Apparatus, system and method for heating with electromagnetic waves

Abstract

To provide an apparatus, system, and method for heating a fluid or other material.SOLUTION: The apparatus includes a container (e.g., a tube) in which a susceptor material is disposed, and the susceptor material may convert microwave energy into heat, which may increase the temperature of a fluid or material within or adjacent to the tube.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 3A

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 969,935, filed February 4, 2020, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0002] FIELD OF THE INVENTION This application relates to devices, systems, and methods for heating with electromagnetic waves, including microwaves. [Background technology]

[0003] Microwave energy can be used to process or heat a variety of materials in many industries, including the food and beverage industry and various chemical industries. For example, microwaves have been tested and applied in plasma processes (e.g., powder processing, chemical vapor infiltration, surface modification, etc.), chemical processing and synthesis, and waste remediation. Although great efforts have been made to expand the industrial use of microwave energy, little progress has been made.

[0004] Drawbacks commonly associated with the deployment of microwave energy include: (i) difficulties encountered when designing devices or processes, (ii) the need for expensive equipment, (iii) generally limited usage, (iv) changes in dielectric properties that can occur as the temperature increases, or (v) a combination of these.

[0005] There remains a need for microwave heating devices, systems, and methods that overcome one or more of these drawbacks, including, for example, devices and methods for producing a heated fluid that can be employed in further processes as a heat source. Summary of the Invention

[0006] Provided herein are devices, systems, and methods that address one or more of the aforementioned shortcomings, including heating methods that do not rely entirely on the dielectric properties of the fluid. As a result, the method embodiments provided herein are not material-specific and are applicable to a wide range of fluids as described herein, including organic fluids, inorganic fluids, aqueous fluids, and the like, each of which may be polar or non-polar. The devices and methods provided herein may each include or rely on a fixed-bed system in which the fluid flow contacts a susceptor material irradiated with electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves. The electromagnetic waves may be converted to heat by the susceptor material, thereby heating the fluid in a process that may be continuous. The fluid may pass through the fixed-bed system one or more times until the desired temperature of the fluid is reached. The devices and systems described herein may also allow for the application of pressure to at least a portion of the device or system, such as a pressure greater than the fluid's critical pressure, which may maintain all or at least a portion of the fluid in the liquid and / or supercritical phase.

[0007] In one aspect, a device is provided herein. In some embodiments, the device includes an applicator, where (i) a first end of a tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and (ii) at least a portion of the tube is disposed within the applicator. In some embodiments, the device includes a tube, a susceptor material disposed within the tube, and an applicator, where (i) a first end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and (ii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion of the susceptor material within the tube are disposed within the applicator. In some embodiments, the second end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator. The tube may include an inlet, an outlet, or an inlet and an outlet. The apparatus may also include one or more microwave generators positioned to introduce microwaves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the microwaves.

[0008] In some embodiments, an apparatus includes a container defining an internal volume configured to receive susceptor particles; at least one retention device disposed within or adjacent to the internal volume and configured to retain the susceptor particles within the internal volume while allowing fluid to flow out of the internal volume; and an electromagnetic wave emission structure configured to introduce electromagnetic waves into the internal volume for irradiation of the susceptor particles contained in the internal volume. The electromagnetic wave emission structure may include an electromagnetic wave transparent section of the container through which the electromagnetic waves can pass from outside the container into the internal volume. The container may include a tubular section formed of an electromagnetic wave transparent material that constitutes the electromagnetic wave transparent section of the container. The apparatus may include an applicator for directing the electromagnetic waves into the internal volume through the electromagnetic wave transparent section. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave emission structure is at least partially disposed within the container.

[0009] In another aspect, provided herein is a system, in some embodiments, including a fluid source having a fluid disposed therein, the fluid source being in fluid communication with a tube, and a pump configured to provide (i) the fluid to the tube and / or (ii) pressure within the tube, the pump being in fluid communication with the device and the fluid source.

[0010] In yet another aspect, a method for heating a material, such as a fluid, is provided.

[0011] In some embodiments, the method includes contacting the fluid with heated susceptor material, such as susceptor particles, thereby heating the fluid at a rate of at least 100°C / min, at least 200°C / min, at least 300°C / min, at least 400°C / min, or at least 500°C / min.

[0012] In some embodiments, a method includes providing an apparatus or system as described herein, disposing a fluid at a flow rate at an inlet of a tube, introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into an applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the fluid is in the tube and produce a heated fluid, and collecting the heated fluid at an outlet of the tube. In some embodiments, the method also includes (i) disposing at least a portion of the heated fluid at the inlet of the tube, (ii) introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the heated fluid is in the tube and produce a further heated fluid, and (iii) collecting the further heated fluid at an outlet of the tube.

[0013] In some embodiments, a method includes providing an apparatus or system described herein, disposing a fluid material bonded to a tube, and introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves while the material is adjacent to the tube, generating heat and producing a heated material. The material may include a fluid, a solid, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, disposing the material adjacent to the tube includes contacting the tube with the material.

[0014] Additional aspects will be set forth in part in the description that follows, and in part will be apparent from the description or will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. It may be learned by the practice of the embodiments described in the specification. The advantages described herein may be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing summary and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0015] [Figure 1A] 1 shows a side view of an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1B] 1 shows an end view of an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1C] 1 shows an end view of an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1D] 1B shows a cross-sectional view of the tube of FIG. 1A. [Figure 1E] 1B shows a cross-sectional view of the tube of FIG. 1A. [Figure 1F] 1 shows an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1G] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a tube having a monolithic structure. [Figure 1H] 1 shows an end view of an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1I] 1 shows an embodiment of a tube. [Figure 1J] A possible cross-section of the tube of FIG. 1I is shown. [Figure 1K] A possible cross-section of the tube of FIG. 1I is shown. [Figure 2A] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a microwave disruptor. [Figure 2B] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a microwave disruptor. [Figure 2C] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a microwave disruptor. [Figure 2D] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a microwave disruptor. [Figure 3A] 1 shows a side view of an embodiment of an applicator. [Figure 3B] 1 shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an applicator. [Figure 4A]1A and 1B show perspective views of an embodiment of a modular applicator unit. [Figure 4B] FIG. 4C shows a cross-sectional view of the modular applicator unit of FIG. 4B. [Figure 4C-4D] 1A and 1B show side views of an embodiment of an applicator including an embodiment of a modular applicator unit. [Figure 5A] 1 shows an embodiment of a head unit. [Figure 5B] FIG. 1 shows a front view of an embodiment of a head unit. [Figure 5C] 5C shows a cross-sectional view of the head unit of FIG. 5B. [Figure 5D] 1 shows a side view of an embodiment of a head unit. [Figure 5E] FIG. 5E shows a side view of the head unit of FIG. 5D. [Figure 6A] 1 shows a side view of an embodiment of the device. [Figure 6B] 1 shows a side view of an embodiment of the device. [Figure 6C] 1 shows an end view of an embodiment of the device. [Figure 7] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a device including an embodiment of a fixedly mounted head unit. [Figure 8] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a device including an embodiment of a fixedly mounted head unit. [Figure 9A] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a device including an embodiment of a fixedly mounted head unit. [Figure 9B] 10 shows an embodiment of an apparatus including an embodiment of a fixedly mounted head unit and an embodiment of a spacer block. [Figure 10] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a device including an embodiment of a spring-mounted head unit. [Figure 11] 1 illustrates an embodiment of a system. [Figure 12A] 1 illustrates an embodiment of an applicator and an embodiment of a tube having a first end and a second end attached to the applicator. [Figure 12B]1 illustrates an embodiment of an applicator and an embodiment of a tube having a first end and a second end attached to the applicator. [Figure 12C] 1 illustrates an embodiment of an applicator and an embodiment of a tube having a first end attached to the applicator. [Figure 12D] 1 illustrates an embodiment of an applicator and an embodiment of a tube having a first end attached to the applicator. [Figure 12E] 1 illustrates an embodiment of an applicator and an embodiment of a tube having a first end attached to the applicator. [Figure 12F] 12B shows a cross-sectional view of the embodiment of the applicator shown in FIG. 12A. [Figure 12G] 10A-10C illustrate an embodiment of a tube positioned within an embodiment of an opening defined in an applicator. [Figure 12H] 10A-10C illustrate an embodiment of a tube positioned within an embodiment of an opening defined in an applicator. [Figure 12I] 10A-10C illustrate an embodiment of a tube positioned within an embodiment of an opening defined in an applicator. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0016] Provided herein are devices, systems, and methods for heating a fluid with electromagnetic energy, such as microwave energy. The devices include a tube having a susceptor material disposed therein, and the tube may be at least partially disposed within an applicator.

[0017] Container / Tube The devices described herein may include a container. The container may define an interior volume configured to receive susceptor material, such as particles of susceptor material. The container may have an inlet, an outlet, or an inlet and an outlet. The inlet may be a fluid inlet for receiving fluid within the interior volume, and the outlet may be a fluid outlet for discharging fluid from the interior volume. The device may include one container (e.g., a tube) or two or more (e.g., two) containers (e.g., tubes). Where a tube is described herein as having a feature, such feature may also be a feature of the container. Conversely, where a container is described herein as having a feature, such feature may also be a feature of the tube.

[0018] The container may be a tube. As used herein, the term "tube" refers to a container that (i) is elongated (e.g., a length:width ratio of at least 1.1:1, at least 1.5:1, or at least 2:1) or includes an elongated portion, (ii) defines an interior volume having a cross-sectional shape that is non-polygonal in any respect (e.g., circular, oval, etc.), or (iii) is a combination thereof.

[0019] The internal reservoir of a container such as a tube may be fluidly connected to an inlet and an outlet, if present. A container such as a tube may (i) be straight, curved (e.g., featuring one or more coils), bent, or a combination thereof; (ii) have any external or internal cross-sectional shape (e.g., polygonal, non-polygonal, etc.) or area; or (iii) have any external or internal dimensions. "Internal cross-sectional shape" and "internal dimensions" may refer to the cross-sectional shape, dimensions, and / or volume of the internal reservoir. "External or internal dimensions" are the external or internal diameters, respectively, when the tube is substantially cylindrical or when the internal reservoir has a substantially circular cross-sectional shape.

[0020] A container, such as a tube, may have any outer dimension and any inner dimension. The difference between the outer and inner dimensions determines the thickness of the container wall, and therefore the outer and inner dimensions may be adjusted so that the container wall (i) can withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure, and (ii) can absorb microwaves (e.g., at a particular frequency and / or wavelength) into the susceptor material. The thickness of the container may be selected to (i) effectively or to a desired extent irradiate the susceptor material with microwaves (microwaves), (ii) to retain at least a portion of the susceptor material in a desired location, or (iv) a combination thereof. The container, such as a tube, may have an outer dimension of about 5 mm to about 3 m, about 10 mm to about 3 m, about 20 mm to about 3 m, about 50 mm to about 3 m, about 100 mm to about 3 m, about 250 mm to about 3 m, about 500 mm to about 3 m, about 1 m to about 3 m, or about 2 m to about 3 m, and the inner dimension may be selected to provide a desired thickness of the container (e.g., tube) wall.

[0021] In some embodiments, the tube, or at least a portion thereof, is substantially cylindrical and has an internal reservoir with a substantially circular cross-sectional shape. As used herein, the phrase "substantially cylindrical" refers to an object or portion thereof having a substantially circular outer cross-sectional shape, wherein the smallest outer diameter of the object at any point along its length is no more than 20% (e.g., 100 and at least 80), 15% (e.g., 100 and at least 85), 10% (e.g., 100 and at least 90), 5% (e.g., 100 and at least 95), or 1% (e.g., 100 and at least 99) smaller than the largest outer diameter at any point along its length. As used herein, the phrase "substantially circular" refers to a shape having a minimum diameter (e.g., outer diameter of a tube, inner diameter of an internal reservoir) that is 20% (e.g., 10 and at least 8), 15% (e.g., 10 and at least 8.5), 10% (e.g., 10 and at least 9), 5% (e.g., 10 and at least 9.5), or 1% (e.g., 10 and at least 9.9) or less than its maximum diameter (e.g., outer diameter of a tube, inner diameter of an internal reservoir).

[0022] In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 200 mm and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 150 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 150 mm and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 100 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 75 mm and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 60 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 15 mm to about 75 mm and an inner diameter of about 10 mm to about 60 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 45 mm to about 60 mm and an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical and has an outer diameter of about 50 mm to about 54 mm and an inner diameter of about 40 mm to about 44 mm. However, other dimensions are contemplated, as the devices described herein, including the container (e.g., tube), may be scaled to accommodate any fluid flow. For example, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed from an electromagnetically transparent material may be substantially cylindrical and have an outer diameter of about 0.5 m to about 3 m, about 1 m to about 3 m, or about 2 m to about 3 m, and an inner diameter of about 0.4 m to about 2.9 m, about 0.9 m to about 2.9 m, or about 1.9 m to about 2.9 m.

[0023] The container (e.g., tube) may be a pressure container, which refers to a container configured to withstand a pressure of at least 1 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 15 bar, at least 20 bar, or at least 25 bar.

[0024] The inlet and outlet, when present, may comprise a shared opening or two openings of any size and any location that allow fluid to enter and exit the container (e.g., tube), respectively. For example, when the container is a tube, the tube may be a tube. The tube may have an inlet located at the first end or the second end of the tube, and the tube may have an outlet located at the second end or the first end of the tube, respectively. Alternatively, the tube may have an inlet and an outlet located at the first end of the tube or an inlet and an outlet located at the second end of the tube. As used herein, phrases such as "first end," "at the first end," "second end," "at the second end," and the like refer to an area beginning at one of the termination points of a container, such as a tube, and extending toward the opposite end (e.g., tube) of the container (e.g., tube) for no more than 50% of the length of the container (e.g., tube).

[0025] Containers such as tubes may be positioned in any orientation when present in the devices and systems described herein or when used in the methods described herein. For example, a container such as a tube may be positioned such that the longitudinal axis of the container (e.g., tube) is parallel (0°) to the surface supporting the device (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.). As a further example, a container (e.g., tube) may be positioned such that its longitudinal axis is perpendicular (90°) to the surface supporting the device (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.). In some embodiments, a container (e.g., tube) is positioned at any angle between 0° and 90° relative to the surface supporting the device (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.). For example, the angle between the longitudinal axis of the container (e.g., tube) and the surface supporting the device (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.) may be 0°-90°, 10°-90°, 20°-90°, 30°-90°, 40°-90°, 50°-90°, 60°-90°, 70°-90°, or 80°-90°. Thus, when the container (e.g., tube) includes an inlet and an outlet, the inlet and outlet of the container may be positioned at the same height or at different heights relative to the surface supporting the device (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, etc.). For example, the inlet of the tube may be positioned closer to the support surface than the outlet of the container, thereby allowing the container (e.g., tube) to operate in an "upflow" mode. Alternatively, the outlet of the container (e.g., tube) may be positioned closer to the support surface than the inlet of the container (e.g., tube), thereby allowing the container (e.g., tube) to operate in a "downflow" mode.

[0026] A container (e.g., a tube) may be any length, i.e., the linear distance from the termination point of the first end, or, if present, the distance from the first cap to the second end, or, if present, the distance to the second cap of the container (e.g., a tube). A container (e.g., a tube) may have a length, for example, from about 0.1 m to about 5 m, from about 0.1 m to about 4 m, from about 0.1 m to about 3 m, from about 0.5 m to about 3 m, from about 0.5 m to about 2 m, from about 0.5 m to about 1.5 m, or from about 1 m to about 1.5 m. However, other lengths are contemplated, as the devices described herein, including the container, may be scaled to accommodate any fluid flow.

[0027] The container (e.g., tube) may include (e.g., be formed of) any material that allows the susceptor material within the container to be irradiated with electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves. In some embodiments, the container is at least partially formed of one or more materials, including an electromagnetically transparent material. As used herein, the phrase "electromagnetically transparent material" refers to a material that remains substantially unheated (i.e., increases in temperature by 5% or less) when irradiated with one or more types of electromagnetic waves, such as those described herein, for a time sufficient to increase the temperature of 1 L of water by at least 5%. In other words, an electromagnetically transparent material is transparent to one or more types of electromagnetic waves selected for use, but not necessarily all electromagnetic waves. In some embodiments, the container (e.g., tube) is at least partially formed of one or more materials, including a microwave transparent material. As used herein, the phrase "microwave transparent material" refers to a material that remains substantially unheated (i.e., increases in temperature by 5% or less) when irradiated with one or more types of electromagnetic waves, such as those described herein, for a time sufficient to increase the temperature of 1 L of water by at least 5%. This term refers to a material, typically a low-loss dielectric material, that remains substantially unheated (i.e., experiences a temperature increase of 5% or less) when irradiated with microwaves for a time sufficient to cause a temperature increase of at least 5%. Electromagnetically transparent materials, such as microwave-transparent materials, may be selected from ceramics, polymers, glasses, glass fibers, inorganic compounds (e.g., minerals), or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the inorganic compound comprises condensed silica, which may be commonly referred to as quartz. In some embodiments, electromagnetically transparent materials, such as microwave-transparent materials, comprise silicon nitride. In some embodiments, electromagnetically transparent materials, such as microwave-transparent materials, comprise ceramics. In some embodiments, the ceramic comprises silicon, aluminum, nitrogen, and oxygen, which may be referred to as "SiAlON" ceramics. In some embodiments, the ceramic comprises alumina. The alumina may be commercially available alumina, which may contain up to 10% by weight, up to 5% by weight, or up to 1% by weight of impurities, such as silica, calcia, magnesia, iron oxide, sodium oxide, titania, chromium oxide, potassium oxide, boron oxide, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alumina is 99.8% alumina (McDaniel Advanced Ceramic Technologies, Pennsylvania, USA).

[0028] The container (e.g., tube) may be formed of one or more materials. For example, at least a portion of the tube disposed within the applicator may be formed of one or more electromagnetically transparent materials, while one or more other materials may be used to form the remainder of the container. For example, the container may be formed of ceramic and metal.

[0029] In some embodiments, the container (e.g., a tube) is a monolithic structure formed of one or more electromagnetically transparent materials. As used herein, the phrase "monolithic structure" refers to a structure formed of a single piece of material (e.g., ceramic, metal, etc.). A container having a monolithic structure may be, for example, a tube including a single, tubular-shaped piece formed entirely of ceramic. The ceramic monolithic structure may include an inlet and an outlet at a first end and a second end, respectively. In some embodiments, the monolithic structure includes one or more structural features (e.g., recesses, grooves, ridges, flanges, etc.) for accommodating another component of the device provided herein, such as a clamp or other component of a head unit. However, the monolithic structure may lack one or more structural features configured to accommodate another component of the device provided herein.

