Alloys for plasma confinement systems

Abstract

Methods and systems are provided for improving the operational performance of Z-pinch plasma confinement systems and other plasma confinement systems (e.g., increasing the energy output therefrom). In one example, the plasma confinement system may include a liquid composition, which includes multiple metals and has a lower vapor pressure at the operating temperature level of the plasma confinement system than another composition formed from at least two of the multiple metals. For example, the liquid composition may include a ternary covalent metal, which extends the operating range of the plasma confinement system to vapor pressures and / or temperatures that cannot be achieved with a binary Pb-Li alloy.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Cross-reference of related applications This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 454,018, filed on 22 March 2023, entitled "ALLOY FOR USE IN PLASMA CONFINEMENT SYSTEM." The entirety of the aforementioned application is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0002] Embodiments of the subject matter disclosed herein relate to methods and systems utilizing liquid metal coatings in plasma confinement applications, and more specifically, to methods and systems utilizing liquid metal coatings to improve operational performance in shear flow-stabilized (SFS) Z-pinch thermonuclear fusion devices at higher vacuum and higher temperatures. [Background technology]

[0003] To improve nuclear fusion technology, performance in higher vacuum and higher temperature environments is required. For example, in plasma confinement systems, alloys can be present in the electrode composition, but many existing alloys cannot support the desired functions of plasma confinement systems in low-pressure and high-temperature environments.

[0004] The above and other embodiments, features, and aspects of the present invention will be considered in further detail in connection with the following description of embodiments shown in the accompanying drawings. [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0005] [Figure 1] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of a plasma confinement system including a flow metal electrode coating, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 2] An overview of a binary eutectic diagram according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 3]The following are exemplary temperature-dependent vapor pressure trajectories for Li, Pb, Sn, Pb-17Li eutectic, and 28Pb-20Li-Sn eutectic according to at least one embodiment. [Figure 4] A lead-lithium (Pb-Li) equilibrium phase diagram according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 5] A lead-tin (Pb-Li) equilibrium phase diagram according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 6] A lithium-tin (Li-Sn) equilibrium phase diagram according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 7A] The ternary diagram isothermal region of Pb-Li-Sn at 250°C according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 7B] The ternary diagram isothermal region of Pb-Li-Sn at 350°C according to at least one embodiment is shown. [Figure 8] This shows a liquidus projection of a Pb-Li-Sn system displaying an isothermal liquidus line according to at least one embodiment. [Figure 9] A schematic diagram of deuterium-tritium fusion and tritium blankets involving nuclear and neutron reactions, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 10A] The neutron energy-dependent neutron cross-sections of Li, Pb, Be, and Sn according to at least one embodiment are shown. [Figure 10B] The neutron energy-dependent neutron cross-sections of Li, Pb, Be, and Sn according to at least one embodiment are shown. [Figure 11] The effect of Sn concentration on the tritium growth rate of naturally concentrated Li is shown in at least one embodiment. [Figure 12] A block diagram is shown of a method for operating a plasma confinement system including a flow metal electrode coating by, for example, selecting the metal alloy composition of the flow metal electrode coating to optimize the operation of a shear flow-stabilized (SFS) Z-pinch thermonuclear fusion device, according to at least one embodiment. [Figure 13A]A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 13B] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 13C] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 13D] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 13E] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Figure 13F] A schematic cross-sectional diagram of the process of initiating and driving the shear ion flow rate in the plasma confinement system of Figure 1 for stabilizing a Z-pinch discharge, according to at least one embodiment, is shown. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0006] The techniques described and proposed herein include a plasma confinement system (e.g., a Z-pinch plasma confinement system such as an SFS Z-pinch plasma confinement system) comprising a solid conductive shell and a liquid composition coating at least a portion of the solid conductive shell, wherein the liquid composition comprises multiple metals and has a lower vapor pressure at the temperature level in which the plasma confinement system operates than another composition formed from at least two of the multiple metals. In certain embodiments, the multiple metals may interact with each other as a heat transfer medium, a tritium breeding blanket, and a radiation shield.

[0007] In at least one embodiment, the method (for example, for operating a Z-pinch plasma confinement system) may include inducing a flow of a eutectic alloy, the eutectic alloy comprising a first metal, a second metal, and a third metal, wherein the first metal reduces the vapor pressure of the alloy formed from the second and third metals.

[0008] Z-pinch plasma confinement systems in various embodiments (e.g., configured within thermonuclear fusion devices such as SFS Z-pinch deuterium-tritium thermonuclear fusion devices) include electrodes comprising electrode materials that flow freely at operating temperatures within the range of the Z-pinch plasma confinement system and have a vapor pressure lower than that of a binary Pb-Li alloy within the operating temperature range.

[0009] These advantages, alternatives, and other embodiments will become apparent to those skilled in the art by reading the following detailed description, with reference to the accompanying drawings where appropriate. Furthermore, it should be understood that the description and drawings provided herein are intended to illustrate the invention merely as examples, and therefore many modifications are possible.

[0010] For example, the following description relates to various embodiments of systems and methods for confining plasma within a fusion device to a temperature and density sufficient for a duration sufficient to induce thermonuclear fusion. In some embodiments, the output from thermonuclear fusion may be utilized for energy generation / storage. However, other use cases are envisioned in the disclosed embodiments or their variations, in propulsion (e.g., spacecraft, aircraft, ships, and submarines), research, etc. In extreme environments (e.g., low-gravity environments inside spacecraft), certain modifications may be made, for example, to maintain performance.

[0011] In exemplary embodiments, ternary cofusion gold is incorporated into a plasma confinement system to function, for example, as a coolant or heat transfer medium, a tritium breeding blanket, and / or a radiation shield. Alloys may include metallic substances composed of two or more elements. Alloying elements (solutes) are added to a base material (solvent) to improve its properties, including mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and thermophysical properties, among many others. The solvent may represent the elements or compounds that can be present in the maximum amount, and in some cases, solvent atoms are also called host atoms. The solute may be used to indicate elements or compounds that are present in trace concentrations. The addition of impurity atoms to a metal may result in the formation of a solid solution and / or a new second phase, depending on the type of impurities in the resulting alloy, their concentrations, and the temperature. When two mutually soluble liquids (such as water and alcohol) are mixed, a liquid solution can be produced when the molecules mix, and its composition can be homogeneous overall.

[0012] In exemplary embodiments, the various components of the ternary cofusion gold interact with or modify one or more physical properties of the individual components alone (e.g., reducing or increasing their magnitude(s)).

[0013] Impurity defects can be found in solid solutions, and there are at least two types of solid solutions: substitutional and interstitial. In the substitutional type, a solute or impurity atom can replace a host atom or replace its host atom. Several characteristics of the solute and solvent atoms can determine the degree to which the former dissolves in the latter. The Hume-Rosaly law of mixtures can determine the compatibility of two or more elements based on the following: ● Atomic size coefficient If the difference in atomic radii between two atomic types is less than ±15% (for example, only in that case), a considerable amount of solute can be accommodated in a substitutional solid solution. Otherwise, solute atoms may form significant lattice distortions, potentially leading to the formation of a new phase. ● Crystal structure In the case of a solid solution that can be detected, the crystal structures of both atomic types of metals can be the same. ● Electronegativity The more electropositive one element is and the more electronegative another element is, the more likely they are to form intermetallic compounds instead of substitutional solid solutions. ●Price Electronics All other factors being equal, a metal may have a greater tendency to dissolve another metal with a higher valency than a metal with a lower valency.

