Table 2 as a function of p, where p is an integer.

[0085] [Table 2]

[0086] According to the present disclosure, p=24(H - ) and higher than that of normal hydrides (about 0.75 eV) for p = 2 to 23. -) are provided. For p=2 through p=24 in equations (39) and (40), the binding energies of the hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0087] Also exemplified are compounds consisting of one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds."

[0088] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("normal tritium molecular ion"). Here, with respect to the form of hydrogen, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonymous.

[0089] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, the increased binding energy hydrogen species having a molecular weight of 13.6 / (1 / p), where p is an integer from 2 to 137. 2 Approximately 13.6 / (1 / p), such as in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times eV 2 eV. (b) When p is an integer between 2 and 24, the bond energy is in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the bond energy.

number

[0090] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having approximately the following total energy, E T Approximately, such as in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

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number

[0091] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is made up of negatively charged hydrogen species with increased binding energy, where the compound contains a proton, a normal H2 + Or regular H3 + The compound further comprises one or more cations, such as:

[0092] A method is provided herein for preparing a compound containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such a compound is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino hydride compound." The method includes reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about (m / 2) 27 eV, where m is an integer greater than 1, but preferably less than 400, and is about 13.6 / (1 / p) 2 The catalytic reaction produces increased binding energy hydrogen atoms having a binding energy of 100 eV, where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137. A further product of the catalytic reaction is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atoms can react with an electron source to produce increased binding energy hydride ions. The increased binding energy hydride ions can react with one or more cations to produce a compound containing at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0093] The novel hydrogen composition may include: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy of: (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy of any hydrogen species is greater than that of any corresponding normal hydrogen species, either because the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or because the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), and is therefore either not identifiable or negative; and (b) at least one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure will be referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0094] "Other elements" in this context mean elements other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other elements can be regular hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged, providing charge balancing for the other elements to form neutral compounds. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding, while the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0095] The novel compounds and molecular ions provided also include the following (a) and (b): (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy of: (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable, or is not observable because the total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, or is negative, greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species. (b) at least one other element.

[0096] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. Hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species." Even though some embodiments of hydrogen species with increased total energy have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ions of Equations (39) and (40) for p=24 have a first binding energy less than the first binding energy of the normal hydride ion. Here, the total energy of the hydride ions of Equations (39) and (40) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0097] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions: (a) and (b) below: (a) A plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy of: (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) The binding energy of any hydrogen species is either not observable or negative, since the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions. (b) optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0098] Increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound comprising at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0099] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: (a) a hydroxyl group having a hydroxyl group; (a) Multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") with a total energy of: (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are unstable or the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, so that it is not observable or is negative. (b) optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0100] In one embodiment, provided compounds include increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from: (a) a hydride ion ("enhanced binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion") having a binding energy according to Equations (39) and (40) greater than the binding energy of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.8 eV) for p=2 to 23 and less than that for p=24; (b) a hydrogen atom ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino") having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of a normal hydrogen atom (approximately 13.6 eV); (c) a hydrogen molecule ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino") having a first binding energy greater than approximately 15.3 eV; and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion ("enhanced binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion") having a binding energy greater than approximately 16.3 eV. In this disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include increased binding energy hydrogen species, or equivalently lower energy hydrogen species.

[0101] IV. Additional MH-Type Catalysts and Reactions In general, MH-type hydrogen-catalyzed reactions that produce hydrinos are provided by the cleavage of an M-hydrogen bond plus the ionization of t electrons from atom M at successive energy levels, each provided by the ionization of t electrons, where m is an integer, and the sum of the bond energy and ionization energy is approximately m ≈ 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. Each MH catalyst is given in the first column, and the corresponding MH bond energy is given in column 2. Atom M of the MH species given in column 1 is ionized, providing a net reaction enthalpy of m ≈ 27.2 eV for the addition of the bond energy in column 2. The enthalpy of the catalyst is given in column 8, while the value of m is given in column 9. The electrons involved in the ionization are given along with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bond energy). For example, the bond energy of NaH (1.9245 eV) is given in column 2. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is given by IP n and given by CRC, i.e., for example: Na+5.13908eV → Na + +e - and Ne + +47.2864eV → Na 2+ +e - The first ionization potential, IP1 = 5.13908 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP2 = 47.2864 eV, are given in the second and third columns, respectively. The net reaction enthalpy for cleavage of the NaH bond and double ionization of Na is 54.35 eV, given in the eighth column and with m = 2 in Eq. (36) and given in the ninth column. The bond energy of BaH is 1.98991 eV, and IP1, IP2, and IP3 are 5.2117 eV, 10.00390 eV, and 37.3 eV, respectively. The net reaction enthalpy for cleavage of the BaH bond and triple ionization of Ba is 54.5 eV, given in the eighth column and with m = 2 in Eq. (35) and given in the ninth column. The binding energy of SrH is 1.70 eV, and IP1, IP2, IP3, IP4, and IP5 are 5.69484 eV, 11.03013 eV, 42.89 eV, 57 eV, and 71.6 eV, respectively. 5+ The net reaction enthalpy for the ionization to is 190 eV, given in the eighth column, and m=7 in equation (35), given in the ninth column.

[0102] [Table 3A]

[0103] In another embodiment, m is an integer and the sum of the electron transfer energies, including the ionization energy of t electrons from each atom M to a continuum of energy levels, plus cleavage of the M-H bond, and transfer of an electron to an acceptor A to produce hydrinos, is about m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. - The type of hydrogen catalyst is given in Table 3B. -The electron affinity of the catalyst, acceptor A, MH, electron affinity of A, and MH bond energy are given in the first, second, third, and fourth columns, respectively. The electrons of the corresponding atom M of MH involved in the ionization are given in the following columns along with the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bond energy), and the enthalpy of the catalyst and the corresponding integer m are given in the last column. For example, the electron affinities of OH and H are 1.82765 eV and 0.7542 eV, respectively, while the electron transfer energy is 1.07345 eV as given in the fifth column. The bond energy of OH is 4.4556 eV and is given in column 6. The ionization potential of the nth electron of an atom or ion is given by IP n That is, for example, O+13.61806eV → O + +e - and O + +35.11730eV → O 2+ +e - The first ionization potential, IP1 = 13.61806 eV, and the second ionization potential, IP2 = 35.11730 eV, are given in columns 11 and 8, respectively. The net enthalpy of the electron transfer reaction, OH bond cleavage, and double ionization of O, is 54.27 eV as given in column 11, and m = 2 in equation (35) as given in column 12. In another embodiment, the catalyst for H to form hydrinos is provided by the ionization of a negative ion whose EA plus the sum of the ionization energies of one or more electrons is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. Alternatively, the first electron of the negative ion may be transferred to an acceptor, followed by ionization of at least one or more electrons, such that the sum of the electron transfer energy plus the ionization energy of one or more electrons is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The electron acceptor may be H.

[0104] [Table 3B]

[0105] In another embodiment, MH to produce hydrinos + A type of hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of an electron from a donor A, which may be negatively charged, cleaving the M-H bond, and ionizing t electrons from atom M to a continuum of energy levels, and the total electron transfer energy, including the difference between the ionization energies of M-H and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M, is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer.

[0106] In one embodiment, the catalyst includes any species, such as an atom, a positively or negatively charged ion, a positively or negatively charged molecular ion, a molecule, an excimer, a compound, or any combination thereof in a ground or excited state, capable of accepting energy of m 27.2 eV, where m = 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (Equation (5)). It is believed that the rate of the catalytic reaction increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m 27.2 eV. Catalysts with net enthalpies of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m 27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications. In the case of catalytic reaction of hydrino atoms to lower energy states, the enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV (Equation (5)) is relativistically corrected by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrino. In one embodiment, the catalyst accepts energy from atomic hydrogen resonantly and non-radiatively. In one embodiment, the received energy reduces the magnitude of the catalyst's potential energy by approximately the amount transferred from atomic hydrogen. Conservation of the kinetic energy of the initially bound electron may result in an energetic ion or electron. At least one atomic H acts as a catalyst for at least one other, where the acceptor's 27.2 eV potential energy is canceled by the transfer of 27.2 eV from the acceptor H atom that undergoes the catalytic reaction. The acceptor catalyst H's kinetic energy may be conserved as a fast-moving proton or electron. Additionally, the intermediate state (Equation (7)) formed in the catalyzed H decays with the emission of continuous energy in the form of third-body radiation or induced kinetic energy. These energy releases may result in the flow of current in the ClHT cell of the present disclosure.

[0107] In one embodiment, at least one of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst to accept approximately m 27.2 eV from atomic H, with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the positively or negatively charged molecular ion or molecule by approximately m 27.2 eV. For example, the potential energy of HO given in Mills GUTCP is:

number

[0108] A molecule that accepts m 27.2 eV from an atom H with the same energy decrease in the magnitude of the molecule's potential energy may act as a catalyst. For example, the catalytic reaction (m=3) with respect to the potential energy of HO is: 81.6eV+H2O+H[a H ] → 2H fast + +O - +e - +H * [a H / 4]+81.6eV (44) H * [a H / 4] → H[a H / 4]+122.4eV (45) 2H fast + +O - +e - → H2O+81.6eV (46)

[0109] The overall reaction is as follows: H[a H ] → H[a H / 4]+81.6eV+122.4eV (47) where H * [a H / 4] has a central field equal to the radius of the hydrogen atom and four times that of the proton, and H[a H / 4] is the corresponding stable state with a radius one-quarter that of H. As the electron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogen atom to a radius one-quarter of this distance, energy is released either as a characteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy. Based on a 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization in the process of going from 0°C to 100°C, the average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6. Thus, in one embodiment, HO must be chemically formed as an isolated molecule with a reasonable activation energy to function as a catalyst for forming hydrinos. In one embodiment, the HO catalyst is nascent HO.

[0110] In one embodiment, at least one of nH, O, nO, O, OH, and HO (n = integer) may function as a catalyst. The product of H and OH as a catalyst may be H(1 / 5), where the catalytic enthalpy is about 108.8 eV. The product of H and HO as a catalyst may be H(1 / 4). The hydrino product may further react to lower states. The product of H(1 / 4) and H as a catalyst may be H(1 / 5), where the catalytic enthalpy is about 27.2 eV. The product of H(1 / 4) and OH as a catalyst may be H(1 / 6), where the catalytic enthalpy is about 54.4 eV. The product of H(1 / 5) and H as a catalyst may be H(1 / 6), where the catalytic enthalpy is about 27.2 eV.

[0111] In addition, OH may act as a catalyst because the potential energy of OH is:

number

[0112] The difference in energy between the p=1 and p=2 states of H is 40.8 eV. Thus, OH accepts approximately 40.8 eV from H to act as a catalyst to form H(1 / 2).

[0113] Similarly for H2O, the potential energy of the amide functional group NH3 given in Mills GUTCP is -78.77719 eV. From the CRC, the corresponding ΔH f The ΔH for the reaction of NH2 to form KNH2 calculated from is (-128.9 - 184.9) kJ / mole = -313.8 kJ / mole (3.25 eV). From the CRC, each corresponding ΔH f The calculated ΔH for the reaction of NH to form NaNH is (-123.8-184.9) kJ / mole = -308.7 kJ / mole (3.20 eV). From the CRC, each corresponding ΔH f The calculated ΔH for the reaction of NH to form LiNH is (-179.5-184.9) kJ / mole = -364.4 kJ / mole (3.78 eV). Thus, the net enthalpy that may be accepted by an alkali metal amide MNH (M = K, Na, Li) acting as a catalyst for hydrino formation is approximately 82.03 eV, 81.98 eV, and 82.56 eV (m = 3 in Eq. (5)), corresponding to the sum of the energy of amide formation from the amide group and the potential energy of the amide group, respectively. Hydrino products, such as molecular hydrinos, may cause upfield matrix shifts that can be observed by means such as MAS NMR.

[0114] The potential energy of the H2S functional group given Mills GUTCP, as for H2O, is -72.81 eV. Subtracting this potential energy removes the energy associated with hybridization of the 3p shell. The hybridization energy of 7.49 eV is given by the total energy of that shell times the ratio of the radius of the first atomic orbital and the radius of the hybridized orbital. In addition, the energy change of the S 3p shell due to the formation of two SH bonds, 1.10 eV, is included in the catalytic energy. Thus, the net enthalpy of H2S catalysis is 81.40 eV (m = 3 in Eq. (5)). 2MHS → M2S+H2S (49)

[0115] This reversible reaction may form catalytically active H2S in a transition state to H2S products, which may catalyze H to hydrinos. The reaction mixture may include reactants that form a source of H2S and atomic H. The hydrino products, such as molecular hydrinos, may cause an upfield matrix shift that can be observed by means such as MAS NMR.

[0116] Furthermore, atomic oxygen is a special atom with two unpaired electrons at the same radius, equal to the Bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. When atomic H acts as a catalyst, 27.2 eV of energy is received, such that the kinetic energy of each ionized H acting as a catalyst for the other is 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O can be ionized with 13.6 eV of kinetic energy transferred to the O ion, such that the net enthalpy for cleavage of the OH bond of OH with subsequent ionization of the two unpaired electrons is 80.4 eV, as given in Table 3. OH - During the ionization of OH from O 2+ +2e - and matching of the energies for further reaction to H(1 / 4) may occur such that 204 eV of the released energy contributes to the electrical power of the OUT cell. 80.4eV+OH+H[a H / p] → O fast 2+ (50) +2e - +H[a H / (p+3)]+[(p+3) 2 -p 2 ] 13.6 eV O fast 2+ +2e - → O+80.4eV (51)

[0117] The overall reaction is as follows: H[a H / p] → H[a H / (p+3)]+[(p+3) 2 -p 2 ]·13.6 eV (52) where m = 3 in equation (5). Kinetic energy can also be conserved in hot electrons. The observation of H population inversion in water vapor plasmas is evidence of this mechanism. Hydrino products, such as molecular hydrinos, may cause upfield matrix shifts that can be observed by means such as MAS NMR. Other methods for identifying molecular hydrino products, such as FTIR, Raman, and XPS, are provided in this disclosure.

[0118] In embodiments where oxygen or an oxygen-containing compound participates in an oxidation or reduction reaction, O2 serves as a catalyst or source of catalyst. The binding energy of an oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. Reaction: O2 → O + O 2+ , O2 → O+O 3+ , and 2O → 2O + are E h and catalytic reactions to form hydrinos by accepting these energies from H, which provides approximately 2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy of H, causing the formation of hydrinos.

[0119] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product has a peak at about 1950 cm -1 This peak is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at 1000 kJ / cm. This peak can be enhanced by using a conductive material with particle size or roughness characteristics comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength, which supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) that exhibits an IRE peak.

[0120] V. Catalytically Induced Hydrino Translocation (CIHT) Cell The catalytically induced hydrino transition (CIHT) cell 400 shown in Figure 1 includes a cathode compartment 401 with a cathode 405, an anode compartment 402 with an anode 410, an optional salt bridge 420, and a reactant comprising at least one bipolar plate. The reactant comprises hydrino reactants during cell operation involving separate electron flow and ion mass transport to generate at least one of electrical and thermal energy. The reactant includes at least two of the following components: (a) at least one source of HO; (b) an oxygen source; and (c) a source of nH, O, O, OH, or OH, where n is an integer. - and nascent HO; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants for forming one or more of the catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants for initiating the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen. Here, the combination of cathodes, anodes, reactants, and bipolar plates allows the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen to form and multiply hydrinos, and each cathode and corresponding anode maintains a chemical potential or voltage between them that allows an external current to flow through the system, including the load 425 and the electrolysis system. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell generates at least one of an electrical and thermal power gain over that of electrolysis applied through electrodes 405 and 410. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system includes at least one of a gas-dispersible porous electrode, a gas diffusion electrode, and a hydrogen-permeable anode. Here, at least one of oxygen and H2O is supplied from a source 430 through a passage 430 to a cathode 405.

[0121] In one embodiment, an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of electrical and thermal energy includes a cell including at least one cathode, at least one anode, at least one bipolar plate, and reactants including at least two components selected from the following: (a) at least one source of HO; (b) a source of oxygen; and (c) n, where n is an integer, selected from the group consisting of H, O, O, OH, and OH. - and nascent HO; (d) at least one catalyst or catalyst source comprising at least one functional group selected from: (a) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; (e) at least one catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and one or more reactants that form atomic hydrogen; and (f) one or more reactants that initiate a catalytic reaction of the atomic hydrogen, wherein the electrochemical power system further comprises an electrolysis system and an anode regeneration system.

[0122] In another embodiment, an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of voltage, electricity, and heat energy includes a cell, wherein the cell includes at least one cathode, at least one anode, at least one bipolar plate, and a reactant including at least two components selected from the following: (a) at least one nascent HO, (b) an oxygen source, and (c) nH, O, O, OH, OH, where n is an integer. - and nascent HO; and (d) at least one of a catalyst or a source of catalyst comprising at least one functional group selected from at least one of a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, one or more reactants that form at least one of the source of catalyst, catalyst, source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen, and one or more reactants that initiate a catalytic reaction of the atomic hydrogen.

[0123] In one embodiment, at least one reactant is formed during cell operation with separate electron flow and ion mass transport. In one embodiment, the combination of the cathode, anode, reactant, and bipolar plate allows the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen to proceed from the formation of hydrinos to propagation, maintaining a chemical potential or voltage between each cathode and the corresponding anode. Additionally, the system can further include an electrolysis system, if not already present. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system includes at least one of a porous electrode, a gas diffusion electrode, and a hydrogen-permeable anode, where at least one of oxygen and HO is supplied to the cathode and H is supplied to the anode. The electrochemical power system may include at least one of a closed hydrogen reservoir and a hydrogenation anode, with at least one surface including the hydrogen-permeable anode. The electrochemical power system may include back-to-back hydrogen-permeable anodes with counter cathodes comprising units of the stack of cells electrically connected in at least one of series and parallel. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system further includes at least one gas supply system including gas channels, gas lines, and manifolds connected to the electrodes, respectively. In one embodiment, the anode includes Mo that is regenerated during the charging phase from an electrolyte reactant that performs a regeneration reaction according to the following steps: MoO3+3MgBr2 → 2MoBr3+3MgO(-54kJ / mole(298K) -46(600K) MoBr3 → Mo+3 / 2Br2(284kJ / mole 0.95V / 3 electrons) MoBr3+Ni → MoNi+3 / 2Br2(283kJ / mole 0.95V / 3 electrons) MgO+Br2+H2 → MgBr2+H2Ο(-208kJ / mole(298K) -194kJ / mole (600K) In one embodiment, the anode comprises Mo that is regenerated during the charging phase from an electrolyte reactant comprising at least one of MoO2, MoO3, Li2O, and Li2MoO4.

[0124] The electrochemical power system of the present disclosure may include a closed hydrogen reservoir having at least one surface comprising a hydrogen-permeable anode. The electrochemical power system of the present disclosure may include back-to-back hydrogen-permeable anodes with counter cathodes, including units of a stack of cells electrically connected in at least one of series and parallel. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system includes at least one of a porous layer, a porous electrode, and a capillary system with radial gas channels and circumferential perforations for transporting at least one of H2O and O2 toward the center of the cell relative to the periphery. The hydrogen-permeable anode may include at least one of Mo, Mo alloys, MoNi, MoCu, TZM, HAYNES® 242® alloy, Ni, Co, Ni alloys, NiCo, and other transition metals and inner transition metals and alloys, and CuCo. In embodiments, the membrane thickness is within at least one range selected from about 0.0001 cm to 0.25 cm, 0.001 cm to 0.1 cm, and 0.005 cm to 0.05 cm. The hydrogen pressure supplied to the permeation or gas sparging anode may be maintained within at least one range of about 1 Torr to 500 atm, 10 Torr to 100 atm, and 100 Torr to 5 atm, and the hydrogen permeability or sparging rate is about 1×10 13 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1X10 -4 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1X10 -12 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1X10 -5 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1X10 -11 mole s-1 cm -2 From 1X10 -6 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1XI0 -10 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1X10 -7 mole s -1 cm -2 , and 1X10 -9 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1X10 -8 mole s -1 cm -2 , and at least one of. In one embodiment, the hydrogen-permeable anode includes a highly permeable membrane coated with a material effective in facilitating the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos. The coating material of the hydrogen-permeable anode may include at least one of Mo, Mo alloy, MoNi, MoCu, MoCo, MoB, MoC, MoSi, MoCuB, MoNiB, MoSiB, Co, CoCu, CoNi, and Ni, and the H-permeable material may include at least one of Ni(H), V(H), Ti(H), Nb(H), Pd(H), PdAg(H), Fe(H), Ta(H), stainless steel (SS), and 430SS(H). In one embodiment, the electrolysis system of the electrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzes H2O to provide an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen.

[0125] In one embodiment, the reactants of the cell include at least one electrolyte selected from at least one molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of molten hydroxide and at least one other compound; at least one mixture of molten hydroxide and salt; at least one mixture of molten hydroxide and halide salt; at least one mixture of alkaline hydroxide and alkaline halide; LiOH-LiBr, LiOH-NaOH, LiOH-LiBr-NaOH, LiOH-LiX-NaOH, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaBr, NaOH-NaI, NaOH-NaX, and KOH-KX (X represents a halogen); at least one matrix; and at least one additive. The additive may include a compound that is a common ion source of at least one anode corrosion product, where the corresponding common ion effect at least partially prevents the anode from corroding. The common ion source may prevent the formation of at least one of CoO, NiO, and MoO. In one embodiment, the additives include anode metal cations and anions, hydroxides, halides, oxides, sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, chromates, perchlorates, and periodates, as well as matrix and oxide-containing compounds, such as cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, CuO, CrO, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO, TiO, ZrO, SiO, AlO, NiO, FeO or FeO, TaO, TaO, VO, VO, VO, VO, VO, PO, PO, BO, NbO, NbO, NbO, SeO, SeO, TeO, TeO, WO, WO, CrO, CrO, CrO, and CrO.In one embodiment, the cell temperature that maintains at least one of the membrane in a hydrogen-permeable state and the electrolyte in a molten state is within at least one range selected from about 25°C to 2000°C, about 100°C to 1000°C, about 200°C to 750°C, and about 250°C to 500°C, and the cell temperature is above the melting point of the electrolyte within at least one range of about 0°C to 1500°C above the melting point, 0°C to 1000°C above the melting point, 0°C to 500°C above the melting point, 0°C to 250°C above the melting point, and 0°C to 100°C above the melting point. In one embodiment, the electrolyte is aqueous and alkaline, and at least one of the pH of the electrolyte and the cell voltage is controlled to achieve stability of the anode. During intermittent electrolysis and discharge, the cell voltage per cell may be maintained above a potential such that the anode is not substantially oxidized.