[0030] In some embodiments, the container (e.g., tube) includes a first cap disposed at a first end of the container (e.g., tube), a second cap disposed at a second end of the container (e.g., tube), or a first cap and a second cap disposed at the first and second ends of the container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the inlet of the container (e.g., tube) is provided by the first cap. In some embodiments, the outlet of the container (e.g., tube) is provided by the second cap. For example, the first cap and / or the second cap may each define an opening that allows fluid to enter or exit the internal reservoir of the container (e.g., tube). The first cap and / or the second cap may be formed of any material. In some embodiments, the first cap and / or the second cap are formed of a material having a thermal expansion coefficient that is the same as or similar to (e.g., within 10%) the thermal expansion coefficient of the electromagnetically transparent material, such as the microwave-transparent material, of the container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the first cap and / or the second cap are formed of a metal. The metal may be an alloy, such as an alloy including iron, cobalt, and nickel (e.g., KOVAR® alloy). In some embodiments, the first cap and / or the second cap include a metal, and a portion of the tube includes a ceramic, and the first cap, the second cap, or the second cap are formed of a metal alloy. Both the first cap and the second cap may be joined in any manner, including a manner that forms a seal between the tube and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first and second caps. For example, a container (e.g., a tube) may be joined to the first cap, the second cap, or the first and second caps by (i) ceramic-to-metal brazing, (ii) adhesives, (iii) securing a threaded end of the tube to the first cap and / or second cap, which may be threaded, or (iv) a combination thereof. Brazing may provide a seal that may be sufficient to withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure. In some embodiments, a portion of the container (e.g., a tube) comprises alumina, and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first and second caps comprise KOVAR® alloy. KOVAR® alloy may be joined to ceramics, such as alumina, by (i) ceramic-to-metal brazing, (ii) threading one or both of the ceramic and KOVAR® alloy, or (iii) a combination thereof. The adhesive may be a ceramic adhesive, such as those commercially available from Sauereisen, Inc. (PA, USA). The first cap and / or second cap may generally have any shape. For example, the first cap and / or second cap may have features (e.g., indentations, grooves, ridges, flanges, etc.) corresponding to another component of a container (e.g., tube), system, or device described herein. In some embodiments, the first cap and / or second cap include one or more features (e.g., recesses, grooves, ridges, flanges, etc. of any polygonal or non-polygonal shape) that may enable the first cap and / or second cap to accommodate a clamp or other device that may be used as or as part of a seal described herein, such as a seal between the first cap and / or second cap and another component (e.g., a head unit) of an apparatus or system described herein.

[0031] An embodiment of a tube is shown in Figures 1A (side view), 1B (end view), and 1C (end view). Tube 100 in Figure 1A is substantially cylindrical and has a first end 101 and a second end 102. Tube 100 includes a central portion 110 formed of a microwave-transparent material, a first cap 120 at first end 101, and a second cap 130 at second end 102. As shown in Figure 1B, first end 101 of tube 100 has an inlet 121 provided by first cap 120. As shown in Figure 1C, second end 102 of tube 100 has an outlet 131 provided in second cap 130. Although the inlet 121 in FIG. 1B and the outlet 131 in FIG. 1C are central in the first cap 120 and the second cap 130, respectively, other embodiments are contemplated, such as embodiments in which at least one of the inlet 121 and the outlet 131 is not central.

[0032] Another embodiment of a tube is shown in FIG. 1F (side view). Tube 160 in FIG. 1F is substantially cylindrical and has a first end 161 and a second end 162. Tube 160 includes a central portion 163 formed of a microwave-transparent material, a first cap 164 at first end 161, and a second cap 165 at second end 162. First cap 164 and second cap 165 include flanges (166, 167). Flanges (166, 167) may accommodate clamps or other devices. Because first end 161 of tube 160 has an inlet provided by first cap 164 and second end 162 of tube 160 has an outlet provided by second cap 165, the end view of tube 160 in FIG. 1F is identical to that of FIGS. 1B and 1C. In some embodiments, one or both of the first cap 164 and the second cap 165 can include a flange having a non-circular shape, such as a square or rectangular flange, and such an embodiment would have a different end view than that shown in Figures 1B and 1C.

[0033] Yet another embodiment of a tube is shown in FIG. 1G (side view) and FIG. 1H (end view). Tube 170 in FIG. 1G is substantially cylindrical and has a first end 171 and a second end 172. Tube 170 has a monolithic structure formed of a microwave-transparent material, such as ceramic. The monolithic structure includes flanges (173, 174) at first end 171 and second end 172. Flanges (173, 174) may accommodate clamps or other devices. An end view of tube 170 in FIG. 1G is provided in FIG. 1H, showing flange 173 and inlet 175. In some embodiments (not shown), inlet 175 is not present.

[0034] The outer dimensions of the container (e.g., tube) may be selected to match the dimensions of the applicator. The applicator may, for example, include a structure defining one or more openings through which the tube is disposed. The container (e.g., tube) may have outer dimensions that allow the container (e.g., tube) to contact at least a portion of one or more openings in the applicator. The container (e.g., tube) may have outer dimensions that are about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 5 mm, about 2 mm to about 4 mm, or about 3 mm to about 3.5 mm smaller than the corresponding dimensions of the openings in the applicator. The applicator may include one or more chambers defined by walls, each of which defines an opening through which the tube is disposed, and a relatively small difference between the outer dimensions of the tube and the dimensions of the openings may reduce or eliminate microwave leakage.

[0035] The container (e.g., tube) may also include a microwave disruptor. As used herein, the phrase "microwave disruptor" refers to a device configured to reduce or eliminate the ability of microwaves to heat at least a portion of one or more components of an apparatus. For example, the microwave disruptor may be configured to disrupt microwave resonance. In some embodiments, the microwave disruptor is disposed inside the container (e.g., tube). The microwave disruptor may be attached in any manner to any part of the container (e.g., tube). For example, the microwave disruptor may be fixedly attached to any part of the container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the microwave disruptor is disposed at a first end of the container (e.g., tube), an inlet of the container (e.g., tube), a second end of the container (e.g., tube), an outlet of the container (e.g., tube), or a combination thereof. Placing a microwave disruptor at a first end of a container (e.g., a tube) and / or at an inlet of a container (e.g., a tube) having a first cap at the first end can reduce or eliminate heating of the first cap by microwaves. Placing a microwave disruptor at a second end of a container (e.g., a tube) and / or at an outlet of a container (e.g., a tube) having a second cap at the second end can reduce or eliminate heating of the second cap by microwaves.

[0036] As used herein, the phrases "fixedly attached," "fixedly joined," and the like describe an affixed or fixed connection that is configured to be inelastic, including connections that (i) are configured to be permanent (e.g., two objects are welded or an object, when formed, includes two features, such as a second cap that includes a microwave disruptor), and / or (ii) (a) cannot be removed by hand (e.g., a threaded fastener tightened with a tool, some type of adhesive, a tightened collar, a material that provides friction between the two objects, etc.) or (2) can be removed by hand without the aid of a tightening or loosening tool (e.g., objects connected by corresponding male and female features, such as tabs and slots, ridges and grooves, some type of adhesive, a material that provides friction between the objects), and / or (b) can withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, e.g., pressure, forces imparted by thermal expansion, etc., without failure.

[0037] A microwave disruptor may generally include (e.g., be formed of) any material and have any shape that can reduce or eliminate the heating capability of microwaves at or near the location of the microwave disruptor. In some embodiments, the microwave disruptor includes a metal such as copper, stainless steel, etc. The microwave disruptor may include a wire (i.e., flexible and elongated) or a rod (i.e., rigid and elongated) that may be straight, curved, bent, or a combination thereof. When the microwave disruptor includes a wire or rod, a flange, one or more protruding structures, or a combination thereof may be disposed on any portion of the wire or rod.

[0038] Several embodiments of microwave disruptors are shown in Figures 2A-2D. Microwave disruptor 200 in Figure 2A includes a bent wire 202 having a first end 201 that may be attached anywhere within a container (e.g., a tube). Microwave disruptor 210 in Figure 2B includes a substantially cylindrical rod 212 having a first end 211 that may be attached anywhere within a container (e.g., a tube). Microwave disruptor 210 also includes a substantially circular flange 213. Microwave disruptor 220 in Figure 2C includes a rod 222 having a first end 221 that may be attached anywhere within a container (e.g., a tube). Microwave disruptor 220 also includes three protruding structures 223. Microwave disruptor 230 in Figure 2D includes a wire 232 having multiple curves and a first end 231 that may be attached anywhere within a container (e.g., a tube).

[0039] An apparatus, system, or portion thereof, such as a tube, may include one or more retention devices to (i) prevent susceptor material from escaping from an internal reservoir and / or cap of a container (e.g., a tube), (ii) control the location of the susceptor material within an apparatus, system, or portion thereof, such as an internal reservoir, cap, or head unit, (iii) prevent the susceptor material from contacting fluid, or (iv) any combination thereof. The one or more retention devices may include a material that is permeable or impermeable to fluid disposed within an inlet of a container (e.g., a tube). The one or more retention devices may be located anywhere within the system or apparatus. The one or more retention devices may (i) be disposed within or adjacent to an internal volume defined by a container, such as a tube, and / or (ii) be configured to retain susceptor particles within the internal volume defined by the container while allowing fluid to flow out of the internal volume. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a membrane. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a plurality of openings through which fluid can pass but not susceptor material, such as susceptor particles. In some embodiments, one or more retention devices include a screen. The retention device (e.g., membrane, screen, etc.), which may include a frame, may be positioned (e.g., fixedly attached) (i) within or adjacent to a container (e.g., a tube), e.g., at one or both ends of an internal reservoir, within or adjacent to a cap, (ii) within or adjacent to a head unit (e.g., within the head unit, between the head unit and the cap, and / or within a pipe or other device through which fluid exits the head unit), or (iii) a combination thereof. Any sieve designation may be selected for the retention device; for example, the retention device may have any suitable mesh number. In some embodiments, the retention device is a screen having a mesh number of 4-400, 10-200, 20-100, or 20-50.In some embodiments, the retention device comprises a 30 mesh screen. In some embodiments, the average open area of ​​the openings in the retention mechanism is less than 20 square mm, less than 15 square mm, less than 10 square mm, less than 5 square mm, or less than 2 square mm. The thickness is less than mm. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a screen coupled to the container, a perforated plate coupled to the container, or a perforated wall of the container. In some embodiments, at least one retention device includes a first retention structure location proximate a fluid inlet of the container (e.g., a tube) and a second retention structure location proximate a fluid outlet. In addition to being permeable to a fluid disposed within the inlet of the container (e.g., a tube), the one or more retention devices may also accommodate, through an opening or otherwise, one or more other components of the container (e.g., a tube), such as a microwave disruptor. The microwave disruptor may, for example, include a portion disposed within an opening defined by the one or more retention devices. In some embodiments, the one or more retention devices (i) may be impermeable to the fluid and (ii) include one or more housings formed at least partially of an electromagnetically transparent material, such as a microwave transparent material, which may be the same as or different from the electromagnetically transparent material of the tube. A susceptor material may be disposed within the one or more housings. The housing may have generally any shape, and a container (e.g., a tube) may include one or more housings in which the susceptor material is disposed. In some embodiments, the housing in which the susceptor material is disposed is an elongated housing having a length:width ratio of at least 3:1 (e.g., cylindrical), thereby forming a "tube within a tube" configuration in which fluid traverses an area at least partially defined by the outer surface of the elongated housing and the inner surface of the tube. In some embodiments, two or more of the elongated housings are arranged in any manner within the container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, one or more housings include one or more capsules having a length:width ratio of less than 3:1 (e.g., spherical, elliptical, square, rectangular shapes) arranged in any manner within the container (e.g., tube). The susceptor material disposed within the housing may be in any form, including those described herein, such as a particulate form, a monolithic form, or a combination thereof.

[0040] A cross-sectional view of the tube of FIG. 1A is shown in FIG. 1D. The tube 100 includes an internal reservoir 151 and screens (141, 142) positioned at both ends of the internal reservoir 151, which hold a susceptor material 150 disposed within the internal reservoir 151. The screen 142, positioned proximate the second end 102 of the tube 100, defines an opening that accommodates a microwave disruptor 210, as shown in FIG. 2B. A first end 211 of the microwave disruptor 210 is fixedly attached to the second cap 130 of the tube 100, and as shown in FIG. 2B, the microwave disruptor 210 includes a rod 212 and a flange 213. The microwave disruptor 210 may reduce or eliminate the ability of microwaves to heat a portion of the tube, such as the second cap 130 that provides the outlet 131. In some embodiments, the screen 142 may be positioned closer to the first end 101 of the tube 100 so that the microwave disruptor 210 does not need to penetrate the screen 142 .

[0041] Another cross-sectional view of the tube of FIG. 1A is shown in FIG. 1E, which includes a susceptor material 150 disposed within an internal reservoir 151.

[0042] Applicator The apparatus described herein may include an applicator, such as a microwave applicator. The applicator may include any device in which a container (e.g., a tube) is mounted in any manner while the susceptor material is irradiated with multiple electromagnetic waves, such as multiple microwaves. The multiple electromagnetic waves introduced into the applicator may include multiple radio waves, multiple microwaves, multiple infrared waves, multiple gamma rays, any other type of electromagnetic wave, or a combination thereof. The multiple electromagnetic waves may be generated, at least in part, by a laser. (i) What is referred to as a "microwave applicator," (ii) What is referred to as a hosting microwave, or (iii) What is used in conjunction with one or more microwave generators. Any of the applicators provided herein, including those described above, may be used with each of the aforementioned types of electromagnetic waves.

[0043] One or more containers (e.g., tubes) may be at least partially disposed within the applicator. At least a portion of the container (e.g., tube) and / or at least a portion of the susceptor material is disposed “within” the applicator when it is located in a position that allows at least a portion of the electromagnetic waves disposed within the applicator to contact, traverse, and / or irradiate at least a portion of the container and / or at least a portion of the susceptor material, respectively. In some embodiments, the applicator includes two or more components, and one or more containers (and, if present, the susceptor material within the one or more containers) are at least partially disposed within the component of the applicator in which the electromagnetic waves are disposed (e.g., a vessel, a modular unit, etc.). For example, one container, two containers, three containers, four containers, or more may be at least partially disposed within the applicator. Each container may be completely or partially disposed independently within the applicator. For example, when the container is a tube, the tube may be disposed completely within the applicator (e.g., none of the tube protrudes from the applicator) or partially within the applicator (e.g., the first end or both the first and second ends of the tube protrude from the applicator).

[0044] The applicator may include a single piece (e.g., a vessel, a modular unit, etc.) to which a container (e.g., a tube) is attached and to which electromagnetic waves such as microwaves are introduced. Alternatively, the applicator may include two or more pieces, such as a vessel or modular unit to which microwaves are introduced as described herein, and at least one separate piece, such as a mounting device to which the container (e.g., a tube) is attached in any manner (e.g., a separate bracket and / or other structure (e.g., a pedestal, an elongated support (e.g., a hanger, a wire, a rod, a cable rope, a chain, piping (e.g., an arrangement of components of a system in fluid communication, etc.)), etc.). The applicator may include the vessel and the at least one separate piece, and the vessel and the at least one separate piece may be located in the same or different locations. For example, the vessel may be positioned on a floor, a pedestal, a first support, etc., and the at least one separate piece (to which the tube may be attached in any manner) may be positioned on or extend from the floor, pedestal, support, or another location, such as a ceiling, a wall, a second pedestal, a second support, etc.

[0045] In addition to the examples shown in Figures 3A, 3B, 4C, 4D, 6A, 6B, 6C, 7, 8, 9A, 9B, 10, and 11, further non-limiting examples of how a first end (or first and second ends) of a container (e.g., a tube) may be fixedly or spring-loaded attached to an applicator are shown in Figures 12A, 12B, 12C, 12D, and 12E. Other configurations are envisioned.

[0046] FIG. 12A shows an embodiment of applicators (1202A, 1202B) disposed on a support structure 1203. The applicators (1202A, 1202B) include a container 1202A into which microwaves are introduced and two pedestals 1202B. A first end and a second end of a tube 1201 are attached to the pedestals 1202B. The pedestals 1202B may be configured to allow one or both ends of the tube 1201 to be fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicators (1202A, 1202B). In an alternative embodiment, the applicator of FIG. 12A features only one pedestal 1202B. One or both pedestals (1202B) may include wheels and / or another feature to facilitate or mitigate removal of the tube 1201 from the container 1202A. Both ends of the tube 1201 in FIG. 12A protrude from the container 1202A. One or both ends need not do so. A cross-sectional view of the container 1202A of FIG. 12A is shown in FIG. 12F. FIG. 12F shows an opening 1210 defined by the container 1202A, with the tube 1201 attached to the applicator (1202A, 1202B) disposed within the opening, but the tube 1201 does not contact the container 1202A, thereby enabling a “floating” tube configuration. Alternatively, the base 1202B of FIG. 12A may be configured to allow a portion of the tube 1201 to contact the container 1202A at one or more locations; an example of such a configuration is shown in FIG. 12G. Additionally or alternatively, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 12H and 12I, the applicator (1202A, 1202B) may include a material 1220 disposed between and contacting the container 1202A and the tube 1201 disposed within the opening 1210. The material 1220 may completely or partially bypass the tube. The material 1220 may be configured, for example, in the manner shown in FIG. 12H, or the material 1220 may include one or more separate portions, for example, as shown in FIG. 12I. The material 1220 may have one or more properties (e.g., rigidity, flexibility, adhesiveness, etc.) that allow the tube 1201 to be fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator (1202A, 1202B), with or without a base 1202B (see, for example, FIGS. 3A, 3B), as described herein. The material 1220 may be, for example, an elastic material that accommodates the possible expansion and contraction of the tube 1201. In some embodiments, the material 1220 is disposed within one or more openings defined by the reservoir 1202A of the applicator (1202A, 1202B).

[0047] 12B shows an embodiment of applicators (1202A, 1202B, 1202C) disposed on a support structure 1203. The applicators (1202A, 1202B, 1202C) include a container 1202A into which microwaves are introduced, two brackets 1202B, and two elongated supports 1202C. The two elongated supports 1202C are connected to the bracket 1202B and extend from the bracket 1202B to first and second ends of the tube 1201. The two elongated supports may comprise any material and may be rigid or flexible, thereby allowing the tube to be spring-loaded or fixedly attached to the applicators (1202A, 1202B, 1202C). The bracket 1202B may be affixed to any structure or surface, or alternatively, the elongated support 1202C may be affixed directly to any structure on a surface without the bracket 1202B. The first and second ends of the tube 1201 may be secured to the elongated support 1202C in any manner. The applicators (1202A, 1202B, 1202C), the support structure 1203, and / or any additional material 1220 may be configured to position the tube 1201 in any manner shown in Figures 12F, 12G, 12H, and / or 121.