[0014] In interstitial solid solutions, impurity atoms can fill voids or gaps between host atoms. For metallic materials with relatively high atomic packing densities, these interstitial positions can be relatively small. Therefore, the diameter of the interstitial impurity atoms is substantially (wherein the term "substantially" is used herein, it is not necessary to achieve the stated properties, parameters, or values ​​exactly, but deviations or variations, including, for example, tolerances, measurement errors, limits of measurement accuracy, and other factors known to those skilled in the art, may occur without excluding the effect of the properties) smaller than that of the host atoms (e.g., <59% of the radius of the solvent atoms). The electronegativity and valency of the interstitial atoms and solute may also be similar. The greater the difference in these parameters, the lower the solubility may be. In certain examples, the maximum permissible concentration of interstitial impurity atoms may be low (e.g., less than 10%). Even relatively small impurity atoms can be larger than the interstitial sites, which may result in some lattice distortion in adjacent host atoms.

[0015] An exemplary binary eutectic phase diagram 200 at standard pressure (e.g., 1 atm) is shown in Figure 2, where the relevant region of equilibrium phase stability is plotted as a function of temperature and chemical concentration, along with the eutectic point 201 and the transformation baseline.

[0016] The eutectic point 201 is the three phases (i.e., eutectic composition C) E A liquid phase L containing and composition C αE and C βE The equilibrium invariant point can represent the lowest Gibbs free energy reached for the coexistence of two separate solid phases α and β, each containing the same component. A eutectic system may contain a mixture of chemical compounds or elements that have a single chemical composition at a lower temperature than any other composition composed of the same components. In an equilibrium phase diagram, the specific composition C that the eutectic composition transitions to upon heating or cooling is shown. E and temperature T E This eutectic can be shown by the invariant point fixed by . Therefore, the eutectic reaction can be expressed as follows: L(C E )←→(C αE ) + β(C βE) Here, the liquid L can transform at the melting point to two different solid phases α and β during steady cooling (e.g., cooling at a single predetermined rate), and the reverse reaction can occur during steady heating. When sufficiently mixed, the eutectic substance can maintain homogeneity and can melt and solidify at a given temperature similar to a pure substance, and at least due to this property, it can be used as a liquid metal blanket.

[0017] Temperature and pressure can be regarded as the dependent properties of a pure substance during the phase change process. At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase can be called the saturation temperature, T sat It can be called so. At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase can be called the saturation temperature, P sat It can be called so. At an absolute pressure of 1 standard atmosphere (1 atm, or 101.325 kPa) (when the term "absolute pressure" is used in this specification, it can refer to the amount relative to the ideal pressure where there is no substance inside the space, or a perfect vacuum), the saturation temperatures of lithium, lead, and tin can be 1342 °C, 1750 °C, and 2602 °C, respectively.

[0018] The dependence of the boiling temperature T B on pressure can be expressed as the reciprocal as a function of the saturation vapor pressure for the boiling temperature p sat = p s (T B ). The saturation vapor pressure of a liquid metal can be related to the latent heat of vaporization and the cohesive energy. In the case of the equilibrium state between the liquid phase and the gas phase of a substance, the Clausius - Clapeyron equation can be described as follows,

Equation

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[0019] Equation (2) shows, for example, ΔH with respect to temperature at low pressure. B Because the variation is relatively small, it can provide an approximation of the equilibrium vapor pressure over a wide range of temperatures. In certain cases, a more rigorous fit of the experimental results can be obtained by adding a supplementary temperature-dependent clause, one possible form being the following equation.

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[0020] The vapor pressures of liquid lithium, lead, tin, and Pb-17Li eutectic mixtures (e.g., eutectic gold) are plotted by curves 301, 302, 303, and 304 in plot 300 shown in Figure 3, respectively. When lithium and lead are mixed to form a Pb-17Li lead-based alloy (e.g., corresponding to a eutectic mixture with a composition of 83% Pb + 17% Li in atomic percentages), the vapor pressure can shift significantly toward the vapor pressure of lead, resulting in a decrease in the overall vapor pressure of Pb-17Li compared to the vapor pressure of pure lithium.

[0021] As can be seen in Figure 3, the vapor pressure of Sn is significantly lower than that of either Pb or Li. In certain embodiments, Sn can be used as an additive in Pb-Li mixes (eutectic or solid solution alloys), further highlighting its effect on reducing the vapor pressure of any binary Pb-Li alloy. The binary Pb-Li alloy may be an alloy of Pb and Li, optionally containing other components. This melange may include a Pb-Li-Sn ternary (or three-element mixture), and the addition of a certain proportion of Sn to Pb-Li can effectively reduce the vapor pressure (for example, compared to a Pb-17Li alloy).

[0022] Curve 305 in Figure 3 shows a 28Pb-20Li-Sn eutectic (e.g., eutectic gold), where the alloy has, for example, a vapor pressure of 10 -9 If the pressure is less than atm, and the operating temperature is approximately 600°C (e.g., at 600°C, or within a threshold range including deviations from the nominal value of 600°C during operation of the plasma confinement system), the alloy remains free-flowing (e.g., enabling the operation of the plasma confinement system). The operating temperature range may include temperatures within a given vapor pressure range in which the operation of the plasma confinement system can be achieved by allowing the alloy to continue to flow freely. For example, the operating temperature range in which the alloy continues to flow freely is, for example, when the vapor pressure range induced by the alloy is 10 -10 10 -8 When the temperature is between atm, it can be between 500°C and 700°C.

[0023] One of the advantages of adding Sn to Pb-Li alloys is that it allows for relatively higher temperatures (hundreds of degrees Celsius, e.g., above 1200°C) and higher vacuum conditions (far below atmospheric pressure, e.g., 10°C) than is possible with pure Li or Pb-17Li materials. -3 This may include operating as a liquid metal blanket at temperatures below atm. For example, if half of the lead concentration is replaced by tin in a Pb-17Li alloy to form a (Pb,Sn)-17Li solution, the operating limit of the liquid metal blanket is approximately 200°C (e.g., 10°C). -6 (600°C to 800°C at 600°C) or three orders of magnitude lower pressure (e.g., 10°C at 600°C) -6 10 -9 The atm can increase. Therefore, Pb-Li-Sn alloys can increase the overall thermal efficiency of thermonuclear fusion energy systems and the reach of the engineering energy break-even point.

[0024] Evaluating the compatibility between Pb, Li, and Sn may be key to understanding their mutual solubility and the possibility of the existence of ternary cofusion golds in this ternary system. The selected properties, crystal structures, and thermophysical properties of these elements are presented in Table 1. By applying the Hume-Rosaly alloying law, it can be observed that Pb, Sn, and Li share several common properties. ●Preferred atomic radius: An absolute difference of approximately 15% or less in atomic radius. ● Affinity of several crystal lattices: including face-centered cubic (FCC), rhombic, and / or hexagonal close-packed (HCP), close-packed lattices, and various slip planes. ● Matching electron valencies (Pb and Sn: +4, +2; Li: +1). ● A difference in electronegativity of 0.37 between Pb and Sn, or approximately (e.g., within ±5% of the nominal value) > 96% metallic bonding. ● Within a narrow range from each other (for example, ΔT m A relatively low melting point (<150℃).

[0025] [Table 1]

[0026] The design of alloys is complex because the process depends on numerous parameters, each of which interacts with the others to produce a cascade of possible alloy combinations. For example, the various attributes of Pb, Li, and Sn can affect their mutual solubility. When such elements are alloyed, intermediate phases and eutectic materials (e.g., eutectic gold) can be formed. Using Thermo-Calc, the CALculation of PHAse Diagrams (CALPHAD) method was applied to the modeled thermodynamic equilibrium phase diagrams 400, 500, and 600 (shown in Figures 4 to 6, respectively). In diagrams 400, 500, and 600, various alloys or other types are represented within the temperature ranges indicated by the corresponding y-coordinates in diagrams 400, 500, and 600, and include atomic percentages indicated by the corresponding x-coordinates in diagrams 400, 500, and 600, which are listed in boxes 401, 501, and 601, respectively.