[0126] In one embodiment, the cell is intermittently switched between charge and discharge phases, where (i) the charge phase includes at least electrolysis of water at electrodes of opposite voltage polarity, and (ii) the discharge phase includes at least formation of HO catalyst at one or both of the electrodes, and (i) the role of each electrode of each cell as a cathode or anode is reversed during switching to alternate between the charge and discharge phases, and (ii) current polarity is reversed during switching to alternate between the charge and discharge phases, and charging includes application of at least one of an applied current and a voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the applied current and voltage has a duty cycle in the range of about 0.001% to about 95%, a peak voltage per cell in the range of about 0.1 V to 10 V, and a current density of about 0.001 W / cm. 2 to 1000W / cm 2 and a peak power density of approximately 0.0001 W / cm 2 to 100W / cm 2and an average power in the range of 0.01 V to 100 V, and wherein the applied current and voltage further include at least one of a DC voltage, a DC, and an AC current and voltage waveform, the waveform including a frequency in the range of about 1 Hz to about 1000 Hz. The waveform of the intermittent cycle may include at least one of a varying current, power, voltage, and resistance for at least one of the electrolysis and discharge of the intermittent cycle, and a constant current, power, voltage, and resistance. In an embodiment, parameters for at least one phase of the cycle include a frequency of the intermittent phase in at least one range selected from about 0.001 Hz to 10 MHz, about 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz, and about 0.01 Hz to 10 kHz; a voltage per cell in at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 100 V, about 0.3 V to 5 V, about 0.5 V to 2 V, and about 0.5 V to 1.5 V; and a current density of about 1 μA cm. -2 to 10Acm -2 , about 0.1mAcm -2 from 5Acm -2 , and approximately 1 mAcm -2 from 1Acm -2 , and the current per active electrode area for forming hydrinos is within at least one range selected from about 1 μW cm -2 to 10Wcm -2 , about 0.1mWcm -2 to 5Wcm -2 , and approximately 1 mW cm -2 to 1Wcm -2 , and the power per active electrode surface for forming hydrinos is within at least one range selected from about 1 μA cm -2 from 1Acm -2 There is a constant current per active electrode surface for hydrino formation within the range of about 1 mW cm -2 to 1Wcm -2 There is a constant power per active electrode surface to form hydrinos within the range of about 10 -4 s to 10,000s, 10 -3 s to 1000s, and 10 -2 s to 100s, and 10 -1and a time interval within at least one range selected from about 1 mΩ to 100 MΩ, about 1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ per cell, and -5 Ω -1 cm -2 to 1000 ohms -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 Ω -1 cm -2 to 100 ohms -1 cm -2 , 10 -3 Ω -1 cm -2 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2 , and 10 -2 Ω -1 cm -2 to 1 ohm -1 cm -2 and at least one of the discharge current, voltage, power, or time interval is greater than that of the electrolysis phase to produce at least one of the power or energy per cycle, and the conductivity of a reasonable load per active electrode surface for forming hydrinos is within at least one range selected from the ranges above. The voltage during discharge may be maintained above to prevent excessive anode corrosion.

[0127] In one embodiment, the CIHT cell includes an anode containing Mo, such as Mo, MoPt, MoCu, MoNi, MoC, MoB, and MoSi. The electrolyte may include a molten salt, such as a water-soluble hydroxide or carbonate, or an alkaline aqueous electrolyte. The molten salt may include a hydroxide and further include a salt mixture, such as a eutectic salt mixture, or a mixture with a composition similar to that of a eutectic salt mixture, or other mixtures that lower the melting point from that of the highest melting point compound. The hydroxide may include at least one alkali or alkaline earth hydroxide. The mixture may include a halide, such as an alkali or alkaline earth halide. A suitable exemplary molten electrolyte includes a LiOH-LiBr mixture. Additional suitable electrolytes, such as molten mixtures, are listed in Table 4. Molten salts may be produced at temperatures up to 500°C or higher, within a temperature range around the melting point. The anode may be protected by supplying H2 to the surface by means such as permeation or sparging. Hydrogen may be supplied within a pressure range of approximately 1 to 100 atm. The supply rate may be within a range of 0.001 nmoles per square cm of anode surface to 1,000,000 nmoles per square cm of anode surface. In one embodiment, the pressure controls at least one of the permeation or diffusion rates, which are selected to protect the anode from corrosion, such as oxidation corrosion, while minimizing the corresponding H consumption so that net electrical energy is generated by the cell.

[0128] [Table 4]

[0129] In one embodiment, the hydrogen electrode and, optionally, the oxygen electrode are replaced by bipolar plates 507, as shown in FIG. 2. The cell design is based on a flat, square geometry, but the cells may be stacked to increase voltage. Each cell may form a repeating unit including an anode current collector, a porous anode, an electrolyte matrix, a porous cathode, and a cathode current collector. One cell may be separated from the next by a separator, which may include a bipolar plate that functions as both a gas separator and a series current collector. The plates may have a cross-flow gas configuration or an internal manifold design. As shown in FIG. 2, an interconnecting or bipolar plate 507 separates the anode 501 from the adjacent cathode 502 in a CIHT cell stack 500 containing multiple individual CIHT cells. The anode or H2 plate 504 may include channels 505 that distribute hydrogen supplied through a manifold with port 503 or may be corrugated. Plate 504 with channels 505 replaces the intermittent electrolysis cathode (discharge anode) or hydrogen-permeable membrane of other embodiments. The port may receive hydrogen from a manifold along port 503, which in turn is supplied by a hydrogen source such as a tank. Plate 504 may ideally distribute the hydrogen evenly as it bubbles or diffuses into the active area, where the electrolysis reaction occurs. The bipolar plate may further include an oxygen plate with a similar structure to that of the H2 plate that distributes oxygen to the active area, but where the oxygen manifold supplies oxygen from the oxygen manifold and a supply along port 506. These corrugated or channeled plates are connected to the anode and cathode current collectors within the active area, are electrically conductive, and maintain electrical contact. In one embodiment, the interconnect or bipolar plates constitute a gas distribution network that allows separation of the anodic and cathodic gases.The wet seal may be formed by the expansion of an electrolyte / matrix, such as a LiOH-LiBr-Li2AlO3 or MgO tile, sandwiched between two individual plates. The seal may prevent leakage of reactant gases. The electrolyte may include the compressed pellets of the present disclosure. The pressure to form the electrolyte pellets, such as those including a matrix such as MgO, a halide such as an alkali halide such as LiBr, and a hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide such as LiOH, is in the range of about 1 to 500 tons per square inch. The stack may further include tie rods holding the pressure plates at the ends of the stack to apply pressure to the cells to maintain desired contact between the electrodes and the electrolyte, such as the pellet electrolyte. In one embodiment, where a component or electrolyte, such as a hydroxide such as LiOH, migrates by means such as evaporation, the electrolyte may be recovered and recycled. The migrating species may be recovered in a structure, such as a wick structure or recovery structure, that absorbs the electrolyte, and recycling may be achieved thermally by heating the wick structure or recovery structure to cause reverse migration.

[0130] The CIHT cell system may include a modified conventional fuel cell, such as a modified alkaline or molten carbonate type. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell includes a stack of bipolar plates, as shown in FIG. 2, where at least one of oxygen and H2O is supplied to the cathode and H2 is supplied to the anode. The gases may be supplied by diffusion through a porous or diffusion electrode, and H2 may also be supplied by permeation through a suitable hydrogen-permeable electrode. The hydrogen-permeable electrode may include at least one of Mo, MoNi, MoCu, TZM, and Mo alloys such as HAYNES® 242® alloy; Ni alloys such as Ni, Co, NiCo; and other transition metals and alloys, such as CuCo, and inner transition metals and alloys. H2 is applied in an amount sufficient to inhibit anode corrosion while maintaining electrical power gain. The permeable anode may be operated at a current density that increases with a proportional increase in hydrogen permeation rate. The hydrogen permeation rate may be controlled by at least one of increasing the hydrogen pressure across the membrane, increasing the cell temperature, decreasing the membrane thickness, and changing the membrane composition, such as the wt% of the alloy metal, such as a Mo alloy. In one embodiment, a hydrogen dissociator, such as a noble metal such as Pt or Pd, is coated on the inner surface of a permeable anode, such as a Mo or MoCu anode, to increase the amount of atomic H to increase the permeation rate. The gas pressure may be desired to maintain at least one of the desired power output from each cell, H permeation rate, H protection of the anode, and oxygen reduction rate at low pressure. At least one of the hydrogen and oxygen pressures may be within at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.01 atm to 1000 atm, 0.1 atm to 100 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm.

[0131] In the event that the anode undergoes corrosion, metal may be electroplated from the electrolyte. Mo corrosion products may be soluble in the electrolyte. In one embodiment, the electrolyte further includes a regenerating compound that facilitates electrodeposition of the Mo corrosion products from the electrolyte to the anode, allowing a thermodynamic cycle to regenerate the regenerating compound. The regenerating compound may react with the Mo corrosion products to form an electrodeposited compound that is soluble in the electrolyte and can be electroplated on the anode. The reaction may include an anion exchange reaction, such as an oxygen-halide exchange reaction, that additionally produces an oxide product. The electrodepositing compound may facilitate a favorable thermodynamic cycle for in-situ anode regeneration. Hydrogen is added to the anode to make the cycle thermodynamically favorable. In one embodiment, the steps include (1) reacting a regenerating compound in the electrolyte with a metal oxide of the corrosion product, the anode metal, to form an electrodeposited compound containing a counterion of the anode metal and a cation of the anode metal that can be oxidized to form an oxidant reactant that regenerates the regenerating compound. The reaction may additionally form oxide products. Typical anode metals are Mo and Mo alloys. Typical regenerator compounds are MgBr2 and Mgl2; (2) reduction of the cation causes electrodeposition of the anode metal, and oxidation of the counterion forms oxidant reactants by applying a suitable voltage and current, typical oxidant reactants being Br2 and I2; and (3) reaction of at least the oxidant reactant and optionally H2, where the oxide products are thermodynamically necessary to form the regenerator compounds and additionally H2O, is required to make the reaction thermodynamically favorable. In one embodiment, the regenerator compounds, such as at least one of MgBr2 and Mgl2, are maintained in a concentration range of about 0.001 mole% to 50 mole%. The H2 feed rate may be in the range of 0.001 nanomoles (nmoles) per square centimeter of anode surface to 1,000,000 nanomoles (nmoles) per square centimeter of anode surface.

[0132] In one embodiment, a molten electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr contains MgBr as an additive for Mo electroplating onto the anode of a cell with a Mo anode, where the in situ regeneration reaction is as follows: MoO3+3MgBr2 → 2MoBr3+3MgO(-54kJ / mole(298K) -46(600K)) (53) MOB13 → Mo+3 / 2Br2(284kJ / mole 0.95V / 3 electrons) (54) MoBr3+Ni → MoNi+3 / 2Br2(283kJ / mole 0.95V / 3 electrons) (55) MgO+Br2+H2 → MgBr2+H2O(-208kJ / mole(298K) -194kJ / mole(600K)) (56)

[0133] In one embodiment, the maximum charging voltage is above that which results in electroplating of Mo or other anode metals placed on the anode. The voltage may be within at least one of the ranges of about 0.4 V to 10 V, 0.5 V to 2 V, and 0.8 V to 1.3 V. The anode may include Mo in the form of an alloy or metal mixture, such as MoPt, MoNi, MOCO, and MoCu. The alloy or mixture may enhance the electrodeposition of Mo. In one embodiment, the reaction of HO with Mo results in the formation of OH in the electrolyte. -In addition to that from the anode, H2 is generated, and thus the charge voltage is operated above the anode voltage to primarily electroplate Mo onto the anode from Mo ions in the electrolyte. In one embodiment, separate, long duration periods of continuous discharge and continuous charge are maintained so that more energy is released during discharge than during charge. The charge time may be within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1 seconds to 10 days, 60 seconds to 5 days, and 10 minutes to 1 day. The discharge time is longer than the corresponding charge time. In one embodiment, sufficient anode metal, such as Mo, is deposited during charge to replace that lost due to corrosion so that the electrode maintains a constant Mo content at steady state in the electrode at an electrolyte concentration of Mo compounds.

[0134] In one embodiment, a molten electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr contains Mgl as an additive to electroplate Mo onto the anode of a cell having a Mo anode, where the in situ regeneration reaction is: MoO2+2MgI2 → MOI+I2+2MgO(16kJ / mole(298K) -0.35kJ / mole(600K)) (57) MOI2 → Mo+I2(103kJ / mole 0.515V / 2 electrons) (58) MOI2+Ni → MoNi+I2(102kJ / mole 0.515V / 2 electrons) (59) MgO+I2+H2 → Mgl2+H2O(-51kJ / mole(298K) 5kJ / mole(600K) (60)

[0135] The anode may include Mo in the form of an alloy or metal mixture, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCo, and MoCu. The alloy or mixture may facilitate the electroplating of Mo.

[0136] In one embodiment, a molten electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr contains MgSO4 as an additive to Mo electroplating onto the anode of a cell having a Mo anode. The sulfate undergoes an exchange reaction with the oxide of molybdenum oxide to form molybdenum sulfate, which allows Mo to be electroplated onto the anode.

[0137] In one embodiment, a molten electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr contains at least one of MoS2, MoSe2, and Li2MoO4 as an additive to electroplate Mo onto the anode of a cell having a Mo anode. In one embodiment, at least one of sulfide and selenide undergoes an exchange reaction with the oxide of molybdenum oxide to form molybdenum sulfide or molybdenum selenide, allowing Mo to be electroplated onto the anode. To prevent the oxidation of sulfide to sulfate or selenide and further to selenite, the oxygen-reducing cathode may be replaced by a molten-hydroxide-electrode-stable cathode that participates in oxidation-reduction chemistry involving hydroxides that do not require oxygen, such as oxyhydroxide cathodes such as FeOOH or NiOOH cathodes. Typical cells are those with an inert atmosphere such as an argon atmosphere or sealed: [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MoS2 / FeOOH], [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MoSe2 / FeOOH], [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MoS2-MoSe2 / FeOOH], [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-Li2MoO4-MoS2 / FeOOH], and [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-Li2MoO4-MoSe2-MoS2 / FeOOH].

[0138] In another embodiment, a compound is added to the electrolyte that reacts with the anode metal oxide corrosion products to form a compound that can be electroplated onto the anode and dissolves in the electrolyte. In one embodiment of a cell with an anode containing MgO, LiO is added to the LiOH-LiBr electrolyte. The LiO reacts with the MoO corrosion products to form LiMoO, which can be dissolved in the electrolyte and then plated back onto the anode. In one embodiment, the sealed cell is supplied with a dry source of oxygen, such as O gas or dry air, so that the LiO remains undehydrated to LiOH. H2O is formed within the cell during operation, and the flow rate of the dry O2 source is maintained to achieve a concentration of H2O within the cell and allow Li2O to be available for reaction to form LiMoO4. In one embodiment, the Li2O concentration is maintained within a range of approximately 0.001 mole% to 50 mole%. HO may be added to the cell to replenish consumed HO by cooling the cell to a temperature below where Mo and HO react, adding the desired amount of HO, and then reassessing the cell temperature. Typical cells are [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-LiMoO / NiO(O)] and [Mo / LiOH-LiBr-LiMoO-MoS / NiO(O)].

[0139] In one embodiment, the cell contains a molten electrolyte, such as nickel and LiOH-LiBr, and additionally contains a metal halide electrolyte additive, such as a transition metal halide, such as an anode halide, such as a nickel halide, such as NiBr. In one embodiment, the cell is sealed without the addition of oxygen. The cell is maintained with the addition of HO, provided with a source of HO, such as a heated reservoir. The cathodic reaction may be the reduction of HO to oxygen and hydroxide from an internal electrolysis reaction. Without additional externally supplied oxygen, anode corrosion will be prevented. The formation of oxygen anions may in turn result in the formation of oxyhydroxides, which promote the hydrino reaction.

[0140] Taking into account the catalyst formation reaction, the paired half-cell reactions occurring during discharge are given by: anode: OH - +H2→ H2O+e - +H(1 / p) (61) Cathode: O2+2H2O+4e - → 4OH - (62)

[0141] The overall reaction is as follows: 2H2+1 / 2O2 → H2O+2H(1 / p) (63) Here, H2O served as a catalyst. A typical ion-transport, electrolyte-H2O reaction resulting in H2O electrolysis is as follows: anode: 2OH - → 2H+O2 - +e - (64) Cathode: O2 - +H2O+e - → 1 / 2O2+2OH - (65) anode: 2OH - → H+HOO - +e - (66) Cathode: HOO - +1 / 2H2O+e - → 2HO - +1 / 4O2(67) anode: 3OH - → O2+H2O+H+3e - (68) Cathode: 3 / 4O2+3 / 2H2O+3e - → 3OH - (69) Here, the hydrogens in equations (64), (66), and (68) may react to form hydrinos. 2H → 2H(1 / 4) (70)

[0142] The overall reaction is as follows: H2O → 1 / 2O2+2H(1 / 4) (71) H2O → 1 / 2O2+H2(72) Here, hydrogen in equations (64), (66), and (68) may additionally react to form HO catalyst, and oxygen in equations (65), (67), and (69) may react according to equations (61) and (62), respectively, to form OH. - may form oxides, peroxides, superoxides, and HOO - Other oxygen species, such as HCl, may be involved in the spontaneous electrolysis of HO to form at least one hydrino, a catalyst, H, which carries the excess current generated by the energy released from hydrino formation. In another embodiment, the anode comprises Mo and the electrolyte additive comprises molybdenum halide.

[0143] In one embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte, anode, and cathode includes compounds and materials that cause the formation of H and HOH catalysts through metal oxyhydroxide intermediates. The cell may include an aqueous electrolyte such as KOH or a molten salt electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr. A typical reaction of hydroxides and oxyhydroxides, such as those of Ni or Co, at the anode to form the HOH catalyst is as follows: Ni(OH)2+OH - → NiOOH+H2O+e - (73) and Ni(OH)2 → NiO+H2O (74)

[0144] The reaction or reactants may be at least partially thermally driven. In one embodiment, the surface of the anode is maintained in a partially oxidized state. The oxidized state includes at least one of hydroxyl, oxyhydroxyl, and oxide groups. The oxidized surface functional groups may participate in the formation of at least one of a hydrino-forming catalyst, such as HOH, and atomic hydrogen, where the atomic hydrogen may react with at least one species in the electrolyte and the anode to form at least one of a hydrino catalyst and hydrinos. In one embodiment, at least one of the anode and the electrolyte includes a material or species that supports partial oxidation. The anode may include a metal, alloy, or mixture that forms an oxidizable surface, but the oxidizable surface may not substantially corrode. The anode may include at least one of a noble metal, Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Ru, Ag, Co, Cu, and Ni, which reversibly forms an oxide coating. Other suitable materials are those that oxidize, and the oxidized form is readily reduced with hydrogen. In one embodiment, at least one compound or species is added to the electrolyte to maintain the oxidized state of the anode. Typical additives are alkali and alkaline earth halides such as LiF and KX (X = F, Cl, Br, I). In one embodiment, the cell is operated within a voltage range that maintains the anode in a suitable oxidized state to propagate the hydrino reaction. The voltage range may further permit operation without significant anode corrosion. An intermittent electrolysis waveform may maintain a suitable voltage range. The range may be at least one of about 0.5 V to 2 V, about 0.6 V to 1.5 V, about 0.7 V to 1.2 V, about 0.75 V to 1.1 V, about 0.8 V to 0.9 V, and about 0.8 V to 0.85 V. The waveform during each of the charge and discharge phases of the intermittent cycle may be at least one of voltage limited or controlled voltage, controlled time limit, and controlled current. In one embodiment, oxygen ions formed at the cathode by oxygen reduction carry the ionic current of the cell.The oxygen ion current is controlled to maintain a desired state of anode oxidation. The oxygen ion current may be increased by at least one of increasing the oxygen reduction rate and increasing the cell current, such as by increasing at least one of the cathode and anode oxygen pressures. The oxygen flow may be increased by increasing the oxygen reduction rate at the cathode using a cathode oxygen reaction catalyst, such as NiO, lithiated NiO, CoO, Pt, and rare earth oxides, where the increased oxygen current supports oxyhydroxide formation at the anode. In one embodiment, the CIHT cell temperature is adjusted to maximize the rate of the hydrino reaction, which favors high temperatures, while avoiding oxyhydroxide decomposition, which favors lower temperatures. In one embodiment, the temperature is within at least one of the ranges of about 25°C to 1000°C, 300°C to 800°C, and 400°C to 500°C.

[0145] In one embodiment, the current density of at least one of the discharge and charge of the intermittent or continuous discharge cycle is so high as to cause an increase in the rate of hydrino formation. The peak current density is 0.001 mA / cm. 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , 0.1mA / cm 2 to 10,000 A / cm 2 , 1mA / cm 2 to 1000A / cm 2 , 10mA / cm 2 to 100A / cm 2 , and 100mA / cm 2 to 1A / cm 2 The cell may be intermittently charged and discharged at a high current with a short duration for each phase of the cycle to maintain a tolerance between the charge and discharge voltage ranges so that the net power generated by the cell is within at least one of the ranges. -6 s to 10s and 10 -3The current may be AC, DC, or a mixed AC-DC current. In one embodiment, the electrical power converter includes a magnetohydrodynamic plasma, and the current is DC such that a DC magnetic field is generated by the current. In one embodiment, at least one of the charging and discharging currents includes AC modulation. The AC frequency may be within the ranges of approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The peak voltage of the modulation may be within the ranges of approximately 0.001 V to 10 V, 0.01 V to 5 V, 0.1 V to 3 V, 0.2 V to 2 V, 0.3 V to 1.5 V, and 0.5 V to 1 V. In one embodiment, current pulses are delivered along the transmission line to achieve at least one of the higher voltages or currents. In the typical case where the applied high current pulse is AC, the fastest reaction rate may be achieved when the current is applied at a maximum rate of about 0 A, corresponding to the maximum ability to extract charge from the sample. Electrode separation may be minimized to reduce cell resistance to allow for high current densities. Separation distance may be dynamically controlled by monitoring current density, cell resistance, voltage, and other electrical parameters, and using one or more of these values ​​to adjust the separation. Electrodes may be designed to focus the current at specific areas of the surface, such as at sharp corners or points. In one embodiment, electrodes are designed to provide a current density of about 500 mA / cm. 2 These include cubes or needles or other shapes with sharp corners to concentrate the current density and field to achieve high currents such as 1000 ohms or higher.