[0048] Figure 12C shows an embodiment of an applicator (1202A, 1202B, 1202C) disposed on a support structure 1203. The applicator (1202A, 1202B, 1202C) includes a container 1202A into which microwaves are introduced, two brackets 1202B, and two elongated supports 1202C. The two elongated supports 1202C are connected to the brackets 1202B and extend from the brackets 1202B to a first portion of the tube 1201. The two elongated supports may comprise any material and may be rigid or flexible, thereby enabling the tube to be spring-mounted or fixedly mounted to the applicator (1202A, 1202B, 1202C). The brackets 1202B may be attached to any structure or surface, or alternatively, the elongated supports 1202C may be directly attached to any structure on the surface without the brackets 1202B. The first end of the tube 1201 may be fixed to the elongated support 1202C in any manner, such as by a collar or a feature of the tube 1201. In an alternative embodiment, (i) the applicator of FIG. 12C features only one bracket 1202B and only one elongated support body 1202C, and (ii) the applicator is supported not by the support structure 1203 but in the manner shown in FIG. 12D. The elongated support 1202C may be used to partially or fully lift the tube 1201 from the container 1202A, which may assist in cleaning, maintenance, removal / refilling of the contents of the tube 1201. Both ends of the tube 1201 in FIG. 12C protrude from the container 1202A, but it is not necessary for one or both ends to do so. The applicator (1202A, 1202B, 1202C), the support structure 1203, and / or any additional material 1220 may be configured to position the tube 1201 in any manner shown in FIGS. 12F, 12G, 12H, and / or FIG. 12I. The brackets 1202B and the elongated supports 1202C are shown in FIG. 12C, but particularly when the elongated support 1202C is rigid, the brackets 1202B and the elongated supports 1202C may be disposed on the "bottom" end of the container 1202A.

[0049] FIG. 12D shows an embodiment of an applicator 1202 supported by a bracket 1205 and an elongated support 1204 extending from the bracket 1205 to the applicator 1202. A first end of the tube 1201 is fixedly attached to the applicator 1202 by a head unit 1206 and a fastener 1207, as described herein (see, e.g., FIGS. 7 and 8). In an alternative embodiment, the first end of the tube 1201 is spring-loaded attached to the applicator 1202, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C, 9A, 9B, 10, and 11. While both ends of the tube 1201 in FIG. 12D protrude from the container 1202, one or both ends need not do so. The applicator (1202), bracket 1205, elongated support 1204, and / or optional additional material 1220 may be configured to position the tube 1201 in any manner shown in Figures 12F, 12G, 12H, and / or 121. Although the head unit 1206 is depicted on the "top" of the applicator 1202, the head unit 1206 may be located on the bottom of the applicator 1202.

[0050] FIG. 12E shows an embodiment of applicators (1202A, 1202B) supported by a bracket 1205 and an elongated support 1204 extending from the bracket 1205 to the applicator 1202. The applicators (1202A, 1202B) include a container 1202A into which microwaves are introduced and two pedestals 1202B. A first end of a tube 1201 is attached to the pedestal 1202B. In an alternative embodiment, the applicator of FIG. 12E features only one pedestal (1202B). The pedestal of FIG. 12E may include an opening or other feature to allow access to the opening in the first end of the tube. The pedestal 1202B of FIG. 12E may be configured to accommodate a container (e.g., a tube) that may or may not include a head unit, as described herein. The elongated support 1204 may be used to lift the container 1202A, thereby separating the tube 1201 and the container 1202A. Although both ends of the tube 1201 in FIG. 12E protrude from the container 1202A, one or both ends need not do so. The applicators (1202A, 1202B), bracket 1205, elongated support 1204, and / or any additional material 1220 may be configured to position the tube 1201 in any manner shown in FIGS. 12F, 12G, 12H, and / or 12I.

[0051] In some embodiments, the applicator includes a container having a first end and a second end and including one or more chambers defined by one or more exterior walls of the container, one or more interior walls of the container, or a combination thereof. The first end and second end of the container may include, for example, any two opposing exterior walls of the container. The first end of the container, the second end of the container, one or more interior walls of the container, or a combination thereof may define an opening. The opening may accommodate a tube. For example, the tube may be inserted into (a) the first end of the container. (b) a second end of the container; (c) one or more walls of the interior of the container; or (d) an opening defined by a combination thereof.

[0052] In some embodiments, the applicator includes 1, 1 to 30, 1 to 25, 1 to 15, 1 to 10, 2 to 10, 2 to 8, 4 to 8, or 4 to 6 chambers. The microwave generator may be positioned to introduce multiple microwaves into the chambers. The number of chambers may be greater than, equal to, or less than the number of microwave generators. Multiple electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, may be introduced into the chambers (i) through an opening defined by the outer wall of the container, (ii) by microwave generator components disposed within the chambers, (iii) by microwave generator components disposed within a waveguide, or (iv) a combination thereof. As used herein, the phrase "microwave generator" refers to a device that generates microwaves, including device components such as antennas, coaxial cables, and transmission lines. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave radiating structure includes one or more microwave generator components, such as antennas and coaxial cables. When the methods described herein are carried out with electromagnetic waves other than microwaves, the term "microwave generator" may be substituted with other types of generators of electromagnetic waves as provided herein.

[0053] As used herein, the phrase "introduced into the chamber through an opening defined by the outer wall of the container" includes introducing microwaves with a microwave generator positioned outside the chamber and introducing microwaves into the chamber through an opening defined by the outer wall of the container. Before traversing the opening, the microwaves may pass through a waveguide, coaxial cable, or other transmission line.

[0054] As used herein, the phrase "introduced into the chamber by a microwave generator disposed within the chamber" refers to introducing microwaves into the chamber with a microwave generator having at least one component, such as an antenna, located within the chamber. Other components of such a microwave generator may be located outside the chamber and connected via cables to one or more components, such as an antenna, located within the chamber. When microwaves are introduced inside the chamber with an antenna or otherwise, the microwaves may not pass through a waveguide located outside the chamber, and therefore the chamber may not include a waveguide.

[0055] As used herein, the phrase "introduced into the chamber by a microwave generator disposed within a waveguide" refers to generating microwaves with a microwave generator having at least one component, such as an antenna, disposed within the waveguide. Other components of such a microwave generator may be disposed outside the waveguide and connected via a cable to one or more components, such as an antenna, disposed within the waveguide. When microwaves are generated inside the waveguide, by an antenna or otherwise, the microwaves may traverse at least a portion of the waveguide, including a portion of the waveguide that resides between (i) the microwave generator component within the waveguide and (ii) the chamber or the chamber opening, before entering the chamber through an opening defined by the outer wall of the container.

[0056] In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce multiple microwaves into at least one of the chambers. Each chamber may be associated with one or more microwave generators. In some embodiments, the first, second, third, etc. microwave generators are each positioned to introduce multiple microwaves into the first, second, third, etc. chambers. In some embodiments, the number of chambers exceeds the number of microwave generators. Thus, a microwave generator may not be positioned in every chamber. In some embodiments In some embodiments, the apparatus includes 3 to 6 microwave generators and 4 to 6 chambers. In some embodiments, the number of chambers is less than the number of microwave generators. Thus, two or more microwave generators may be positioned in one or more chambers. The applicator chambers may be single-mode or multi-mode chambers. In some embodiments, the applicator chamber containing the container is a multi-mode chamber.

[0057] In some embodiments, the susceptor material is irradiated with multiple electromagnetic waves, including electromagnetic waves other than microwaves, which may be generated by one or more sources (e.g., generators, antennas, etc.) that may be located in any one or more of the locations described herein for a microwave generator.

[0058] The applicator may also include one or more waveguides. As used herein, the term "waveguide" refers to a device that (i) is disposed between the microwave generator and the chamber and (ii) includes a passage through which microwaves pass before entering the chamber, the passage being configured to reduce or eliminate energy loss of the microwaves as they traverse the passage. Thus, the waveguide may have any external shape, and the shape and dimensions of the passage may be configured to reduce or eliminate energy loss of the microwaves. When a waveguide is present, it may extend from an opening in the chamber and / or be attached to or near the opening in the chamber. The microwave generator may be positioned at and / or attached to the other end of the waveguide. The opening in the chamber through which the waveguide tube extends and / or to which it is attached may be at least partially covered with an electromagnetically transparent material (e.g., a microwave transparent material), such as a tile of alumina, TEFLON® polytetrafluoroethylene, fused silica, etc. In some embodiments, a waveguide is disposed between each chamber and the microwave generator. One or more of the waveguides may include at least one tuning screw, which may be a feature that allows for impedance matching.

[0059] An embodiment of an applicator and a tube attached to the applicator is shown in Figures 3A and 3B. Figure 3A is a side view, and Figure 3B is a cross-sectional view of applicator 300, including first end 301 and second end 302. The tube in Figure 1A is disposed within opening 310 defined by first end 301, opening 311 defined by second end 302, and opening 321 defined by three walls 320 that divide applicator 300 into four chambers (351, 352, 353, 354). Although not shown, applicator 300 in Figures 3A and 3B may include one or more additional tubes disposed within openings (310, 311, 321). Alternatively or additionally, applicator 300 may define a second set of openings, not shown, in which one or more additional tubes are disposed. Extending from each of the four chambers (351, 352, 353, 354) is a waveguide 315. The waveguides 315 in the illustrated embodiment appear on alternate sides of the applicator 300, although other configurations are possible and envisioned. A microwave generator 316 is positioned in each of the waveguides 315. While a microwave generator 316 is positioned in each waveguide in the illustrated embodiment, other configurations are possible; for example, a microwave generator may be positioned to introduce microwaves into any combination of the four chambers, such as (i) 351-353, (ii) 352-354, (iii) 351, 353, or (iv) 352, 354. When a microwave generator is not disposed in a waveguide, the waveguide may be removed and / or the corresponding opening of the chamber may be closed in any manner. In some embodiments (not shown), the tube 160 of FIG. 1F includes an opening 310 defined by a first end 301, an opening 311 defined by a second end 302, and an opening 312 defined by three walls 320 that divide the applicator 300 into four chambers (351, 352, 353, 354). The microwave generator 316 is disposed within the section 321. While a microwave generator 316 is provided in FIGS. 3A and 3B, other electromagnetic wave generators, such as those described herein, may be used in other embodiments of the device shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B. The device of FIGS. 3A and 3B may also be positioned at any angle between 0° (as shown) and 90° during operation, as described herein, thereby allowing the device to operate in upflow or downflow mode. While both ends of the tube (120, 130) protrude from the applicator 300 of FIGS. 3A and 3B, one or both ends need not do so. The applicator 300 and tube of FIGS. 3A and 3B may be positioned according to any one or more of the configurations shown in FIGS. 12F-12I. For example, the applicator and tube may be arranged in the manner shown in FIG. 12G (e.g., the tube contacts the applicator at one or more openings defined by the applicator), which may result in a spring-loaded tube, or in other words, the tube may expand / contract relative to the applicator when subjected to the forces of the methods described herein. As a further example, the applicator and tube may be arranged in the manner shown in FIG. 12H or 12I, which may result in a fixedly loaded tube or a spring-loaded tube, depending, for example, on the properties of the materials and / or the relationship between the material, the tube, and the applicator. For example, the material may be or include an adhesive, which results in a fixedly loaded tube. As a further example, the material may be an elastic material that can accommodate movement (e.g., expansion / contraction) of the tube, thereby resulting in a spring-loaded tube. The applicators of FIGS. 3A and 3B may include any one or more features, such as one or more of those shown in FIGS. 12A-12E.

[0060] The applicator may include a solid-state microwave applicator. The solid-state microwave applicator may include at least one antenna, a power component, and a cable (e.g., a coaxial cable) connecting the power component to each of the at least one antenna. The one or more antennas may be disposed within a chamber of an applicator disclosed herein, and a wall at least partially defining each chamber may define an opening that can accommodate the cable of the solid-state microwave applicator. For example, the applicator may include six chambers, and any number of the six chambers may include at least one antenna, which may be connected to one or more power components. The one or more antennas may be disposed within a waveguide of an applicator disclosed herein, and any wall defining each waveguide may define an opening that can accommodate the cable of the solid-state microwave applicator. For example, the applicator may include six waveguides, and any number of the six waveguides may include at least one antenna, which may be connected to one or more power components. As a further example, the applicator may include six chambers and one to six waveguides, and any number of the six chambers and one to six waveguides may include at least one antenna, and the antenna may be connected to one or more power components.

[0061] The applicator may also be formed of one modular applicator unit or at least two modular applicator units. In some embodiments, the applicator includes 1 to 30 modular applicator units, 1 to 25 modular applicator units, 1 to 20 modular applicator units, 1 to 15 modular applicator units, 1 to 10 modular applicator units, or 2 to 10 modular applicator units. In some embodiments, the applicator includes 4 to 6 modular applicator units.

[0062] Each modular unit includes (i) a chamber having a first side and a second side, (ii) a first opening defined by the first side, and (iii) a second opening defined by the second side. and (iv) a waveguide extending from a third opening of the chamber. Each modular applicator unit of the applicator may be identical, or at least two modular applicator units may differ in any manner, such as chamber dimensions, waveguide dimensions, orientation of the chamber, waveguide, and / or opening, or a combination thereof. Whether identical or different, any two modular units of the applicator may be oriented in the same manner. The chamber of each modular unit may be a single-mode chamber or a multi-mode chamber. In some embodiments, the chamber of each modular unit is a single-mode chamber.

[0063] An embodiment of a modular applicator unit is shown in FIG. 4A (perspective view) and FIG. 4B (cross-sectional view). Modular applicator unit 400 includes first and second sides 401 and 403, respectively, and first and second openings 402 and 404 defined by first and second sides 401 and 403. Modular applicator unit 400 also includes a waveguide 410 and a chamber 420. Chamber 420 in FIGS. 4A and 4B is an example of a non-polygonal chamber, although other chambers are contemplated. Although not shown, modular applicator unit 400 may define a second set of openings (e.g., a third opening defined by first side 401 and a fourth opening defined by second side 403), thereby allowing two tubes to traverse modular applicator unit 400.

[0064] In some embodiments, at least two of the modular applicator units are disposed adjacent to one another, and the tube is disposed within the first and second openings of the adjacent modular applicator unit. In some embodiments, 1 to 30 modular applicator units, or 2 to 10 modular applicator units, are disposed adjacent to one another, and the tube is disposed within the first and second openings of each modular applicator unit. When two modular applicator units are adjacent to one another, the two modular applicator units may or may not contact one another. When two modular applicator units contact one another, the two modular applicator units may be joined in any manner. For example, the two modular applicator units may be fixedly attached to one another. In some embodiments, the modular applicator units include one or more structural features, such as corresponding male and female structural features, which may enable or facilitate the placement and / or joining of the two modular applicator units.

[0065] In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of 1 to 30 modular applicator units, hi some embodiments, the apparatus includes 3 to 6 microwave generators and the applicator is an applicator including 4 to 6 modular applicator units.

[0066] An embodiment of an applicator and a tube attached to the applicator is shown in Figures 4C (side view) and 4D (side view). Applicator 490 includes six adjacent modular applicator units 400, as shown in Figures 4A and 4B. The applicator units 400 are adjacent to and in contact with one another. The first side 401 of each modular applicator unit 401 contacts the second side 403 of each adjacent modular applicator unit 400. The tube 100 shown in Figure 1A is disposed within the first opening 402 and the second opening 404 (see Figure 4B) of each modular applicator unit 400. Although not shown, the applicator 400 of Figures 4C and 4D 90 may include one or more additional tubes disposed within the openings (402, 404). Alternatively or additionally, the applicator 490 may define additional openings, not shown, in which one or more additional tubes are disposed (as described above with respect to FIG. 4A). The modular applicator units 400 are oriented such that three waveguides 410 extend from one side of the device as shown in FIG. 4C and three waveguides 410 extend from the other side of the device as shown in FIG. 4D. However, other orientations are possible and contemplated. For example, as shown in FIGS. 3A and 3B, microwave generators may be positioned in one or more of the waveguides 410. In some embodiments (not shown), the tubes 160 shown in FIG. 1F are disposed within the first opening 402 and the second opening 404 (see FIG. 4B) of each modular applicator unit 400. The device of Figures 4C and 4D may also be positioned at any angle between 0° (as shown) and 90° during operation, as described herein, thereby allowing the device to operate in upflow or downflow mode. While both ends of the tube (120, 130) protrude from the applicator 490 of Figures 4C and 4D, one or both ends need not. The applicator 490 and tube of Figures 4C and 4D may be positioned according to any one or more of the configurations shown in Figures 12F-12I. For example, the applicator and tube may be positioned in the manner shown in Figure 12G (e.g., the tube contacts the applicator at one or more openings defined by the applicator), which results in a spring-loaded tube because the tube is able to move relative to the applicator. As a further example, the applicator and tube may be arranged in the manner shown in Figures 12H or 12I, which arrangement may result in a fixedly attached tube or a spring-loaded attached tube, depending, for example, on the properties of the material and / or the relationship of the material, tube, and applicator. The applicators of Figures 4C and 4D may include any one or more features, such as one or more of those shown in Figures 12A-12E.

[0067] The tube may be attached to the applicator in any manner. As described herein, the tube may be attached to the applicator by (i) attaching a portion of the tube, such as a cap, to the applicator and / or (ii) attaching a separate device that contacts the tube, such as a head unit, to the applicator (see, e.g., FIGS. 12A-12E). In some embodiments, the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator. In some embodiments, the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator. In some embodiments, one part of the tube, such as the first end, is fixedly or spring-loaded to the applicator, and another part of the tube, such as the second end, is fixedly or spring-loaded to the applicator.

[0068] When the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, one component of the tube, such as the first or second cap, or another component of the device, such as the first or second head unit, in contact with the tube, may be attached (i) directly to the applicator's container or one of the applicator's modular applicator units, or (ii) to another component of the applicator, such as a mounting device. The mounting device may be a separate component (i.e., not connected to the container or modular applicator unit) that allows a portion of the tube to be attached to the applicator. Non-limiting examples of mounting devices include the bases, brackets, and elongated supports (e.g., hangers, chains, cables, ropes, wires, tubing, hoses, etc.) of FIGS. 12A-12E. Thus, the mounting device may include tubing, hoses, or any connecting lines used within the systems provided herein.

[0069] As used herein, the phrase "spring-mounted" means resilient. This specification describes a connection between two objects, configured such that a first of the two objects (i) moves relative to a second object upon application of a force to the first object and (ii) returns to a position at or near its original position upon removal of the force. The force may be applied, for example, by expansion of a portion of the apparatus, such as a tube, that may occur during heating. When the end of the tube is spring-mounted to the applicator, the apparatus herein may include one or more devices for detecting (i) the force imparted by thermal expansion of the tube, (ii) the distance traveled by the spring-mounted object, or (iii) a combination thereof. For example, a distance-sensing laser may be fixedly attached to the spring-mounted object (e.g., a head unit as described herein), and the change in distance determined by the laser and the spring constant may be used to calculate the force. As a further example, a load cell may be used to detect or determine one or more forces.