[0027] The following characteristics are shown in diagrams 400, 500, and 600. In the Pb-Li system, as shown in diagram 400, Pb can dissolve up to 3% Li at 235°C, and when more than 50% Li is added to Pb, multiple intermetallic phases may be formed, and they may exist at 15.7% Li (235°C) and 62% Li (464°C). In the Pb-Sn system, as shown in diagram 500, Pb and Sn may exhibit relatively high miscibility, Pb can dissolve up to 28.1% Sn (183°C), no intermetallic phases may be formed, and the eutectic metal at lower temperatures may exist as Sn-26.07Pb (183°C). In the Li-Sn system, as shown in diagram 600, there may be little to no solubility between Li and Sn; nevertheless, eutectic compounds can exist at Li-45.1Sn (470°C), and multiple compounds can form in mixtures of Li and Sn exceeding 27%. When the analysis is extended to the Pb-Li-Sn ternary system, lead can increase the mutual solubility of Li and Sn. The addition of Sn may potentially induce the Pb+Li+Sn eutectic at lower temperatures. The ternary system may include formulations that better balance the individual attributes of each element (and Pb-17Li eutectic), including formulations that may be more suitable for high vacuum and higher temperature operating conditions.

[0028] The specific properties of Pb-Li-Sn systems can be elucidated through Thermo-Calc modeling using the "SSOL7 SGTE Solution Database," which includes important evaluations of binary, ternary, and several higher-order systems. However, the SSOL7 database does not contain any specific experimental data for ternary Pb-Li-Sn alloys or any of the three element compounds. Nevertheless, the modeling can support predictions based on thermodynamic principles and data from Pb-Li, Pb-Sn, and Li-Sn binary systems, as well as data from similar ternary systems.

[0029] Extending the binary diagram above, a pair of ternary isotherms 701 and 750 (fixed-temperature three-element triangular phase diagrams) corresponding to the phase stability of the Pb-Li-Sn system were calculated at 250°C and 350°C, respectively (shown in Figures 7A and 7B). In isotherms 701 and 750, various alloys or other types that may contain atomic percentages indicated by the corresponding axes of isotherms 701 and 750 are listed in boxes 706 and 752, respectively. Isotherms 701 and 750 can indicate the boundary of a region where separate phases are in thermodynamic equilibrium and coexist within a given concentration range at a given temperature. For example, at 250°C (Figure 7A), the lead-rich corner 702 represents a stable single-phase Pb(FCC) region where small percentages of lithium (<4% Li) and tin (<15% Sn) can dissolve in the lead. Moving away from the Pb-rich corner towards the center 703 of isotherm 701, the formation of LiSn, LiPb, and Li2Sn5 compounds can be observed. Moving towards the Li-rich corner 704, increasingly complex coexistence of intermetallic species can be observed, corresponding to the phases observed in the binary Li-Sn and Li-Pb diagrams (see Figures 4 and 6). Regions where a single liquid phase exists may contain a triple eutectic point. For example, a composition corresponding to Pb-15.5Li-1.96Sn is shown (the bullet point in the square), which can be analogous to a binary Pb-15.7Li eutectic with a dilution concentration of approximately 2 atomic percent Sn. Next, at the Sn-rich corner 705, a single solution of homogeneous liquid phase ranging from 100% Sn to approximately 70% Pb can be observed, with a fluctuating proportion of Li (<8% Li).

[0030] Moving to the isotherm 750, there may be substantial growth of a single-phase liquid region 751, which can completely connect the Pb and Sn corners and may contain up to 30% lithium in certain regions. In some examples, there may be two-phase regions where liquid 1 and liquid 2 coexist but are immiscible with each other, similar to what can be observed when water and oil are mixed. Liquid 2 may be richer in Li+Sn, and liquid 1 may be richer in Pb+Sn. Thus, lithium may have some low compatibility issues, but the addition of lead may promote the formation of a single-phase liquid (Pb, Li, Sn) closer to the Pb-rich and Sn-rich corners, and its solubility may improve.

[0031] The three elemental phases (for example, Pb x Li y Sn z Although these phases cannot be explicitly modeled using the SSOL7 thermodynamic database, this does not mean that these phases do not exist, and they may be identified using experimental determination. To assess the extent of missing experimental data, liquidus projection plots can be calculated in SSOL7. A liquidus projection may be a two-dimensional projection of a ternary barn at constant pressure. Such a ternary barn, or eutectic line, may include a line in which the three phases coexist at constant pressure. The construction of phase diagrams, as well as several principles governing the conditions for phase equilibrium, can be determined by Gibbs's phase law. Gibbs's phase law can provide a criterion for the number of phases that can coexist in a system at equilibrium, and can be expressed as follows: P+F=C+N In the formula, P is the number of phases present (e.g., P=3), F is the number of degrees of freedom (e.g., F=1), C is the number of components (e.g., C=3), and N is the number of non-compositional variables (e.g., N=1). Specifically, F is the number of degrees of freedom, or externally controlled variables (e.g., temperature, pressure, composition, etc.), which can be constrained to specify (e.g., completely specify) the state of the system. Alternatively, F is the number of such variables that can be adjusted independently without changing the number of phases coexisting in equilibrium. C is the number of components, such as elements and / or stable compounds. In the case of a phase diagram, such components may include substances at the two ends of the horizontal composition axis (e.g., Sn, Pb, and Li). N is the number of non-compositional variables, such as temperature and / or pressure.

[0032] In liquidus projections, isotherms (e.g., plotted at a fixed temperature) may exist when the liquid and solid are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Liquidus lines can also track various elemental compositions of the liquid phase. Liquidus projections can be used to highlight two-dimensional liquidus surfaces in a three-element system. A two-dimensional section of a liquidus projection may consist of a single barformation representing the three-phase equilibrium between the liquid and the other phases. Similar liquidus lines are depicted in the binary eutectic phase diagram in Figure 2, where two phases, (alpha-solid + liquid) or (beta-solid + liquid), coexist along their respective liquidus lines. However, in ternary phase diagrams, liquidus projections may not be lines but rather two-dimensional surfaces containing one or more contours where the surface intersections of the three phases (e.g., alpha-solid + beta-solid + liquid) may coexist. They may also be used to detect ternary eutectic intersections at the triple point, for example, by using the liquid phase composition at the lowest temperature isotherm to trace the eutectic gold composition.

[0033] A liquidus projection plot 800 of the Pb-Li-Sn system is calculated and shown in Figure 8. The isothermal liquidus line represents the equilibrium phase (liquid(s) + solid(s)), which is stable along the liquidus line where the composition changes and the temperature is fixed. In plot 800, various alloys or other types that may contain atomic percentages indicated by the corresponding axes within plot 800 are listed in box 805. Plot 800 depicts solid solutions of Pb and Sn (e.g., L+Pb and L+Sn) in equilibrium with the liquid at the Pb-rich corner 801 and the Sn-rich corner 802. Moving away from the Pb-rich corner 801 and the Sn-rich corner 802 (e.g., as Li% increases), a liquidus region may be observed where L+metals (e.g., Li2Sn5, LiSn, and / or liquids in equilibrium with LiPb) are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Further analysis suggests that fewer liquidus lines may be observed as the database proves unsatisfactory in predicting more complex compounds. Large empty regions exist in the central part 803 of plot 800 and the Li-rich corner 804, indicating that the lack of experimental data for Pb-Li-Sn systems may limit modeling.

[0034] Equilibrium points selected from binary systems are highlighted in Figure 8, including Pb-Li, Pb-Sn, and Li-Sn eutectic systems, allowing for imaging and estimation from binary eutectic systems to higher-order ternary eutectic systems. Upon analysis, several ternary eutectic systems of interest can be observed, represented by Pb-15.5Li-1.96Sn and Sn-28Pb-20Li. The Sn-28Pb-20Li alloy can consist of a ratio of Sn to Pb of approximately 2:1 and a higher Li content (20 at.% Li) than Pb-17Li (17 at.% Li). In some examples, this eutectic system may exhibit improved thermophysical properties, particularly a lower vapor pressure, compared to Pb-17Li. The Pb-Li-Sn system can be experimentally identified and may include other eutectic systems that may have similar favorable properties in a plasma confinement context.