[0146] In one embodiment, the anode includes a metal-like material, such as at least one of an inner transition metal, a transition metal, and a noble metal, that bonds to hydrogen and forms at least one of hydrides. The material may increase the available atomic hydrogen on the surface of the anode. The increased surface hydrogen may allow a reduced hydrogen diffusion or permeation rate to maintain at least one of protection from anode corrosion and a desired rate of hydrino reaction. Exemplary materials are Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Ru, Co, Cu, Ni, V, and Nb, and mixtures thereof, which may be present alone or as a mixture or alloy, in any desired amount. The metal-like material may function as a hydrogen dissociator. The increased atomic hydrogen may function to provide at least one of an increase in hydrino reaction and an enhancement of the availability of hydrogen present to prevent corrosion. Exemplary dissociating metals are Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Co, Ni, V, and Nb. In one embodiment, a compound or material is added to at least one of the anode and electrolyte to increase cell voltage. The increase may be due to a change in at least one of the electrode's overpotential, the hydrino reaction rate, and the anode's Fermi level. The dissociative metal may increase the rate of hydrogen flow across a hydrogen-permeable anode. Typical anode metal additives are Pt and Au, although for a mostly Ni anode, the additive may form an alloy or mixture. Typical electrolyte additives are MgI2, CaI2, MgO, and ZrO2. In one embodiment, an anode containing a noble metal-doped metal or a noble metal, such as an alloy or mixture such as PtNi or PtAuPd, has a higher operating voltage than a base metal, such as Ni, in the absence of the noble metal because it has a lower overpotential and provides a higher yield of hydrogen from electrolysis during the charging phase. To maintain a flat high voltage band, H may be stored in a reservoir from which it permeates during discharge due to electrolysis. In one embodiment, the H delivered to the anode surface is from electrolysis alone.

[0147] In one embodiment, compounds may be added to an electrolyte such as LiOH-LiBr to stabilize the anode and increase the reaction rate at the cathode surface. Suitable additives include alkali hydroxides, alkaline earth hydroxides, alkali or alkaline earth halides, such as at least one of CsOH and NaOH, and oxides, such as CoO, NiO, LiNiO2, CoO, LiCoO2, and rare earth oxides, such as ZrO, MgO, compounds that increase basicity, CeO2, La2O3, MoOOH, MoCl4, CuCl2, CoCl2; TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlO OH, oxyhydroxides such as CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; Fe compounds such as oxides such as Fe2O3 or halides such as FeBr2; sulfates such as Li2SO4, phosphates such as Li3PO4, tungstates such as Li2WO4, carbonates such as Li2CO3; iron compounds such as NiO or Ni(OH)2 to form LiNiO2 at the anode, Fe2O3 to form LiFeO2 at the anode; x Compounds with large cations, such as stable metal complexes or large stable molecular cations, such as MgO, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazol-3-ium hexafluorophosphate, betaine bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, or N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, and HS, such as LiHS, which form - In one embodiment, the additive is a bismuth compound, Bi 3+ Cations or those with higher charges such as those of alkaline earth compounds or Cs in CsOH +These include compounds with large cations such as ions. The concentration is adjusted to avoid excessive corrosion. Typical low concentrations are about <1 mole% or <5 mole%. In one embodiment, an additive is added that may be reduced at the cathode, migrate to the anode, and be oxidized at the anode. In this way, the compound induces a parasitic current in addition to the current from the reaction given by Eqs. (61-63). The additive may have multiple stable oxidation states. Typical suitable additives are iron compounds such as FeBr2, FeBr3, FeO, Fe2O3, Fe(OH)2, and Fe(GH)3, and other metals, such as transition metals, that substitute for Fe. The additive may induce a high current to increase the rate of the hydrino reaction.

[0148] In one embodiment, the anode is made of a noble metal, such as Pt, Ir, Re, Pd, or an alloy or mixture of noble metals, such as AuPdPt, and CeO or LaO. 3、 The anode comprises a rare earth oxide such as Li, an additive such as at least one of Ag, and a primary metal. One of Li2CO3, Li2O, NiO, or Ni(OH)2 may function as an additive to form LiNiO2 in the anode. The LiNiO2 may alter the electrical conductivity, promote oxide-hydroxide interconversion during electrochemical operation of the cell, or facilitate the hydrino reaction, Li ++ electron reaction. The additive may reduce the overpotential for at least one of H or HO produced at the anode during charge and discharge, respectively. In embodiments, cells containing a Pt anode additive and a CsOH electrolyte additive are [NiPt(H) / (LiOH-LiBr-CsOH) / NiO], [CoPt(H) / (LiOH-LiBr-CsOH) / NiO], and [MoPt(H) / (LiOH-LiBr-CsOFi) / NiO]. In one embodiment, the additive to at least one of the anode and electrolyte, such as tape cast, is a solid-oxide fuel cell electrolyte, an oxide conductor, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) which may also contain Sr (e.g., the common 8% form Y8SZ), scandia-stabilized zirconia (ScSZ) (e.g., the common 9 mol% Sc2O3-9ScSZ), gadolinium-doped ceria (GDC) or gadolinia-doped ceria (CGO), lanthanum gallate, bismuth copper vanadate (e.g., BiCuVO x ), MgO, ZrO2, La2O3, CeO2, La 1-x Sr x Co y O 3-□ , perovskite materials such as proton conductors, doped barium selenate and barium zirconate, and strontium cerium yttrium niobate and H x The additives may include SrCeO3-type proton conductors such as WO3. Additionally, the additives may include metals such as Al, Mo, transition metals, inner transition metals, or rare earth metals.

[0149] In one embodiment, at least one of the anode, cathode, or electrolyte includes an additive that serves the same function as increasing the rate of the hydrino catalytic reaction, such as increasing the current flow rate. The additive may remove electrons formed during the H catalytic reaction. The additive may undergo an electron exchange reaction. In an exemplary embodiment, the additive includes carbon, which may be added to the anode or cathode. The electrons are removed from the electrolyte to maintain neutrality. + Intercalating C x - In this way, the carbon acts as a sink to remove electrons in a manner similar to a high current.

[0150] In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, the anode includes an H reservoir that provides H by permeation or diffusion, where the outer wall is in contact with the electrolyte and includes the anode surface. The anode further includes an additive, including a material or compound, added to the inside of the reservoir. The additive may alter the anode voltage so that the voltage is maintained to essentially prevent anode corrosion and / or facilitate the hydrino reaction at a higher rate. The additive may include a compound that may reversibly react with H, where H may undergo transport through the reservoir wall. Transport may be into the reservoir during charge and out of the reservoir during discharge. An additive, including a hydride or hydrogen storage material, inside the anode serves as a hydrogen source during discharge and is regenerated upon charge. A hydrogen dissociator, such as a noble metal like Pt, may increase hydrogen dissociation and increase hydrogen flux through the hydrogen-permeable anode. Additives include LiH, titanium hydride, MgH2, ZrH2, VH, NbH, and LaNi6H xThese additives include hydrogen storage materials such as LiH+LiNH2, or Li3N, or mixtures such as eutectic mixtures of other metal nitrides or alkali nitrides, such as aluminum or magnesium, that create a conductive liquid inside the anode. Additives that react with H transported through the H-permeable anode may produce an anode voltage contribution. The voltage may be due to the dependence of the reaction of H with the additive on the transport of H across the anode, where an external electrochemical reaction at the anode surface produces or consumes H. Additional suitable additives are metals such as MoO2, MoS2, transition metals such as Co, and noble metals such as Pd. Typical reactions of additives that contribute to voltage by interacting with internal additives with external ones are as follows: 4OH - (外部) +Li3N (内部) → LiNH 2(内部) +2LiH (内部) +4e - +2O 2(外部) (75) OH - (外部) +Li (内部) → LiH (内部) +e - +l / 2O 2(外部) (76) and 6OH - (外部) +LaNi 5(内部) → LaNi5H 6(内部) +6e - +3O 2(外部) (77)

[0151] In one embodiment, NH - A catalyst and H are formed inside the anode so that hydrinos are formed inside the anode as well as outside. The catalyst in the latter case may be HOH. NH2 inside the anode -The catalyst and H formation may be due to H transport through the hydrogen-permeable anode. The formation of transported H can occur from electrolyzed HO or from the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. - H may be oxidized at the anode and reduced at the cathode, ensuring hydrino formation with a large energy release, using NH2 as a catalyst. - Another embodiment of the CIHT cell includes a CIHT cell using at least one of NH2 and HOH. - The reactants forming the catalyst may include the Li—NH system of the present disclosure.

[0152] In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, such as one containing an aqueous electrolyte, the anode comprises base-etched NiAl. The anode may comprise a tape-cast NiAl alloy. The base-etched alloy may comprise R-Ni. Alternatively, the anode may comprise a metallized polymer that functions as an H2-permeable anode, as for aqueous cells. In one embodiment, the metallized polymer anode comprises at least one of Ni, Co, and Mo. In addition to aqueous electrolyte cells, molten salt electrolyte cells may also comprise a metallized anode polymer with a high melting point, such as Teflon®.

[0153] In one embodiment of a CIHT cell, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the development or application of a high current. The CIHT cell may be charged and discharged at a high current to increase the rate of the hydrino reaction. The cell may be intermittently charged and discharged so that a gain in electrical energy is achieved through the contribution from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment capable of high charge and / or discharge currents, a nickel-metal-hydride battery-type (NiMH-type cell) CIHT cell includes a reservoir, a positive plate containing nickel hydroxide at least partially charged to nickel oxyhydroxide as the active material, a negative plate containing a hydrogen-absorbing alloy such as NiFe, MgNi, or LaNi5 charged to the corresponding hydride as the active material, a separator such as Celgard or other fine fibers such as polyolefin, which may be nonwoven or woven, and an alkaline electrolyte. Suitable electrolytes are water-soluble hydroxide salts such as KOH, NaOH, or alkali hydroxides such as LiOH. Another salt, such as an alkali halide such as LiBr, may be added to improve conductivity. In one embodiment, a high current carrying, high conductivity electrolyte, such as LiOH-LiBr, is selected to limit any oxygen reduction reaction and thus limit corrosion.

[0154] In one embodiment, catalytic HOH is formed at the negative electrode in the presence of H or a source of H to catalyze the reaction of H to form hydrinos. In one embodiment, the active anode material is a source of H and the active cathode material is OH. - For NiMH-type cells, a suitable active anode material is nickel hydride, and a suitable active cathode material is nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH). The reaction that occurs in this NiMH-type cell is: Anode reaction (negative electrode): OH - +MH → HO+M+e - (78) Cathodic reaction (positive electrode): NiO(OH)+H2O+e - → Ni(OH)2+OH - (79)

[0155] The "metal" M in the negative electrode of a NiMH-type cell comprises at least one compound that serves to reversibly form a mixture of metal hydride compounds. M may include intermetallic compounds such as at least one of AB5, where A is a rare earth mixture of lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, and praseodymium, and B is nickel, cobalt, manganese, and / or aluminum, and higher capacity negative electrode materials based on AB2 compounds, where A is titanium and / or vanadium, and B is zirconium or nickel, chromium modified, cobalt, iron, and / or manganese. M may also include other suitable hydrides, such as those of the present disclosure.

[0156] In one embodiment, hydrogen absorption alloys combine an endothermically heat-generating hydride metal (B) with an exothermically heat-generating hydride metal (A) to provide adequate binding energy for hydrogen absorption and release at or near normal pressure and temperature levels. Depending on how the metals are combined, alloys include the following types: AB, such as TiFe; AB2, such as ZnMn; AB5, such as LaNi5; and A2B, such as Mg2Ni. Typical suitable anode alloys are AB2-type alloys, in which nickel and titanium serve as the parent metals, and lanthanum group metals, in which nickel serves as the parent metal.

[0157] In one embodiment, in addition to passive internal discharge reactions such as those in Eqs. (78-79), the discharge is driven by an external current or power source that forces a high current through the CIHT cell to achieve a high hydrino reaction rate. The high discharge current density is greater than 0.1 A / cm. 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , 1A / cm 2 to 10,000 A / cm 2, 1A / cm 2 to 1000A / cm 2 , 10A / cm 2 to 1000A / cm 2 , and 10 A / cm 2 to 100A / cm 2 , may be within at least one of the ranges. The hydrino reaction then provides a contribution to the discharge power, such that power and energy gain is achieved net of the output minus any external current source and input required to recharge the cell. In one embodiment, the external current source may include another CIHT cell. The reaction to form hydrinos, as given in equation (71), supplies oxygen as a product within the cell. The hydrino gas may diffuse out of the cell, and the oxygen may be converted back to water by the addition of hydrogen gas, which may be supplied at the anode as given in Figures 1 and 2.

[0158] In one embodiment, the electrolyte comprises a molten salt such as that disclosed herein, such as LiOH-LiBr, and the anode H source and cathode oxygen source are stable at the operating temperatures exposed to the molten salt electrolyte. A typical high current drive cell is [MH / LiOH-LiBr / FeOOH], where MH is a metal hydride that is stable at the operating temperatures and conditions. The hydride is described in W.M. Mueller, J.P. Blackledge, and G.G. Libowitz, "Electrochemical Properties of Electrolyte-Based Electrolyte," which is incorporated herein by reference. Metal hydrides , Academic Press, New York, (1968), Hydrogen in intermetallic compounds I ,Edited by L. Schlapbach, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, and Hydrogen in intermetallic compounds. II.Hydrogen storage materials known in the art may include titanium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, zirconium, and hafnium hydrides, rare earth hydrides, yttrium and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides, intermetallic hydrides, and alloys thereof, as provided by "The Journal of Hydrogen Storage Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 111-114, 1999," edited by L. Schlapbach, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Metal hydrides may include rare earth hydrides such as one of lanthanum, gadolinium, ytterbium, cerium, and praseodymium, inner transition metal hydrides such as one of yttrium and neodymium, transition metal hydrides such as one of scandium and titanium, and alloy hydrides such as one of zirconium-titanium (50% / 50%). In one embodiment, H2 gas is the source of H at the anode. A typical cell is [Ni(H2) / LiOH-LiBr / FeOOH].

[0159] The present disclosure further relates to a power system for generating thermal energy, the power system including at least one vessel capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressure, at least one heater, and reactants comprising a hydrino reactant, which comprises (a) a catalyst and a source of catalyst including nascent HO; (b) atomic hydrogen and a source of atomic hydrogen; and (c) reactants including a halide compound and a hydroxide compound that form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants that initiate a catalytic reaction of the atomic hydrogen, which reaction occurs upon at least one of mixing and heating the reactants. At least one of the hydroxide compound and the halide compound comprises an alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, inner transition metal, and rare earth metal, and at least one of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Ni, Sb, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. In one embodiment, the reactant further comprises a source of HO that is reacted with the product to regenerate the reactant.

[0160] The present disclosure further relates to an electrochemical power system for generating at least one of electrical and thermal energy, the electrochemical power system including a cell closed from the atmosphere, the cell including at least one cathode, at least one anode, at least one bipolar plate, and reactants for forming hydrino reactants during cell operation with decoupled electron flow and ion mass transport, the reactants including at least two components selected from the following: (a) at least one HO source; (b) nH, OH, OH, where n is an integer and M is an alkali metal; -and (c) at least one of a catalyst or catalyst source comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of nascent HO, HS, or MNH; and (d) at least one of an atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen, one or more reactants to form at least one of the catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen, one or more reactants to initiate the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen, and a support; wherein the combination of cathodes, anodes, reactants, and bipolar plates maintains a chemical potential between each cathode and corresponding anode to allow the catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen to propagate, and the system further includes an electrolysis system. In one embodiment, the electrolysis system of the electrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzes HO to provide the atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen and discharges the cell so that there is a gain in the net energy balance of the cycle. The reactants may include at least one of a molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and at least one other compound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a halide salt; at least one mixture of an alkali hydroxide and an alkali halide; at least one electrolyte selected from LiOH-LiBr, LiOH-LiX, NaOH-NaBr, NaOH-NaI, NaOH-NaX, and KOH-KX (where X represents a halogen), at least one matrix, and at least one additive. The electrochemical power system may further include a heater. The cell temperature of the electrochemical power system above the melting point of the electrolyte may be in at least one range selected from about 0° C. to 1500° C. above the melting point of the electrolyte, about 0° C. to 1000° C. above the melting point of the electrolyte, about 0° C. to 500° C. above the melting point of the electrolyte, 0° C. to about 250° C. above the melting point of the electrolyte, and about 0° C. to 100° C. above the melting point of the electrolyte. In embodiments, the matrix of the electrochemical power system may be selected from oxyanion compounds, aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, sulfates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromates, and manganates, oxides, nitrides, borides, chalcogenides, silicides,Phosphides and carbides, metals, metal oxides, nonmetals and nonmetal oxides, oxides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals and earth metals, and oxides of at least one of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that form oxides or oxyanions; alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and and at least one oxide and oxyanion, such as at least one of other elements that form oxides, and further comprising at least one cation from the group of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, and Pb cations, LiAlO2, MgO, Li2TiO3, or SrTiO3; anode material oxide and electrolyte compound; at least one electrolyte oxide and cation; electrolyte MOH (M=alkali) oxide; Mo, Ti, Electrolyte oxides containing elements, metals, alloys or mixtures of the group Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and M', (M' represents an alkaline earth metal), MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, FeO, or Fe2Q3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MnO, Mn3O4, Mn 2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, CoO, Co2O3, Co3O4, and MgO; oxides of the cathode material and optionally oxides of the electrolyte; Li2MoO3 or Li2MoO4, Li2TiO3, Li2ZrO3, Li2SiO3, LiAlO2, LiNiO2, LiFeO2, LiTaO3, L1VO3, Li2B4O7, Li2NbO3, Li2PO4, Li2SeO3, Li2SeO4, Li2TeO3, Li2TeO4, Li2WO4, Li2CrO4, Li2Cr2O7, Li2MnO4, Li2HfO3, LiCoO2,and M'O (M' represents an alkaline earth metal), and MgO; oxides of the element or elements of the same group of the anode, and for Mo anodes, Li2MoO4, MoO2, Li2WO4, Li2CrO4, and Li2Cr2O7, and additives include S, Li2S, oxides, MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, FeO or Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, VO3, VO5, P2O3, P2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, Se The electrochemical power system may include at least one of the following: O3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MgO, Li2TiO3, LiAlO2, Li2MoO3 or Li2MoO4, Li2ZrO3, Li2SiO3, LiNiO2, LiFeO2, LiTaO3, LiVO3, Li2B4O7, Li2NbO3, Li2SeO3, Li2SeO4, Li2TeO3, Li2TeO4, Li2WO4, Li2CrO4, Li2Cr2O7, Li2MnO3, or LiCoO2, MnO, and CeO2. At least one of the following reactions may occur during operation of the electrochemical power system: (a) At least one of H and H2 is formed at the discharge anode from the electrolysis of H2O. (b) at least one of O and O2 is formed at the discharge cathode from the electrolysis of H2O; (c) a hydrogen catalyst is formed by reaction of the reaction mixture; (d) hydrinos are formed during discharge to produce at least one of electrical power and thermal power; (e) OH- is oxidized and reacts with H to form nascent H2O which acts as a hydrino catalyst; (f) OH- is oxidized to oxygen ions and H; (g) at least one of oxygen ions, oxygen, and H2O is reduced at the discharge cathode; (h) H and nascent H2O catalyst react to form hydrinos; (i) hydrinos are formed during discharge to produce at least one of electrical power and thermal power. In one embodiment of the electrochemical power system, at least one reaction of oxidation of OH- and reduction of at least one of oxygen ions, oxygen, and H2O isDuring cell discharge, energy is produced that exceeds the energy produced during the electrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. The discharge current over time may exceed the current over time during the electrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. In one embodiment, the anode half-cell reaction may be as follows: OH - +2H → HO+e - +H(1 / 4) wherein a first reaction of H with OH to form HO catalyst and e cooperates with a second HO-catalyzed reaction of H to hydrinos. In an embodiment, the discharging anode half-cell reaction has at least one voltage of about 1.2 V thermodynamically corrected for the operating temperature relative to a standard hydrogen electrode and at least one voltage within the ranges of about 1.5 V to 0.75 V, 1.3 V to 0.9 V, and 1.25 V to 1.1 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode at 25°C, and the cathode half-cell reaction has at least one voltage of about 0 V thermodynamically corrected for the operating temperature and at least one voltage within the ranges of about -0.5 V to +0.5 V, -0.2 V to +0.2 V, and -0.1 V to +0.1 V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode at 25°C.