[0070] In some embodiments, (i) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, (ii) the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (iii) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (iv) the first end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (v) the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, (vi) the first end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator and the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, or (vii) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator.

[0071] The devices described herein may include at least one head unit configured to (i) contact a tube, such as the end of a tube, and (ii) be attached to an applicator in any manner. The head unit may be attached to, for example, a container, a modular applicator unit, or a mounting device. The head unit may be attached with one or more fasteners, such as threaded fasteners (e.g., threaded or partially threaded bolts, screws, etc.). When threaded or partially threaded fasteners are used to secure components to the applicator, the applicator may include corresponding features for receiving the threaded or partially threaded fasteners, such as threaded or partially threaded recesses, threaded or partially threaded sockets protruding from the applicator, openings into which the fasteners are positioned and secured with nuts, etc. In some embodiments, the head unit is attached with 1-30 fasteners, 1-25 fasteners, 1-20 fasteners, 1-15 fasteners, 1-10 fasteners, 1-8 fasteners, 1-6 fasteners, 1-4 fasteners, 1-3 fasteners, 2 fasteners, or 1 fastener. The head unit may be attached by welding. The head unit may be an integral component of an applicator housing or a modular applicator unit. The device may include one head unit, two head units, or more, and any feature described herein for a "first head unit" or a "second head unit" may also be a feature of a "second head unit" or a "first head unit," or any other head unit, respectively.

[0072] In some embodiments, the devices described herein include: (i) a first head unit defining a first opening; (ii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed in the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and (iii) a first resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener.

[0073] In some embodiments, the devices described herein include (i) a first head unit defining a first opening and a second opening; (ii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and (iii) a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening. (iv) a second fastener, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; (iv) a first resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener; and (v) a second resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the first end of the tube and the first head unit contact each other. In some embodiments, the device also includes: (i) a third opening defined by the first head unit; (ii) a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, and the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and (iii) a third resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the device also includes (i) a fourth opening defined by the first head unit, (ii) a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening and the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and (iii) a fourth resiliently compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the fourth fastener. When more than four fasteners having first and second ends are used to attach the head unit, then a resiliently compressible device may be disposed between the first head unit and each of the first and / or second ends of the more than four fasteners.

[0074] As used herein, phrases such as "slidably mounted," "slidably disposed," and the like describe a connection between two objects that facilitates movement of at least one of the objects relative to another object, either freely or upon application of a force.

[0075] As used herein, the term "elastically compressible device" refers to an active or passive device configured to deviate from and return to an original shape and / or position upon application or removal of one or more forces. Generally, the elastically compressible device may be positioned anywhere within the devices provided herein (e.g., between the head unit and the container, between the head unit and the spacer block, between the head unit and the first end of the faster speed, and between the head unit and the second end of the fastener, etc.). The elastically compressible device may be located at a position that accommodates expansion of any component of the devices provided herein, including, but not limited to, the tube, the head unit, the spacer block, etc. The elastically compressible devices (e.g., first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible devices) may be the same or different. The elastically compressible devices (e.g., first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible devices) may include springs, pneumatic devices such as pneumatic pistons, hydraulic devices such as hydraulic cylinders, etc. The springs may include coil springs. In some embodiments, the spring includes one or more disc springs each slidably mounted to one or more fasteners, such as a first fastener, a second fastener, a third fastener, or a fourth fastener. In some embodiments, the spring includes two or more disc springs each slidably mounted to one or more fasteners, such as a first fastener, a second fastener, a third fastener, or a fourth fastener. In some embodiments, 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs are each slidably mounted to one or more fasteners, such as a first fastener, a second fastener, a third fastener, or a fourth fastener.

[0076] In some embodiments, the head unit includes at least one plate and a portion configured to receive the end of the tube. In some embodiments, the device includes a first head unit including: (i) a portion configured to receive the end of the tube; (ii) a plate defining a first opening; (iii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and (iv) a first resilient compressible device disposed between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, the portion configured to receive the end of the tube (a) being disposed between the applicator and the plate and (b) contacting the plate and the tube. The portion configured to receive the end of the tube may include a non-flat surface (e.g., rounded, curved, tapered, etc.) that contacts the plate. The plate may have a substantially flat surface that contacts a non-flat surface of the portion configured to receive the end of the tube. The non-flat surface may allow the portion configured to receive the end of the tube to move relative to the plate when a force is applied to the portion configured to receive the end of the tube, such as a force that may be applied during the methods described herein. The plate may include a non-flat surface (e.g., rounded, curved, tapered, etc.) that contacts the portion configured to receive the end of the tube. The portion configured to receive the end of the tube may have a substantially flat surface that contacts the non-flat surface of the plate. The non-flat surface of the plate may allow the portion configured to receive the end of the tube to move relative to the plate when a force is applied to the portion configured to receive the end of the tube, such as a force that may be applied during the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the portion configured to receive the end of the tube includes a flat surface that contacts a corresponding flat surface of the plate.

[0077] In some embodiments, the device comprises: (i) a portion configured to receive an end of a tube; and (ii) a plate having a first opening and a second opening, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator. a first head unit including a plate defining a second fastener fixedly attached to the applicator, a first resilient compressible device disposed between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, and a second resilient compressible device disposed between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein a portion of the second resilient compressible device configured to receive an end of the tube is (a) disposed between the applicator and the plate and (b) in contact with the plate and the tube. In some embodiments, the device includes a third opening defined by the plate, a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and the third resilient compressible device disposed between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the device includes a fourth opening defined by a plate, a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening and the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and a fourth resiliently compressible device disposed between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener. The first, second, third, and fourth resiliently compressible devices may be the same or different. In some embodiments, the first, second, third, or fourth resiliently compressible device is each attached to a first head. In some embodiments, the device includes one or more disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener of the first head unit. In some embodiments, the device includes 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener of the first head unit, respectively.

[0078] In some embodiments, one or more disc springs of the devices described herein comprise KEY BELLEVILLE® disc springs (USA), which may be commonly referred to as "BELLEVILLE® Washers."

[0079] The first head unit may contact a portion of the tube, such as the first end of the tube. The first head unit may include a first seal, and a portion of the tube, such as the first end of the tube, contacts the first seal. The first seal may include any known seal and may be selected to prevent or eliminate the possibility of fluid leakage and / or to withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure. The first seal may be positioned in any location that allows it to contact the first end of the tube and the first head unit. For example, the first seal may (i) bypass the outer surface of the tube (e.g., the circumference of a substantially cylindrical tube), (ii) contact the terminal portion of the tube (e.g., the surface defining the inlet), or (iii) do a combination thereof.

[0080] In some embodiments, the first seal comprises rubber. For example, the first seal may comprise a rubber ring, which may be substantially circular when the portion of the tube, such as the first end (e.g., the first cap) that contacts the first head unit, is substantially cylindrical. In some embodiments, the first seal comprises metal, such as a metal ring. In some embodiments, the first head unit includes a recess configured to receive a portion of the tube, such as the first end (e.g., the first cap) of the tube. The first seal, if present, may be disposed within the recess. In some embodiments, the first head unit includes a recess configured to receive at least a portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recess of the first head unit. In some embodiments, the tube (e.g., the cap) includes a recess configured to receive at least a portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recess of the tube. The recess of the tube may be located in the cap or other portion of the tube, and in some embodiments, may bypass the outer surface of the tube (e.g., the circumference of a substantially cylindrical tube). In some embodiments, the first head unit includes a recess configured to receive a first portion of the seal, the tube (e.g., a cap) includes a recess configured to receive a second portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recesses of the first head unit and the tube. The first head unit may generally have any shape that can accommodate the opening and contact the tube.

[0081] As used herein, the term "seal," phrase "first seal," "second seal," etc., refers to a closure between two objects that eliminates or reduces the possibility of fluid leakage between the two objects. A "seal" may include (i) contact between two objects (e.g., two objects that are welded, brazed, fastened, clamped, glued together, etc.), (ii) a device disposed between and in contact with both of the two objects, or (iii) a combination thereof. A device disposed between and in contact with both of the two objects may include, for example, a rubber seal (e.g., a VITON® rubber seal), a metal seal (e.g., a PARKER HANNIFIN® metal seal), a gasket, etc.

[0082] The head unit may define one or more openings configured to provide fluid to the inlets of the tubes or to allow fluid exiting the outlets of the tubes to exit the head unit. The one or more openings may include one or more channels, such as those shown in FIG. 5C. The head unit may define one or more openings into which fasteners for securing clamps or other devices are slidably disposed.

[0083] An embodiment of a head unit is shown in FIG. 5A. Head unit 500 includes a recess 510 configured to receive a first end of a tube and a ring-shaped seal 520, which may be a metal or rubber seal, disposed within recess 510. Head unit 500 also defines four openings (530, 531, 532, 533) in which fasteners may be slidably disposed. Head unit 500 also defines opening 534, which may allow fluid to be provided to the inlet of the tube. The first head unit, the second head unit, or both the first and second head units may have the structure shown in FIG. 5A.

[0084] Another embodiment of a head unit is shown in FIG. 5B (front view) and FIG. 5C (cross-sectional view). Head unit 540 defines a first circular recess 541 configured to receive a ring-shaped seal, which may be a metal or rubber seal, disposed within first circular recess 541. Head unit 540 also defines four openings (542, 543, 544, 545) in which fasteners may be slidably disposed. Head unit 540 also defines a second circular recess 546 and includes a screen 547 fixedly attached to second circular recess 546 using screws 548. Head unit 540 also defines four openings (549, 550, 551, 552) that may accommodate portions of clamps or other devices. The head unit 540 includes two channels (555, 556), either or both of which may be used to direct fluid to or remove fluid from the second circular recess 546.

[0085] Another embodiment of a head unit is shown in FIGS. 5D (side view) and 5E (side view). Head unit 560 includes two pieces: portion 561 configured to receive the end of a tube and plate 562. Portion 561 configured to receive the end of a tube includes a rounded surface 563 that contacts flat surface 564 of plate 562 when head unit 560 is deployed, for example, as shown in FIG. 10 . Head unit 560 defines first circular recess 565 configured to receive a ring-shaped seal, which may be a metal or rubber seal, disposed within first circular recess 565. Plate 562 of head unit 560 also defines four openings (566, 567, 568, 569) in which fasteners may be slidably disposed. Head unit 560 also defines a second circular recess 570 that can receive the end of a tube, allowing fluid to be disposed within the tube or removed from head unit 560 via opening 571, FIG. 5D, which is in fluid communication with second circular recess 570. Head unit 560 also defines four openings (572, 573, 574, 575) that can accommodate portions of clamps or other devices.

[0086] In some embodiments, the tube may include a cap, and the cap may be welded to, clamped to, or include the head unit (e.g., the cap and head unit are integral parts of a single object), and therefore, a seal may not be included.

[0087] In some embodiments, the device also includes a second head unit defining a first opening, and a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed in the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being secured to the applicator. and a first resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener, the first fastener being fixedly attached to the second head unit.

[0088] In some embodiments, the device also includes a second head unit defining a first opening and a second opening; a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a first elastically compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener; and a second elastically compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other. In some embodiments, the device includes a third opening defined by the second head unit, a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening and the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and a third resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the device includes a fourth opening defined by the second head unit, a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening and the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator, and a fourth resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener. The first, second, third, and fourth resiliently compressible devices may be the same as or different from the devices selected for the first head unit, and in some embodiments, the first, second, third, or fourth resiliently compressible device comprises one or more Belleville springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener of the second head unit, respectively.In some embodiments, the device includes 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener of the second head unit, respectively.

[0089] The second head unit may contact a portion of the tube, such as the second end of the tube. The second head unit may include a second seal, and a portion of the tube, such as the second end of the tube (e.g., the second cap), contacts the second seal. The second seal may include any known seal and may be selected to prevent or eliminate the possibility of fluid leakage and / or to withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure. In some embodiments, the second seal includes rubber. For example, the second seal may include a rubber ring, which may be substantially circular when the portion of the tube, such as the second end (e.g., the second cap), that contacts the second head unit is substantially cylindrical. In some embodiments, the second seal includes metal, such as a metal ring. In some embodiments, the second head unit includes a recess configured to receive a portion of the tube, such as the second end of the tube (e.g., the second cap). The second seal, if present, may be disposed within the recess. In some embodiments, the second head unit includes a recess configured to receive at least a portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recess of the first head unit. In some embodiments, the tube (e.g., cap) includes a recess configured to receive at least a portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recess of the tube. In embodiments, the second head unit includes a recess configured to receive a first portion of the seal, the tube (e.g., a cap) includes a recess configured to receive a second portion of the seal, and the seal is disposed within the recesses of the second head unit and the tube. The second head unit may generally have any shape that can accommodate the opening and contact the tube. The second head unit may generally have any shape that can accommodate the opening and contact the tube.

[0090] Opposite side views of an embodiment of the apparatus are shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B, and an end view of the apparatus is shown in FIG. 6C. Apparatus 600 includes (i) an eight-chamber microwave applicator container 610 and (ii) eight microwave generators 620 positioned to introduce microwaves through waveguides 621 and into each chamber of container 610. Tubes 630 are disposed within container 610. Although not shown, container 610 of FIGS. 6A and 6B may include one or more additional tubes disposed within container 610. Alternatively or additionally, container 610 may define a second set of openings, not shown, into which one or more additional tubes are disposed. Tubes 630 are spring-loaded to container 610 by two of head units 500 shown in FIG. 5A. In this embodiment, eight fasteners 640 are used, each slidably positioned within a separate opening (530, 531, 532, 533) in the head unit 500. The eight fasteners 640 in this embodiment are bolts with threaded ends that are attached to the container, and second ends 641 with enlarged portions configured to hold eight pairs of Belleville springs 650 that are slidably mounted to each of the fasteners 640 between the head unit 500 and the second ends 641 of the fasteners 640. The device of FIGS. 6A and 6B may be positioned at any angle between 0° (as shown) and 90° during operation, as described herein, thereby allowing the device to operate in upflow or downflow mode.

[0091] In some embodiments, the device includes a head unit fixedly attached to the applicator. In some embodiments, the device includes a first head unit and a second head unit, one or both of the first head unit and the second head unit fixedly attached to the applicator.

[0092] For example, the head unit embodiment shown in FIG. 5A may be fixedly attached to an applicator, as shown in FIG. 7. FIG. 7 shows a side view of the right side of the container 610 of FIG. 6A, but with the fixedly attached head unit 500 of FIG. 5A. The device 700 of FIG. 7 includes the container 610 of FIG. 6A and a second head unit 500 fixedly attached to the container by a fastener 740 slidably disposed within openings (531, 533 (shown), 530, 532 (not shown)) in the head unit 500. The fastener has a threaded end (not shown) connected to the container 610 and an enlarged end that holds the head unit 500. The left side of the device in FIG. 7 is identical to the left side of FIG. 6A.

[0093] The head unit embodiment shown in FIG. 5A can be fixedly attached to an applicator, as shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 8 shows a side view of the right side of the container 610 of FIG. 6A, but with the fixedly attached head unit 500 of FIG. 5A. The device 800 of FIG. 8 includes the container 610 of FIG. 6A and a second head unit 500 fixedly attached to a spool 800 by fasteners 740 slidably disposed within openings (531, 533 (shown), 530, 532 (not shown)) of the head unit 500. The spool 800 is in turn attached to the applicator by fasteners 801. The fasteners 740 have a threaded end (not shown) connected to the spool 800 and an enlarged end that holds the head unit 500. The left side of the device of FIG. 7 is identical to the left side of FIG. 6A. In some embodiments (not shown), a resilient compressible device (e.g., one or more Belleville springs) is attached to the spool 800. and the second head unit 500 are mounted on the fasteners 740 at positions between the first head unit 500 and the second head unit 500.

[0094] The head unit embodiments shown in Figures 5B and 5C may be fixedly attached to an applicator, as shown in Figure 9A. Figure 9A shows a right side view of the container 610 of Figure 6A, with (i) the tube 160 of Figure 1F disposed within the container 610 and (ii) the head unit 540 of Figures 5B and 5C fixedly attached to the container 610. The device 810 of Figure 9A includes the container 610 of Figure 6A and a second head unit 540 fixedly attached to the container 610 by fasteners 740 slidably disposed within openings (543, 545 (shown), 542, 544 (not shown)) of the head unit 540. The flange 167 of the cap 165 of the tube 160 contacts the head unit 540 and a circular seal (e.g., a metal ring (not shown)) disposed within the first circular recess 541 (not shown). The seal in FIG. 9A also includes a clamp 811 that contacts flange 167 of cap 165. Clamp 811 is fixedly attached to head unit 540 with fasteners 812 slidably disposed within openings (550, 552 (shown), 549, 551 (not shown)). A series of Belleville springs 813 are slidably disposed in fasteners 812. The fasteners (740, 812) each have a threaded end (not shown) connected to container 610 and clamp 811, and an enlarged end having dimensions larger than the corresponding opening in head unit 540. The left side of the device in FIG. 9A is identical to the left side of FIG. 6A. In some embodiments, the device shown in FIG. 9A includes one or more resiliently compressible devices disposed between head unit 540 and the enlarged end of fastener 740. In some embodiments, the device shown in FIG. 9A includes a spool, such as the spool of FIG. 8, disposed between head unit 540 and container 610. When a spool is included, one or more resiliently compressible devices may be slidably disposed in one or more fasteners 740 at a location between the spool and the head unit 540. In some embodiments, the device shown in Figure 9A includes a shielding material, such as a microwave shielding material, disposed between the head unit 540 and the container 610 (see, e.g., Figure 9B).In some embodiments, one or more of the enlarged ends of the fastener (740 are welded or brazed to the head unit 540. Although the clamp 811 shown in FIG. 9A contacts only a portion of the flange 167, the clamp may generally contact any or all of the flange or other features of the cap.

[0095] The head unit embodiments shown in FIGS. 5B and 5C may be fixedly attached to an applicator, as shown in FIG. 9B. FIG. 9B includes the same components as FIG. 9A and a spacer block 743 that may function as a shielding material, such as a microwave shielding material. The spacer block 743 includes an opening configured to accommodate the tube 163, the cap 165, and a fastener 740, which in some embodiments is a metal spacer block. The fastener 740 includes an enlarged portion 741 that maintains a gap between the spacer block 743 and the container 610. In some embodiments, the spacer block or other shielding material may contact a container, such as the container 610 in FIG. 9B. The device shown in FIG. 9B also includes a series of Belleville springs 742 slidably attached to the fastener 740 between the spacer block 743 and the second head unit 540. The Belleville springs 742 may accommodate expansion of the first head unit 540 and / or the spacer block 743 that may occur during the methods provided herein.