[0035] Neutron calculations can be used to more accurately quantify the use of Pb-Li-Sn alloys as fusion device blankets and their impact on tritium breeding rates. In nuclear physics, a "magic number" sometimes refers to the number of nucleons (either protons or neutrons) located in the complete shell of the nucleus of a given element. Exemplary magic numbers may include 2 (helium), 8 (oxygen), 20 (calcium), 28 (nickel), 50 (tin), and 82 (lead). Nuclei consisting of such magic numbers may have higher average binding energies per nucleon than predicted (e.g., semi-empirical mass formulas) and are therefore more stable against nuclear decay.

[0036] Natural tin ore consists of relatively stable isotopes at the following approximate concentrations, which make up 0.9% 112 Sn, 0.6% 114 Sn, 0.35% 115 Sn, 14.1% 116 Sn, 7.5% 117 Sn, 24.0% 118 Sn, 8.6% 119 Sn, 33.0% 120 Sn, 4.8% 122 Sn, and 6.1% 124 It is Sn. Radioactive isotopes of Sn with Z < 114 (for example, 113 The main decay mode of Sn is positron emission (β + ) may include Sn isotopes with Z > 120 (for example, 121 Sn, 123 Sn, and 125 In the case of Sn, electron emission (β - Attenuation due to ) is common. Some radioactive isotopes produced by either the (n,γ) or (n,n) reaction with Sn have a decay period of about 44 years. 1 / 2 (β - (E: 0.42 MeV) 121m Except for Sn, the lifetimes can be relatively short (<0.5 years). The neutron interaction that generates gamma rays is approximately 9.52 minutes t 1 / 2 (γE: 1.86 MeV) 125Except for Sn, the duration may not exceed 40 minutes at energies below 35 keV. Alpha-particle nuclides may not be present in tin radioactive waste and are less radiotoxic than other high-density metals used in nuclear applications such as Pb and Bi.

[0037] In nuclear physics, the concept of neutron cross-section (σ) can be used to represent the potential interaction between an incident neutron and a target nucleus. Table 2 includes selected properties and neutron cross-sections for Li, Pb, and Sn, among others. First, the total microscopic cross-section (σ) of thermal neutrons (approximately 0.025 eV, 2200 m / s) of tin. tot =σ abs +σ scat ) can be on the same order of magnitude as lead, meaning there is no significant difference in neutron absorption, and scattering behavior is expected when lead is substituted by tin in the alloy.

[0038] [Table 2]

[0039] Macroscopic thermal neutron cross-section of tin, Σ=σ(ρ·NA / A )(where N A When comparing Sn (where Σ is Avogadro's number and the variables are shown in Table 2) with other nuclear energy device materials, the following observations can be made: a) Sn has the same order of magnitude in total macroscopic cross-sectional area as Zr metal. tot (Zirconium has a low σ abs a) Sn can be considered a relatively "transparent" material to neutrons (and is therefore used as cladding material for uranium fuel rods in nuclear fission reactors), b) Sn is about 5,000 times less likely to absorb neutrons than B (boron can be a strong neutron-absorbing material, and B4C ceramics can be used, for example, as control rod material in certain reactors and nuclear energy devices).

[0040] Materials with neutron breeding properties, such as materials that can undergo (n,2n) reactions, including Be and Pb (see below), can be suitable fuel breeding blanket materials for fast neutron breeding devices and thermonuclear fusion devices.

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[0041] To illustrate where neutron-multiplying material fits within the chain of neutron events, Figure 9 illustrates a schematic diagram of certain nuclear interactions involved in thermonuclear fusion and tritium breeding.

[0042] In schematic diagram 900, from left to right, first, deuterium is added to the thermonuclear reaction. 2 H) and tritium ( 3 H) can condense together to form an alpha particle (He nucleus) and a fast neutron, which can be emitted with relatively high kinetic energy.

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[0043] All of these reactions (and other secondary or tertiary reactions) can occur substantially simultaneously under a neutron flux: However, the likelihood of reactions occurring during neutron interactions can be related to the neutron energy (E) and the neutron cross-section (σ), as shown in plot 1001 shown in FIG. 10A. For example, neutrons of about 14.1 MeV resulting from DT fusion may preferentially react with lead at energies above 10 MeV (σ = 2.8 barns and (n,2n) reaction peak at 14 MeV). And neutrons with energies in the range of 4.5 MeV < E < 10 MeV may likely 7 Li MeV (σ = 0.48 barns and at 7 MeV 6 Li(n,n'α) 3 H reaction peak). Since neutrons lose energy by absorption and scattering (or slower neutrons are 208 Pb and 7 generated from reactions with Li), 6 the tritium breeding reaction with Li may predominate at neutron energies below 4.5 MeV. 6 Li(n,α) 3 H may have a relatively wide energy range and a high cross-section (σ = 3.5 b; 230 keV).

[0044] The reaction spectrum of Sn(n,2n) can be approximately the same as that of Pb(n,2n), as seen in plot 1002 shown in FIG. 10B. They both cover similar neutron energy spectra and have slightly different neutron cross-sections (for a 14 MeV neutron, σ Sn = 1.52 b, and σ Pb = 2.08 b). This can further verify the compatibility of Sn and Pb and the feasibility of using a Sn-Pb-Li alloy blanket.

[0045] Furthermore, to evaluate the feasibility of Sn as a tritium breeding blanket component, several comparisons are provided below: 90% enriched lithium ( 6 Using Li isotope-rich materials, Sn-25Li alloys exhibit approximately 78% of the tritium breeding ratio (TBR) capability of Pb-17Li alloys with enriched Li, and approximately 74% of the TBR capability of pure natural lithium, indicating that Sn can be a viable blanket material. However, lithium enrichment can be avoided as it may add to the overall cost of refueling and further increase the Q-value required for engineering system wear equalization (such enrichment processes can be energy-intensive).

[0046] In some embodiments, the ternary alloy (e.g., ternary co-fused gold) is Pb x Li y Sn z It may have the following composition, where 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0.3, 0.1 ≤ y ≤ 0.4, and 0.4 ≤ z ≤ 0.7. In additional or alternative embodiments, Pb x Li y Sn z Other transition metals (e.g., in addition to or in addition to Sn and / or Pb) that can completely or partially substitute for Sn, or that may be present in other alloys described herein, may include, for example, In, Ga, and / or Tl, due to the nature of the chemical properties of such transition metals and their proximity to both Sn and Pb on the periodic table. In additional or alternative embodiments, ternary alloys may include liquid metals, alloys, or salts used as coolants in nuclear applications, such as Na, K, Na-78K alloy, Bi, Bi-43.7Pb eutectic (e.g., eutectic gold), Hg, Be, FLiBe (e.g., liquefiable salts made from a mixture of lithium fluoride (LiF) and beryllium fluoride (BeF2)).

[0047] Figure 11 shows plots illustrating the effect of increasing the Sn concentration relative to TBR for natural Li, as well as 60% and 90% enriched lithium. It can be observed that for Li-Sn alloys with Sn < 45%, TBR > 1 can be expected, even when considering natural Li. This may be relevant because such alloys may provide a target for the maximum Sn concentration in binary Sn-Li alloys that can exhibit tritium breeding properties. Therefore, certain compositions within the Pb-Li-Sn system may possess tritium breeding properties suitable for use as a liquid blanket for tritium breeding.