[0161] In one embodiment of the electrochemical power system of the present disclosure, the cathode comprises NiO, the anode comprises at least one of Ni, Mo, HAYNES® 242® alloy, and carbon, and the bimetallic contact comprises a metal different from that of the anode, at least one of HAYNES® 242® alloy, Hastelloy, Ni, Mo, and H. The electrochemical power system includes at least one stack of cells, where a bipolar plate includes the bimetallic contact separating the anode and cathode. In one embodiment, the cell is supplied with HO, the HO vapor pressure of which is within at least one range selected from about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm, about 0.001 Torr to 0.1 Torr, about 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr, about 1 Torr to 10 Torr, about 10 Torr to 100 Torr, about 100 Torr to 1000 Torr, and about 1000 Torr to 100 atm, and a pressure balance to achieve at least atmospheric pressure is provided by a supplied inert gas, including at least one of a noble gas and N. In one embodiment, the electrochemical power system may include a water vapor generator to supply HO to the system. In one embodiment, the cell is intermittently switched between charge and discharge phases, where (i) the charge phase includes at least water electrolysis at electrodes of opposite voltage polarity, and (ii) the discharge phase includes at least HO catalyst formation at one or both electrodes. Also, (i) the role of each electrode of each cell as a cathode or anode is reversed by switching back and forth between charge and discharge phases, and (ii) the polarity of the current is reversed by switching back and forth between charge and discharge phases, and charging includes application of at least one of an applied current and a voltage. In embodiments, at least one of the applied current and voltage has a waveform including a duty cycle in the range of about 0.001% to about 95%, a peak voltage per cell in the range of about 0.1 V to 10 V, and a current density of about 0.001 W / cm. 2 to 1000W / cm 2 and a peak power density of approximately 0.0001 W / cm 2to 100W / cm 2 and an average power in the range of 0.001 Hz to 10 MHz, and the applied current and voltage further include at least one of a DC voltage, a DC, and an AC voltage and voltage waveform, the waveform including a frequency in the range of about 1 Hz to about 1000 Hz. The waveform of the intermittent cycle includes varying current, power, and resistance, and constant current, power, voltage, and resistance for at least one of the discharge phase and electrolysis phase of the intermittent cycle. In an embodiment, parameters of at least one phase of the cycle include the following: the frequency of the intermittent phase is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 Hz to 10 MHz, about 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz, and about 0.01 Hz to 10 kHz; and the voltage per cell is in at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 100 V, about 0.3 V to 5 V, about 0.5 V to 2 V, and about 0.5 V to 1.5 V. The current per electrode area active for forming hydrinos is about 1 μA cm -2 to 10Acm -2 , about 0.1mAcm -2 from 5Acm -2 , and approximately 1 mAcm -2 from 1Acm -2 The power per electrode area active to form hydrinos is about 1 μW cm -2 to 10Wcm -2 , about 0.1mWcm -2 to 5Wcm -2 , and approximately 1 mW cm -2 to 1Wcm -2 The constant current per electrode area active for hydrino formation is about 1 μA cm -2 from 1Acm -2 The constant power per active electrode area for hydrino formation is about 1 mW cm -2 to 1Wcm -2 The time interval is in the range of about 10 -4 s to 10,000s, 10 -3 s to 1000s, and 10 -2 s to 100s, and 10 -1s to 10 s. The resistance per cell is in at least one range selected from about 1 mΩ to 100 MΩ, about 1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ. The conductivity per electrode area active for forming hydrinos is about 10 -5 to 1000 ohms -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 to 100 ohms -1 cm -2 , 10 -3 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2 , and 10 -2 to 1 ohm -1 cm -2 , and at least one of the discharge current, voltage, or time interval is greater than that of the electrolysis phase resulting in at least one of power or energy gain over the cycle. The voltage during discharge may be maintained above that which prevents excessive corrosion of the anode.

[0162] In one embodiment of an electrochemical power system, the catalyst formation reaction is given as follows: O2+5H + +5e - → 2H2O+H(1 / p) The opposing half-cell reactions are given as follows: H2 → 2H + +2e - The reaction is given as follows: 3 / 2H2+1 / 2O2 → H2O+H(1 / p)

[0163] At least one of the following products may be formed from hydrogen during operation of the electrochemical power system: (a) 0.23 to 0.25 cm -1 0cm to an integer multiple of -1 From 2000cm -1 (b) Hydrogen products with Raman peaks at matrix shifts within the range of 0.23 cm. -1 from 0.25cm -10cm to an integer multiple of -1 From 2000cm -1 (c) Hydrogen products with infrared peaks at energies between 475 eV and 525 eV or 257 eV, 509 eV, 506 eV, 305 eV, 490 eV, 400 eV, or 468 eV plus a matrix shift between 0 eV and 10 eV. (d) Hydrogen products that cause an upfield MAS NMR matrix shift. (e) Hydrogen products with liquid crystal NMR shifts or upfield MAS NMR shifts greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS. (f) 0 cm -1 From 5000cm -1 0.23cm, plus a matrix shift within the range -1 from 0.3cm -1 Hydrogen products with at least two electron emission spectrum peaks within the range of 200 nm to 300 nm, spaced at integer multiples of 0 cm. -1 From 5000cm -1 0.23cm plus matrix shift within the range -1 from 0.3cm -1 A hydrogen product having at least two UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm spaced apart by an integer multiple of .

[0164] The present disclosure further relates to an electrochemical power system including a hydrogen anode comprising a hydrogen-permeable anode, a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide, and at least one of an O2 and an HO cathode, wherein in an embodiment, a cell temperature maintaining at least one of the membrane in a hydrogen-permeable state and the electrolyte in a molten state is within at least one range selected from about 25°C to 2000°C, about 100°C to 1000°C, about 200°C to 750°C, and about 250°C to 500°C; The cell temperature above the melting point of the electrolyte is in at least one range of about 0°C to 1500°C above the melting point, 0°C to 1000°C above the melting point, 0°C to 500°C above the melting point, 0°C to 250°C above the melting point, and 0°C to 100°C above the melting point; the membrane thickness is in at least one range selected from about 0.0001 cm to 0.25 cm, 0.001 cm to 0.1 cm, and 0.005 cm to 0.05 cm; the hydrogen pressure is maintained in at least one range selected from about 1 Torr to 500 atm, 10 Torr to 100 atm, and 100 Torr to 5 atm; and the hydrogen permeation rate is about 1×10 -13 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -4 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -12 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -5 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -11 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -6 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -10 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -7 mole s -1 cm -2 , and 1 × 10 -9 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -1 mole s-1 cm -2 , and at least one of. In one embodiment, an electrochemical power system includes a hydrogen anode including a hydrogen diffusion electrode, a molten salt electrolyte including a hydroxide, and at least one of an O2 and an HO cathode. In one embodiment, the cell temperature at which the electrolyte is maintained in a molten state is in at least one range selected from about 0°C to 1500°C above the electrolyte melting point, 0°C to 1000°C above the electrolyte melting point, 0°C to 500°C above the electrolyte melting point, 0°C to 250°C above the electrolyte melting point, and 0°C to 100°C above the electrolyte melting point, and the hydrogen flow rate per geometric area of ​​the H2 bubbling or diffusion electrode is about 1 x 10 -13 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -4 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -12 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -5 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -11 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -6 mole s -1 cm -2 , 1×10 -10 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -7 mole s -1 cm -2 , and 1 × 10 -9 mole s -1 cm -2 From 1×10 -8 mole s -1 cm -2 , the rate of reaction at the counter electrode matches or exceeds that at the electrode with which hydrogen reacts, the rate of reduction of at least one of HO and O is sufficient to maintain the reaction rate of H or H, and the counter electrode has sufficient material and surface area to support the sufficient rate.

[0165] The present disclosure further relates to a power system for generating thermal energy, the power system including at least one vessel capable of at least one of atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, and below atmospheric pressure, at least one heater, and reactants constituting a hydrino reactant, the reactants including (a) a catalyst or a catalyst source including nascent HO; (b) atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of atomic hydrogen, a source of atomic hydrogen, a catalyst, and a source of catalyst, and one or more reactants that initiate a catalytic reaction of the atomic hydrogen, wherein the reactants are at least one of mixed and heated to cause the reaction to occur. In embodiments, the reaction of the power system forming at least one of the catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen includes at least one reaction selected from a dehydration reaction, a combustion reaction, a Lewis acid or base and Brönsted-Lowry acid or base reaction; an oxide-base reaction; an anhydride-base reaction; an acid-base reaction; a basic active metal reaction; an oxidation-reduction reaction; a decomposition reaction; an exchange reaction, and an exchange reaction between a compound having at least one OH and a halide, O, S, Se, Te, or NH; and a hydrogen reduction reaction of a compound containing O, and the source of H is at least one of nascent H formed when the reactants undergo the reaction, and hydrogen from a hydride or gas source and a dissociator.

[0166] VI. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing the disclosed increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis are power and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells." A hydrogen reactor includes a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell for producing hydrinos may be in the form of a chemical reactor, such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. Exemplary examples of a cell for producing hydrinos may be in the form of a liquid fuel cell, a solid fuel cell, a heterogeneous fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and a SF-CIHT cell. Each of these cells includes (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof to form hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst to produce hydrinos. As used herein and contemplated by this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to proteum ( 1 H), as well as deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or heat cell embodiments of this disclosure. Additional exemplary examples are provided in this chemical reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures with HO as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are provided within this disclosure. Other catalysts, such as those provided in Tables 1 and 3, may function to form hydrogen species and compounds of increased binding energy. An exemplary MH-type catalyst in Table 3A is NaH. Reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in parameters such as reactants, reactant wt%, H pressure, and reaction temperature. Reasonable reactant, condition, and parameter ranges are those of this disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are indicated as products of the disclosed reaction by the expected continuum emission bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV; otherwise, unexpected and anomalously high H kinetic energies were measured by H line Doppler broadening, H line inversion, breakdown field-free plasma formation, and anomalously long plasma afterglow durations, as reported in Mills' previous publication. Such data for CIHT cells and solid fuels have been independently demonstrated elsewhere by other researchers. Hydrino formation by the disclosed cell was also confirmed by continuous electrical energy output over long durations that was multiple times the electrical input, often exceeding the input by a factor of more than 10 without any alternative source.The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) is described in R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, and J. Lotoski, "Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013), and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, and G As reported in Chu, J. He, and J. Trevey, "High Power Density Catalytically Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," (2014), and in Mills' previous publication, the ToF-SIMS peak had an arrival time before the m / e = 1 peak corresponding to H with a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV, consistent with the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4), with the energy transferred to third-body H. XPS showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) at 500 eV, where p = 4 or 16, is the square of the rotational energy of H2, at 1950 cm. -1 FTIR and Raman spectroscopy showed a rotational energy of H2(1 / 4), electron-excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy showed the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with the squared energy quantum number p=4 or 16 of H2, ESI-ToFMS and ToF-SIMS showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to the getter matrix as a peak at m / e=M+n2, where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer, and MAS H NMR showed the predicted high-field cis matrix peak at approximately -4.4 ppm, identifying it as a product of solid fuel and CIHT cells.

[0167] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setarum DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), hydrino formation by the disclosed cells, such as those containing solid fuels, was confirmed by observing thermal energy from the solid fuel exceeding the maximum theoretical energy of hydrino formation by a factor of 60. MAS H NMR showed the predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. -1The Raman peak with an onset of 0.2414 eV matched the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4). These results are reported in Mills' previously published work and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, and J. He, "Solid Fuel Forming HGH Catalysts," (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0168] In one embodiment, the solid fuel reaction forms HO and H as a product or intermediate reaction product. HO may function as a catalyst for forming hydrinos. The reactants include at least one oxidizing agent and a reducing agent, and the reaction includes at least one oxidation-reduction reaction. The reducing agent may include a metal, such as an alkali metal. The reaction mixture further includes a hydrogen source and a HO source, and optionally includes carbon, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides such as TiCN, or nitrites. The support may include a metal powder. In one embodiment, the hydrogen support includes Mo or Mo alloys such as those disclosed herein, such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCu, and MoCo. In one embodiment, oxidation of the support is avoided by methods known to those skilled in the art, such as maintaining a reducing atmosphere, such as a H atmosphere, selecting non-oxidizing reaction temperatures and conditions, and selecting other components of the reaction mixture that do not oxidize the support. The H source may be selected from the group consisting of alkali hydrides, alkaline earth hydrides, transition hydrides, inner transition hydrides, rare earth hydrides, and hydrides of the present disclosure. The hydrogen source may be hydrogen gas, which may further contain a dissociator such as those of the present disclosure, such as noble metals on a support such as carbon or alumina, and others of the present disclosure. The water source may include hydroxide complexes or dehydrating compounds such as hydroxides of Al, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb. The water source may include a hydrogen source and an oxygen source. The oxygen source may include an oxygen-containing compound. Exemplary compounds or molecules include O2, alkali or alkaline earth oxides, peroxides, or superoxides, TeO2, SeO2, PO2, PO5, SO2, SO3, M2SO4, MHSO4, CO2, M2SO8, MMnO4, M2Mn2O4, M x H yPO4 (x, y = integers), POBr2, MClO4, MNO3, NO, N2O, NO2, N2O3, Cl2O7, and O2 (M = alkali, and alkaline earth or other cations may replace M). Other typical reactants are Li, LiH, L1NO3, LiNO, LiNO2, Li3N, Li2NH, LiNH2, LiX, NH3, LiBH4, LiAlH4, Li3AlH6, LiOH, Li2S, LiHS, LiFeSi, Li2CO3, LiHCO3, Li2SO4, LiHSO4, Li3PO4, Li2HPO4, LiH2PO4, Li2MoO4, LiNbO3, Li2B4O7 (lithium tetraborate), LiBO2, Li2WO4, LiAlCl 4, LiGaCl4, Li2CrO4, Li2Cr2O7, Li2TiO3, LiZrO3, LiAlO2, LiCoO2, LiGaO2, Li2GeO3, LiMn2O4, Li4SiO4, Li2SiO3, LiTaO3, L iCuCl4, LiPdCl4, LiVO3, LiIO3, LiBrO3, LiXO3(X=F, Br, Cl, I), LiFeO2, LiIO4, LiBrO4, LiIO4, LiXO4(X=F, Br, Cl, I), LiScO n , LiTiO n , LiVO n , LiCrO n , LiCrO n , LiMnO n , LiFeO n , LiCoO n , LiNiO n , LiNiO n , LiCuO n , and LiZnO n, (n=1, 2, 3, or 4), oxyanions, oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizing agents, molecular oxidizers such as V2O3, IO5, MnO2, Re2O7, CrO3, RuO2, AgO, PdO, PdO2, PtO, PtO2, and NH4X (where X is nitrate or other suitable anion as given in CRC), and reducing agents. Another alkali metal or cation may replace Li. Additional sources of oxygen include MCoO2, MGaO2, M2GeO3, MMN2O4, M4SiO4, M2SiO3, MTaO3, MVO3, MIO3, MFeO2, MIO4, MClO4, MSeO n , MTiO n , MVO n , MCrO n , MCrO n , MMN2O n , MFeO n , MCoO n , MNiO n , MNiO n , MCuO n , and MZnO n The reactants may be selected from the group consisting of oxyanions, oxyanions of strong acids, oxidizers, and molecular oxidizers such as VO, IO, MnO, ReO, CrO, RuO, AgO, PdO, PdO, PtO, PtO, IO, IO, IO, SO, SO, CO, NO, NO, NO, NO, NO, NO, NO, ClO, ClO, ClO, ClO, ClO, ClO, PO, PO, and PO. The reactants may be in any desired ratio to form hydrinos. A typical reaction mixture is a mixture of 0.33 g of LiH, 1.7 g of LiNO, and 1 g of MgH with 4 g of activated carbon powder. Another typical reaction mixture is a gunpowder such as KNO (75 wt%), softwood charcoal (which may contain the formation of C7H4O) (15 wt%), and S (10 wt%); KNO (70.5 wt%) and softwood charcoal (29.5 wt%), or ratios of these within the range of about ±1-30 wt%. The source of hydrogen may be charcoal containing the formation of C7H4O.

[0169] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include reactants that form nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and HO, the latter of which functions as a hydrino catalyst for the H formed in the reaction. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include nitrates, sulfates, perchlorates, peroxides such as hydrogen peroxide, peroxy compounds such as acetone peroxide (TATP), or diacetone diperoxide (DADP) (which may also function as a source of H, particularly in addition to O or another oxygen source (nitro compounds such as nitrocellulose (APNC))), other compounds containing oxygen, or oxygen or oxyanion compounds. The reaction mixture may include a functional group or source of functional groups, or a compound or source of functional groups, containing at least two of hydrogen, carbon, hydrocarbon, and oxygen bonded to nitrogen. The reactants may include nitrates, nitrites, nitro groups, and nitramines. The nitrates may contain metals such as alkali nitrates, ammonium nitrate, or alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, transition metal, inner transition metal, or rare earth metal, or other nitrates known to those skilled in the art such as Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb nitrates. The nitro group may contain a functional group in organic compounds such as nitroethane, nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene, or similar compounds known to those skilled in the art. A typical reaction mixture would contain H4NO3 and a long hydrocarbon chain (C n H 2n+2The carbon source may be a carbon source such as nitro such as kerosene or nitromethane, or coal dust, which may contain oxygen, such as diesel fuel, molasses, or sugar. The H source may include NH4, a hydrocarbon such as fuel oil, or sugar, where the H bond to the carbon provides controlled release of H. The H release may be by a free radical reaction. C may react with O to release H and form carbon-oxygen compounds (e.g., CO, CO2, and formate). In one embodiment, a compound may contain functionality to form nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and HO. A nitramine containing a hydrocarbon functionality is cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, commonly referred to as cyclonite or by the code designation RDX. Other exemplary compounds that may function as at least one of an HO catalyst source and an H source, such as at least one source of H and O, include ammonium nitrate (AN), black powder (75% KNO + 15% charcoal + 10% S), ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO) (94.3% AN + 5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate, trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatol (80% TNT + 20% AN), tetritol (70% tetryl + 30% TNT), tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (C7H5N5O8)), C-4 (91% RDX), C-3 (based on RDX), and composition B (composition C). B) (63% RDX + 36% TNT), nitroglycerin, RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN + 5.7% RDX), PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine), HNIW (CL-20) (2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-Hexaazaisowurtzitane (2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane), DDF, (4,4'-dinitro-3,3'-diazenofuroxan), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane, 2,4,6-tris(trinitromethyl)-1,3,5-triazine, TATNB (1,3,5-trinitrobenzene, 3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene, ,3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene), trinitroanaline, TNP (2,4,6-trinitrophenol or picric acid), D explosive (ammonium picrate), methyl picrate, ethyl picrate, picrate chloride (2-chloro-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene), trinitocresol, lead styphnate, lead 2,4,6-trinitroresorcinolate (C6HN3O8Pb),The preferred catalyst is at least one selected from the group consisting of CHNOPb, TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene), methyl nitrate, nitroglycol, mannitol hexanitrate, ethylenedinitramine, nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycoluril, nitrocellulose, urea nitrate, and hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen can be any desired ratio. In one example of a reaction mixture of ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (FO), known as ammonium nitrate / fuel oil (ANFO), a reasonable equivalent weight to give a balanced reaction is about 94.3 wt% AN and 5.7 wt% FO, although FO may be in excess. A typical balanced reaction of AN and nitromethane is: 3NH4NO3+2CH3NO2→ 4N2+2CO2+9H2O (80) Here, some of H are also H such that p=4. - (1 / p) and H(1 / p) into lower energy hydrogen species. In one embodiment, the molar ratios of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are similar as in RDX, which has the formula CHNO.

[0170] In one embodiment, the energetics are increased by using a hydride such as an alkali metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydride, a transition metal hydride, an inner transition metal hydride, and a rare earth metal hydride, or an additional source of atomic hydrogen such as H gas, and a dissociator such as Ni, Nb, or a noble metal on a support such as carbon, carbide, boride, or nitride, or silica or alumina. The reaction mixture may be subjected to shock waves or compression during the reaction to form the atomic H and HO catalyst to increase the reaction rate to form hydrinos. The reaction mixture may include at least one reactant to increase the heat during the reaction to form the H and HO catalyst. The reaction mixture may include an oxygen source such as air, which may be dispersed among the solid fuel granules or pellets. For example, AN pellets may contain about 20% air. The reaction mixture may further include a photosensitizer such as air-filled glass beads. In an exemplary embodiment, a powdered metal such as Al is added to increase the rate and heat of the reaction. For example, Al metal termination may be added to ANFO. Another reaction mixture includes a pyrotechnic material that also has a catalyst source and a H source, such as HO. In one embodiment, the formation of hydrinos has a high activation energy that can be supplied by an energetic reaction, such as that of the pyrotechnic material, but the formation of hydrinos contributes to self-heating of the reaction mixture. Alternatively, the activation energy can be supplied by an electrochemical reaction, such as that of a CIHT cell, which has a high equivalent temperature corresponding to 11,600 K / eV.

[0171] Another typical reaction mixture is H2 gas, a nitrate such as an alkali nitrate such as NO3, and a hydrogen dissociator such as Pt / C, Pd / C, Pt / Al2O3, or Pd / Al2O3, all at a pressure ranging from about 0.01 atm to 100 atm. The mixture may further contain carbon, such as graphite or Grade GTA Grafoil (Union Carbide). The reaction ratio may be any desired ratio, such as about 1 to 10% Pi or Pd on carbon, with about 0.1 to 10 wt% Pi mixed with about 50 wt% nitrate, the balance being carbon. However, the ratio may vary by a factor of about 5 to 10 in typical embodiments. When carbon is used as the support, the temperature is maintained below that which results in the C reaction forming compounds such as alkali carbonates. In one embodiment, the temperature is maintained within a range such as about 50° C.-300° C. to about 100° C.-250° C. to form NH 3 relative to N 2 .

[0172] The reactants and regeneration reactions and systems may include those of this disclosure or my prior U.S. patent applications such as PCT / US08 / 61455, PCT filed 4 / 24 / 2008, PCT / US09 / 052072, PCT filed 7 / 29 / 2009, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT filed 3 / 18 / 2010, PCT / US11 / 28889, PCT filed 3 / 17 / 2011, PCT / US12 / 31369, HO-based hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT / US13 / 041938, CIHT power system, PCT / US13 / 041938, filed 5 / 21 / 2013 (the "Mills Prior Applications"), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0173] In one embodiment, the reaction may involve nitrogen oxides such as NO, NO, or NO rather than nitrates. NO, NO, and NO, and alkali nitrates can be generated by industrial processes known as the Haber process followed by the Ostwald process. In one embodiment, a typical sequence of steps is as follows:

number

[0174] Specifically, the Haber process may be used to produce NH3 from N2 and H2 at high temperatures and pressures using a catalyst such as α-iron containing some oxide. The Ostwald process can be used to oxidize ammonia to NO, NO2, and NO2O with a catalyst such as a high-temperature platinum or platinum-rhodium catalyst. In one embodiment, the products are at least one of ammonia and an alkali compound. NO2 may be formed by oxidation from NH3. NO2 may be dissolved in water to form nitric acid, which is reacted with an alkali compound such as MO, MOH, M2CO3, or MHCO3 to form M nitrate, where M is alkali.