[0096] The head unit embodiments shown in Figures 5D and 5E may be fixedly mounted to an applicator, as shown in Figure 10. Figure 10 shows a left side view of the container 610 of Figure 6A, with (i) the tube 160 of Figure 1F disposed within the container 610, and (ii) the head unit 560 of Figures 5D and 5E spring-mounted to the container 610. The device 820 of Figure 10 is slidably positioned within the openings (566, 568 (shown), 567, 569 (not shown)) in the plate 562 of the head unit 560. 10 includes a first head unit 560 spring-loaded to the container 610 by fasteners 740. A flange 167 of a cap 165 of the tube 160 contacts (i) a portion 561 of the head unit configured to receive the tube 160 and (ii) a circular seal (e.g., a metal or rubber ring (not shown)) disposed within a first circular recess 565 (not shown). The seal of FIG. 10 also includes a clamp 821 contacting the flange 167 of the cap 165. The clamp 821 is fixedly attached to the head unit 560 with fasteners 822 slidably disposed within openings (572, 574 (shown), 573, 575 (not shown)). The fasteners (740, 822) each have threaded ends (not shown) connected to the container 610 and clamp 821, and enlarged ends having dimensions larger than the corresponding openings in the plate 562 of the head unit 560. The device 820 shown in FIG. 10 includes eight pairs of Belleville springs 823 slidably disposed in fasteners 740 between plate 562 of head unit 560 and the enlarged end of fasteners 740. The right side of the device in FIG. 10 may be identical to FIG. 9A or 9B. In some embodiments, the device shown in FIG. 10 includes a spool, such as the spool of FIG. 8, disposed between head unit 560 and container 610. When a spool is included, one or more resiliently compressible devices may be slidably disposed in one or more fasteners 740 at positions between the spool and head unit 560. In some embodiments, the device shown in FIG. 10 includes a shielding material, such as a microwave shielding material, disposed between head unit 560 and container 610. While clamp 821 shown in FIG. 10 contacts only a portion of flange 167, the clamp may generally contact any or all of the flange or other features of the cap.

[0097] In some embodiments, the head units are fixedly attached to the tube. For example, (i) a first head unit may be fixedly attached to a first end of the tube, (ii) a second head unit may be fixedly attached to a second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit may be fixedly attached to a first end of the tube and the second head unit may be fixedly attached to a second end of the tube. The head units may be fixedly attached to the tube by welding at least a portion of the head unit to at least a portion of the tube. For example, when the tube includes a metal cap (e.g., a KOVAR® alloy metal cap), the metal cap may be welded to the head unit. In some embodiments, (i) the first head unit is welded to the first end of the tube, (ii) the second head unit is welded to the second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit is welded to the first end of the tube and the second head unit is welded to the second end of the tube.

[0098] The applicator may generally be made of any material, including materials capable of supporting microwaves, hi some embodiments, the applicator is formed of a metal, such as stainless steel.

[0099] The applicator may have an outer wall and / or an inner wall (e.g., a container's divided chambers) of any thickness. In some embodiments, the outer wall and / or the inner wall have a thickness of about 0.0002 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.005 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.001 m to about 0.04 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.03 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.02 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.01 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.005 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.003 m to about 0.004 m, or about 0.003 m to about 0.0032 m. The container and the container's chambers may generally have any dimensions. If the container includes two or more chambers, then each of the chambers may have the same or different dimensions. The chambers of the vessel or modular unit may be polygonal chambers (e.g., square, rectangular, triangular, etc. cross-sectional shapes) or non-polygonal chambers (e.g., circular, oval, etc. The vessel and / or chambers within the vessel or modular unit may be configured (e.g., dimensioned) as a multi-mode chamber or a single-mode chamber. The vessel and / or chambers within the vessel or modular unit may be configured (e.g., dimensioned) such that at least a portion of the multiple electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, are directed toward the tube or susceptor material within the tube, which may improve heating efficiency.

[0100] In some embodiments, the applicator may include one or more sensors. The one or more sensors may include a temperature sensor, such as an infrared temperature sensor. The temperature sensor may be used to monitor or determine the temperature of the tube, such as the external temperature of the tube. One or more chambers of the applicator may include a temperature sensor, which may allow a temperature gradient along the tube to be determined and / or monitored. As fluid passing through the tube is heated, the temperature of the tube may increase from its first end to its second end. By monitoring or determining this gradient, adjustments may be made to control the temperature gradient in any desired manner. The one or more sensors may include a distance detection sensor. The one or more sensors may be in communication with a controller that adjusts one or more parameters of a component, such as a microwave generator, of the device or system in response to data collected by the one or more sensors. For example, the controller may adjust one or more parameters (e.g., power, frequency, etc.) of the microwave generator in response to data collected from one or more sensors, such as a temperature sensor.

[0101] Electron wave radiation structure In some embodiments, the devices provided herein include an electromagnetic wave emission structure that may be configured to introduce electromagnetic waves into an interior volume of a container (e.g., a tube) for irradiation of susceptor particles contained in the interior volume.

[0102] In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave emitting structure comprises an electromagnetically transparent section of the container (eg, a tube) through which electromagnetic waves can pass from outside the container into the interior volume of the container (eg, a tube).

[0103] In some embodiments, the container includes a tubular section formed of an electromagnetically transparent material that constitutes the electromagnetically transparent section of the container, as described herein.

[0104] In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave radiating structure includes or also includes an applicator for directing electromagnetic waves through the electromagnetic wave transparent section and into the interior volume.

[0105] The container (e.g., tube) may include two metal end caps, one attached to each end of the tubular section, as described herein. The tubular section may be a monolithic tubular section, such as those described herein.

[0106] In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave emitting structure is at least partially disposed within the container (eg, a tube).

[0107] Susceptor Material As used herein, the phrase "susceptor material" refers to a material that converts electromagnetic energy, such as microwaves, into heat. The susceptor material may include a metal, a metalloid, a dielectric, or a combination thereof. The susceptor material may include a metal oxide, such as iron oxide. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes silicon carbide, magnetite, zeolite, quartz, ferrite, carbon black, graphite, granite, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite in an amount of at least 25 wt %, at least 50 wt %, at least 75 wt %, or 100 wt %, based on the weight of the susceptor. For example, the susceptor material may include (i) magnetite in an amount of at least 25 wt %, at least 50 wt %, or at least 75 wt %, based on the weight of the susceptor material, and (ii) a second susceptor material, such as a filler and / or an iron oxide other than magnetite. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes a metal, a semi-metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof in an amount of at least 5 wt %, at least 10 wt %, at least 15 wt %, at least 20 wt %, at least 25 wt %, at least 50 wt %, at least 75 wt %, or 100 wt %, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

[0108] The susceptor material may be in any form. For example, the susceptor material may be in a particulate form, a monolithic form, or a combination thereof. When the susceptor particles are in a particulate form, the particles may or may not be physically bonded to one another. The susceptor material may include a sintered material, such as a plurality of sintered particles of the susceptor material. The susceptor material may include a porous material, such as porous particles of the susceptor material and / or a porous monolith of the susceptor material. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is in a form that allows a fluid to be disposed within and / or traverse the tube. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is in a form that allows a fluid or other material outside the tube to be heated. For example, a fluid or material, such as a fabric, may contact the outer surface of the tube, thereby heating the fluid or material.

[0109] When the susceptor material is in particulate form, the particles may have a substantially uniform size or a non-uniform size, and the particles may be any regular or irregular shape (e.g., spheres, plugs, shavings, needles, etc.). When in particulate form, the susceptor material may have an average largest dimension of about 1 nm to about 10 mm, about 5 nm to about 10 mm, about 10 nm to about 10 mm, about 50 nm to about 10 mm, about 100 nm to about 10 mm, about 500 nm to about 10 mm, about 1 μm to about 10 mm, about 25 μm to about 10 mm, about 75 μm to about 10 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 8 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 7 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 5 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 5 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 4 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 3 mm, or about 0.5 mm to about 2 mm. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is in particulate form, and the susceptor material has an average maximum dimension of about 1 nm to about 50 nm, about 3 nm to about 40 nm, or about 3 nm to about 35 nm. For example, the susceptor material may include Fe3O4 nanoparticles having an average diameter of about 3 nm to about 32 nm. The susceptor material may include nanoparticles synthesized by any known technique, such as seedless pyrolysis (e.g., Mohapatra, J. et al. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2018, 20, 12879-12887). When the particles of the susceptor material are substantially spherical or spherical, the average maximum dimension is the average maximum diameter. While not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that selecting the size of the particles of the susceptor material can alter one or more properties of the methods described herein, such as heating efficiency, pressure drop, etc., and therefore, the particle size may be selected accordingly.

[0110] The internal reservoir of the tube may contain any amount of susceptor material. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is present in the internal reservoir of the tube (or in the available portion of the internal reservoir, when one or more retention devices are present and thus defining the available portion) in an amount of about 30% to about 100% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 50% to about 100% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 70% to about 100% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 90% to about 100% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, or about 100% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion.

[0111] In some embodiments, the internal reservoir of the tube contains a susceptor material in an amount that allows fluid to be disposed within the tube. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is present in the internal reservoir of the tube (or in the available portion of the internal reservoir, when one or more retention devices are present and thus defining the available portion) in an amount of about 30% to about 90% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 30% to about 80% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 30% to about 70% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, about 40% to about 60% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion, or about 50% by volume of the internal reservoir or its available portion.

[0112] When the susceptor material is in monolithic form, the monolith of susceptor material may generally have any size or shape that allows for (i) its placement within a tube or a housing within a tube, (ii) fluid to traverse the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the monolith of susceptor material includes one or more elongated monoliths having a length:width ratio of at least 3:1 (e.g., cylindrical), thereby forming a "tube-within-tube" configuration in which fluid may traverse an area defined at least in part by the outer surface of the elongated monolith and the inner surface of the tube. In some embodiments, two or more of the elongated monoliths are arranged within the tube in any manner. In some embodiments, the monolith of susceptor material has dimensions or a shape that correspond to the dimensions of an internal reservoir of the tube or an available portion thereof, which may be desirable when the tube is configured to heat a fluid or material outside the tube (e.g., a fluid or material in contact with the outer surface of the tube). In some embodiments, the one or more monoliths comprise one or more capsule-shaped monoliths having a length:width ratio of less than 3:1 (e.g., spherical, rectangular, square, or elliptical shapes) arranged in any manner in the tube. When two or more monoliths are present in the tube, the two or more monoliths may be arranged in the tube in any regular or irregular pattern.

[0113] An embodiment of a tube is shown in FIG. 1I (side view). Tube 180 of FIG. 1I is substantially cylindrical and has first end 181 and second end 182. Tube 180 includes a central portion 183 formed of a microwave-transparent material, a first cap 184 at first end 181, and a second cap 185 at second end 182. As shown in FIGS. 1B and 1C, first cap 184 and second cap 185 may optionally include an inlet and an outlet. Alternative cross-sectional views of tube 180 of FIG. 1I are shown in FIGS. IJ and IK. In some embodiments, tube 180 has the cross-sectional view shown in FIG. 1J. FIG. 1J shows a housing 186 in which particles of susceptor material 187 are disposed, and a channel 188 between the housing 186 and the inner surface of the tube 180 through which a fluid can flow when the tube 180 includes an inlet and an outlet. In some embodiments, the tube 180 has the cross-sectional view shown in FIG. 1K. FIG. 1K shows an array of cylindrical monoliths of susceptor material 189 disposed within the tube 180. When the tube 180 includes an inlet and an outlet, a fluid can flow within a channel 190 that includes the space between the cylindrical monoliths of susceptor material 189 and the inner surface of the tube 180. In some embodiments (not shown), one or more monoliths of susceptor material 189 are disposed within the housing 186 of FIG. 1J.

[0114] The susceptor material may include one or more additives. The one or more additives may include any material, such as a filler, that (i) is disposed within the tube with the susceptor material (e.g., uniformly or non-uniformly dispersed within the susceptor material) and (ii) is incapable of converting multiple microwaves into heat. The filler may, for example, facilitate handling of the susceptor material, reduce resistance to fluid flow within the tube, and / or prevent the susceptor material from distorting or becoming distorted within the tube. The filler may be included for any reason, such as to achieve a uniform distribution. A filler may be used to achieve a concentration gradient of the susceptor material within the tube. For example, the filler may allow a fluid disposed within the tube to encounter a concentration or amount of susceptor material that continuously or intermittently increases (or decreases) as the fluid traverses the tube. One or more additives may be present within the susceptor material in a total amount not exceeding 50% by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material. In other words, if a susceptor material including two additives has a mass of 100 g, then the sum of the masses of the two additives does not exceed 50 g. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present within the susceptor in an amount of about 0.001% to 10% by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor.

[0115] microwave generator Any known microwave generator may be included in the apparatus or used in the methods described herein. When an apparatus includes two or more microwave generators, the two or more microwave generators may be the same or different. When an apparatus includes two or more microwave generators, the two or more microwave generators may operate at the same or different parameters (e.g., power, frequency, wavelength, etc.) during the methods described herein.

[0116] The one or more microwave generators may include a magnetron continuous wave (CW) or pulsed microwave generator, a solid-state fixed frequency or variable frequency microwave generator, or a combination thereof. The one or more microwave generators may generally be of any power (e.g., 200 W to 100 kW) and / or may operate at any frequency (e.g., 915 MHz to 28 GHz) and / or wavelength (1 mm to 1 m). The one or more microwave generators may include commercially available microwave generators such as a SAIREM® microwave generator (Decines-Charpiue, France). The one or more microwave generators may include one or more microwave generators selected from the following table: [Table 1]

[0117] In some embodiments, the one or more microwave generators include 1 to 10 microwave generators independently selected from embodiments 1 to 12 of the preceding table.

[0118] method The apparatus described herein may be used to perform a method of heating a material, such as a fluid, a solid, or a combination thereof. The method may include passing a fluid through a tube containing a susceptor material that has been irradiated with electromagnetic waves. The method may include placing a material, such as a solid or a fluid, adjacent to a tube containing a susceptor material that has been irradiated with electromagnetic waves. may include:

[0119] The fluid, or a portion thereof, may be passed through the tube one or more times until the desired temperature is reached. Fluids heated by the apparatus and methods described herein may be collected and used in any manner, such as to provide heat for further processes.

[0120] In some embodiments, the method includes contacting the fluid with a heated susceptor material, such as heated susceptor particles, thereby heating the fluid at a rate of at least 100°C / min, at least 200°C / min, at least 300°C / min, at least 400°C / min, or at least 500°C / min. The method may include a batch process or a continuous process. In some embodiments, step (b) includes flowing the fluid through a volume of the heated susceptor particles. In some embodiments, steps (a) and (b) are performed in a common container (e.g., a tube) that receives the susceptor particles and the fluid.

[0121] In some embodiments, a method includes providing an apparatus described herein, disposing a fluid at a flow rate in an inlet of a container (e.g., a tube), introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into an applicator to irradiate at least a portion of a susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves while the fluid is in the tube, generating heat to produce a heated fluid, and collecting the heated fluid at an outlet of the tube. In some embodiments, the method also includes (i) disposing at least a portion of the heated fluid in the inlet of the tube, (ii) introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into an applicator to irradiate at least a portion of a susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves while the heated fluid is in the tube, generating heat to produce a further heated fluid, and (iii) collecting the further heated fluid at an outlet of the tube. Steps (i)-(iii) may be repeated one or more times to produce a further heated fluid having an increased temperature. In some embodiments, the method also includes reducing the temperature of the heated fluid by at least 5% before disposing the heated fluid in the inlet.

[0122] The steps of the methods described herein may be performed simultaneously, substantially sequentially, or a combination thereof.

[0123] The fluid may have any desired residence time within the container (e.g., tube). The fluid may have a residence time of 10 minutes, 8 minutes, 5 minutes, 3 minutes, or 1 minute or less. In some embodiments, the fluid has a residence time of 0.1 to 5 minutes. As used herein, the phrase "residence time" refers to (i) the time a fluid spends within a container (e.g., tube) while passing through it as the method continues, or (ii) the time the fluid maintains contact with the heated susceptor particles.

[0124] The fluid may be disposed within the tube or may pass through the volume of the susceptor material at any flow rate. The flow rate may be selected based on several parameters, such as the size of the tube. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 750 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 500 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 250 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 100 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 50 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 25 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 10 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 10 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.2 liters / minute to about 3 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.2 liters / minute to about 1.2 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 900 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 800 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 700 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 600 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 500 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 400 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 300 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 250 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 200 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 100 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 75 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 50 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is between about 10 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is at least 5 liters / minute, at least 10 liters / minute, at least 15 liters / minute, or at least 20 liters / minute. As used herein, the term "flow rate" refers to the rate at which a fluid is disposed at the inlet of a tube. As the temperature of a fluid increases, the viscosity of the fluid may decrease, thereby increasing the potential for increased flow rate. The device or method may include one or more features that accommodate this phenomenon and / or counteract the tendency for increased flow rate. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the mass flow rate of a fluid may remain constant even as the volumetric flow rate changes due to changes in viscosity and / or other reasons.

[0125] Fluid may be provided to the container (e.g., tubing) by any known device. For example, a pump, such as a diaphragm pump or a centrifugal pump, may be used to place the fluid in the tubing. In some embodiments, a pump, such as a positive displacement pump, is used to place the fluid in the tubing at a flow rate. In some embodiments, a valve is used to impart a desired flow rate to the fluid placed in the tubing.

[0126] Any pressure may be present inside the container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) is equal to or less than the fluid's critical pressure. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the tube is greater than the fluid's critical pressure. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the tube is at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 25%, or at least 50% above the fluid's critical pressure. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) is about 1% to about 50%, about 5% to about 50%, about 10% to about 50%, or about 25% to about 50% above the fluid's critical pressure. This parameter may eliminate or reduce the possibility of the liquid fluid converting to a gas phase. The fluid may be maintained at a pressure above its critical pressure before, during, and after being disposed in the container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the fluid is pressurized (i) before being disposed in the container (e.g., tube), (ii) during and / or after collection at the second end of the container (e.g., tube), or (iii) by a combination thereof. Thus, the heated or further heated fluid may be maintained at a pressure above the fluid's critical pressure after its collection for further use. For example, when the method includes flowing a fluid through a volume of heated susceptor particles, flowing the fluid through the volume of heated susceptor particles may be performed at a high pressure to prevent vaporization of the liquid. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein may be between about 1 bar and about 250 bar, between about 1.1 bar and about 250 bar, between about 5 bar and about 100 bar, between about 1.5 bar and about 25 ... In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein is at least 2 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 25 bar, at least 50 bar, at least 100 bar, at least 150 bar, or at least 200 bar.