[0048] Figure 1 shows a schematic cross-sectional diagram of the plasma confinement system 100. In some embodiments, the plasma confinement system 100 may be configured within a thermonuclear energy system, device, reactor, power plant, or other such apparatus or system. In additional or alternative embodiments, the plasma confinement system may be one reactor core among a plurality of reactor cores included in such a thermonuclear energy system. In an exemplary embodiment, the plasma confinement system 100 may be configured as an SFS Z-pinch reactor core.

[0049] The plasma confinement system 100 may include an inner electrode 102 having a rounded first end 104 positioned on the longitudinal axis 106 (e.g., the cylindrical axis of symmetry) of the plasma confinement system 100. The plasma confinement system 100 may further include an outer electrode 103 that at least partially surrounds the inner electrode 102. In some embodiments, the outer electrode 103 may include a solid conductive shell 108 and a conductive material 110, such as fusion gold 110, positioned on the solid conductive shell 108 and on the longitudinal axis 106 of the plasma confinement system 100. In at least one embodiment, the fusion gold 110 may include any one or more conductive materials described in detail above with reference to Figures 2 to 11. In exemplary embodiments, the fusion gold 110 may have a melting point including liquid metals and salts used in nuclear applications. As an example, the fusion gold 110 may have a melting point in the range of -40°C to 450°C at 1 atm. As another example, the conjugate gold 110 may have a melting point in the range of -40°C to 400°C at 1 atmosphere. Yet another example, the conjugate gold 110 may have a melting point in the range of 35°C to 330°C at 1 atmosphere. Therefore, in at least one example, the conjugate gold 110 may have a liquid composition and may be at least partially liquid under one or more operating conditions of the plasma confinement system 100. In various examples, the conjugate gold 110 may take the form of a eutectic, alloy, or mixture of one or more lithium, lead, or tin. In at least one example, the conjugate gold 110 may be an alloy containing at least Li and Pb, which is at least partially liquid under one or more operating conditions of the plasma confinement system 100. For example, the conjugate gold 110 may contain Pb x Li y Sn zThe cofusion gold 110 may have the following composition, where x, y, and z may include positive values ​​(e.g., their sum is 1). The cofusion gold 110 may be homogeneous during the operation of the plasma confinement system 100 (e.g., the cofusion gold 110 can maintain homogeneity under one or more operating conditions of the plasma confinement system 100), and / or may contain one or more metals having an atomic radius within 15% of the atomic radius of another metal in the cofusion gold 110, at least some crystal lattice affinity, >96% metallic bonding, and / or a melting point within 150°C of the melting points of each other metal in the cofusion gold 110. In at least one embodiment, one or more operating conditions include a temperature level above 700°C, and / or 10 -6 This may include vacuum levels below Torr.

[0050] The inner electrode 102 may take the form of a conductive shell having a substantially cylindrical body (formed from one or more of stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, or copper). As an example, the inner electrode 102 may include a first end 104 (e.g., a rounded end) and an opposing second end 126 (e.g., a substantially disc-shaped end). The first end 104 may be formed from, for example, graphite or a carbon-based material such as carbon fiber, or from one or more of stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, or copper. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 102 has a coating on its outer surface, which includes eutectic gold or other conductive material having a melting point in the range of 180°C to 800°C (e.g., 180°C to 550°C) at 1 atm. In various examples, the conductive material may take the form of a eutectic, an alloy, or a mixture of one or more of lithium, lead, or tin. Alternatively, the conductive material may take the form of elemental lithium, lead, or tin. In at least one embodiment, the conductive material may have the same composition as the cofused gold 110.

[0051] The plasma confinement system 100 may further include a supply mechanism 112 (e.g., an electromechanical system) which can be configured to move the inner electrode 102 in and out of the plasma confinement system 100 along the longitudinal axis 106. During operation, the inner electrode 102 may be subjected to erosion by the plasma discharge, and the supply mechanism 112 may be operated to supply the inner electrode 102 and other components of the plasma confinement system 100.

[0052] The plasma confinement system 100 may further include a cooling system 114 (e.g., a heat exchanger) configured to cool the inner electrode 102 during the operation of the plasma confinement system 100.

[0053] The inner electrode 102 may take the form of a conductive shell (e.g., stainless steel) having a substantially cylindrical body. The solid conductive shell 108 of the outer electrode 103 may include a solid conductive outer shell 132 and a solid inner shell 134 (formed from a conductive material and / or a high resistivity material such as silicon carbide), which can be placed inside the solid conductive outer shell 132 and in contact with the solid conductive outer shell 132. More specifically, the solid inner shell 134 may include an axial wall 136 that at least partially encloses the longitudinal axis 106 of the plasma confinement system 100 (e.g., partially encloses the inner electrode 102), and radial walls 138 that connect the axial wall 136 to the solid conductive outer shell 132.

[0054] The outer electrode 103 may include a first end 120 and an opposing second end 122. The rounded first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 may be located between the first end 120 of the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a substantially disc-shaped end) and the second end 122 of the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a substantially annular end). The radial walls 138 and the first end 120 of the outer electrode 103 may form a pool region 140 within the plasma confinement system 100. The pool region 140 may function as a reservoir for a substantial amount of (e.g., liquid) cofusion gold 110 within the plasma confinement system 100. The end 148 of the axial wall 136 may face the second end 122 of the outer electrode 103. The end 148 may include an edge 149 surrounding the inner electrode 102. As illustrated, the cofused metal 110 may also be circulated over the end 148 of the axial wall 136 by pumps 150 and / or 156, as will be described in more detail below. In certain embodiments, as shown in Figure 1, the edge 149 may be configured as two surfaces intersecting at a 90-degree angle. In other embodiments, the edge 149 may be rounded (for example, to facilitate the flow of the cofused metal 110 toward the pool area 140).

[0055] The outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108 and a cofused gold 110) may surround most of the inner electrode 102. The inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 may be concentric and radially symmetric with respect to the longitudinal axis 106. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 102 may have a length in the range of 25 cm to 1 m or more (e.g., parallel to the y-axis and between the first end 104 and the second end 126) and a radius in the range of 2 cm to 1 m (e.g., parallel to the x-axis), and the outer electrode 103 may have a length in the range of 50 cm to 6 m (e.g., parallel to the y-axis and between the first end 120 and the second end 122), a radius in the range of 6 cm to 2 m or more (e.g., parallel to the x-axis), and an annular thickness in the range of 6 mm to 12 mm (e.g., along the x-axis).

[0056] The plasma confinement system 100 may also include a heat exchanger 142, a first port 144 configured to direct the eutectic alloy 110 from the heat exchanger 142 to the pool region 140, and a second port 146 configured to direct the eutectic alloy 110 from the pool region 140 to the heat exchanger 142. The heat exchanger 142 may receive (147) the eutectic alloy 110 that can be heated within the plasma confinement system 100 via the second port 146, extract heat from the eutectic alloy 110, and return and move (e.g., pump) it back to the pool region 140 via the first port 144 so that the eutectic alloy 110 is reheated by the fusion reaction occurring within the plasma confinement system 100 (145). In additional or alternative embodiments, the heat exchanger 142 may be configured as a steam generator and / or a fuel recirculation system, and may function, for example, to extract thermal energy from the eutectic alloy 110 circulating therein.

[0057] The plasma confinement system 100 may also include a first pump 150 configured to pump (153) the eutectic alloy 110 from the pool region 140 and discharge (151) the eutectic alloy 110 to a region 152 separated from the pool region 140 by the radial wall 138 outside the axial wall 136. The first pump 150 may be configured to move the eutectic alloy 110 into a region 154 inside the axial wall 136 beyond an end 148 of the axial wall 136.

[0058] The plasma confinement system 100 may also include a second pump 156 configured to pump (153) the eutectic alloy 110 from the pool region 140 and discharge (157) the eutectic alloy 110 to a region 152 separated from the pool region 140 by the radial wall 138 outside the axial wall 136.