[0175] In one embodiment, at least one of the reactions (i) reacting an oxygen source such as MNO3 (M = alkali) to form HO catalyst, (ii) forming atomic H from a source such as H2, and (iii) forming hydrinos may occur on or through a conventional catalyst such as a noble metal such as Pt, which may be heated. The heated catalyst may include a hot filament. The filament may include a hot Pt filament. The oxygen source such as MNO3 may be at least partially in a gaseous state. The gaseous state and its vapor pressure may be controlled by heating the MNO3, such as KNO3. The oxygen source such as MNO3 may be in an open board that is heated to release gaseous MNO3. The heating may include a heater such as a hot filament. In one exemplary embodiment, the MNO3 is placed in a quartz boat, and a Pt filament is wrapped around the boat to function as a heater. The vapor pressure of the MNO3 may be maintained within a pressure range of about 0.1 Torr to 1000 Torr or about 1 Torr to 100 Torr. The hydrogen source may be gaseous hydrogen maintained within a pressure range of about 1 Torr to 100 atm, about 10 Torr to 10 atm, or about 100 Torr to 1 atm. The filament also functions to dissociate hydrogen gas, which may be supplied to the cell through a gas line. The cell may also include a vacuum line. The cell reaction may produce atomic H and HO catalyst, which react to form hydrinos. The reaction may be maintained in a chamber capable of maintaining at least one of a vacuum, ambient pressure, or a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. Products such as H and MOH may be removed from the cell and regenerated. In one exemplary embodiment, MNO reacts with a hydrogen source to form NH and HO catalyst, which are regenerated as a separate step by oxidation or in a separate reaction chamber. In one embodiment, a hydrogen source, such as H gas, is generated from water by at least one of thermal or electrolysis.Typical thermal methods are the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc-zinc oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle, and hybrid sulfur cycle, and others known to those skilled in the art. A typical cell reaction to form HO catalyst, which further reacts with H to form hydrinos, is as follows: KNO3 + 9 / 2H2 → K + NH3 + 3H2O (82) KNO3 + 5H2 → KH + NH3 + 3H2O (83) KNO3 + 4H2 → KOH + NH3 + 2H2O (84) KNO3+C+2H2→ KOH+NH3+CO2(85) 2KNO3+C+3H2→ K2CO3+1 / 2N2+3H2O (86)

[0176] A typical regeneration reaction to form nitrogen oxides is given by equation (81). Products such as K, KH, KOH, and K2CO3 may be reacted with nitric acid, which is formed by adding nitrogen oxides to water to form KNO2 or KNO3. Additional reasonable exemplary reactions for forming at least one of H2O catalyst and H2 are provided in Tables 5, 6, and 7.

[0177] [Table 5-1] [Table 5-2]

[0178] [Table 6]

[0179] [Table 7-1] [Table 7-2] [Table 7-3]

[0180] The reactants forming the HO catalyst may include a source of H and a source of O, such as an O species. The source of the O species may include at least one of a mixture of O-containing compounds or compounds, air, and O. The oxygen-containing compound may include an oxidizer. The oxygen-containing compound may include at least one of an oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, peroxide, and superoxide. Suitable exemplary metal oxides include alkali oxides such as LiO, NaO, and KO; alkaline earth oxides such as MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO; transition metal oxides such as NiO, NiO, FeO, FeO, and CoO; and inner transition metal and rare earth metal oxides, and those of metalloids or other metals, such as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and mixtures thereof and other elements containing oxygen. The oxides may be cations such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metal cations and oxide anions such as those of the present disclosure such as metal oxide anions, and M' 2χ O3χ +1 , or MM' 2x O4, (M = alkaline earth, M' = transition metal (e.g., Fe or Ni or Mn), x = integer), and M2M' 2Χ O 3χ+1 , or M2M' 2Χ Oxyhydroxides may include those of metalloids and other metals, such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, such as O4, (M = alkali, M' = transition metal (e.g., Fe, Ni, or Mn), x = integer). Suitable exemplary oxyhydroxides include AlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH) (α-MnO(OH) manganite and γ-MnO(OH) manganites), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH), Ni 1 / 2 Co 1 / 2O(OH), and M 1 / 3 Co 1 / 3 Mn 1 / 3O(OH). Suitable exemplary hydroxides are those of metals such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, and those of metalloids and other metals such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and mixtures thereof. Suitable complex ion hydroxides are LiZn(OH), NaZn(OH), LiSn(OH), NaSn(OH), LiPb(OH), NaPb(OH), LiSb(OH), NaSb(OH), LiAl(OH), NaAl(OH), LiCr(OH), NaCr(OH), LiSn(OH), and NaSn(OH). Additional exemplary suitable hydroxides include at least one of Co(OH)2, Zn(OH)2, Ni(OH)2, other transition metal hydroxides, Cd(OH)2, Sn(OH)2, and Pb(OH). Suitable exemplary peroxides include H2O2, organic compounds, and other ionic peroxides, such as metal peroxides such as MO2 (where M is an alkali metal), such as Li2O2, Na2O2, and K2O2; alkaline earth peroxides such as Ca, Sr, or Ba; other electropositive metal peroxides, such as lanthanides; and covalent metal peroxides, such as Zn, Cd, and Hg. Suitable exemplary superoxides include metal peroxides such as MO2 (where M is an alkali metal), and alkaline earth metal superoxides, such as NaO2, KO2, RbO2, and CsO2. In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes an alkali peroxide and a hydrogen source, such as a hydride, a hydrocarbon, or a hydrogen storage metal, such as BH3NH3. The reaction mixture may include a source of oxygen such as a compound containing at least one oxyanion such as a carbonate such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, and hydroxides such as those of other elements that form hydroxides, including those of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and others of the present disclosure.Other suitable oxygen-containing compounds are at least one of the oxyanion compounds from the groups of aluminates, tungstates, zirconates, titanates, phosphates, carbonates, nitrates, chromates, dichromates, and manganates, oxides, oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, silicates, titanates, tungstates, and others of the present disclosure. One typical reaction of carbonates and hydroxides is as follows: Ca(OH)2+Li2CO3→ CaO+H2O+Li2O+CO2(87)

[0181] In other embodiments, the oxygen source immediately forms or is gaseous, such as NO2, NO, N2O, CO2, PO3, PO5, and SO2. Reduced oxide products from the formation of HO catalysts, such as C, N, NH3, P, or S, may be converted back to oxides by combustion with oxygen or their sources as provided in Mills' earlier application. The cell may produce excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or the heat may be converted to electricity by means such as a Rankine or Brayton system. Alternatively, the cell may be used to synthesize lower energy hydrogen species, such as molecular hydrinos and hydrino hydride ions and corresponding compounds.

[0182] In one embodiment, a reaction mixture for forming hydrinos for at least one of producing energy and producing lower energy hydrogen species includes a source of catalyst including at least one of O and H, such as those of the present disclosure, such as an HO catalyst, and a source of atomic hydrogen. The reaction mixture may further include an acid, such as HSO, HSO, HCO, HNO, HNO, HClO, HPO, and HPO, or an acid anhydride or acid anhydride. The latter may include at least one of the group: SO, SO, CO, NO, NO, NO, NO, ClO, PO, PO, and PO. The reaction mixture may include at least one of a base and a basic anhydride, such as MO (M = alkali), MO (M = alkaline earth), ZnO, or other transition metal oxides, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO, or AlO. Further exemplary anhydrides include HO-stable metals such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The anhydride may be an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal oxide, and the hydrous compound may include a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may include an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may include at least one of HO and a source of HO. HO may be reversibly formed by hydration and dehydration reactions in the presence of atomic hydrogen. A typical reaction to form the HO catalyst is as follows: Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O (88) 2LiOH → LiO+HO (89) H2CO3 → CO2 + H2O (90) 2FeOOH → Fe2O3+H2O (91)

[0183] In one embodiment, the HO catalyst is PO 10 Ultraphosphates such as . and [(PO3) n ] nCyclic metaphosphates such as [(PO3) n ] n Long-chain metaphosphates such as [P n O 3n+1 ] (n+2)- and mixtures to form condensed phosphates, such as at least one of polyphosphates, such as dihydrogen phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and phosphate salts of cations, such as those of metalloids and other metals, such as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and cations containing metals, such as alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals. A typical reaction is as follows:

number

[0184] The reactants for the dehydration reaction may include R-Ni, which may include at least one of Al(OH)3 and Al2O3. The reactants further include a metal M, such as those of the present disclosure, such as an alkali metal, a metal hydride MH, a metal hydride, such as those of the present disclosure, such as an alkali hydroxide, and a source of hydrogen, such as H2 as well as intrinsic hydrogen. A typical reaction is as follows: 2Al(OH)3+ → Al2O3+3H2O (94) Al2O3+2NaOH → 2NaAlO2+H2O (95) 3MH+Al(OH)3+ → M3Al+3H2O (96) MoCu+2MOH+4O2→ M2MoO4+CuO+H2O (M=Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) (97)

[0185] The reaction products may include alloys. R-Ni may be regenerated by rehydration. The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction to form the HO catalyst may include and contain oxyhydroxides such as those of the present disclosure as given in the following exemplary reactions: 3Co(OH)2→ 2CoOOH+Co+2H2O (98)

[0186] Atomic hydrogen may be formed from H gas by dissociation. The hydrogen dissociator may be one of those disclosed herein, such as R-Ni, or a noble or transition metal on a support, such as Ni on carbon or Al2O3, or Pt, or Pd. Alternatively, atomic H may be from H permeation through a membrane, such as those disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the cell includes a membrane, such as a ceramic membrane, that selectively allows H2 to diffuse through it while preventing H2O diffusion. In one embodiment, at least one of H2 and atomic H is supplied to the cell by electrolysis of an electrolyte containing a source of hydrogen, such as an aqueous or molten electrolyte containing H2O. In one embodiment, the H2O catalyst is chemically formed by dehydration of an acid or base to an anhydrous form. In one embodiment, the reaction to form catalytic H2O and hydrinos is propagated by changing at least one of the cell pH or activity, temperature, and pressure, although pressure may be varied by changing the temperature. The activity of species such as acids, bases, or anhydrides may be altered by adding salts known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture may include a material such as carbon that absorbs or may be a source of a gas such as H or an anhydride gas in the reaction to form hydrinos. The reactants may be in any desired concentration and ratio. The reaction mixture may be melted or may include an aqueous slurry.

[0187] In another embodiment, the source of the HO catalyst is a reaction between an acid and a base, such as a reaction between at least one of hydrohalic acid, sulfuric acid, sulfite, and nitrous acid, and a base. Other suitable acid reactants are H2SO4, HCl, HX (X-halogen), H3PO4, HClO4, HNO3, HNO, HNO2, FS, H2CO3, H2MoO4, HNbO3, H2B4O7 (tetraborate M), HBO2, H2WO4, H2CrO4, H2Cr2O7, H2TiO3, HZrO3, MAlO2, HMn2O4, HIO3, HIO4, HClO4, or an aqueous solution of an organic acid such as formic acid or acetic acid. Suitable exemplary bases are hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, or rare earth metals, or containing Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb.

[0188] In one embodiment, the reactants may include an acid or a base, which reacts with a base or anhydride, respectively, to form the HO catalyst, and a compound of the anion of the acid and the cation of the basic anhydride, or the anion of the acid anhydride and the cation of the base, respectively. A typical reaction of the base NaOH with the acid anhydride SiO is as follows: 4NaOH+SiO2→ Na4SiO4+2H2O (99) Here, the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is as follows: H4SiO4 → 2H2O+SiO2(100)

[0189] Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may include elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. The corresponding oxide may include at least one of MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, Ni2O3, FeO, Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, VO3, VO5, BO3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MnO, Mn3O4, Mn2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, Co2O3, CoO, Co3O4, Co2O3, and MgO. In one exemplary embodiment, the base may include a hydroxide, such as an alkali hydroxide, such as MOH (M = alkali), such as Li2O, and HO, which may form the corresponding basic oxide, such as MO. The basic oxide may react with the anhydrous oxide to form a product oxide. In one typical reaction of LiOH with an anhydrous oxide with the release of HO, the product oxide compounds include LiMoO, or LiMoO, LiTiO, LiZrO, LiSiO, LiAlO, LiNiO, LiFeO, LiTaO, LiVO, LiBO, LiNbO, LiSeO, LiPO, LiSeO, LiTeO, LiTeO, LiWO, LiCrO, LiCrO, LiMnO, LiHfO, LiCoO, and MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are at least one of the group of As2O3, As2O5, Sb2O3, Sb2O4, Sb2O5, Bi2O3, SO2, SO3, CO2, NO2, N2O3, N2O5, Cl2O7, PO2, P2O3, and P2O5, and other similar oxides known to those skilled in the art. Another example is given by equation (91). A suitable reaction for a metal oxide is: 2LiOH+NiO → Li2NiO2+H2O (101) 3LiOH+NiO → LiNiO2+H2O+Li2O+1 / 2H2(102) 4LiOH+Ni2O3→ 2Li2NiO2+2H2O+1 / 2O2(103) 2LiOH+Ni2O3→ 2LiNiO2+H2O (104)

[0190] Other transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals such as Fe, Cr, and Ti, and metalloids or other metals such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te may substitute for Ni, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, Rb, and Cs may substitute for K. In one embodiment, the oxide may include Mo, which during the reaction to form HO may form a nascent HO catalyst and H, which further reacts to form hydrinos. A typical solid fuel reaction and possible oxide production pathway is as follows: 3MoO2+4LiOH → 2Li2MoO4+Mo+2H2Ο (105) 2MoO2+4LiOH → 2Li2MoO4+2H2(106) O 2- → 1 / 2O2+2e - (107) 2H2O+2e - → 2OH - +H2(108) 2H2O+2e - → 2OH - +H+H(1 / 4) (109) Mo 4+ +4e → Mo (110)

[0191] The reaction may further include a dissociator such as Pd / Al2O3 and a hydrogen source such as hydrogen gas. The hydrogen may be protium, deuterium, or tritium, or a combination thereof. The reaction to form the H2O catalyst may involve the reaction of two hydroxides to form water. The hydroxides may have different oxidation states, such as those in the reaction of a transition metal or alkaline earth hydroxide with an alkali metal hydroxide. The reaction mixture and reaction may further include and contain H2 from a source, as given in the following exemplary reaction: LiOH+2Co(OH)2+1 / 2H2 → LiCoO2+3H2O+Co (111)

[0192] The reaction mixture and reaction may further comprise and contain a metal M, such as an alkaline earth metal or alkali metal, as given in the following exemplary reaction: M+LiOH+Co(OH)2→ LiCoO2+H2O+MH (112)

[0193] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a metal hydroxide and a metal oxide that may serve as a source of H and optionally another source of H, where the metal, such as Fe, in the metal oxide can have multiple oxidation states to undergo oxidation-reduction reactions during the reaction to form HO to act as a catalyst that reacts with H to form hydrinos. An example is FeO, but Fe is converted to Fe during the reaction to form the catalyst. 2+ can undergo oxidation and Fe 3+ A typical reaction is as follows: FeO+3LiOH → H2O+LiFeO2+H(1 / p)+Li2O (113)

[0194] In one embodiment, at least one reactant, such as a metal oxide, hydroxide, or oxyhydroxide, functions as an oxidant, where a metal atom, such as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn, may be in a higher oxidation state than another possible oxidation state. The reaction to form the catalyst and hydrinos may cause the atom to undergo reduction to at least one lower oxidation state. Exemplary reactions of metal oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides to form HO catalysts are as follows: 2KOH+NiO → K2NiO2+H2O (114) 3KOH+NiO → KNiO2+H2O+K2O+1 / 2H2(115) 2KOH+Ni2O3→ 2KNiO2+H2O (116) 4KOH+Ni2O3→ 2K2NiO2+2H2O+1 / 2O2(117) 2KOH+Ni(OH)2→ K2NiO2+2H2O (118) 2LiOH+MoO3→ Li2MoO4+H2O (119) 3KOH+Ni(OH)2 → KNiO2+2H2O+K2O + 1 / 2H2(120) 2KOH+2NiOOH → K2NiO2+2H2O+NiO+l / 2O2 (121) KOH+NiOOH → KNiO2+H2O (122) 2NaOH+Fe2O3→ 2NaFeO2+H2O (123)

[0195] Other transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals such as Ni, Fe, Cr, and Ti, and metalloids or other metals such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te may be substituted for Ni or Fe, and other alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs may be substituted for K or Na. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of hydroxides and oxides of HO-stable metals such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Additionally, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, such as H2 gas, and optionally includes a dissociator, such as a noble metal on a support. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a mixture of a transition metal halide, such as a bromide, such as FeBr2, and at least one of a metal that forms an oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or oxide and HO. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a mixture of at least one of a metal oxide, hydroxide, and oxyhydroxide, such as Ni2O3, and at least one of a transition metal oxide, such as HO.

[0196] A typical reaction between the acid HCl and the basic anhydride NiO is as follows: 2HCl+NiO → H2O+NiCl2(124) Here, the dehydration reaction of the corresponding base is as follows: Ni(OH)2 → H2O+NiO (125)

[0197] The reactants may include at least one of a Lewis acid or base and a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base, and the reaction mixture and reaction may further include and contain oxygen-containing compounds, with the acid reacting to form water as given in the following exemplary reaction: 2HX+POX3 → H2O+PX5(126)

[0198] (X = halogen). Compounds similar to POX3 are plausible, such as those with P replaced by S. Other plausible exemplary anhydrides may include oxides of elements, metals, alloys, or mixtures soluble in acid, such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, or oxides containing Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb, or alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, or inner transition metals, such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. Corresponding oxides may include MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, FeO or Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, MnO, Mn3O4, Mn2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, Co2O3, CoO, Co3O4, Co2O3, and MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxides are those of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In one embodiment, the acid comprises a hydrohalic acid, and the products are a metal halide oxide and HO. The reaction mixture further comprises a source of hydrogen, such as H gas, and a dissociator, such as Pt / C, where the H and HO catalyst react to form hydrinos.

[0199] In one embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a source of H or H gas, such as a permeable membrane, and a dissociator, such as Pt / C, and a source of HO catalyst, including a hydroxide or oxide that is reduced to HO. The metal oxide or hydroxide may form a metal hydride that serves as a source of H. A typical reaction of alkali hydroxides and oxides, such as LiOH and LiO, is as follows: LiOH+H2 → H2O+LiH (127) LiO → LiOH+LiH (128)

[0200] The reaction mixture may include a metal oxide or hydroxide that undergoes hydrogen reduction to HO, such as those of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In, and a source of hydrogen, such as H gas, and a dissociator, such as Pt / C.

[0201] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a dissociator such as Pt / C and an H source such as H gas, and a peroxide compound such as H O that decomposes to the H O catalyst and other oxygen-containing products such as O. Some of the decomposition products, such as H and O, also react to form the H O catalyst.

[0202] In one embodiment, the reaction to form HO as a catalyst includes an organic dehydration reaction, such as that of an alcohol, such as a polyhydric alcohol, such as a sugar, to an aldehyde and HO. In one embodiment, the dehydration reaction includes the release of HO from a terminal alcohol to form an aldehyde. The terminal alcohol may include a sugar or its derivative, liberating HO, which may function as a catalyst. Suitable exemplary alcohols are meso-erythritol, galactitol, or dulcitol, and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). A typical reaction mixture includes a sugar and a hydrogen dissociator, such as Pd / AlO+H. Alternatively, the reaction includes the dehydration of a metal salt, such as one with at least one water of hydration. In one embodiment, the dehydration includes the loss of HO, which functions as a catalyst, from a hydrate, such as a salt hydrate and a hydrated ion, such as BaI2H2O and EuBr2nH2O.