[0127] When disposed within the tube, the fluid may be at an ambient temperature above the freezing point of the fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid has a temperature of about 15°C to about 35°C when it is initially disposed within the tube. In some embodiments, the fluid has a temperature of about 20°C to about 30°C when it is initially disposed within the tube. In some embodiments, the heated or further heated fluid is The heated fluid has a temperature of about 50°C to about 1,500°C, about 100°C to about 1,250°C, about 100°C to about 1,000°C, about 100°C to about 900°C, about 100°C to about 800°C, about 100°C to about 700°C, about 100°C to about 600°C, about 100°C to about 500°C, about 200°C to about 500°C, about 300°C to about 500°C, or about 400°C to about 500°C. In some embodiments, the heated fluid or further heated fluid has a temperature of about 100°C to about 600°C, about 200°C to about 600°C, about 300°C to about 600°C, about 400°C to about 600°C, or about 500°C to about 600°C. In some embodiments, the heated or further heated fluid has a temperature of about 100°C to about 700°C, about 200°C to about 700°C, about 300°C to about 700°C, about 400°C to about 700°C, about 500°C to about 700°C, or about 600°C to about 700°C.

[0128] In some embodiments, the methods provided herein heat the fluid to at least 200°C, at least 250°C, at least 300°C, at least 400°C, or at least 500°C.

[0129] In some embodiments, the susceptor material irradiated with electromagnetic radiation described herein has a temperature of about 50°C to about 1,500°C, about 100°C to about 1,250°C, about 100°C to about 1,000°C, about 100°C to about 900°C, about 100°C to about 800°C, about 100°C to about 700°C, about 100°C to about 600°C, about 100°C to about 500°C, about 200°C to about 500°C, about 300°C to about 500°C, about 400°C to about 500°C, about 250°C to about 1,500°C, about 350°C to about 1,500°C, about 450°C to about 1,500°C, about 300°C to about 1,000°C, about 300°C to about 800°C, or about 300°C to about 700°C.

[0130] In some embodiments, the methods provided herein heat the fluid primarily through direct heat exchange with the heated susceptor material. In other words, the majority (>50%) of the heat or temperature increase imparted to the fluid results from direct heat exchange with the thermal susceptor material. In some embodiments, less than 25 percent, less than 20 percent, less than 15 percent, less than 10 percent, or less than 5 percent of the fluid's heating is caused by direct absorption of electromagnetic energy. The fluid's ability to directly absorb electromagnetic energy may decrease as its temperature increases. An increase in temperature may, for example, decrease the fluid's dielectric constant, thereby increasing the proportion of heating achieved by the irradiated susceptor material.

[0131] In some embodiments, a method includes providing an apparatus or system described herein, disposing a fluid material in a tube, and introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves while the material is adjacent the tube to generate heat and produce a heated material. The material may include a fluid, a solid, or a combination thereof.

[0132] The devices and systems provided herein may be configured to accommodate placement of a material adjacent to a tube. For example, the tube may extend from the applicator a distance suitable for placing the material adjacent to the tube. The applicator may include a gap (e.g., a gap between chambers or modular units, a gap between the tube and an opening, etc.) that allows the material to be placed adjacent to the tube. The applicator may include a chamber with one or more openings that allow the material to be placed adjacent to the tube, and such a chamber may or may not be associated with an electromagnetic wave generator.

[0133] In some embodiments, disposing the material adjacent to the tube includes contacting the tube with the material. For example, a liquid or solid, such as a fabric or other flexible material, may contact the exterior surface of the tube. In some embodiments, all or a portion of a ribbon or strip of a solid, such as a fabric or other flexible material, may be disposed to contact the tube. For example, a solid, such as a fabric or other flexible material, may contact the tube as the fabric or other flexible material is pulled by one or more rollers or otherwise. As a further example, a liquid may be configured to pass adjacent to the tube. A flowing liquid may contact the exterior surface of the tube in some embodiments.

[0134] system Also provided herein are systems comprising the devices described herein, including systems that may be used to perform the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the system comprises a fluid source, a pump or compressor, a heat exchanger, or a combination thereof.

[0135] An embodiment of the system is shown in FIG. 11. The system 900 includes an apparatus (901, 902) having a first end 901 as shown in FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C and a second end 902 as shown in FIG. 8. The system 900 also includes a fluid source 910 in fluid communication with a pump 920. The pump 920 provides a fluid 950 from the fluid source 910 to the apparatus (901, 902), which is heated to produce a heated fluid 951. The heated fluid 951 may be collected in a reservoir 930. In some embodiments, the heated fluid 951 is transferred to another process or system 960 to provide heat to the process or system. At least a portion of the heated fluid 951 may be transferred to a heat exchanger 940 to reduce its temperature before being provided to the apparatus (901, 902) for further heating. The pump 920 may be configured to pressurize at least a portion of the system. For example, the pressure inside the tube may or may not exceed the critical pressure of the fluid. System 900 may be configured so that device 901 is positioned at any angle between 0° (as shown) and 90° during operation, thereby allowing the device to operate in upflow or downflow mode. In other embodiments, the system of FIG. 11 includes any one or combination of the devices, features, and / or configurations of FIGS. 1A-K, 2A-D, 3A-B, 4A-D, 5A-E, 7, 8, 9A-B, 10, and / or 12A-I.

[0136] The systems provided herein may also include one or more meters, such as a pressure meter, a flow meter, or a combination thereof. The pressure may be used, for example, to ensure that the pressure in at least a portion of the system exceeds the critical pressure of the fluid. The flow meter may be used, for example, to ensure a desired flow rate of the fluid or to monitor changes to the flow rate that may occur when heating the fluid results in a corresponding decrease in viscosity.

[0137] fluid Any fluid may be heated by the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises an organic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises an inorganic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises an aqueous fluid. As used herein, the phrase "aqueous fluid" refers to a fluid containing greater than 50% water by weight. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises an ionic liquid. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises water and at least one organic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises water, at least one organic fluid, at least one inorganic fluid, at least one ionic liquid, or a combination thereof. The fluid may be a polar fluid, a non-polar fluid, or a combination thereof. The fluid may include one or more solids that may be dispersed and / or dissolved in the fluid. The fluid may be in any phase, such as a liquid phase, a gas phase, or a combination thereof. The fluid may be in the liquid phase, for example, when disposed in a tube, and the resulting heated fluid may be in the liquid phase, a gas phase, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the fluid comprises carbon dioxide. The organic fluid may be a hydrocarbon.

[0138] As used herein, the term "hydrocarbon" refers to a compound having a structure made up of carbon and hydrogen, and, if the hydrocarbon is substituted, optionally having one or more substituents. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C 40 In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C 30 In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C 20 As used herein, "C1-C 40 Hydrocarbons, C1-C 30 Hydrocarbons, C1-C 20 Phrases such as "hydrocarbon" generally refer to aliphatic and / or aromatic hydrocarbons containing 1 to 40 carbon atoms, 1 to 30 carbon atoms, or 1 to 20 carbon atoms, respectively. 40Examples of hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, alkanes, cycloalkanes, alkenes, cycloalkenes, alkynes, cycloalkynes, and the like, in each case including all substituted, unsubstituted, branched, and straight-chain analogs or derivatives thereof having 1 to 40 carbon atoms. Examples of cyclic aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, anthracene, azulene, biphenyl, fluorene, indane, indene, phenanthrene, benzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene, mesitylene, and the like, including all substituted, unsubstituted, hydrogenated, and / or heteroatom-substituted derivatives thereof.

[0139] Unless otherwise indicated, the term "substituted," when used to describe a chemical structure or moiety, refers to a derivative of that structure or moiety, in which one or more of its hydrogen atoms has been substituted with an alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, alkylcarbonyloxy (-OC(O)alkyl), amide (-C(O)NH-alkyl- or -alkylNHC(O)alkyl), tertiary amine (alkylamino, arylamino, arylalkylamino), aryl, aryl alkyl, aryloxy, azo, carbamoyl (-NHC(O)O-alkyl- or -OC(O)NH-alkyl), carbamyl (e.g., CONH, and CONH-alkyl, CONH-aryl, and CONH-arylalkyl), carboxyl, carboxylic acid, cyano, ester, ether (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy), halo, haloalkyl (e.g., -CCl, -CF, C(CF)), heteroalkyl, isocyanate, isothiocyanate, nitrile, nitro, phosphate diester, sulfide, sulfonamide (e.g., SONH, SONR'R"), sulfone, Includes sulfonyl (including alkylsulfonyl, arylsulfonyl, and arylalkylsulfonyl), sulfoxide, thiol (eg, sulfhydryl, thioether), or urea.

[0140] When a hydrocarbon is halo-substituted, the hydrocarbon may be substituted with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, or The compound may be partially or completely substituted with a halogen atom selected from these combinations. When fully substituted with one or more types of halogen atoms, the compound may be called a "perhalocarbon." For example, a fluoro-substituted hydrocarbon may be partially or completely substituted with fluorine atoms, and when fully substituted with fluorine atoms, the compound may be called a perfluorocarbon.

[0141] Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, t-butyl, isobutyl, pentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, heptyl, 4,4-dimethylpentyl, octyl, 2,2,4-trimethylpentyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, and dodecyl. Cycloalkyl moieties may be monocyclic or polycyclic, and examples include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and adamantyl. Additional examples of alkyl moieties have linear, branched, and / or cyclic moieties (e.g., 1-ethyl-4-methyl-cyclohexyl). Representative alkenyl moieties include vinyl, allyl, 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, isobutylenyl, 1-pentenyl, 2-pentenyl, 3-methyl-1-butenyl, 2-methyl-2-butenyl, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butenyl, 1-hexenyl, 2-hexenyl, 3-hexenyl, 1-heptenyl, 2-heptenyl, 3-heptenyl, 1-octenyl, 2-octenyl, 3-octenyl, 1-nonenyl, 2-nonenyl, 3-nonenyl, 1-decenyl, 2-decenyl, and 3-decenyl. Representative alkynyl moieties include acetylenyl, propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, 2-pentynyl, 3-methyl-1-butynyl, 4-pentynyl, 1-hexynyl, 2-hexynyl, 5-hexynyl, 1-heptynyl, 2-heptynyl, 6-heptynyl, 1-octynyl, 2-octynyl, 7-octynyl, 1-nonynyl, 2-nonynyl, 8-nonynyl, 1-decynyl, 2-decynyl, and 9-decynyl. Examples of aryl or arylalkyl moieties include, but are not limited to, anthracenyl, azulenyl, biphenyl, fluorenyl, indan, indenyl, naphthyl, phenanthrenyl, phenyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-naphthalene, tolyl, xylyl, mesityl, benzyl, and the like, including any heteroatom-substituted derivatives thereof.

[0142] The fluid may include one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more additives include a tracer, such as a dye. The one or more additives may be present in the fluid in a total amount not exceeding 10 wt. % based on the weight of the fluid. In other words, if a fluid containing two additives has a mass of 100 g, then the sum of the masses of the two additives does not exceed 10 g. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in the fluid in an amount of about 0.001 wt. % to 5 wt. % based on the weight of the fluid.

[0143] All referenced publications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Furthermore, if the definition or use of a term in a reference incorporated herein by reference conflicts with the definition of that term provided herein, the definition of that term provided herein shall apply and the definition of that term in the reference shall not apply.

[0144] Although certain aspects of the prior art have been discussed to facilitate the disclosure of various embodiments, applicants have not in any way abandoned these technical aspects, and it is contemplated that the present disclosure may encompass one or more of the conventional technical aspects discussed herein.

[0145] The present disclosure may address one or more of the problems and deficiencies of known methods and processes. However, it is contemplated that various embodiments may prove useful in addressing other problems and deficiencies in some technology areas. Thus, the present disclosure should not necessarily be construed as limited to addressing any of the specific problems or deficiencies discussed herein.

[0146] Where any document, act, or item of knowledge is referred to or discussed in this specification, such reference or discussion is not an admission that the document, act, or item of knowledge, or any combination thereof, was at the priority date, is published, is generally known, is part of the general knowledge, or otherwise constitutes prior art under applicable statutory provisions or is known to be relevant to any attempt to solve any problem to which this specification pertains.

[0147] In the description provided herein, the terms "comprise," "is," "contain," "have," and "comprise" are used open-endedly and should therefore be interpreted to mean "including, but not limited to." When a method or apparatus is claimed or described in terms of "comprising" various steps or components, the method or apparatus may also "consist essentially of" or "consist of" the various steps or components, unless specified otherwise.

[0148] The terms "a," "an," and "the" are intended to include plural alternatives, e.g., at least one. For example, disclosure of "fluid," "susceptor material," "tube," etc. is meant to encompass mixtures or combinations of more than one fluid, susceptor material, tube, etc., unless otherwise specified.

[0149] Various numerical ranges may be disclosed herein. When applicants disclose or claim any type of range, applicants' intent is to separately disclose or claim each number that such range may reasonably encompass, including the endpoints of that range and any subranges and combinations of subranges encompassed therein, unless otherwise specified. Furthermore, all numerical endpoints of ranges disclosed herein are approximations. As a representative example, applicants disclose that in some embodiments, the tubing has an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm. This range should be interpreted to encompass about 30 mm and about 44 mm, and further encompasses each of "about" about 31 mm, 32 mm, 33 mm, 34 mm, 35 mm, 36 mm, 37 mm, 38 mm, 39 mm, 40 mm, 41 mm, 42 mm, and 43 mm, including any ranges and subranges between any of these values.

[0150] As used herein, the term "about" means plus or minus 10% of the numerical value of the number with which it is used.

[0151] Illustrative Embodiments The following embodiments are non-limiting examples of the devices, systems, and methods described herein. Other embodiments are contemplated.

[0152] Embodiment 1. An apparatus comprising: (A) a tube formed at least in part in an electromagnetically transparent material; and an applicator, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, (ii) at least a portion of the tube is disposed within the applicator, or (iii) a combination thereof; (B) a tube formed in at least a portion of the electromagnetically transparent material, a suspect material disposed within the tube, and an applicator, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator; (ii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion of the suspect material within the tube are disposed within the applicator; (C) a tube formed in at least a portion of an electromagnetic wave transparent material; and an applicator, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, (ii) a second end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and (iii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion of the susceptor material within the tube are disposed within the applicator; or (D) For heating a fluid with a plurality of susceptor particles irradiated by electromagnetic energy, an apparatus comprises: a container defining an interior volume configured to receive susceptor particles; at least one holding device disposed within or adjacent to the interior volume and configured to hold the susceptor particles within the interior volume while allowing fluid to flow out of the interior volume; and an electromagnetic wave emitting structure configured to introduce electromagnetic waves into the interior volume for irradiating the susceptor particles contained in the interior volume; or (E) A device comprising: a tube formed in at least a portion of an electromagnetically transparent material; and an applicator, wherein (i) at least a first portion of the tube protrudes from the applicator; and (ii) at least a second portion of the tube is disposed within the applicator.

[0153] Embodiment 2. The device of embodiment 1, wherein the tube comprises an inlet and an outlet.

[0154] Embodiment 3. The apparatus of embodiment 1 or 2, further comprising one or more microwave generators, the one or more microwave generators positioned to introduce multiple microwaves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the multiple microwaves.

[0155] Embodiment 4. The device of any one of embodiments 1 to 3, wherein the electromagnetically transparent material comprises a microwave transparent material.

[0156] Embodiment 5. The apparatus of embodiment 4, wherein the microwave transparent material comprises a ceramic, a polymer, a glass, or a combination thereof.

[0157] Embodiment 6. The apparatus of embodiment 4, wherein the microwave transparent material comprises: (i) alumina, (ii) fused silica, (iii) silicon nitride, (iv) a ceramic comprising silicon, aluminum, nitrogen, oxygen, or a combination thereof, or (v) a combination thereof.

[0158] Embodiment 7. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 6, wherein the tube has a monolithic structure.

[0159] Embodiment 8. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 6, wherein the tube comprises a first cap disposed at a first end of the tube, a second cap disposed at a second end of the tube, or a first cap and a second cap disposed at a first end and a second end of the tube, respectively.

[0160] Embodiment 9. The device of embodiment 8, wherein the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap comprise a metal.

[0161] Embodiment 10. The device of embodiment 9, wherein the metal comprises an alloy containing iron, cobalt, and nickel (e.g., KOVAR® alloy).

[0162] Embodiment 11. The method of any one of embodiments 9 to 11, wherein a portion of the tube comprises a ceramic, and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap are joined to the ceramic by ceramic-to-metal brazing, adhesive, or a combination thereof. 11. The apparatus according to claim 10.

[0163] Embodiment 12. The apparatus of any one of embodiments 1-11, wherein (A) the susceptor material comprises a metal, a semi-metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof, or (B) the susceptor material comprises a metal, a semi-metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof in an amount of at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 15 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 25 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 75 wt%, or 100 wt%, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

[0164] Embodiment 13. The apparatus of any one of embodiments 1 to 12, wherein the susceptor material comprises a metal oxide, such as iron oxide.

[0165] Embodiment 14. The apparatus of any one of embodiments 1-13, wherein the susceptor material comprises silicon carbide, magnetite, zeolite, quartz, ferrite, carbon black, graphite, granite, or a combination thereof.

[0166] Embodiment 15. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 14, wherein (i) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, (ii) the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (iii) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (iv) the first end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator, (v) the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, or (vi) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator.

[0167] Embodiment 16. The first end of the tube is spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and the device further comprises: (i) a first head unit defining a first opening, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a first resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, wherein the first end of the tube and the first head unit contact each other; or (ii) a first head unit defining a first opening and a second opening, and a first fastener having a first end and a second end. 16. The device of embodiment 15, further comprising: a first fastener, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening and a second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening and a second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a first elastically compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener; and a second elastically compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the first end of the tube and the first head unit contact each other.

[0168] Embodiment 17. The device described in embodiment 16, further comprising: a third opening defined by the first head unit; a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a third elastically compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener.

[0169] Embodiment 18. The device described in embodiment 17, further comprising: a fourth opening defined by the first head unit; a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening, the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a fourth elastically compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener.

[0170] Embodiment 19. A device described in any one of embodiments 16 to 18, wherein the first elastically compressible device, the second elastically compressible device, the third elastically compressible device, the fourth elastically compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises one or more disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0171] Embodiment 20. The device of any one of embodiments 16-18, wherein the first elastically compressible device, the second elastically compressible device, the third elastically compressible device, the fourth elastically compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises 1 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0172] Embodiment 21. A device described in any one of embodiments 16 to 20, further comprising a first seal providing closure between the first head unit and the first end of the tube.

[0173] Embodiment 22. The device of embodiment 21, wherein the first seal comprises (i) a rubber disposed between the first head unit and the first end of the tube and in contact with the first head unit and the first end of the tube, (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the first head unit and the first end of the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0174] Embodiment 23. A device described in any one of embodiments 16 to 22, wherein the first head unit has a recess configured to receive the first end of the tube.