[0059] The plasma confinement system 100 may also have a base pressure within the plasma confinement system 100 of 10 -3 ~1 -9The plasma confinement system 100 may include a pump 170 (e.g., a turbomolecular pump) configured to pump air out of the plasma confinement system 100 to a range of Torr. In certain embodiments, the plasma confinement system 100 may include a vacuum chamber 101 that at least partially surrounds the inner electrode 102 and / or the outer electrode 103. In exemplary embodiments, the vacuum chamber 101 may completely surround each of the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103. In exemplary embodiments, the vacuum chamber 101 may be formed as a stainless steel pressure vessel. In some embodiments, the internal pressure of the vacuum chamber 101 (e.g., during operation of the pump 171) is 10 -9 The range of Torr is acceptable, from Torr to 20 Torr.

[0060] The plasma confinement system 100 may also include one or more gas ports 116 configured to direct a gas (e.g., tritium, deuterium, helium-3, boron-containing gas, or borane) from a gas source 128 (e.g., a pressurized gas tank) into a radial acceleration region 121 between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103. The gas can be directed from one or more gas ports 116 by, for example, by operating one or more valves 130 located between the gas source 128 and the acceleration region 121. In certain embodiments, the one or more valves 130 may include at least one electrically operated valve, such as a solenoid-driven valve. However, the one or more valves 130 may include any type of valve configured to direct a gas from the gas source 128 (e.g., from outside the outer electrode 103) into the acceleration region 121, and are not limited to such a configuration. For example, in some embodiments, one or more valves 130 may include at least one gas puff valve (for example, to provide neutral gas to the acceleration region 121) and / or at least one plasma injector (for example, along the outer electrode 103) arranged as an array (or more) regularly distributed around the central axis of the acceleration region 121 to supply pre-ionized gas to the acceleration region 121. The acceleration region 121 may have a substantially annular cross-section defined by the shape of the inner electrode 102 and the solid conductive shell 108. As shown in Figure 1, one or more gas ports 116 may be axially positioned between a first end 104 and a second end 126 of the inner electrode 102.

[0061] The plasma confinement system 100 may also include a power supply 118 configured to apply a voltage between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108). The power supply 118 may take the form of a capacitor bank capable of storing, for example, up to 500 kJ to 3-4 MJ. The positive terminal of the power supply 118 may be coupled to the inner electrode 102, or alternatively to the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108). In some embodiments, the power supply 118 may include a switching pulsed DC power supply (switching pulsed DC) including an energy source (e.g., a capacitor bank), a switch (e.g., a spark gap, ignition, or semiconductor switch), and a pulse-forming network (e.g., including inductors, resistors, diodes, etc.). In some embodiments, the power supply 118 may be voltage-controlled. In other embodiments, the power supply 118 may be current-controlled. In some embodiments, other suitable types of power supplies, including DC and AC power supplies (e.g., DC grids, voltage source converters, like-pole generators, etc.), may be used as the power supply 118.

[0062] The plasma confinement system 100 may include an assembly region 124 within the outer electrode 103 between the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 and the first end 120 of the outer electrode 103. In some embodiments, the acceleration region 121 may have a length in the range of 25 cm to 1.5 m and an annular thickness in the range of 2 cm to 10 cm (parallel to the y-axis, between the second end 122 of the outer electrode 103 and the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102), and the assembly region 124 may have a length in the range of 25 cm to 3 m (parallel to the y-axis, between the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 and the first end 120 of the outer electrode 103). The plasma confinement system 100 may be configured to maintain a Z-pinch plasma within the assembly region 124, as described below.

[0063] The plasma confinement system 100 also includes an insulator 117 between the second end 122 of the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108) and the inner electrode 102, thereby maintaining electrical insulation between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103. The insulator 117 may have an annular cross-section. In exemplary embodiments, the insulator 117 may be formed from an electrically insulating material such as glass, ceramic, or glass-ceramic material. In some embodiments, one or more valves (e.g., gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors) may extend through the insulator 117, or be provided instead, to inject a neutral gas and / or a pre-ionized gas at the end of the accelerating region 121 facing the first end of the inner electrode 102.

[0064] The heat exchanger 142 can receive (e.g., by pressurizing) (147) a portion of the cofusion gold 110 that can be heated within the plasma confinement system 100 via a second port 146, and move (e.g., by pressurizing) (145) the cofusion gold 110 back into the pool region 140 via a first port 144 so that it can be heated again by the fusion reaction occurring within the plasma confinement system 100. Before forming a plasma discharge within the plasma confinement system 100, the cofusion gold 110 can be heated to a liquid state (e.g., melted) using a heating element (e.g., electric) located within the plasma confinement system 100.

[0065] The plasma confinement system 100 may further include a supply mechanism 112 (e.g., an electromechanical system) that can move the inner electrode 102 in and out of the plasma confinement system 100 along the longitudinal axis 106. During operation, the inner electrode 102 may be subjected to erosion by the plasma discharge, and the supply mechanism 112 may be operated to supply the inner electrode 102 and other components of the plasma confinement system 100.

[0066] Furthermore, pumps 150 and 156 can move or circulate the cofusion gold 110 on the solid conductive shell 108, thereby allowing different portions of the cofusion gold 110 to be used and absorb current and / or heat from the Z-pinch plasma over time (e.g., along the longitudinal axis 106). During the operation of the plasma confinement system 100, much or all of the cofusion gold 110 may be in a liquid state.

[0067] In some embodiments, pumps 150 and 156 can move the fusion gold 110 so that the fusion gold 110 moving on the solid conductive shell 108 can move in the azimuthal direction (e.g., around the longitudinal axis 106) and / or axially with respect to the longitudinal axis 106 of the plasma confinement system 100.

[0068] More specifically, pumps 150 or 156 can move the fused metal 110 from the pool region 140 to region 152, which is outside the axial wall 136 and separated from the pool region 140 by the radial wall 138. Furthermore, pumps 150 or 156 can move the fused metal 110 beyond the end 148 of the axial wall 136 to region 154 inside the axial wall 136 and back towards the pool region 140.

[0069] In various embodiments, the voltage applied between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108) can be in the range of 2kV to 50kV in some examples, or in the range of 1kV to 40kV in additional or alternative examples. The voltage applied between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108) can be a radial electric field in the range of 30kV / m to 500kV / m.

[0070] In some embodiments, the Z-pinch plasma may have a radius of 0.1 mm to 5 mm, an ion temperature of 900 to 50,000 eV, and / or an electron temperature exceeding 500 eV (e.g., up to 50,000 eV). The Z-pinch plasma has a density of 1 × 10⁻¹⁶ 23 Ions / m 3Ion number density exceeding 1 × 10⁻⁶ 23 electron / m 3 It may have an electron number density exceeding 10,000 and / or may exhibit shear flow at magnetic fields exceeding, for example, 8 T. The Z-pinch plasma may exhibit stability for at least 10 μs (e.g., up to 1 ms or more). It should be noted that such ranges are illustrative and may vary based on the operating mode of the plasma confinement system 100 or based on changes to the size, function, configuration, etc., of the plasma confinement system 100. For example, if the size of the plasma confinement system 100 increases, such ranges may scale proportionally (e.g., linearly, exponentially, etc.).

[0071] In some embodiments, the reaction products of the Z-pinch plasma may include neutrons. Therefore, during the operation of the plasma confinement system 100, some neutrons and cofusion gold 110 are consumed, and additional tritium fuel for recovery may be generated as a heat exchanger 142. The reactivity of cofusion gold 110 can also serve to lower the fundamental pressure within the plasma confinement system 100 by trapping vapor particles.

[0072] Some embodiments may include controlling the thickness of the convolutional metal 110 on the solid conductive shell 108 by adjusting the rate at which the heat exchanger 142 moves the convolutional metal 110 into the pool region 140. By increasing the rate at which the convolutional metal 110 flows into the pool region 140, the thickness of the convolutional metal 110 on the solid conductive shell 108 can be increased. By increasing the rate at which the convolutional metal 110 flows out of the pool region 140, the thickness of the convolutional metal 110 on the solid conductive shell 108 can be decreased.