[0203] In one embodiment, the reaction to form HO catalyst involves hydrogen reduction of oxygen-containing compounds such as CO, oxyanions such as MNO (M = alkali), metal oxides such as NiO, NiO, FeO, or SnO, hydroxides such as Co(OH), oxyhydroxides such as FeOOH, CoOOH, and NiOOH, and other compositions containing oxygen such as those disclosed herein that are hydrogen reducible to HO. Exemplary compounds containing oxygen or oxyanions are SOCl, NaSO, NaMnO, POBr, KSO, CO, CO, NO, NO, PO, NO, NO, SO, SO, IO, NaClO, NaClO, KSO, and KHSO. The source of hydrogen for hydrogen reduction may be at least one of H2 gas and a hydride, such as a metal hydride, such as those disclosed herein. The reaction mixture further includes a reducing agent, which may form an ion or compound containing oxygen. The cation of the oxyanion may form a product compound containing another anion, such as a halide, another chalcogenide, a phosphide, another oxyanion, a nitride, a silicide, an arsenide, or another anion disclosed herein. A typical reaction is as follows: 4NaNO3(c)+5MgH2(c) → 5MgO(c)+ 4NaOH(c)+3H2O(l)+2N2(g) (129) P2O5(c)+6NaH(c) → 2Na3PO4(c)+3H2O(g) (130) NaClO4(c)+2MgH2(c) → 2MgO(c) + NaCl(c) + 2H2O(l) (131) KHSO4+4H2→ KSH+4H2O (132) K2SO4+4H2→ 2KOH+2H2O+H2S (133) LiNO3+4H2→ LiNH+3H2O (134) GeO2+2H2→ Ge+2H2O (135) CO2+H2→ C+2H2O (136) PbO2+2H2→ 2H2O+Pb (137) V2O5+5H2→ 2V+5H2O (138) Co(OH)2+H2→ Co+2H2O (139) Fe2O3+3H2→ 2Fe+3H2O (140) 3Fe2O3+H2 → 2Fe3O4+H2O (141) Fe2O3+H2 → 2FeO+H2O (142) Ni2O3+3H2→ 2Ni+3H2O (143) 3Ni2O3+H2 → 2Ni3O4+H2O (144) Ni2O3+H2 → 2NiO+H2O (145) 3FeOOH+1 / 2H2→ Fe3O4+2H2O (146) 3ΝiΟΟΗ+l / 2H2→ Ni3O4+2H2O (147) 3CoOOH+1 / 2H2→ Co3O4+2H2O (148) FeOOH+1 / 2H2 → FeO+H2O (149) NiOOH+1 / 2H2→ NiO+H2O (150) CoOOH+1 / 2H2 → CoO+H2O (151) SnO+H2 → Sn+H2O (152)

[0204] The reaction mixture may include oxygen or a source of oxygen, such as an oxygen-containing compound, and an anion or a source of anions, where the reaction to form the HO catalyst involves an anion-oxygen exchange reaction, optionally with H, from a source that reacts with oxygen to form HO. A typical reaction is as follows: 2NaOH+H2+S → Na2S+2H2O (153) 2NaOH+H2+Te → Na2Te+2H2O (154) 2NaOH+H2+Se → Na2Se+2H2O (155) LiOH+NH3 → LiNH2+H2O (156)

[0205] In another embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an exchange reaction between chalcogenides, such as one between O- and S-containing reactants. A typical chalcogenide reactant, such as tetrahedral ammonium tetrathiomolybdate ([MoS4] 2- ) anion. A typical reaction to form nascent HO catalyst and optionally nascent H is hydrogen sulfide and molybdate [MoO] in the presence of ammonia: 2- This includes the reaction: [NH4]2[MoO4]+4H2S → [NH4]2[MoS4]+4H2O (157)

[0206] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen, an oxygen-containing compound, and at least one element capable of forming an alloy with at least one element of the reaction mixture. The reaction to form the HO catalyst may involve an exchange reaction of oxygen with an element capable of forming an alloy with the cation of the oxygen compound and an oxygen-containing compound, where the oxygen reacts with hydrogen from a source to form HO. A typical reaction is as follows: NaOH+1 / 2H2+Pd → NaPb+H2O (158) NaOH+1 / 2H2+Bi → NaBi+H2O (159) NaOH+1 / 2H2+2Cd → Cd2Na+H2O (160) NaOH+1 / 2H2+4Ga → Ga4Na+H2O (161) NaOH+1 / 2H2+Sn → NaSn+H2O (162) NaAlH4+Al(OH)3+5Ni → NaAlO2+Ni5Al+H2O+5 / 2H2(163)

[0207] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a reducing agent, such as a metal that forms oxygen, and an oxygen-containing compound, such as an oxy-oxide. The reaction to form the HO catalyst includes the reaction of an oxy-hydroxide with a metal to form HO and the metal oxide. A typical reaction is as follows: 2MnOOH+Sn → 2MnO+SnO+H2O (164) 4MnOOH+Sn → 4MnO+SnO2+2H2O (165) 2MnOOH+Zn → 2MnO+ZnO+H2O (166)

[0208] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes an oxygen-containing compound such as hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, and at least one other compound containing a different anion, such as another element or a halide. The reaction to form the HO catalyst may involve reaction of the hydroxide with the element or other compound, while an anion or element is exchanged with the hydroxide to form another compound of the anion or element. The anion may include a halide. A typical reaction is as follows: 2NaOH+NiCl2+H2→ 2NaCl+2H2O+Ni (167) 2NaOH+I2+H2→ 2NaI+2H2O (168) 2NaOH+XeF2+H2→ 2NaF+2H2O+Xe (169) BiX3 (X = halogen) + 4Bi(OH)3 → 3ΒiΟΧ+Bi2O3+6H2O (170)

[0209] The hydroxide and halide compounds may be selected so that the reaction to form HO and another halide is thermally reversible. In one embodiment, the general exchange reaction is as follows: NaOH+1 / 2H2+1 / yM x Cl y = NaCl + 6H2O + x / yM (171) Here, a typical compound M x Cl yThe reactions of Eq. (171) in the range of approximately 100°C to 2000°C have at least one of an enthalpy and a free energy of approximately 0 kJ at elevated temperatures and are reversible. The reversible temperatures are calculated from the corresponding thermodynamic parameters of each reaction. A typical temperature range is approximately 800-900 K for the NaCl-ScCl reaction. 3、 These are NaCl-TiCl2 at about 300K-400K, NaCl-UCl3 at about 600K-800K, NaCl-UCl4 at about 250K-300K, NaCl-ZrCl4 at about 250K-300K, NaCl-MgCl2 at about 900K-1300K, NaCl-EuCl3 at about 900K-1000K, NaCl-NdCl3 at about >1000K, and NaCl-YCl3 at about >1000K.

[0210] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a metal oxide, such as an alkali metal oxide, an alkaline earth metal oxide, a transition metal oxide, an inner transition metal oxide, and a rare earth metal oxide, and those of metalloids and other metals, such as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te; a peroxide, such as MO (where M is an alkali metal), such as Li2O2, Na2O2, and KO2; and a superoxide, such as MO (where M is an alkali metal), such as NaO2, KO2, RbO2, and CsO2; and an alkaline earth metal superoxide; and a source of hydrogen. Ionic peroxides further include those of Ca, Sr, or Ba. The reaction to form the HO catalyst may include hydrogen reduction of the oxide, peroxide, or superoxide to form HO. A typical reaction is as follows: Na2O+2H2 → 2NaH+H2O (172) Li2O2+3 / 2H2 → Li2O+H2O (173) KO2+3 / 2H2 → KOH+H2O (174)

[0211] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a flammable hydrogen-containing compound or other source of hydrogen, such as a metal amide and those disclosed herein, and a hydride, such as at least one of an alkali metal hydride, an alkaline earth metal hydride, a transition metal hydride, an inner transition metal hydride, and a rare earth metal hydride; a source of hydrogen, such as at least one of H; and a source of oxygen, such as O. The reaction to form the HO catalyst may include oxidation of a hydrogen compound, such as a metal amide, to form H, a hydride, or HO. A typical reaction is as follows: 2NaH+O2 → Na2O+H2O (175) H2+1 / 2O2→ H2O (176) LiNH2+2O2→ LiNO3+H2O (177) 2LiNH2+3 / 2O2→ 2LiOH+H2O+N2(178)

[0212] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes a source of hydrogen and a source of oxygen. The reaction to form the HO catalyst may include decomposition of at least one of the source of oxygen and the source of hydrogen to form HO. An exemplary reaction is as follows: NH4O3 → N2O+2H2O (179) ΝΗ4ΝO3→ N2+1 / 2O2+2H2O (180) H2O2 → 1 / 2O2 + H2O (181) H2O2 + H2 → 2H2O (182)

[0213] The reaction mixture disclosed in this chemical reactor section further includes a source of hydrogen to form hydrinos. The source may be a source of atomic hydrogen, such as H gas and a hydrogen dissociator, or a metal hydride, such as the metal hydrides and dissociators of the present disclosure. The hydrogen source providing the atomic hydrogen may be a hydrogen-containing compound, such as a hydroxide or oxyhydroxide. The H reacted to form hydrinos may be nascent H formed by the reaction of one or more reactants, where at least one includes a source of hydrogen, such as the reaction of a hydroxide and an oxide. The reaction may also form an HO catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide, such as FeOOH, can dehydrate to provide the HO catalyst and also provide the nascent H for the hydrino reaction during dehydration. 4FeOOH → H2O+Fe2O3+2FeO+O2+2H(1 / 4) (183) Here, the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to hydrinos. Other typical reactions are those of oxides or oxyhydroxides and hydroxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or FeO to form alkali metal oxides, such as NaFeO + HO, where the nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinos and HO functions as a catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide, such as FeOOH, can dehydrate to provide the HO catalyst and also provide nascent H for the hydrino reaction during the following dehydration reaction: 4FeOOH → H2O+Fe2O3+2FeO+O2+2H(1 / 4) (184) Here, the nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to become hydrinos. Other typical reactions are those of oxides or oxyhydroxides and hydroxides, such as NaOH + FeOOH or Fe2O3, to form alkali metal oxides, such as NaFeO2 + HO, where the nascent H formed during the reaction forms hydrinos and HO acts as a catalyst. The hydroxide ions are both reduced and oxidized in forming HO and oxide ions. The oxide ions are OH - It may react with HO to form . The same route may be taken by a hydroxide-halide exchange reaction, as follows: 2M(OH)2+2M'X2 → H2O+2MX2+2Μ'O+1 / 2O2+2H(1 / 4) (185) Here, typical M and M' metals are alkaline earth metals and transition metals, respectively, such as Cu(OH)2 + FeBr2, Cu(OH)2 + CuBr2, or Co(OH)2 + CuBr2. In one embodiment, the solid fuel may include a metal hydroxide and a metal halide, with at least one metal being Fe. At least one of HO and H2 may be added to regenerate the reactants. In one embodiment, M and M' may be selected from the group consisting of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Group 13 elements, Group 14 elements, Group 15 elements, and Group 16 elements, and other cations of halides or hydroxides such as those of the present disclosure. An exemplary reaction to form at least one of HOH catalyst, nascent H, and hydrinos is as follows: 4MOH+4M'X → H2O+2M'2O+M2O+2MX+X2+2H(1 / 4) (186)

[0214] In one embodiment, the reaction mixture includes at least one of a halide compound and a hydroxide, such as those of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the halide may function to facilitate at least one of the maintenance and formation of at least one of the nascent HOH catalyst and H. In one embodiment, the compound may function to lower the melting point of the reaction mixture.

[0215] In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes a mixture of Mg(OH)2 + CuBr2. The product CuBr may be sublimated to form a CuBr condensation product that is separated from the non-volatile MgO. CuBr may react with Br2 to form CuBr2, and MgO may react with H2O to form Mg(OH)2. Mg(OH)2 may combine with CuBr2 to form a regenerated solid fuel.

[0216] Acid-base reactions are another approach to HO catalysis. In this way, the thermochemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction that forms hydrinos. Typical halide and hydroxide mixtures are those of Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Cd, and mixtures of halides and hydroxides of metals with low water reactivity, such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture further includes HO, which may function as a catalyst and at least one source of H, such as nascent HO. The water may be in the form of a hydrate that decomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

[0217] In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes a reaction mixture of an inorganic compound and HO to form nascent HO and nascent H. The inorganic compound may include a halide, such as a metal halide, that reacts with HO. The reaction product may be at least one of a hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide, an oxide, an oxyhalide, a hydroxyhalide, and a hydrate. Other products include XO. - , XO2 - , XO3 - , and XO4 - (X = halogen), the product may include anions containing halogen and oxygen. The product may also be at least one of halogen gas and reduced cation. The halide may be a metal halide such as at least one of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that form halides. The metal or element may additionally form at least one of hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, hydrate, and XO. - , XO2 - , XO3 - , and XO4 - (X=halogen), which may form compounds with halogen and oxygen-containing anions. Typical metals and elements that are appropriate are alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals, and at least one of Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B. A typical reaction is as follows: 5MX2+7H2O → MXOH+M(OH)2+MO+M2O3+11H(1 / 4)+9 / 2X2 (187) where M is a metal such as a transition metal such as Cu, and X is a halogen such as Cl.

[0218] In one embodiment, HO functions as a catalyst maintained at a low concentration to provide nascent HO. In one embodiment, the low concentration is achieved by dispersion of HO molecules in another material, such as a solid, liquid, or gas. The HO molecules may be diluted to the limit of isolation of the nascent molecules. The material also includes a source of H. The material may include an ionic compound, such as a transition metal halide, such as CuBr, or an alkali halide, such as a potassium halide, such as KCl. The low concentration to form nascent H may also be achieved kinetically, where HO is formed by a reaction. The product HO may be removed at a rate relative to the rate of formation, resulting in a steady-state low concentration to provide at least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. Reactions to form HO may include dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions, and others, such as those disclosed herein. HO may be removed by means such as evaporation and condensation. Typical reactants are FeOOH to form HO and iron oxide, although nascent H can also be formed from hydrinos through further reaction. Another typical reaction mixture is at least one of FeO (NaOH and H) and at least one of FeOOH (NaOH and H). The reaction mixture may be maintained at an elevated temperature, such as within the range of 100°C to 600°C. The HO product may be removed by vapor condensation in a cold spot of the reactor, such as a gas line maintained below 100°C. In another example, a material containing HO as part of or contained in a compound or mixture, such as HO absorbed or dispersed within the lattice of an ionic compound, such as an alkali halide, such as potassium halide, such as KCl, may be bombarded with energetic particles. The particles may include at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles may include a beam, such as an electron beam. The bombardment may provide at least one of HO catalyst, H, and activation of the reaction to form hydrinos.In an embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, the HO content may be high, and the HO may be ignited to form hydrinos at a high rate by a high current.

[0219] The reaction mixture may further include a support, such as an electrically conductive high surface area support. Suitable exemplary supports include those disclosed herein, such as borides and carbides such as TiC and WC, carbon, Ni mesh, Ni cermet, metal screens such as Ni, and metal powders such as R-Ni or Ni. The support may include a dissociator such as Pd / C or Pd / C. The reactants may be in any desired molar ratio. In one embodiment, the stoichiometry favors completion of the reaction, providing H to form hydrinos and forming HO catalyst. The reaction temperature may be within any desired range, such as from ambient temperature to 1500°C. The pressure may be within any desired range, such as from about 0.01 Torr to 500 atm. These reactions are at least one of regenerative and reversible by the methods disclosed herein and in Mills' previous applications, such as PCT / US08 / 61455, filed April 24, 2008, PCT / US09 / 052072, filed July 29, 2009, PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010, PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 17, 2011, PCT / US11 / 28889, filed March 17, 2011, PCT / US12 / 31369, filed March 30, 2012, HO-based hydrogen catalytic power system, and PCT / US13 / 041938, filed May 21, 2013, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. The reaction to form HO may be made reversible by changing the reaction conditions, such as pressure and temperature, to allow the reverse reaction consuming HO to occur, as known by those skilled in the art. For example, the HO pressure may be increased in the reverse reaction to reconstitute the reactants from the products by rehydration. In other cases, the hydrogen-reduced products may be regenerated by oxidation, such as by reaction with at least one of HO and oxygen. In one embodiment, the reverse reaction products may be removed from the reaction to allow the reverse or regenerating reaction to proceed.The reverse reaction may be favored even if it is not favored based on equilibrium thermodynamics by removing at least one reverse reaction product. In one exemplary embodiment, the regenerated reactant (reverse or regeneration reaction product) includes a hydroxide, such as an alkali hydroxide. The hydroxide may be removed by methods such as solvation or sublimation. In the latter case, the alkali hydroxide sublimes unchanged at temperatures in the range of about 350°C to 400°C. The reaction may be maintained in a power plant system according to Mills' prior application. Thermal energy from the power-producing cell may provide heat to at least one other cell undergoing regeneration as previously disclosed. Alternatively, the equilibrium between the reaction forming the HO catalyst and the reverse regeneration reaction may be shifted by changing the temperature of the water wall in a system design with a coolant-driven temperature gradient in selected regions of the cell, as previously disclosed.

[0220] In one embodiment, the halide and oxide may undergo an exchange reaction. The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other. The exchange reaction may be carried out by heating the product mixture. The separation may be driven by at least one of applying a vacuum and heating. In one exemplary embodiment, CaBr and CuO may undergo an exchange reaction by heating to a high temperature, such as within a range of about 700°C to 900°C, to form CuBr and CaO. Any other reasonable temperature range may be used, such as within a range of about 100°C to 2000°C. The CuBr may be separated and recovered by sublimation, which may be achieved by applying heat and low pressure. The CuBr may form a discrete band. The CuBr may be reacted with H2O to form Ca(OH)2.

[0221] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a source of singlet oxygen. A typical reaction to generate singlet oxygen is as follows: NaOCl+H2O2→ O2+NaCl+H2O (188)

[0222] In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a reagent or source of the Fenton reaction, such as H2O2.

[0223] In one embodiment, lower energy hydrogen species and compounds are synthesized using a catalyst containing at least one of O and H, such as HO. A typical reaction mixture for synthesizing the lower energy hydrogen compound MHX includes a source of X and M, such as an alkali halide, such as KCl; a metal reducing agent, such as an alkali metal; a hydrogen dissociator, such as Ni, such as Ni, or R-Ni, and optionally a support, such as carbon; a source of hydrogen, such as H gas and at least one metal hydride, such as MH, which may replace M; and a source of oxygen, such as an oxygen-containing compound or metal oxide. Suitable exemplary metal oxides are FeO, CrO, and NiO. The reaction temperature may be maintained within a range of about 200°C to 1500°C, or about 400°C to 800°C. The reactants may be in any desired ratio. The reaction mixture for forming KHCl may include K, Ni catalyst, KCl, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and NiO. Typical weights and conditions are 1.6 g K, 20 g KCl, 40 g Ni catalyst, 1.5 g Fe2O3, and 1.5 g NiO in an amount of oxygen equivalent to the molar amount of K from a metal oxide such as NiO, 1 atm H2, and a reaction temperature of approximately 550-600°C. The reaction involves the reaction of O and H from the metal oxide to form H2O (catalyst), and the H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrino hydride ions and hydrinos, which form the product KHCl. The reaction mixture for forming KHI may include K, R-Ni, KI, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe2O3, Cr2O3, and NiO. Typical weights and conditions are 1 g K, 20 g KI, 15 g R-Ni 2800, 1 g Fe2O3, and 1 g metal oxide such as NiO to an amount of oxygen equivalent to the molar amount of K, 1 atm H2, and a reaction temperature of about 450-500°C.The reaction involves the reaction of O with H from the metal oxide to form HO catalyst, and the H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrino hydride and hydrinos, forming the product KHI. In one embodiment, at least one product of the CIHT cell, SF-CIHT cell, solid fuel, or chemical cell is H(1 / 4), which causes an upfield H NMR matrix shift. In one embodiment, the presence of hydrino species, such as hydrino molecules or atoms, in a solid matrix, such as a hydroxide matrix like NaOH or KOH, causes matrix protons to shift upfield. Matrix protons, such as those of NaOH or KOH, may exchange. In one embodiment, the shift causes the matrix peak to be within about -0.1 to -5 ppm relative to TMS.

[0224] In one embodiment, the regeneration reaction of a hydroxide and halide compound mixture, such as Cu(OH)2 + CuBr2, may be by the addition of at least one of H2 and HO. Products, such as halides and oxides, may be separated by sublimation of the halides. In one embodiment, HO may be added to the reaction mixture under heating conditions to cause the hydroxides and halides, such as CuBr2 and Cu(OH)2, to form reaction products. In one embodiment, the regeneration may be achieved by a thermal cycling step. In one embodiment, halides, such as CuBr2, are soluble in HO, whereas hydroxides, such as Cu(OH)2, are insoluble. The regenerated compounds may be isolated by filtering or precipitation. Since thermal energy may be removed from the reaction, the species may dry. Heat may be recovered from driving off water vapor. Recovery may be, for example, by generating electricity using a turbine and generator, or by using steam directly for heating, or by a heat exchanger. In one embodiment, regeneration of Cu(OH)2 from CuO is achieved by using an H2O splitting catalyst. Suitable catalysts are CuAlO2 formed by sintering Pt / Al2O3, CuO, and Al2O3, cobalt phosphate, cobalt borate, cobalt methyl borate, nickel borate, RuO2, LaMnO3, SrTiO3, TiO2, and WO3, and other noble metals on supports. One typical method for forming an H2O splitting catalyst is to sinter CuAlO2 in approximately 0.1 M potassium phosphate borate electrolyte at pH 9.2 at potentials of 0.92 and 1.15 V (vs. a normal hydrogen electrode), respectively. 2+ and Ni 2+ A typical thermally reversible solid fuel cycle is as follows: T 100 2CuBr2+Ca(OH)2 → 2CuO+2CaBr2+H2O (189) T 730 CaBr2+2H2O → Ca(OH)2+2HBr (190) T 100 CuO+2HBr → CuBr2+H2O (191) T 100 2CuBr2+Cu(OH)2 → 2CuO+2CaBr2+H2O (192) T 730 CuBr2+2H2O → Cu(OH)2+2HBr (193) T 100 CuO+2HBr → CuBr2+H2O (194)

[0225] In one embodiment, a solid fuel reaction mixture having one or more of H2 or H2O as at least one of a reactant and a product, and at least one of H2O as a product and H2 as a reactant, is selected so that the maximum free energy of any conventional reaction is about zero within a range of -500 to +500 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent, or preferably within a range of -100 to +100 kJ / mole of the limiting reagent. The reactant and product mixture may be maintained at one or more of the minimum temperature at which the reaction is reversible and the optimum temperature at which the free energy is about zero, to obtain regenerative or steady-state power for a duration longer than the reaction time, without maintaining the mixture and temperature. The temperature may be within the optimum range of about + / - 500°C or about + / - 100°C. Typical mixtures and reaction temperatures are a stoichiometric mixture of Fe, Fe2O3, H2, and H2O at 800K, and a stoichiometric mixture of Sn, SnO, H2, and H2O at 800K.

[0226] In one embodiment, an alkali metal such as K or Li and at least one of nH (n = integer), OH, O, 2O, O2, and HO function as catalysts, while the source of H is at least one of a metal hydride such as MH, and a reaction of at least one of a metal M and a metal hydride MH with a source of H to form H. One product may be oxidized M, such as an oxide or hydroxide. The reaction to produce atomic hydrogen and at least one of the catalyst may be an electron transfer reaction or an oxidation-reduction reaction. The reaction mixture may further include at least one of an electrically conductive support such as a support of the present disclosure, such as carbon, but also others, carbides, borides, and carbonitrides, and dissociators thereof, and an H2 dissociator such as those of the present disclosure, such as a Ni screen or R-Ni. A typical oxidation-reduction reaction of Mo or MH is as follows: 4MH+Fe2O3 → +H2O+H(1 / p)+M2O+MOH+2Fe+M (195) wherein at least one of HO and M may function as a catalyst to form H(1 / p). The reaction mixture may further include a getter for hydrinos, such as a compound such as a salt, such as a halide salt, such as an alkali halide salt, such as KCl or KI. The product may be MHX (M = metal, such as an alkali; X = counterion, such as a halogen; and H = hydrino species). Other hydrino catalysts may be substituted for M, such as those in Table 1, of this disclosure.