[0175] Embodiment 24. A device described in any one of embodiments 16 to 23, wherein the device further comprises a second head unit fixedly attached to the applicator, and the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other.

[0176] Embodiment 25. The device of embodiment 24, further comprising a second seal between the second head unit and the second end of the tube.

[0177] Embodiment 26. The device of embodiment 25, wherein the second seal comprises (i) a metal disposed between the second head unit and the second end of the tube and in contact with the second head unit and the second end of the tube, (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the second head unit and the second end of the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0178] Embodiment 27. A device described in any one of embodiments 24 to 26, wherein the second head unit has a recess configured to receive the second end of the tube.

[0179] Embodiment 28. A device in which the second end of the tube is spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and the device includes: (i) a second head unit defining a first opening; and a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, and the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator. or (ii) a first head unit defining a first opening and a second opening, and a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening and the second end of the first fastener being in contact with an applicator. a first fastener fixedly attached to the applicator; a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a first resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener; and a second resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, 24. The device of any one of embodiments 15 to 23, wherein the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other.

[0180] Embodiment 29. The device described in embodiment 28, further comprising: a third opening defined by the second head unit; a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a third elastically compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener.

[0181] Embodiment 30. The device described in embodiment 29, further comprising: a fourth opening defined by a second head unit; a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening, the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a fourth elastically compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener.

[0182] Embodiment 31. A device described in any one of embodiments 28 to 30, wherein the first elastically compressible device, the second elastically compressible device, the third elastically compressible device, the fourth elastically compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises one or more disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0183] Embodiment 32. The device of any one of embodiments 28 to 30, wherein the first elastically compressible device, the second elastically compressible device, the third elastically compressible device, the fourth elastically compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises 1 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0184] Embodiment 33. A device described in any one of embodiments 28 to 32, further comprising a second seal between the second head unit and the second end of the tube.

[0185] Embodiment 34. The device of embodiment 33, wherein the second seal comprises (i) a metal disposed between the second head unit and the second end of the tube and in contact with the second head unit and the second end of the tube, (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the second head unit and the second end of the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0186] Embodiment 35. (i) A first head unit is fixedly attached to a first end of the tube, or (ii) a second head unit is fixedly attached to a second end of the tube. or (iii) a first head unit is fixedly attached to a first end of the tube and a second head unit is fixedly attached to a second end of the tube.

[0187] Embodiment 36. The device described in embodiment 35, wherein (i) the first head unit is welded or brazed to the first end of the tube, (ii) the second head unit is welded or brazed to the second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit is welded or brazed to the first end of the tube and the second head unit is welded to the second end of the tube.

[0188] Embodiment 37. A device according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the applicator comprises a container, the container having (i) a first end and a second end, and (ii) 1 to 30 chambers defined by (a) one or more outer walls of the container, (b) one or more interior walls of the container, or (c) a combination thereof, wherein the first end of the container, the second end of the container, one or more interior walls of the container, or a combination thereof, defines an opening, and the tube is disposed within the opening defined by (a) the first end of the container, (b) the second end of the container, (c) one or more interior walls of the container, or (d) a combination thereof.

[0189] Embodiment 38. An apparatus as described in embodiment 37, wherein the container further comprises at least one waveguide having a passage through which the multiple microwaves pass before entering one of the 1 to 30 chambers.

[0190] Embodiment 39. A device according to embodiment 37 or 38, wherein the container comprises 4 to 6 chambers.

[0191] Embodiment 40. An apparatus according to embodiment 37 or 38, wherein the apparatus comprises 3 to 6 microwave generators and the applicator comprises 4 to 6 chambers.

[0192] Embodiment 41. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 37 to 40, wherein at least one of the one or more microwave generators is (i) positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers through an opening defined by one or more outer walls of the container, (ii) positioned within at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0193] Embodiment 42. The apparatus of embodiment 41, wherein one or more microwave generators are positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers through an opening defined by one or more outer walls, and wherein the one or more microwave generators are positioned within at least one waveguide.

[0194] Embodiment 43. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 36, wherein the applicator comprises 1 to 30 modular applicator units, each modular applicator unit comprising: (i) a chamber having a first side and a second side; (ii) a first opening defined by the first side; (iii) a second opening defined by the second side; and (iv) a waveguide extending from a third opening of the chamber; wherein the 1 to 30 modular applicator units are arranged adjacent to one another; and wherein a tube is arranged within the first opening and the second opening of each modular applicator unit.

[0195] Embodiment 44. A device described in embodiment 43, wherein the applicator comprises 4 to 6 of the modular applicator units.

[0196] Embodiment 45. An apparatus as described in embodiment 43 or 44, wherein at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 modular applicator units.

[0197] Embodiment 46. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 43 to 45, wherein the apparatus comprises 3 to 6 microwave generators and the applicator comprises 4 to 6 of the modular applicator units.

[0198] Embodiment 47. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 46, wherein a portion of the tube formed of an electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical.

[0199] Embodiment 48. The device described in embodiment 47, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 45 mm to about 60 mm and an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm.

[0200] Embodiment 49. The device described in embodiment 47, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 50 mm to about 54 mm and an inner diameter of about 40 mm to about 44 mm.

[0201] Embodiment 50. The device of any one of embodiments 1 to 49, wherein the tube has a length of about 0.1 m to about 5 m, about 0.1 m to about 4 m, about 0.1 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 2 m, about 0.5 m to about 1.5 m, or about 1 m to about 1.5 m.

[0202] Embodiment 51. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 50, wherein the tube further comprises a microwave disruptor.

[0203] Embodiment 52. The device described in embodiment 51, wherein the microwave disruptor is fixedly attached to the second end of the tube.

[0204] Embodiment 53. An apparatus as described in embodiment 51 or 52, wherein the microwave disruptor comprises a wire or rod and, optionally, (i) one or more protruding structures and / or (ii) a flange disposed on the wire or rod.

[0205] Embodiment 54. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 53, wherein the susceptor material is disposed within an internal reservoir of the tube, and the apparatus further comprises one or more retention devices positioned to (i) prevent the susceptor material from escaping from the internal reservoir of the tube, (ii) control the location of the susceptor material within the internal reservoir of the tube, (iii) prevent the susceptor material from contacting a fluid, or (iv) any combination thereof.

[0206] Embodiment 55. An apparatus as described in embodiment 54, whether the one or more holding devices include a screen, a housing, or a combination thereof.

[0207] Embodiment 56. An apparatus according to any one of embodiments 1 to 55, wherein the susceptor material is in monolithic form, particulate form, or a combination thereof.

[0208] Embodiment 57. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 56, wherein the longitudinal axis of the tube is parallel (0°) or perpendicular (90°) to the surface supporting the device (e.g., the ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.).

[0209] Embodiment 58. The longitudinal axis of the tube and the surface supporting the device (e.g., the ground, floor, ceiling) 57. The apparatus of any one of embodiments 1 to 56, wherein the angle between the surface (e.g., well, wall, etc.) is between 0° and 90°, 10° and 90°, 20° and 90°, 30° and 90°, 40° and 90°, 50° and 90°, 60° and 90°, 70° and 90°, or 80° and 90°.

[0210] Embodiment 59. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 58, wherein the electromagnetic wave radiating structure comprises an electromagnetic wave transparent section of the container through which electromagnetic waves can pass from outside the container into the interior volume.

[0211] Embodiment 60. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 59, wherein the container comprises a tubular section formed of an electromagnetically transparent material that constitutes the electromagnetically transparent section of the container.

[0212] Embodiment 61. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 60, further comprising an applicator for directing electromagnetic waves through the electromagnetic wave transparent section and into the internal volume.

[0213] Embodiment 62. An apparatus as described in embodiment 60 or 61, wherein (A) the container further comprises two metal end caps, one attached to each end of the tubular section, or (B) the tubular section is monolithic.

[0214] Embodiment 63. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 62, wherein the electromagnetic wave emitting structure is at least partially disposed within the container.

[0215] Embodiment 64. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 63, wherein the holding device has a plurality of openings through which fluid can pass but susceptor particles cannot pass.

[0216] Embodiment 65. A device as described in embodiment 64, wherein the average opening area of ​​the openings in the retention mechanism is less than 20 square mm, 15 square mm, 10 square mm, 5 square mm, or 2 square mm.

[0217] Embodiment 66. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 65, wherein the holding device comprises a screen coupled to the container, a perforated plate coupled to the container, or a perforated wall of the container.

[0218] Embodiment 67. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 66, wherein the container further comprises a fluid inlet for receiving fluid within the internal volume and a fluid outlet for discharging fluid from the internal volume.

[0219] Embodiment 68. An apparatus as described in embodiment 67, wherein at least one holding device includes a first holding structure position adjacent to the fluid inlet and a second holding structure position adjacent to the fluid outlet.

[0220] Embodiment 69. An apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 68, wherein the container is a pressure container.

[0221] Embodiment 70. The apparatus of embodiment 69, wherein the pressure container is configured to withstand a pressure of at least 1 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 15 bar, at least 20 bar, or at least 25 bar.

[0222] Embodiment 71. The device of any one of embodiments 1 to 70, further comprising a fluid source for providing a fluid to the internal volume and an electromagnetic wave generator for providing an electromagnetic wave to the internal volume. Place.

[0223] Embodiment 72. The device described in embodiment 71, wherein the electromagnetic wave generator is a microwave generator.

[0224] Embodiment 73. A device described in any one of embodiments 1 to 72, wherein the applicator comprises (i) a container or modular unit and (ii) a separate attachment device, which allows the first end of the tube to be fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator.

[0225] Embodiment 74. A system comprising an apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 73, a fluid source having a fluid disposed therein, the fluid source being in fluid communication with a tube, and (i) a fluid from the fluid source to the tube, (ii) a pump configured to provide pressure within the tube, the pump being in fluid communication with the apparatus and the fluid source, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0226] Embodiment 75. The system of embodiment 74, further comprising a heat exchanger in fluid communication with the second end of the tube and the pump.

[0227] Embodiment 76. A method comprising: (A) To heat a material, a method includes: providing (i) the apparatus of any one of embodiments 1 to 73; or (ii) the system of embodiment 74 or 75; disposing a fluid at a flow rate at an inlet of a tube; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the fluid is in the tube to produce a heated fluid; and collecting the heated fluid at an outlet of the tube; or (B) providing an apparatus comprising a container having an inlet and an outlet, a susceptor material disposed within the container, and an applicator with at least a portion of the container and at least a portion of the applicator disposed thereon; disposing a fluid at a flow rate within the inlet of the tube; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the fluid is within the tube to produce a heated fluid; and collecting the heated fluid at an outlet of the tube; or (C) For heating a fluid using electromagnetic energy, the process includes: (a) irradiating a plurality of susceptor particles with electromagnetic energy, thereby providing heated susceptor particles; and (b) contacting a fluid with the heated susceptor particles, thereby heating the fluid at a rate of at least 100°C / min, at least 200°C / min, at least 300°C / min, at least 400°C / min, or at least 500°C / min.

[0228] Embodiment 77. The method of embodiment 76, wherein step (b) comprises flowing a fluid through a volume of heated susceptor particles.

[0229] Embodiment 78. The method of embodiment 76 or 77, wherein the flow rate of the fluid through the volume of the heated susceptor particles is at least 5 liters / minute, at least 10 liters / minute, at least 15 liters / minute, or at least 20 liters / minute.

[0230] Embodiment 79. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 78, wherein the fluid maintains contact with the heated susceptor particles for 10 minutes, 8 minutes, 5 minutes, 3 minutes, or 1 minute or less.

[0231] Embodiment 80. Step (b) comprises heating the fluid to at least 200°C, at least 250°C. 80. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 79, wherein the heating is at least 300°C, at least 400°C, or at least 500°C.

[0232] Embodiment 81. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 80, wherein the fluid is a liquid and step (b) is carried out at elevated pressure to prevent vaporization of the liquid.

[0233] Embodiment 82. The method of any one of embodiments 76-81, wherein the susceptor particles are not physically bonded to one another.

[0234] Embodiment 83. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 82, wherein the average particle size of the susceptor particles is in the range of 0.1 to 5 millimeters.

[0235] Embodiment 84. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 83, wherein steps (a) and (b) are carried out in a common container (e.g., a tube) that receives the susceptor particles and the fluid.

[0236] Embodiment 85. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 84, wherein the container comprises an electromagnetically transparent section through which electromagnetic energy passes to heat the susceptor particles.

[0237] Embodiment 86. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 85, wherein the electromagnetically transparent section is a tubular member made of an electromagnetically transparent material.

[0238] Embodiment 87. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 86, wherein during steps (a) and (b), the susceptor particles are held within the container while the fluid flows through the container.

[0239] Embodiment 88. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 87, wherein the flow rate of the fluid through the container is at least 10 liters / minute, the residence time of the fluid in the container is in the range of 0.1 to 5 minutes, and the temperature of the fluid increases in the container by at least 250°C.

[0240] Embodiment 89. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 88, wherein steps (a) and (b) are carried out simultaneously.

[0241] Embodiment 90. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 89, wherein steps (a) and (b) are carried out substantially continuously.

[0242] Embodiment 91. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 90, wherein the fluid is heated primarily by direct heat exchange with heated susceptor particles.

[0243] Embodiment 92. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 91, wherein less than 25 percent, less than 20 percent, less than 15 percent, less than 10 percent, or less than 5 percent of the heating of the fluid is caused by direct absorption of electromagnetic energy.

[0244] Embodiment 93. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 92, wherein the electromagnetic energy comprises microwave energy.

[0245] Embodiment 94. (i) disposing at least a portion of a heated fluid at an inlet of a tube; (ii) introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into an applicator to irradiate at least a portion of a susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the heated fluid is in the tube to produce a further heated fluid; and (iii) disposing at an outlet of the tube a further heated 94. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 93, further comprising collecting the collected fluid.

[0246] Embodiment 95. The method of embodiment 94, further comprising repeating steps (i)-(iii) one or more times to produce a further heated fluid having an increased temperature.

[0247] Embodiment 96. A method for treating a fluid, the method comprising: (i) an apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 73; (ii) a system described in embodiment 74 or 75; or (iii) an apparatus comprising: a container having an inlet and an outlet; a susceptor material disposed in the container; and an applicator, wherein at least a portion of the susceptor material and at least a portion of the container are disposed in the applicator, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite and iron oxides other than magnetite; disposing a fluid at a flow rate into an inlet of a tube, wherein the fluid is water or an aqueous fluid, and the fluid contacts the susceptor material; and introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves, thereby generating heat while the fluid is in the tube.

[0248] Embodiment 98. The method of embodiment 96, further comprising collecting the heated fluid at the outlet of the tube, wherein the heated fluid is a gas.

[0249] Embodiment 99. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 98, wherein the fluid has a temperature of about 15°C to about 35°C, or about 20°C to about 30°C.

[0250] Embodiment 100. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 99, wherein the heated fluid or further heated fluid has a temperature of about 400°C to about 600°C.

[0251] Embodiment 101. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 100, wherein the heated fluid or further heated fluid has a temperature of about 50°C to about 1,500°C, about 100°C to about 1,250°C, about 100°C to about 1,000°C, about 100°C to about 900°C, about 100°C to about 800°C, about 100°C to about 700°C, about 100°C to about 600°C, about 100°C to about 500°C, about 200°C to about 500°C, about 300°C to about 500°C, or about 400°C to about 500°C.

[0252] Embodiment 102. The heated susceptor material or the susceptor material irradiated with electromagnetic radiation is heated to about 50°C to about 1,500°C, about 100°C to about 1,250°C, about 100°C to about 1,000°C, about 100°C to about 900°C, about 100°C to about 800°C, about 100°C to about 700°C, about 100°C to about 600°C, about 100°C to about 500°C, about 20°C to about 6 ... 102. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 101, having a temperature of 0°C to about 500°C, about 300°C to about 500°C, about 400°C to about 500°C, about 250°C to about 1,500°C, about 350°C to about 1,500°C, about 450°C to about 1,500°C, about 300°C to about 1,000°C, about 300°C to about 800°C, or about 300°C to about 700°C.

[0253] Embodiment 103. (A) the fluid has a critical pressure and the pressure inside the tube is greater than the critical pressure of the fluid; (B) the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein is from about 1 bar to about 250 bar, from about 1.1 bar to about 250 bar, from about 5 bar to about 250 bar, from about 5 bar to about 225 bar, from about 5 bar to about 200 bar, from about 5 bar to about 150 bar, from about 5 bar to about 100 bar, or from about 10 bar to about 100 bar; or (C) the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein is at least 2 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 25 bar, at least 50 bar. 103. The method of any one of embodiments 75-102, wherein the pressure is at least 100 bar, at least 150 bar, or at least 200 bar.

[0254] Embodiment 104. The flow rate is from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 750 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 500 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 250 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 100 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 50 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 25 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 10 liters / minute, from about 0.1 liters / minute to about 5 liters / minute, from about 0.2 liters / minute to about 3 liters / minute, from about 0.2 liters / minute to about 1.2 liters / minute, from about 900 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, from about 800 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, from about 700 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, 104. The method of any one of embodiments 75-103, wherein the flow rate is about 600 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 500 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 400 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 300 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 250 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 200 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 100 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 75 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 50 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 10 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, at least 5 liters / minute, at least 10 liters / minute, at least 15 liters / minute, or at least 20 liters / minute.

[0255] Embodiment 105. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 103, wherein the flow rate is from about 0.2 liters / minute to about 3 liters / minute.

[0256] Embodiment 106. The method of any one of embodiments 75 to 103, wherein the flow rate is from about 0.2 liters / minute to about 1.2 liters / minute.

[0257] Embodiment 107. The method of any one of embodiments 75-106, wherein the fluid comprises an organic fluid, an aqueous fluid, an ionic liquid, or a combination thereof.

[0258] Embodiment 108. The organic fluid is C1 to C 40 Hydrocarbons, C1-C 30 Hydrocarbons, or C1-C 20 108. The method of embodiment 107, wherein the hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon.

[0259] Embodiment 109. The method of embodiment 107 or 108, wherein the organic fluid is a halo-substituted organic fluid.

[0260] Embodiment 110. The method of embodiment 109, wherein the halo-substituted organic fluid is a perhalocarbon, such as a perfluorocarbon.

[0261] Embodiment 111. A method for heating a material, the method comprising: providing an apparatus comprising: (i) an apparatus described in any one of embodiments 1 to 73; (ii) a system described in embodiment 74 or 75; or (iii) a container; a susceptor material disposed within the container; and an applicator, wherein at least a portion of the susceptor material and at least a portion of the container are disposed within the applicator; placing the material adjacent to a tube; and introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves while the material is adjacent to the tube, thereby generating heat and producing a heated material.

[0262] Embodiment 112. The method of embodiment 111, wherein the material comprises a solid.