[0073] In an embodiment modified in an additional, alternative, or different way, as described above and shown in detail with reference to FIG. 1, one or more components of the plasma confinement system can be added, excluded, substituted, modified, or exchanged to adapt the plasma confinement system 100 to a given use case. As an example, the plasma can be injected directly into the plasma confinement chamber (e.g., the combined volume of the acceleration region 121 and the assembly region 124) of the plasma confinement system, in addition to or instead of, for example, the in-chamber conversion of fuel gas species. Further, although the various embodiments described herein are described with reference to Z-pinch plasma confinement, with or without modification, the various embodiments can be applicable to other types of thermonuclear fusion devices and plasma confinement systems that compress, react, or otherwise use plasma.

[0074] For example, the plasma confinement system 100 can include one or more first valves (e.g., one or more valves 130) configured to direct gas from within the inner electrode 10 into the acceleration region 121 and one or more second valves (not shown in FIG. 1) configured to direct gas from outside the outer electrode 103 into the acceleration region 121. The gas can be a fuel gas, and the fuel gas can be utilized to form a plasma arc when the gas is released into the plasma confinement chamber and a discharge current is applied. As used herein, "fuel gas" can refer to any species utilized to form a plasma arc. Thus, the fuel gas can include neutral gas species, for example, dihydrogen (e.g., hydrogen (H2), deuterium (D2), and / or tritium (T2)), other protium-containing species, deuterium-containing species and / or tritium-containing species, 3 He, 6 Li, 11 B, borane, etc., and / or pre-ionized gas species (e.g., introduced via a "direct plasma injection" or "plasma injection" configuration).

[0075] In at least one embodiment, the accelerating volume (e.g., corresponding to an accelerating region 121) is increased relative to the accelerating volume of a particular other Z-pinch plasma device and may be arranged to be filled with a gas mixture (e.g., a neutral working gas mixture) via at least one internal valve, such as at least one gas puff valve (for supplying a neutral gas to the accelerating volume), and / or a plasma injector (for supplying a pre-ionized gas to the accelerating volume) substantially aligned along the central axis of the accelerating volume (e.g., the longitudinal axis 106). Additionally or alternatively, a plurality of external valves, such as a plurality of gas puff valves (for supplying a neutral gas to the accelerating volume) and / or a plasma injector (for supplying a pre-ionized gas to the accelerating volume), may be arranged as a regular array on an external vacuum boundary, which may be positioned as external electrodes or outer electrodes.

[0076] In some embodiments, gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors contained in one or more first valves and / or one or more second valves may be electronically triggered to independently deliver “puffs” filled with neutral gas and / or pre-ionized gas for durations of up to several hundred microseconds (e.g., up to 1 ms). The amount of filling gas (also referred to herein as “fuel gas”) delivered (e.g., within the “puff”) can also be controlled by adjusting the filling gas pressure supplied to the gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors (e.g., to individual or all of the gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors or subsets thereof). Furthermore, different gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors (or different combinations of multiple gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors) may be supplied by different filling gas mixtures having, for example, different elemental ratios of filling gas and / or different isotopic ratios (e.g., adjustable D2 / T2 molecular ratio). In some embodiments, the gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors may be uniform (e.g., all of substantially the same operating settings being of the same type / size). In other embodiments, different gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors may be used in different locations. In additional or alternative embodiments, the gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors may control the flow of gas to the acceleration region 121 via a manifold containing multiple ports providing passages to the acceleration region 121. In such embodiments, the ports of the manifold may be uniform or may be configured differently (e.g., to deliver different amounts of gas to different locations in the acceleration region 121 when each gas puff valve or plasma injector is open).

[0077] Similar to neutral gas injection via a gas puff valve, (pre-)ionized gas or plasma can be injected using a combination of variously arranged plasma injectors or a gun-fluidically coupled plasma generator or manifold that generates plasma before injection into the accelerating region 121. In some embodiments, the plasma can be supplied from a gas-injected scrubber plasma gun and / or plasma thruster (e.g., a Hall effect thruster or an magnetohydrodynamic thruster), or, if the plasma is magnetized, from a high-power helicon plasma source, a radio frequency plasma source, a plasma torch, and / or a laser-based plasma source. Plasma formed from a gas mixture can also be generated and injected in a manner similar to neutral gas injection. Plasma injection can result in more precise control of the final plasma distribution and its shear flow profile, which in turn allows for more faithful control of the plasma's stability and lifetime. Since plasma particles are charged particles, additional control of plasma injection can be provided, which can be accelerated by an electric field formed by a variable electrical bias (or voltage) on the injection electrode. Therefore, the velocity of the injected plasma can be fine-tuned to allow for fine-tuning and optimization of the decomposition of any neutral gas present (e.g., within the acceleration region 121). Furthermore, the injected plasma can move at a faster velocity than the injected neutral gas, which can move in a nearly static manner (relative to the injected plasma) during the Z-pinch discharge pulse. Thus, compared to neutral gas injection, plasma injection can provide pre-ionized fuel "on demand" (e.g., more immediately) to replenish the fuel gas during the Z-pinch discharge pulse, for example.

[0078] In some embodiments, the pre-ionized gas may be generated as a non-magnetized plasma, for example, to avoid interaction between the magnetic field of the pre-ionized gas and the magnetic field of the accelerating region 121. In other embodiments, the pre-ionized gas may be generated as a magnetized plasma, for example, to match the magnetic field of the pre-ionized gas to be parallel to the magnetic field of the accelerating region 121 and / or to be adjustable to provide a desired magnetic flux profile at the injection point of the pre-ionized gas.

[0079] In some embodiments, the plasma injected into the accelerating region 121 may be generated using a spark plug or by pre-ionizing a neutral gas via inductive ionization. More broadly, the gas puff valve and / or plasma injector may include one or more electrode plasma injectors and / or one or more electrodeless plasma injectors. In embodiments including one or more electrode plasma injectors, the plasma injected into the accelerating region 121 may be generated at least partially by electrode discharge. In additional or alternative embodiments including one or more electrodeless plasma injectors, the plasma injected into the accelerating region 121 may be generated at least partially by inductive discharge generated by an external coil window (e.g., a frequency antenna operating at frequencies permitted for use in a given local jurisdiction, such as 400 kHz, 13.56 MHz, 2.45 GHz, and / or within the frequency range permitted by the Federal Communications Commission). In some embodiments, the neutral gas for pre-ionization may be limited by the configuration of the neutral gas reservoir (e.g., gas source 128) and / or the conduction of the neutral gas to the selected plasma injector configuration.

[0080] In some embodiments, the axial distribution of the injected plasma can be ensured through an axisymmetric plasma injector configuration. In at least one embodiment, eight plasma injectors may be positioned at eight equally spaced ports of a manifold. The eight ports may be configured at angles inclined with respect to the housing of the acceleration region 121 (e.g., 5° to 90° with respect to the central axis of the acceleration region 121). In one example, the inclination angle may be 45° with respect to the central axis of the acceleration region 121. In some embodiments, the eight ports may be configured at a single axial position along the central axis of the acceleration region 121 (i.e., the eight ports may be equally spaced around the circumference or other perimeter of the acceleration region 121 at the axial position). In other embodiments, the ports may comprise multiple sets of eight ports, each set of eight ports being equally spaced around different axial positions along the central axis of the acceleration region 121. In exemplary embodiments, the set of eight ports may be configured as interleaved pairs of sets, with a first set of eight ports positioned in a first axial location, and a second set of eight ports positioned in a second, different axial location, rotated relative to the first set, such that each port of the second set is positioned between pairs of ports of the first set with respect to the circumference of the acceleration region 121. Specifically, in such embodiments, each port of the first set of eight ports may be spaced 45° apart around the circumference of the acceleration region 121, and each port of the second set of eight ports may be offset (rotated) 22.5° from the first set of ports and spaced 45° apart around the circumference of the acceleration region 121, so that the ports of the first and second sets are spaced 22.5° apart around the circumference of the acceleration region 121. In additional or alternative embodiments, plasma injection can be performed azimuthally, for example, along a chord perpendicular to the central axis of the acceleration region 121, thereby generating an azimuthal flow within the acceleration region 121.In some embodiments, additional gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors may be included to allow injection of more fuel gas (e.g., for longer-lasting pinch discharges) and to control the axial pressure distribution of the fuel gas in the acceleration region 121 (e.g., to further increase the duration of the shear ion velocity flow). In additional or alternative embodiments, the valves may be configured to differ from other variations (e.g., azimuthally asymmetrically distributed and / or at different angles) to achieve substantially equivalent profiles by compensating for the effects of the variations.