[0227] In one embodiment, the source of oxygen is a compound with a heat of formation similar to that of water, so that the oxygen exchange reaction between the reduced product of the oxygen source compound and hydrogen occurs with minimal energy release. Suitable oxygen source compounds are CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO2, SeO2, and TeO2. The source of the H2O catalyst is MnO x , AlO x , and SiO xOthers, such as metal oxides, may also undergo dehydration reactions when the oxygen source is oxidized. In one embodiment, an oxide layer may cover a hydrogen source, such as a metal hydride, such as palladium hydride. The reaction to form the HO catalyst and atomic H, which further reacts to form hydrinos, may be initiated by heating an oxide-coated hydrogen source, such as a metal oxide-coated palladium hydride. The palladium hydride may be coated on the side opposite the oxygen source with a hydrogen-impermeable layer, such as a gold film layer, which causes the released hydrogen to selectively migrate to the oxygen source, such as the oxide layer, such as the metal oxide. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction involve an oxygen exchange reaction between the oxygen source compound and hydrogen, and an oxygen exchange reaction between water and a reduced oxygen source compound, respectively. Suitable reduced oxygen sources are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se, and Te. In one embodiment, the oxygen exchange reaction may include those used to thermally form hydrogen gas. Typical thermal methods are the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc-zinc oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle, and hybrid sulfur cycle, as well as others known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the reaction to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reaction, such as the oxygen exchange reaction, occur simultaneously in the same reaction vessel. Conditions such as temperature and pressure may be controlled to achieve reaction simultaneity. Alternatively, the product may be removed and regenerated in at least one other separate vessel, which may occur under conditions different from those of the power-forming reaction, as provided in Mills' prior application and this disclosure.

[0228] In one embodiment, the NH group of an amide, such as LiNH, functions as a catalyst, with a potential energy of approximately 81.6 eV, corresponding to m=3 in equation (5). Similar to the reversible HO elimination or addition reaction between an acid or base to an anhydride, and vice versa, the reversible reaction between an amide and an imide or nitride results in the formation of an NH catalyst that further reacts with atomic H to form hydrinos. The reversible reaction between an amide and at least one of an imide and a nitride may also function as a source of hydrogen, such as atomic hydrogen.

[0229] In one embodiment, hydrino species, such as molecular hydrinos or hydrino hydride ions, are synthesized by the reaction of at least one of OH and HO catalysts and H. Hydrino species may be produced by at least two of the following group: alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, transition metals, inner transition metals, and rare earth metals; metals such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Te; metal hydrides such as LaNi5H6 and others disclosed herein; a water-soluble hydroxide, such as an alkali hydroxide, such as KOH, from 0.1 M to saturated concentrations; a support, such as carbon, Pt / C, steamed carbon, carbon black, a carbide, a boride, or a nitride; and oxygen. A typical reaction mixture suitable for forming hydrino species, such as molecular hydrinos, is as follows: (1) Co PtC KOH (saturated) with / without O2; (2) Zn or Sn + LaNi5H6 + KOH (saturated); (3) Co, Sn, Sb, or Zn + O2 + CB + KOH (saturated); (4) Al CB KOH (saturated); (5) Sn Ni-coated graphite KOH (saturated) with / without O2; (6) Sn + SC or CB + KOH (saturated) + O2; (7) Zn Pt / C KOH (saturated) O2; (8) Zn R-Ni KOH (saturated) O2; (9) Sn LaNi5H6KOH (saturated) O2; (10) Sb LaNi5H6KOH (saturated) O2, (11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb, or Sb + KOH (saturated aqueous solution) + K2CO3 + CB-SA, and (12) LiNH2LiBr and LiH or Li and H2 or sources thereof and optionally a hydrogen dissociator such as Ni or R-Ni. Additional reaction mixtures include molten hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, a source of oxygen, and a hydrogen dissociator. Typical reaction mixtures that are plausible for forming hydrino species such as molecular hydrinos are: (1) Ni(H2) LiOH-LiBr air or O2, (2) Ni(H2) NaOH-NaBr air or O2, and (3) Ni(H2) KOH-NaBr air or O2.

[0230] In one embodiment, the product of at least one of the chemical, SF-CIHT, and CIHT cell reactions to form hydrinos is a compound containing hydrinos or lower energy hydrogen species such as H2(1 / p) complexed with an inorganic compound. The compound may include an oxyanion compound such as an alkali or alkaline earth carbonate or hydroxide, or other such compound of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the product includes at least one of M2CO3·H2(1 / 4) and MOH·H2(1 / 4) (M = alkali or other cation of the present disclosure) complexes. The products may be M(M2CO3·H z (1 / 4) n + ) and M(KOH·H2(1 / 4)) n + where n is an integer, and integers p>1 may be replaced by 4. In one embodiment, a compound containing silicon and oxygen, such as SiO2 or quartz, may function as a getter for H2(1 / 4). Getters for H2(1 / 4) may include transition metals, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, inner transition metals, rare earth metals, combinations of metals, alloys such as Mo alloys such as MoCu, and hydrogen storage materials such as those of the present disclosure.

[0231] The lower energy hydrogen compounds synthesized by the methods of the present disclosure may have the formula MH, MH2, or M2H2, where M is an alkali cation and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. nwhere n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a neutral atom or molecule such as a halogen atom, or a singly negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula M2HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MH n where n is an integer, M is the alkali cation and the hydrogen content of the compound. n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula M n where n is an integer, M is the alkali cation and the hydrogen content of the compound. n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula M2XH n where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula M2X2H n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H ncontains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula M2XH n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a dinegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MXX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MM'H n where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula MM'XH n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are mono-negatively charged anions, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MXX'Hn, where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a mono- or doubly negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound ncontains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula MH n where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula MXH n where n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation or alkaline earth cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula [KH m KCO3] n where m and n are integers and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula [KH m KNO3] n + nX - where m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound has the formula [KHKNO3] n where n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy. The compound may have the formula [KHKOH] n where n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy. The compound, including an anion or cation, may have the formula [MH m M'X] n where m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent or divalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound containing the anion or cation has the formula [MH m M'X'] n +where m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are each a monovalent or divalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound m contains at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy. The anion may include one of those of the present disclosure. Suitable exemplary singly negatively charged anions are halides, hydroxides, bicarbonates, or nitrates. Suitable exemplary doubly negatively charged anions are carbonates, oxides, or sulfates.

[0232] In one embodiment, the increased binding energy hydrogen compound or mixture includes at least one of lower energy hydrogen species such as hydrino molecules, hydrino hydride ions, and hydrino atoms embedded in a lattice, such as a crystalline lattice, such as a metal or ionic lattice. In one embodiment, the lattice is unreactive to the lower energy hydrogen species. The matrix may be aprotic, as in the case of embedded hydrino hydride ions. The compound or mixture may include H(1 / p), H2(1 / p), and H embedded in a salt lattice, such as an alkali or alkaline earth salt, such as a halide. - (1 / p). Typical alkali halides are KCl and KI. The salts may contain embedded H - In the (1 / p) case, there may be no HO. Other plausible salt lattices include those in this disclosure. Lower energy hydrogen species may be formed by catalytic reactions of hydrogen with aprotic catalysts such as those in Table 1.

[0233] The compounds of the present disclosure are preferably greater than 0.1 atomic percent pure. More preferably, the compounds are greater than 1 atomic percent pure. Even more preferably, the compounds are greater than 10 atomic percent pure. Most preferably, the compounds are greater than 50 atomic percent pure. In another embodiment, the compounds are greater than 90 atomic percent pure. In another embodiment, the compounds are greater than 95 atomic percent pure.

[0234] In another embodiment of the hydrino-forming chemical reactor, the cell that forms hydrinos and releases power as thermal power comprises the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, rocket engine, or gas turbine. The reaction mixture includes a catalyst and a source of oxygen and a source of hydrogen to generate hydrinos. The source of catalyst may be at least one of a hydrogen-containing species and one containing oxygen. The species or further reaction products may be H, H, H, H, such as O and H. + , O2, O3, O3 + , O3 - , O, O + , H2O, H3O + , OH, OH + , O.H. - , HOOH, OOH - , O - , O 2- , O2 - , and O2 2-, may be at least one of the species containing at least one of the following: . The catalyst may include a hydrogen species such as HO or oxygen. In another embodiment, the catalyst includes at least one of nH, nO (n = integer), O, OH, and HO catalyst. The hydrogen source, such as a source of hydrogen atoms, may include H gas or a hydrogen-containing fuel such as a hydrocarbon. The hydrogen atoms may be generated by pyrolysis of hydrocarbons during hydrocarbon combustion. The reaction mixture may further include a hydrogen dissociator, such as those disclosed herein, and H atoms may also be formed by the hydrogen dissociator. The oxygen source may further include O from air. The reactants may further include HO, which may serve as a source of at least one of H and O. In one embodiment, water serves as an additional source of at least one of oxygen and hydrogen, which may be provided by pyrolysis of HO in the cell. Water may be catalytically or thermally dissociated into hydrogen atoms on a surface, such as a cylinder or piston head. The surface may include a material for dissociating water into hydrogen and oxygen. The water dissociation material may include elements, compounds, alloys, or mixtures of transition or inner transition elements, iron, platinum, palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U, activated carbon (carbon), or Cs-intercalated carbon (graphite). H and O may react to form the catalyst and H to form hydrinos. Sources of hydrogen and oxygen may be drawn through corresponding ports or inlets, such as intake valves or manifolds. The products may be exhausted through an exhaust port or outlet. Flow may be controlled by controlling the intake and exhaust rates through the respective ports.

[0235] In one embodiment, hydrinos are formed by heating a source of hydrogen, such as a solid fuel of the present disclosure, and a source of catalyst. The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and vibrational heating. Experimentally, Raman spectroscopy confirms that hydrinos are formed by ball milling a solid fuel, such as a mixture of halides and hydroxides, such as a mixture containing an alkali metal, such as Li. For example, the inverse Raman effect peak is at 2308 cm. -1 This has been observed from ball-milled LiOH+LiI and LiOH+LiF. Thus, typical mixtures are LiOH+LiI or LiF. In one embodiment, at least one of thermal and vibrational heating is achieved by a fast reaction. In this case, additional energy reaction is provided by forming hydrinos.

[0236] In one embodiment, H2(1 / p) functions as an MRI paramagnetic contrast agent because the 1 quantum number is non-zero.

[0237] A non-zero quantum number, +1, allows for a rotational selection rule of magnitude ΔJ = 0, allowing for the H2(1 / p) molecular laser.

[0238] In one embodiment, because H2(1 / p) is paramagnetic, it has a higher liquefaction temperature than H2. Bulk hydrino gas may be recovered by cryo-separation methods.

[0239] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes rocket propellant. High-current initial ignition creates a rapidly expanding plasma that may provide thrust. Another invention of the present disclosure is a thruster that includes a closed cell except for a nozzle to channel the expanding plasma to provide thrust. In another embodiment, the thruster includes a magnetic bottle or other similar plasma confinement system known to those skilled in the art to cause the plasma to flow in a channeled manner from electrodes that provide high current ignition. In another embodiment, the highly ionized plasma may be used in ion thrusters and ion motors known to those skilled in the art to provide thrust.

[0240] In one embodiment, an energetic plasma from an ignited solid fuel is used for material processing, such as at least one of plasma etching, stabilizing a silicon surface by doping or coating it with a stable hydrogen layer, such as containing hydrogen species, and converting graphitic carbon to at least one of diamond-like carbon and diamond. Methods and systems according to the present disclosure for doping or coating a silicon-like surface with hydrino species, causing stabilization and converting carbon to diamond material, are given in my previous publications, such as: RLMills, J. Sankar, A. Voigt, J. He, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, "Role of atomic hydrogen density and energy in low-power CVD synthesis of diamond films", Thin Solid Films, 478, (2005) 77-90; RLMills, J. Sankar, A. Voigt, J. He, B. Dhandapani, "Spectroscopic identification of atomic hydrogen energy and density and carbon species during helium-hydrogen-methane plasma CVD synthesis of diamond films", Chemistry of Materials, Vol. 15, (2003), pp. 1313-1321; RLMills, B. Dhandapani, J. He, "Highly stable amorphous silicon hydrides from helium plasma reactions", Materials Chemistry and Physics, 94 / 2-3, (2005), 298-307; R.L. Mills, B. Dhandapani, J. He, "Highly Stable Amorphous Silicon Hydride," Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, Vol. 80, (2003), pp. 1-20; and R.L. Mills, J. He, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, X. Chen, "Synthesis and Characterization of Highly Stable Amorphous Silicon Hydride as a Product of Catalytic Helium-Hydrogen Plasma Reaction," Int. J. Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 28, No. 12, (2003), pp. 1401-1424, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0241] In one embodiment, an energetic plasma from an ignited solid fuel is used to form an inverted population. In one embodiment, the solid fuel plasma component of the system shown in Figures 3 and 4A and 4B is at least one of the pump source of the laser and the lasing medium of the laser. Methods and systems for forming an inverted population to achieve laser processing are given in my previous publications. They are R.L. Mills, P. Ray, and R.M. Mayo, "A Hydrogen-Water Potential-Plasma Laser," Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 82, No. 11, (2003), pp. 1679-1681, and R.L. Mills, P. Ray, and R.M. Mayo, "A CW HI Laser Based on a Steady-State Inverted Riemann Distribution Formed from Hydrogen Gas Fluorescently Heated over Certain Group 1 Catalysts," IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol. 31, No. 2, (2003), pp. 236-247; R.L. Mills, P. Ray, and R.M. Mayo, "A CW HI Laser Based on a Steady-State Inverted Riemann Distribution Formed from Hydrogen Gas Fluorescently Heated over Certain Group 1 Catalysts," IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol. 31, No. 2, (2003), pp. 236-247, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0242] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is reacted by heating. The reaction mixture may contain an electrical conductor and may be reacted on a highly conductive surface such that the surface is not oxidized during the reaction, so that the conductivity decreases. Suitable surfaces, such as that of the reactor, are noble metals such as Au and Pt.

[0243] VII. Solid Fuel Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter In one embodiment, a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one vessel; reactants including (a) at least one catalyst or catalyst source including nascent HO; (b) at least one atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen source; and (c) at least one conductor and conductive matrix; at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactants; an electrical power source for delivering short bursts of high current electrical energy; a recharge system; at least one system for regenerating initial reactants from reaction products; and at least one direct plasma-to-electricity converter and at least one thermal-to-electric power converter. In a further embodiment, the vessel is capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressures. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter can include at least one from the group of a plasmadynamic power converter, an (E) x (B) direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter.In a further embodiment, the at least one thermal to electric converter can include at least one from the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine, a generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter.

[0244] In one embodiment, HO is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the formation of at least one of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (In this disclosure, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may be manifested as a burst, pulse, or other form of high power release.) HO may comprise a fuel that may be ignited by application of a high current, such as one in the range of about 2000 A to 100,000 A. This may be achieved by application of a high voltage, such as 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, a high current may be passed through a compound or mixture containing HO, where the conductivity of the resulting fuel, such as a solid fuel, is high. (In this disclosure, solid fuel or energetic material is used to refer to a reaction mixture in which a catalyst, such as H and HOH, forms that further react to form hydrinos. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solid. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be at least one of gaseous, liquid, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, pneumatic stream, and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, a solid fuel with very low resistivity includes a reaction mixture containing HO. The low resistivity may be due to the conductive components of the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 Ω to 100Ω, 10 -8 Ω to 10Ω, 10 -3 Ω to 1Ω, 10 -4 Omega to 10 -1 Ω and 10 -4 Omega to 10 -2In another embodiment, the highly resistive fuel comprises HO with a trace or small mole percent of an added compound or material. In the latter case, a high current may be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing a breakdown, forming a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0245] In one embodiment, the reactants can include a conductive matrix and a source of HO to form at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, an atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants including a source of HO can include at least one of bulk HO, a state other than bulk HO, and a compound(s) that undergo at least one of a reaction to form HO and release bound HO. Additionally, the bound HO can include a compound that interacts with HO, such that the HO is in at least one of the states of absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration. In an embodiment, the reactants can include one or more compounds or materials and a conductor that undergo at least one of the release of bulk HO, absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration, and can have HO as a reaction product. In other embodiments, the at least one of the nascent HO catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen can include at least one of: (a) at least one source of HO; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0246] In additional embodiments, the reactants forming at least one of the catalyst source, catalyst, atomic hydrogen source, and atomic hydrogen are at least one of HO and a source of HO; O, HO, HOOH, HOOH -, peroxide ions, superoxide ions, hydrides, H2, halides, oxides, oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, compounds containing oxygen, hydrated compounds (selected from at least one group of halides, oxides, oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, compounds containing oxygen), and a conductive matrix.In some embodiments, the oxyhydroxide can include at least one from the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; the oxide can include at least one from the group of CuO, Cu2O, CoO, Co2O3, CO3O4, FeO, Fe2O3, NiO, and Ni2O3; and the hydroxide can include at least one from the group of Cu(OH)2, Co(OH) 2, Co(OH)3, Fe(OH)2, Fe(OH)3, and Ni(OH)2, and the oxygen-containing compound may be sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO3, MXO4 (M=metal such as alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, X=F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide. , Li2O, alkali metal oxides, alkaline earth metal oxides, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, NiO, FeO, Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, P2O3, P2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, CoO, Co2O3, CO3O4, FeO, Fe2O3, Ni The conductive matrix may comprise at least one from the group consisting of O, Ni2O3, rare earth oxides, CeO2, La2O3, oxyhydroxides, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the conductive matrix may comprise at least one from the group consisting of metal powders, carbon, carbides, bromides, nitrides, carbonitriles such as TiCN, or nitriles.

[0247] In some embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of a metal, its metal oxide, and HO, where the reaction of the metal with HO is not thermodynamically favored. In other embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of a metal, a metal halide, and HO, where the reaction of the metal with HO is not thermodynamically favored. In additional embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of a transition metal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and HO, where the reaction of the metal with HO is not thermodynamically favored. And in further embodiments, the reactants may include a mixture of a conductor, a water-containing material, and HO. In some embodiments, the conductor may include a metal powder or a carbon powder, where the reaction of the metal or carbon with HO is not thermodynamically favored. In embodiments, the hydrous material can include at least one from the group consisting of lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such as KMgCl3·6(H2O), ammonium iron(III) citrate, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, concentrated sulfuric acid, concentrated phosphoric acid, cellulose fiber, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, fertilizer chemicals, salt, desiccants, silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, molecular sieves, zeolites, deliquescent materials, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and deliquescent salts. In one embodiment, the power system can include a mixture of a conductor, a water-containing material, and HO, where the relative molar amounts of (metal / conductor), (water-containing material), and (HO) range from about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), ), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1).In certain embodiments, the metal having a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with HO can be at least one of the group: Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In additional embodiments, the reactants can be regenerated by the addition of HO.

[0248] In further embodiments, the reactants can include a mixture of a metal, its metal oxide, and HO, where the metal oxide is capable of H reduction at temperatures below 1000° C. In other embodiments, the reactants can include a mixture of a metal having an oxide that is not readily reduced by H and mild heat, a metal having an oxide that can be reduced to the metal with H at temperatures below 1000° C., and HO. In embodiments, the metal having an oxide that can be reduced to the metal with H at temperatures below 1000° C. can be at least one of the group consisting of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In an embodiment, the metal oxide that is not readily reduced by H2 and mild heat comprises at least one of alumina, alkaline earth oxides, and rare earth oxides.

[0249] In an embodiment, the solid fuel can include carbon or activated carbon and HO, the mixture being regenerated by rehydration, including the addition of HO. In a further embodiment, the reactants can include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound. In an embodiment, the current of the source of electrical power for delivering short bursts of high current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the hydrino reactants to undergo a reaction to form hydrinos at a very high rate. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power delivering short bursts of high current electrical energy includes at least one of the following: a current within at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA, 100 A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 a voltage selected to produce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture, with a DC or peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, where the voltage is determined by the electrical conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material, and the voltage is applied by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample, the DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In an embodiment, the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is within at least one range selected from about 0.001 mΩ to 100 MΩ, 0.1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ, and the conductivity of a reasonable load per active electrode area for forming hydrinos is within at least one range selected from about 10 -10 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 6 Ω -1 cm-2 , 10 -5 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 6 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 5 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -3 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 4 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -2 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 3 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -1 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 2 Ω -1 cm -2 , and 1Ω -1 cm -2 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2 at least one range selected from the following:

[0250] In one embodiment, the solid fuel is electrically conductive. In one embodiment, the resistance of a portion, pellet, or aliquot of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 Ω to 100Ω, 10 -8 Ω to 10Ω, 10 -3 Ω to 1Ω, 10 -3 Omega to 10 -1 Ω and 10 -3 Omega to 10 -2In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a high current. A hydrino catalyzed reaction, such as an energetic hydrino catalyzed reaction, may be initiated by a low voltage, high current flow through an electrically conductive fuel. The energy release may be very high and may form a shock wave. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture that induces ignition, such as a high current in at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. The current density may be 100 A / cm2 of the fuel, which may include pellets, such as pressed pellets. 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from approximately 0.1 V to 100 kV, 0.1 V to 1 kV, 0.1 V to 100 V, and 0.1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the ranges of approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse duration may be approximately 10 -6 s to 10s, 10 -5 s to 1s, 10 -4 s to 0.1s and 10 -3 s to 0.01 s. In another embodiment, at least one of a high magnetic field or flux, φ, or a high rate of magnetic field change ignites the hydrino reaction, and the magnetic flux may be in the range of about 10 G to 10 T, 100 G to 5 T, or 1 kG to 1 T. dφ / dt corresponds to a magnetic field of 10 G to 10 T, 100 G to 5 T, or 1 kG to 1 T, alternating at a frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1000 Hz, or 10 Hz to 100 Hz.

[0251] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may include a source of HO or HO. The mole percent content of the HO may be within at least one of the following ranges: about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or deployment of a high current. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. DC or peak AC current density is 100A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 to 50,000 Acm 2 In one embodiment, the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material. The resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one range selected from about 0.001 mΩ to 100 MΩ, 0.1 Ω to 1 MΩ, and 10 Ω to 1 kΩ. A reasonable conductivity of a load per electrode area active to form hydrinos may be about 10 -10 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 6 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -5 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 6 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -4 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 5 Ω -1 cm-2 , 10 -3 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 4 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -2 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 3 Ω -1 cm -2 , 10 -1 Ω -1 cm -2 From 10 2 Ω -1 cm -2 , and 1Ω -1 cm -2 to 10 ohms -1 cm -2 In one embodiment, the voltage is applied by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample by the desired current. In a typical case where the resistance is on the order of 1 mΩ, the voltage is low, such as <10 V. In a typical case of essentially pure HO, where the resistance is essentially infinite, the voltage applied to achieve a high current for ignition is high, such as above the breakdown voltage of HO, such as about 5 kV or more. In an embodiment, the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the ranges of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In one embodiment, the DC voltage is discharged to create a plasma containing ionized HO, but the current is underdamped and oscillates as it decays.