[0263] Embodiment 113. The method of embodiment 111 or 112, wherein placing the material adjacent to the tube comprises contacting the tube with the material.

[0264] Embodiment 114. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 113, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite and iron oxides other than magnetite, the fluid is water or an aqueous fluid, and the fluid in contact with the susceptor material and heated is a gas.

[0265] Embodiment 115. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 114, wherein the plurality of electromagnetic waves comprises a plurality of microwaves.

[0266] Embodiment 116. The method of embodiment 115, wherein the one or more microwave generators comprise a magnetron generator, a solid-state generator, or a combination thereof.

[0267] Embodiment 117. The method of embodiment 115 or 116, wherein the one or more microwave generators have a power of about 200 W to about 100 kW, or about 200 W to about 54 kW.

[0268] Embodiment 118. A method according to any one of embodiments 115 to 117, wherein one or more of the microwaves have a frequency of 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 14 GHz, 18 GHz, or 28 GHz.

[0269] Embodiment 119. The method of any one of embodiments 76 to 118, wherein the plurality of electromagnetic waves comprises a plurality of radio waves, a plurality of infrared waves, a plurality of gamma rays, or a combination thereof.

Claims

1. 1. An apparatus comprising: a tube formed at least partially of an electromagnetically transparent material; a susceptor material disposed in the tube; an applicator, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixedly or spring-loaded attached to the applicator, and (ii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion of the susceptor material within the tube is disposed within the applicator.

2. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the susceptor material is in particulate form.

3. The device of claim 1 , wherein the second end of the tube is fixedly or spring-mounted to the applicator.

4. 4. The device of claim 3, wherein the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, or both the first end of the tube and the second end of the tube are spring-loaded to the applicator.

5. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the applicator comprises: (i) a container or one or more modular units; and (ii) a separate mounting device, which allows the first end of the tube to be fixedly or spring-loaded mounted to the applicator.

6. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising the one or more microwave generators, the one or more microwave generators positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into the applicator to irradiate the at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of microwaves.

7. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the electromagnetically transparent material comprises a microwave transparent material.

8. The apparatus of claim 7 , wherein the microwave transparent material comprises a ceramic, a polymer, a glass, or a combination thereof.

9. 8. The apparatus of claim 7, wherein the microwave transparent material comprises: (i) alumina, (ii) fused silica, (iii) silicon nitride, (iv) a ceramic comprising silicon, aluminum, nitrogen, oxygen, or a combination thereof, or (v) a combination thereof.

10. The device of claim 1 , wherein the tube has a monolithic structure.

11. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the tube comprises a first cap disposed at the first end of the tube, a second cap disposed at the second end of the tube, or a first cap and a second cap disposed at the first end and the second end of the tube, respectively.

12. The device of claim 11 , wherein the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap comprise a metal.

13. The metal is (i) a KOVAR® alloy, or (ii) iron, cobalt, and 13. The device of claim 12, comprising an alloy comprising:

14. 13. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein a portion of the tube comprises a ceramic, and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap are joined to the ceramic by ceramic-to-metal brazing, adhesive, or a combination thereof.

15. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein: (i) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator; (ii) the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator; (iii) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator; (iv) the first end of the tube is fixedly attached to the applicator; (v) the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator; or (vi) the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator and the second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator.

16. the first end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, and the device comprises: (i) a first head unit defining a first opening; a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a first resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener; the first end of the tube and the first head unit contact each other, or (ii) a first head unit defining a first opening and a second opening; a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a first resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener; a second resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the second fastener; The apparatus of claim 15 , wherein the first end of the tube and the first head unit contact each other.

17. a third opening defined by the first head unit; and a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and 17. The device of claim 16, further comprising: a third resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the third fastener.

18. a fourth opening defined by the first head unit; and a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening, the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and 18. The device of claim 17, further comprising: a fourth resilient compressible device disposed between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the fourth fastener.

19. 19. The device of any one of claims 16-18, wherein the first resiliently compressible device, the second resiliently compressible device, the third resiliently compressible device, the fourth resiliently compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises one or more Belleville springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

20. 19. The device of any one of claims 16-18, wherein the first resiliently compressible device, the second resiliently compressible device, the third resiliently compressible device, the fourth resiliently compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises 1 to 24 Belleville springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

21. The apparatus of any one of claims 16 to 18, further comprising a first seal providing closure between the first head unit and the first end of the tube.

22. 22. The device of claim 21, wherein the first seal comprises: (i) a rubber disposed between the first head unit and the first end of the tube and in contact with the first head unit and the first end of the tube; (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the first head unit and the first end of the tube; or (iii) a combination thereof.

23. The apparatus of any one of claims 16 to 18, wherein the first head unit comprises a recess configured to receive the first end of the tube.

24. further comprising a second head unit fixedly attached to the applicator; The apparatus of any one of claims 16 to 18, wherein the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other.

25. 25. The apparatus of claim 24, further comprising a second seal between the second head unit and the second end of the tube.

26. 26. The device of claim 25, wherein the second seal comprises: (i) a metal disposed between the second head unit and the second end of the tube and in contact with the second head unit and the second end of the tube; (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the second head unit and the second end of the tube; or (iii) a combination thereof.

27. 25. The apparatus of claim 24, wherein the second head unit comprises a recess configured to receive the second end of the tube.

28. The second end of the tube is spring-loaded to the applicator, and the device comprises: (i) a second head unit defining a first opening; A first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener a first fastener slidably disposed within the first opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a first resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener; the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other, or (ii) a second head unit defining a first opening and a second opening; a first fastener having a first end and a second end, the first fastener being slidably disposed within the first opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; a second fastener having a first end and a second end, the second fastener being slidably disposed within the second opening, the second end of the first fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and a first resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener; a second resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the second fastener; The apparatus of claim 16 , wherein the second end of the tube and the second head unit contact each other.

29. a third opening defined by the second head unit; and a third fastener having a first end and a second end, the third fastener being slidably disposed within the third opening, the second end of the third fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and 29. The device of claim 28, further comprising: a third resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the third fastener.

30. a fourth opening defined by the second head unit; and a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, the fourth fastener being slidably disposed within the fourth opening, the second end of the fourth fastener being fixedly attached to the applicator; and 30. The device of claim 29, further comprising: a fourth resilient compressible device disposed between the second head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the fourth fastener.

31. 31. The device of any one of claims 28-30, wherein the first resiliently compressible device, the second resiliently compressible device, the third resiliently compressible device, the fourth resiliently compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises one or more Belleville springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

32. 31. The device of any one of claims 28-30, wherein the first resiliently compressible device, the second resiliently compressible device, the third resiliently compressible device, the fourth resiliently compressible device, or a combination thereof, comprises 1 to 24 Belleville springs slidably mounted to the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

33. The apparatus of any one of claims 28 to 30, further comprising a second seal between the second head unit and the second end of the tube.

34. 34. The device of claim 33, wherein the second seal comprises: (i) a metal disposed between the second head unit and the second end of the tube and in contact with the second head unit and the second end of the tube; (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the second head unit and the second end of the tube; or (iii) a combination thereof.

35. 16. The device of claim 15, wherein (i) the first head unit is fixedly attached to the first end of the tube, (ii) the second head unit is fixedly attached to the second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit is fixedly attached to the first end of the tube and the second head unit is fixedly attached to the second end of the tube.

36. 36. The device of claim 35, wherein (i) the first head unit is welded or brazed to the first end of the tube, (ii) the second head unit is welded or brazed to the second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit is welded or brazed to the first end of the tube and the second head unit is welded to the second end of the tube.

37. The applicator comprises: a container, the container (i) having a first end and a second end; (ii) comprising 1 to 30 chambers defined by (a) one or more exterior walls of the container, (b) one or more interior walls of the container, or (c) a combination thereof; 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the first end of the container, the second end of the container, the one or more interior walls of the container, or a combination thereof, defines an opening, and the tube is disposed within the opening defined by (a) the first end of the container, (b) the second end of the container, (c) the one or more interior walls of the container, or (d) a combination thereof.

38. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the container further comprises at least one waveguide providing a passageway through which the plurality of microwaves pass before entering one of the 1 to 30 chambers.

39. 39. The apparatus of claim 38, further comprising the one or more microwave generators, the one or more microwave generators positioned to introduce the plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers through the opening defined by the one or more outer walls, the one or more microwave generators positioned within the at least one waveguide.

40. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the container comprises 4 to 6 chambers.

41. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, wherein the apparatus comprises 3 to 6 microwave generators and the applicator comprises 4 to 6 chambers.

42. 38. The apparatus of claim 37, further comprising one or more microwave generators, at least one of the one or more microwave generators (i) positioned to introduce the plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers through openings defined by the one or more exterior walls of the container, (ii) positioned within at least one of the 1 to 30 chambers, or (iii) a combination thereof.

43. The applicator comprises: 1 to 30 modular applicator units, each modular applicator unit comprising: (i) a chamber having a first side and a second side; (ii) a first opening defined by the first side; (iii) a second opening defined by the second side; and (iv) a waveguide extending from a third opening of the chamber; 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the 1 to 30 modular applicator units are positioned adjacent to one another, and the tube is positioned within the first opening and the second opening of each modular applicator unit.

44. 44. The device of claim 43, wherein the applicator comprises four to six of the modular applicator units.

45. 44. The apparatus of claim 43, further comprising one or more microwave generators, at least one of the one or more microwave generators positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the 1 to 30 modular applicator units.

46. 46. ​​The apparatus of claim 45, wherein the apparatus comprises between 3 and 6 microwave generators and the applicator comprises between 4 and 6 of the modular applicator units.

47. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the portion of the tube formed of the electromagnetically transparent material is substantially cylindrical.

48. 48. The apparatus of claim 47, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 45 mm to about 60 mm and an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm.

49. 48. The apparatus of claim 47, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 50 mm to about 54 mm and an inner diameter of about 40 mm to about 44 mm.

50. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the tube has a length of about 0.1 m to about 5 m.

51. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the tube further comprises a microwave disruptor.

52. 52. The apparatus of claim 51 , wherein the microwave disruptor is fixedly attached to the second end of the tube.

53. 52. The apparatus of claim 51 , wherein the microwave disruptor comprises a wire or rod and, optionally, (i) one or more protruding structures and / or (ii) a flange disposed on the wire or rod.

54. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material is disposed within an internal reservoir of the tube, and the apparatus further comprises one or more holding devices positioned to (i) prevent the susceptor material from escaping from the internal reservoir of the tube, (ii) control the location of the susceptor material within the internal reservoir of the tube, (iii) prevent the susceptor material from contacting a fluid, or (iv) any combination thereof.

55. The one or more retention devices may be a membrane, a screen, a housing, or a combination thereof.

55. The apparatus of claim 54, whether or not it includes a combination.

56. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the susceptor material is in monolithic form.

57. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the susceptor material comprises silicon carbide, magnetite, zeolite, quartz, ferrite, carbon black, graphite, granite, or a combination thereof.

58. 58. The apparatus of any one of claims 1-18, 28-30, or 35-57, wherein the tube comprises an inlet and an outlet.

59. 1. An apparatus for heating a fluid using a plurality of susceptor particles irradiated by electromagnetic energy, comprising: a container defining an interior volume configured to receive the susceptor particles; at least one retention device disposed within or adjacent to the internal volume and configured to retain the susceptor particles within the internal volume while allowing fluid to flow out of the internal volume; an electromagnetic wave emission structure configured to introduce electromagnetic waves into the interior volume for irradiation of the susceptor particles contained in the interior volume.

60. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the electromagnetic wave radiating structure comprises an electromagnetically transparent section of the container through which electromagnetic waves can pass from outside the container into the interior volume.

61. 61. The apparatus of claim 60, further comprising an applicator for directing electromagnetic waves through the electromagnetically transparent section and into the volume.

62. 61. The apparatus of claim 60, wherein the container comprises a tubular section formed of an electromagnetically transparent material that constitutes the electromagnetically transparent section of the container.

63. 63. The apparatus of claim 62, wherein the container further comprises two metallic end caps, one coupled to each end of the tubular section.

64. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the electromagnetic wave radiating structure is at least partially disposed within the container.

65. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the holding device has a plurality of openings through which the fluid can pass but the susceptor particles cannot pass.

66. 66. The device of claim 65, wherein the average open area of ​​the openings in the retention mechanism is less than 5 square millimeters.

67. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the retention device comprises a screen coupled to the container, a perforated plate coupled to the container, or a perforated wall of the container.

68. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the container further comprises a fluid inlet for receiving the fluid within the interior volume and a fluid outlet for expelling the fluid from the interior volume.

69. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the at least one retention device includes a first retention structure position proximate the fluid inlet and a second retention structure position proximate the fluid outlet.

70. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, wherein the container is a pressure container.

71. 71. The apparatus of claim 70, wherein the pressure container is configured to withstand a pressure of at least 5 bar.

72. 60. The apparatus of claim 59, further comprising a fluid source for providing the fluid to the interior volume, and an electromagnetic wave generator for providing the electromagnetic waves to the interior volume.

73. 73. The apparatus of claim 72, wherein the electromagnetic wave generator is a microwave generator.

74. 1. A system comprising: An apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 18, 28 to 30, or 35 to 57; a fluid source having a fluid disposed therein, the fluid source being in fluid communication with the tube; a pump configured to provide (i) the fluid from the fluid source to the tube, and (ii) pressure within the tube, the pump in fluid communication with the device and the fluid source.

75. 75. The system of claim 74, further comprising a heat exchanger in fluid communication with the tube and the pump.

76. 1. A method of heating a fluid using electromagnetic energy, said process comprising: (a) irradiating a plurality of susceptor particles with electromagnetic energy to thereby provide heated susceptor particles; (b) contacting a fluid with said heated susceptor particles, thereby heating said fluid at a rate of at least 100° C. / min.

77. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein step (b) comprises flowing the fluid through a volume of the heated susceptor particles.

78. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the flow rate of the fluid through the volume of the heated susceptor particles is at least 10 liters per minute.

79. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the fluid maintains contact with the heated susceptor particles for 5 minutes or less.

80. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein step (b) heats the fluid to at least 250°C.

81. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the fluid is a liquid and step (b) is carried out at elevated pressure to prevent vaporization of the liquid.

82. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the susceptor particles are not physically bonded to one another.

83. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the average particle size of the susceptor particles ranges from 0.1 to 5 millimeters.

84. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein steps (a) and (b) are carried out in a common container that receives the susceptor particles and the fluid.

85. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the container comprises an electromagnetically transparent section through which the electromagnetic energy passes to heat the susceptor particles.

86. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein the electromagnetically transparent section is a tubular member made of an electromagnetically transparent material.

87. 87. The method of claim 86, wherein during steps (a) and (b), the susceptor particles are held within the container while the fluid flows through the container.

88. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the flow rate of the fluid through the container is at least 10 liters / minute, the residence time of the fluid in the container is in the range of 0.1 to 5 minutes, and the temperature of the fluid increases in the container by at least 250°C.

89. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein steps (a) and (b) are performed simultaneously.

90. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein steps (a) and (b) are performed substantially continuously.

91. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the fluid is heated primarily by direct heat exchange with the heated susceptor particles.

92. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein less than 25 percent of the heating of the fluid is caused by direct absorption of the electromagnetic energy.

93. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the electromagnetic energy comprises microwave energy.

94. 1. A method of heating a material, comprising: (i) providing the apparatus of claim 58; or (ii) providing an apparatus comprising: (a) a container having an inlet and an outlet; (b) a susceptor material disposed within the container; and (c) an applicator on which at least a portion of the container and at least a portion of the susceptor material are disposed; disposing a fluid at a flow rate into the inlet of the tube or container; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the fluid is in the tube or container to produce a heated fluid; and collecting the heated fluid at the outlet of the tube or container.

95. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the fluid has a temperature of from about 15°C to about 35°C.

96. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the heated fluid has a temperature of from about 100°C to about 1,000°C.

97. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the heated fluid has a temperature of from about 400°C to about 600°C.

98. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the fluid has a critical pressure and the pressure inside the tube or container is greater than the critical pressure of the fluid.

99. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the flow rate is between about 0.1 liters / minute and about 1,000 liters / minute. The method described.

100. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the fluid comprises an organic fluid, an aqueous fluid, an ionic liquid, or a combination thereof.

101. The organic fluid is １ ~C ４０ 101. The method of claim 100, wherein the hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon.

102. The organic fluid is １ ~C ３０ 101. The method of claim 100, wherein the hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon.

103. The organic fluid is １ ~C ２０ 101. The method of claim 100, wherein the hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon.

104. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the plurality of electromagnetic waves comprises a plurality of microwaves, and the apparatus further comprises one or more microwave generators.

105. 105. The method of claim 104, wherein the one or more microwave generators comprise a magnetron generator, a solid state generator, or a combination thereof.

106. 105. The method of claim 104, wherein the one or more microwave generators have a power of from about 200 W to about 100 kW.

107. 105. The method of claim 104, wherein the one or more microwave generators have a power of from about 200 W to about 54 kW.

108. 105. The method of claim 104, wherein one or more of the plurality of microwaves has a frequency of 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 14 GHz, 18 GHz, or 28 GHz.

109. 95. The method of claim 94, wherein the plurality of electromagnetic waves comprises a plurality of radio waves, a plurality of infrared waves, a plurality of gamma rays, or a combination thereof.

110. (i) disposing at least a portion of the heated fluid at the inlet of the tube or container; introducing the plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat and produce a further heated fluid while the heated fluid is in the tube or container; 95. The method of claim 94, further comprising: (iii) collecting the further heated fluid at the outlet of the tube or container.

111. 111. The method of claim 110, further comprising repeating steps (i)-(iii) one or more times to produce a further heated fluid having an increased temperature.

112. 1. A method of heating a material, comprising:

59. The apparatus of claim 58, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite and iron oxides other than magnetite; disposing a fluid at a flow rate into the inlet of the tube, the fluid being water or an aqueous fluid, the fluid contacting the susceptor material; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the fluid is in the tube to produce a heated fluid; collecting the heated fluid at the outlet of the tube, wherein the heated fluid is a gas.

113. 113. The method of claim 112, wherein the temperature of the fluid is from about 100°C to about 500°C after the introduction of the plurality of electromagnetic waves.

114. 1. A method of heating a material, comprising: (i) providing the apparatus of claim 58; or (ii) providing an apparatus comprising: (a) a container; (b) a susceptor material disposed within the container; and (c) an applicator on which the container and at least a portion of the susceptor material are disposed; placing the material adjacent to the tube; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator and irradiating at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the material is within the tube or container, thereby producing a heated material.

115. 115. The method of claim 114, wherein the material comprises a solid.

116. 115. The method of claim 114, wherein said placing said material adjacent said tube or container comprises contacting said tube or container with said material.

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