[0252] In one embodiment, the high current pulse is achieved by discharging a capacitor, such as a supercapacitor, which may be connected in series and / or parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current, and the current is regulated with a circuit element, such as a transformer, such as a DC or constant voltage transformer, known to those skilled in the art. The capacitor is charged by an electrical source, such as grid power, a generator, a fuel cell, or a battery. In one embodiment, a battery provides the current. In one embodiment, the appropriate frequency, voltage, and current waveform may be achieved by power regulating the output of the capacitor or battery. In one embodiment, a typical circuit for achieving a 500 A current pulse at 900 V is described in VV Nesterov, ARDonaldson, "High Current Precision IGBT Pulse Generator," 1996, IEEE, pp. 1251-1253. https: / / accelconf.web.cern.ch / AccelConf / p95 / ARTICLES / wAA / WAA11.PDF, and one achieving 25 kA is given in P. Pribyl, W. Gekelman, "24 kA Solid-State Switch for Plasma Discharge Experiments," Review of Scientific Instruments, Vol. 75, No. 3, March 2004, pp. 669-673, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties; a voltage divider may increase the current and decrease the voltage.

[0253] A solid fuel or energetic material may include a support or conductor or conductive matrix such as a metal, carbon, or carbide, and a source of HO, such as HO or a compound that reacts to form HO or releases bound HO, such as those disclosed herein. The solid fuel may include HO, a material or compound that interacts with HO, and a conductor. HO may exist in a state other than bulk HO, such as bound or absorbed HO, such as water of hydration or physisorbed HO. Alternatively, HO may exist as bulk HO, or in a highly conductive mixture that is rendered highly conductive by application of an appropriate voltage. The solid fuel may include HO and compounds or materials, such as oxides, such as metal oxides, that provide high electrical conductivity to facilitate HOH formation and facilitate the potential for HOH catalysis, such as carbon or metal powders. Exemplary solid fuels may include R-Ni alone and with additives such as those of transition metals and Al, where R-Ni liberates H and HOH by decomposition of hydrated Al2O3 and Al(OH)3. A suitable exemplary solid fuel includes an oxyhydroxide such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, a conductive matrix such as at least one of a metal powder and a carbon powder, and optionally HO. The solid fuel may include a transition metal hydroxide such as at least one of Cu(OH)2, Co(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, and Ni(OH)2, a hydroxide such as an aluminum hydroxide such as Al(OH)3, a conductor such as at least one of a carbon powder and a metal powder, and optionally HO. The solid fuel may include at least one oxide, such as at least one of transition metal oxides, such as at least one of CuO, Cu2O, NiO, Ni2O3, FeO, and Fe2O3, a conductor, such as at least one of carbon powder and metal powder, and H2O.The solid fuel may include at least one halide, such as a metal halide, such as an alkaline earth metal halide, such as MgCl, a conductor, such as at least one of a carbon powder and a metal powder, and HO. The solid fuel may include a mixture of solid fuel, such as one including at least two of halides, such as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, oxides, and metal halides, at least one conductor or conductive matrix, and HO. The conductor may include at least one of a metal screen coated with one or more of the solid fuel, a metal powder, such as R-Ni, a transition metal powder, Ni or Co cermet, carbon, or carbide, or other conductor, or other components of the reaction mixture, including conductive supports or conductive matrices known to those skilled in the art.

[0254] In one embodiment, the solid fuel includes carbon, such as activated carbon, and HO. In cases where ignition occurs in a vacuum or inert atmosphere to form a plasma, plasma-to-electricity generation follows, and carbon condensed from the plasma may be rehydrated to reform the solid in a regenerative cycle. The solid fuel may include at least one of acidic, basic, or neutral HO and a mixture of activated carbon, charcoal, black charcoal, and metal powder. In one embodiment, the metal of the carbon-metal mixture is at least partially unreactive with HO. Suitable metals that are at least partially stable to reaction with HO include at least one of the following: Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The mixture may be regenerated by rehydration, which involves the addition of H2O.

[0255] In one embodiment, the basic required reactants are a source of H, a source of O, and a good electrical conductor matrix that allows a high current to penetrate the material during ignition. The solid fuel or energetic material may be contained in a sealed vessel, such as a sealed metal vessel, such as a sealed aluminum vessel. The solid fuel or energetic material may be subjected to a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy and reacted with a low-voltage, high-current pulse, such as that produced by a spot welder, such as that achieved by confinement between two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield Model ND-24-75 spot welder. The 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS, and the current may be about 10,000 to 40,000 A / cm. 2 It may be.

[0256] Typical energetic materials and conditions include at least one of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, NiOHO, LaOHO, and NaSOHO coated onto a Ni mesh screen in a slurry and dry state, and a current of approximately 60 Hz, 8 V RMS, and 40,000 A / cm. 2 The device receives an electrical pulse of current up to

[0257] The solid fuel or energetic material may contain cations capable of multiple stable oxidation states, such as oxygen-containing compounds containing at least one of Mo, Ni, Co, and Fe, but the cations may have more than one stable oxidation state in the case of Ni, Co, and Fe. + and 3 + The oxidation state of Mo is 2 + , 3 + , 4 + , 5 + , and 6 +These states may exist as hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, oxides, and halide compounds. The change in oxidation state may facilitate the propagation of the hydrino reaction by removing the self-limiting charge accumulation caused by ionization of the HOH catalyst during the reaction with the cation undergoing reduction.

[0258] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes HO and a dispersant and dissociator to form nascent HO and H. Suitable exemplary dispersants and dissociators are halide compounds such as metal halides, such as transition metal halides, such as bromides, such as FeBr; hydride-forming compounds, such as CuBr; and compounds such as halides and oxides with metals capable of multiple oxidation states. Others include hydroxides or oxyhydroxides or oxides, such as those of transition elements, such as CoO, COO, COO, CoOOH, Co(OH), Co(OH), NiO, NiO, NiOOH, Ni(OH), FeO, FeO, FeOOH, Fe(OH), CuO, CuO, CuOOH, and Cu(OH). In other embodiments, the transition metals are substituted by others, such as alkali, alkaline earth, inner transition, and rare earth metals, and Group 13 and Group 14 metals. Suitable examples are La2O3, CeO2, and LaX3 (X = halogen). In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes HO as a hydrate of an inorganic compound such as an oxide, oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or halide. Other suitable hydrates are metal compounds of the present disclosure, such as at least one of the following groups: sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, bicarbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate, perchlorate, hypobromite, bromite, bromate, perchlorate, hypoiodite, iodite, iodate, periodate, hydrogen sulfate, hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphate, other metal compounds with oxyanions, and metal halides. The molar ratio of the dissociator and dispersant, such as a metal oxide or halide compound, can be any desired ratio to produce an ignition event. A reasonable number of moles of the at least one compound to moles HO is within at least one of the ranges of about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is defined as (moles compound / moles HO).The solid fuel or energetic material may further comprise a metal powder such as a transition metal powder, a conductor or conductive matrix such as Ni or Co cermet, carbon powder, or carbide or other conductor, or a conductive support or conductive matrix known to those skilled in the art. Reasonable ratios of moles of hydrated compound including HO and at least one compound to moles of conductor are within at least one of the following ranges: about 0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1 to 10, and 0.5 to 1, where the ratio is defined as (moles of hydrated compound / moles of conductor).

[0259] In one embodiment, the reactants are regenerated from the products by the addition of HO. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a conductive matrix suitable for the high current constant voltage of the present disclosure, which flows through the hydrated material to result in HO and ignition. The conductive matrix material may include at least one of a metal surface, a metal powder, carbon, a carbon powder, a carbide, a boride, a nitride, a carbonitride such as TiCN, a nitrite, another of the present disclosure, or one known to one of skill in the art. The addition of HO to form the solid fuel or energetic material or regenerate it from the products may be continuous or intermittent.

[0260] The solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductive matrix, an oxide, such as a mixture of metals and corresponding metal oxides, such as oxides of at least one of Fe, Cu, Ni, or Co, and transition metals, and HO. The HO may be in the form of a hydrated oxide. In another embodiment, the metal / metal oxide reactant includes a metal whose oxide is low in reactivity with water and can be easily reduced to the metal, or a metal that is not oxidizable during the hydrino reaction. Suitable exemplary metals with low HO reactivity include Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The metal may be converted to an oxide during the reaction. The oxide product corresponding to the metal reactant may be regenerated to the original metal by hydrogen reduction using methods and systems known to those skilled in the art. Hydrogen reduction may be at elevated temperatures. Hydrogen may be provided by electrolysis of HO. In another embodiment, metals are regenerated from oxides by electrolysis, such as electrolysis in molten salts, or reduction with a reducing agent, such as a more oxygen-active metal, followed by carbon reduction. Formation of metals from oxides may be accomplished by methods and systems known to those skilled in the art. The molar ratio of metal to metal oxide to HO may be any desired ratio that results in ignition when subjected to a low-voltage, high-current pulse of electricity as provided in this disclosure.Reasonable relative molar ratios of (metal), (metal oxide), and (H2O) range from about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.00 (0.01 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

[0261] The solid fuel or energetic material may include a mixture of a conductive matrix, a first metal, a metal halide or a second metal halide corresponding to the first metal, and HO. The HO may be in the form of a hydrated halide. The second metal halide may be more stable than the first metal halide. In one embodiment, the first metal has low reactivity with HO corresponding to an oxide that can be reduced to the metal, or the metal is not oxidizable during the hydrino reaction. Suitable exemplary metals with low HO reactivity are selected from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, and Cr. The molar amounts of metal to metal halide to HO can be any desired amount that results in ignition when subjected to the high current, constant voltage pulses of electricity provided in the present disclosure. Reasonable ranges for the relative molar amounts of (metal), (metal halide), and (HO) are about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.0001 to 10000), (0.000 (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), and at least one of (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

[0262] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may include a conductor as disclosed herein, such as a metal or carbon, a hydrous material, and H 2 O. Suitable exemplary hydrous materials include lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such as KMgCl 3 ·6(H 2 O), ammonium iron citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid, cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerin, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizer chemicals, salts (including table salt), and a wide variety of others known to those skilled in the art, and desiccant materials such as silica, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (generally, zeolites) or deliquescent materials such as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilled in the art. Reasonable ranges for the relative molar amounts of (metal), (hydrous material), and (H2O) are approximately (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to (0.1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, a solution, an emulsion, a composite, and a compound.

[0263] In one typical energetic sample, 0.05 ml (50 mg) of HO was added to 20 mg of CoO or CuO sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7x3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D:6.7, stamped, not hermetic (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409)) and ignited with a current between 15,000 and 25,000 A at approximately 8 V RMS using a Taylor-Winfield Model ND-24-75 spot welder. A large energy burst was observed, and the sample vaporized, each becoming an energetic, highly ionized, expanding plasma. Another typical solid fuel, ignited in the same way and with similar results, contained Cu (42.6 mg) + CuO (14.2 mg) + HO (16.3 mg), sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (71.1 mg) (aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7x3 (Setaram, S08 / HBB37408) and aluminum cover D:6.7, stamped, airtight (Setaram, S08 / HBB37409)).

[0264] In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a nascent HO catalyst and a source of H. In one embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is electrically conductive or comprises a conductive matrix material, such that the mixture of the nascent HO catalyst and H source is electrically conductive. The source of the nascent HO catalyst and at least one of the source of H is a mixture or compound of materials and compounds comprising at least O and H. The O-containing material or compound is at least one of oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides, such as oxides, hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides of alkali, alkaline earth, transition metals, inner transition metals, rare earth metals, and Group 13 and 14 metals. O-containing materials or compounds include sulfates, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, bicarbonates, chromates, pyrophosphates, persulfates, perchlorates, perbromates, and periodates, MXO3, MXO4 (M = metals such as alkali metals like Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, X = F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li2O, alkali metal oxides, alkaline earth metal oxides, CuO, CrO4, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO2, TiO2, ZrO2, SiO2, Al2O3, N The H sources are rare earth oxides such as iO, FeO, Fe2O3, TaO2, Ta2O5, VO, VO2, V2O3, V2O5, P2O3, P2O5, B2O3, NbO, NbO2, Nb2O5, SeO2, SeO3, TeO2, TeO3, WO2, WO3, Cr3O4, Cr2O3, CrO2, CrO3, CeO2, or oxyhydroxides such as La2O3, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH. Typical H sources are H2O, compounds with bound or absorbed H2O such as hydrates, hydroxides, oxyhydroxides or hydrogen sulfates, hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphates, and hydrocarbons. The conductive matrix material may be a metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.The conductors of the present disclosure may be in different embodiments in different physical forms, such as bulk, particulate, powder, fine powder, and other forms known to those skilled in the art, that render a solid fuel or energetic material, including mixtures with the conductor, electrically conductive.

[0265] A typical solid fuel or energetic material includes HO and at least one conductive matrix. In one exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel includes HO and a metallic conductor, such as a metal wire, such as Fe, in the form of Fe metal powder and Fe compounds such as iron hydroxide, iron oxide, iron oxyhydroxide, and iron halides. The latter may replace HO as a hydrate, serving as a source of HO. Other metals may replace Fe in any physical form, such as bulk, sheet, screen, mesh, wire, particulate, powder, fine powder, and in solid, liquid, and gaseous states, compounds, and metals. The conductor may include carbon in one or more physical forms, such as bulk carbon, particulate carbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, graphite, KOH activated carbon or nanotubes, carbide-derived carbides, carbon fiber cloth, and at least one of fullerenes. Suitable exemplary solid fuels or energetic materials include the following:CuBr2 + H2O + conductive matrix; Cu(OH)2 + FeBr2 + conductive matrix such as carbon or metal powder; FeOOH + conductive matrix such as carbon or metal powder; Cu(OH)Br + conductive matrix such as carbon or metal powder; AlOOH or Al(OH)3 + Al powder (additional H2 is supplied to the reaction to form hydrinos by reaction of Al with H2O formed from decomposition of AlOOH or Al(OH)3); H2O in metallized zeolites and in nanoparticles such as steam-activated fullerenes and carbon nanoch-parts (dispersants may be used for wet hydrophobic materials such as carbon); NH4NO3 + H2O + NiAl alloy powder; LiNH2 + LiNN O3 + Ti powder; LiNH2 + LiNO3 + Pt / Ti; LiNH2 + NH4NO3 + Ti powder; BH3NH3 + NH4NO3; BH3NH3 + CO2, SO2, NO2, as well as nitrates, carbonates, and sulfates; LiH + NH4NO3 + transition metal, rare earth metal, Al, or other oxidizing metal; NH4NO3 + transition metal, rare earth metal, Al, or other oxidizing metal; NH4NO3 + R-Ni; P2O5 LiNO3, LiClO4, and SO2O8 + conductive matrix, with each of the hydroxides of the present disclosure; and a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, hydrogen storage material (including one or more of those of the present disclosure), a hydrogen source such as diesel fuel, and an oxygen source which may be an electron acceptor such as CO2, SO2, or other anhydrides such as NO2, and P2O5.

[0266] The hydrino-forming solid fuel or energetic material may include at least one highly reactive or energetic material, such as NH4NO3, tritonal, RDX, PETN, and others disclosed herein. The solid fuel or energetic material may additionally include a conductor, a conductive matrix, a conductive material, such as a metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbides, borides, nitrides, carbonitrides, such as TiCN, nitriles, hydrocarbons, such as diesel fuel, oxyhydroxides, hydroxides, oxides, and HO. In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material includes a highly reactive or energetic material, such as NH4NO3, tritonal, or RDX, and a conductive matrix, such as at least one of a metal powder, such as Al or a transition metal powder, and a carbon powder. As provided herein, the solid fuel or energetic material may undergo a reaction with a high electrical current. In some embodiments, the solid fuel or energetic material further includes a sensitizer, such as glass microspheres.

[0267] Energetic materials may be a source for hydrino gas recovery.

[0268] In one embodiment, ignition of the solid fuel creates at least one of an expanding gas, an at least partially ionized expanding suspension, and an expanding plasma. The expansion may be in a vacuum. In one embodiment, the gas, suspension, or plasma, which may expand in a vacuum, creates nanoparticles when at least one of the gas, suspension, or plasma cools. The nanoparticles function as novel materials with unique applications in fields such as electronics, medicine, and surface coatings.

[0269] A. Plasma Dynamic Converter (PDC) The mass of the positively charged ions in the plasma is at least 1800 times that of the electron, and the cyclotron orbit is 1800 times larger. This results in electrons being magnetically trapped on magnetic field lines, where they may drift. Charge separation may occur with the supply of voltage to the plasma dynamic converter.

[0270] B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Converter Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions in crossed magnetic fields is commonly known as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. Positive and negative ions are subjected to Lorentzian field currents in opposite directions and are received by corresponding MHD electrodes to affect a voltage between them. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas seeded with ions through a nozzle, creating a high-velocity flow through a crossed magnetic field with a set of crossed MHD electrodes, against a deflecting field that receives the deflected ions. In this disclosure, the pressure is typically, but not necessarily, greater than atmospheric pressure, and the directional mass flow may be achieved by reaction of a solid fuel to form a highly ionized radially expanding plasma.

[0271] C. Electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converter, (vector E) × (vector B) direct converter Guiding center drift of charged particles within magnetic and crossed electric fields may be utilized to collect and separate charges at partially separated (E) x (B) electrodes. Plasma expansion may not be necessary because the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to the guiding field. The performance of an idealized (E) x (B) converter depends on the initial difference between ions and electrons, which is the source of charge separation, and the generation of a voltage at the opposing (E) x (B) electrode relative to the crossed field direction. ∇(B) drift collection may also be used independently or in combination with (E) x (B) collection.

[0272] D. Charge-Drift Converter The direct converter described by Timofeev and Glagolev [AV Timofeev, “A scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy into electrical energy”, Sov. J. Plasma Phys., Vol. 4, No. 4, July-August, (1978), pp. 464-468; V. M. Glagolev and AV Timofeev, “Direct Conversion of thermonuclear into electrical energy a drakon system”, Plasma Phys. Rep., Vol. 19, No. 12, December (1993), pp. 745-749] relies on charge injection into drifting, isolated positive ions to extract power from the plasma. This charge-drift converter is based on a source of magnetic flux B (vector B) with a curvature of the field lines and a magnetic field gradient (magnetic gradient) in a direction transverse to the original direction of magnetic flux B (vector B). In both cases, drifting negatively and positively charged ions move in opposing directions perpendicular to the plane in which B (vector B) has curvature, or the plane formed by B (vector B) and the direction of the magnetic field gradient. In each case, the separated ions generate voltages on opposing capacitors parallel to the plane, with a concomitant reduction in the ion's thermal energy. Electrons are received at one charge-drift converter electrode, and positive ions are received at the other. Because the mobility of ions is much smaller than that of electrons, electron injection can be performed directly or by boiling them off from a heated charge-drift converter electrode. Power losses are small, without a significant cost in the power balance.

[0273] E. Magnetic Confinement A blast or ignition event is considered when the catalytic reaction of H to form hydrinos accelerates to very high velocities. In one embodiment, the plasma generated from the blast or ignition event is an expanding plasma. In this case, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is a suitable conversion system and method. Alternatively, in one embodiment, the plasma is confined. In this case, conversion may be achieved by at least one of a plasma dynamic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, an electromagnetic direct (cross-field or drift) converter, a (vector E) x (vector B) direct converter, and a charge drift converter. In this case, in addition to the SF-CIHT cell and balance of plant including the ignition, recharging, fuel handling, and plasma to electric power conversion systems, the power generation system further includes a plasma confinement system. Confinement may be achieved by a magnetic field, such as a solenoid field. The magnet may include at least one of a superconducting magnet, a water cooled magnet, an uncooled electromagnet, and a permanent magnet, with a corresponding cryogenic management system including at least one of a compressor and cryopump, a radiant baffle, a liquid nitrogen dewar, and a liquid helium dewar, which may be powered by the power output of a hydrino-based power generator. The magnet may be an open coil, such as a Helmholtz coil. The plasma may be confined within a magnetic bottle and by other systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

[0274] Two or more magnetic mirrors may form a magnetic bottle that confines the plasma formed by the catalytic reaction of H to form hydrinos. The theory of confinement is given in my previous applications, e.g., Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter, PCT / US02 / 06955, filed 3 / 7 / 02 (short version), PCT / US02 / 06945, filed 3 / 7 / 02 (long version), and US case number 10 / 469,913, filed 9 / 5 / 03, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Ions created within the bottle in the central region will spiral along the axis but will be reflected by magnetic mirrors at each end. More energetic ions, with a h...

Claims

1. 1. A method of generating power, comprising: delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel-filled region, wherein the fuel-filled region is disposed within a plurality of electrodes; Here, the fuel is nascent H ２ a source of O, a source of atomic hydrogen, and a conductive or electrically conductive matrix; applying an electric current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of a plasma, light, and heat, and providing at least about 2,000 A / cm through the fuel; ２ igniting the fuel by passing a current of receiving at least a portion of the plasma into a plasma-to-electric converter; converting the plasma into a different form of power using a plasma-to-electricity converter; and outputting power in different forms; 20. A method of generating power, comprising:

2. The method of claim 1 , further comprising the steps of: removing an amount of fuel by-products produced from the igniting step; and regenerating at least a portion of the fuel by-products.

3. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of removing at least a portion of the heat generated by the igniting step.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein outputting power in a different form comprises delivering power to an external load.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein outputting power in a different form comprises delivering power to a storage device.

6. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of outputting power in different forms includes delivering portions of the power to multiple electrodes in a subsequent igniting step.

7. 1. A power generation system comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround the fuel, are electrically connected to an electrical power source and configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a power generation system including:

8. 1. A power generation system comprising: At least about 2,000 A / cm ２ an electrical power source; a plurality of spaced-apart pairs of electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround the fuel, are electrically connected to an electrical power source and configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a power generation system including:

9. an output power conditioner for modifying the quality of the power converted by the plasma-to-electric power converter; one or more output power terminals for outputting power conditioned by the output power conditioner; The power generation system of claim 8 further comprising:

10. 10. The power generation system of claim 8, wherein the power generation system includes two electrodes, both of which are movable relative to one another to allow the delivery mechanism to move the fuel.

11. 10. The power generation system of claim 8, wherein for at least one of the pair of electrodes, the electrodes are movable relative to one another to allow the delivery mechanism to deliver fuel to the fuel-filled region.

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