[0081] In some embodiments, a plasma having a plasma temperature in the range of 1 to 10 eV can be generated by injecting a pre-ionized gas into the accelerating region 121. The plasma temperature can be reduced (for example, by reducing the amount of energy input to the process gas used to generate the pre-ionized gas), thereby increasing the electrical resistance of the pre-ionized gas and the resulting plasma. Specifically, an increase in electrical resistance can reduce the tendency of the pre-ionized gas to resist changes in magnetic flux, thereby reducing its tendency to resist motion in the magnetic field present in the accelerating region 121.

[0082] As mentioned above, the injection rate of the pre-ionized gas can be significantly higher than the injection rate of the neutral gas, so the plasma velocity in the accelerating region 121 can reach a maximum of 50 × 10⁻¹⁰ 3 The speed can be m / s. In some embodiments, the injection of pre-ionized gas can provide flexibility in the amount of particles injected. Specifically, in exemplary embodiments, the amount of pre-ionized gas particles may be injected in 1 / 50th the time used to inject the same amount of neutral gas particles. For example, 10 Torr-L of neutral gas particles (where 1 Torr-L is 2.5 × 10¹⁶ at 273K). 19The time used to inject (proportional to the molecule) may be the same amount of time used to inject 500 Torr-L of pre-ionized gas particles. Similarly, in some embodiments, the injection rate (or mass flow rate) of the pre-ionized gas may be changed according to the power supply current and voltage (i.e., the waveform of the injection pulse). As an example, increasing the power supply voltage (e.g., 100V to 500V) may increase the injection rate accordingly. As another example, increasing the power supply current (e.g., 1A to 500A) may increase the injection rate accordingly. In some embodiments, the power supply voltage may be increased to 750V to 5kV.

[0083] As described above, the gas puff valves and / or plasma injectors may be operated individually or in groups. An initial gas load within the acceleration region 121 having a desired axial and azimuthal profile can be achieved by timing the individual valves and / or groups of valves. Such valves (or groups thereof) may be timed to match the arrival of neutral gas and / or pre-ionized gas and / or mixtures thereof to the desired initial profile. Power supplies (e.g., power supply 118 and / or separate dedicated power supplies) may be timed to achieve ionization at a desired axial location and to utilize the initial gas load to generate and maintain a shear flow. In some embodiments, the power supplies may include a capacitor bank and switches. In other embodiments, other suitable types of power supplies, including a flywheel power supply, may be used.

[0084] By operating various combinations of (neutral gas) gas puff valves and plasma injectors, a desired level of power output can be achieved. Furthermore, the plasma can be injected into the acceleration region 121 at a significantly faster rate (e.g., about 100 times faster) than the puffed neutral gas. Such combinations of different injection rates, made possible by the acceleration of plasma injection with neutral gas injection, provide an even larger parameter space for optimization. In addition, the plasma injector can be used to inject mass to precisely control the location of ionization of the neutral gas.

[0085] In particular, the injection of neutral gas can be achieved through a puff valve and / or by releasing hydrogen gas from a metal hydride (e.g., titanium deuteride (TiD2), or other metal hydrides based on scandium, vanadium, or other metals).

[0086] The plasma confinement system 100 may include a controller or other computing device 180, which may include non-temporary memory where executable instructions can be stored. Executable instructions are executed by one or more processors of the controller 180 and can perform various functions of the plasma confinement system 100. Thus, executable instructions may include various routines for the operation, maintenance, and testing of the plasma confinement system 100. The controller 180 may further include a user interface, in which an operator of the plasma confinement system 100 can input commands or otherwise modify the operation of the plasma confinement system 100. The user interface may include various components such as one or more displays, input devices (e.g., keyboards, touchscreens, computer mice, pressable buttons, mechanical switches, other mechanical actuators, etc.), and lights to facilitate the use of the plasma confinement system 100 by the operator and to receive operator input (e.g., requests to generate a plasma arc for thermonuclear fusion, etc.). The controller 180 can be communicatively coupled to various components of the plasma confinement system 100 (e.g., valves, power supplies, etc.) and can be commanded to operate and use them (wired and / or wireless communication paths between the controller 180 and the various components are omitted from Figure 1 for clarity).

[0087] Referring here to Figures 12-13F, embodiments of the operation of a plasma confinement system are shown, such as the plasma confinement system 100 described in more detail above with reference to Figure 1. Specifically, Figure 12 shows a block diagram of method 1200 for operating a plasma confinement system including a flowing metal electrode coating, and Figures 13A-13F show schematic cross-sectional diagrams of a portion 1350 of the plasma confinement system 100 of Figure 1, and its function. Thus, Figures 1 and 13A-13F together illustrate at least some embodiments of method 1200, as described below. In exemplary embodiments, the operation of the plasma confinement system (e.g., plasma confinement system 100) may involve circulating (liquid) ternary confinement metal through the assembly region of the plasma confinement system. The composition of the ternary confinement metal can be pre-selected, for example, to improve a shear flow-stabilized (SFS) Z-pinch plasma arc confined within the assembly region, under relatively high temperature and / or relatively low pressure conditions.

[0088] In some embodiments, Method 1200, or a portion thereof, may be implemented as executable instructions stored in the non-temporary memory of a computing device, such as a controller, which is communicatively coupled to a plasma confinement system. Furthermore, in certain embodiments, an additional or alternative set of steps may be implemented as executable instructions on such a computing device, and the individual steps discussed with reference to Method 1200 may be added, deleted, replaced, modified, or exchanged.

[0089] In block 1202, method 1200 may include generating a request to initialize a plasma confinement system, in which case the initialization phase of the plasma confinement system may be initiated. In exemplary embodiments, the request may be generated in response to receiving user input, for example, from an operator of the plasma confinement system. For example, the initialization of the plasma confinement system may be triggered or initiated via an operator interacting with a user interface such as a push-button switch, toggle switch or other mechanical actuator, keyboard, touchscreen, or cursor input.

[0090] In the dashed block 1204, method 1200 may include liquefying or otherwise melting the ternary co-metal. For example, the ternary co-metal may be heated to a liquid state (e.g., melted) using a heating element placed within a plasma confinement system. In exemplary embodiments, the ternary co-metal may include metals that interact with each other as a heat transfer medium, a tritium breeding blanket, and a radiation shield. For example, the ternary co-metal may be heated to a high temperature of 600°C or higher, and / or 10°C. -9 The alloy may be a eutectic Pb-Li-Sn alloy pre-selected to induce and maintain thermonuclear fusion at low pressures below atm.

[0091] It should be noted that the dashed lines in block 1204 indicate that the corresponding method step (or part of the method step) may be optional in method 1200 in a particular embodiment. For example, in a particular embodiment, the ternary cofusion gold may be in a liquid state when the initialization step of the plasma confinement system is started in block 1202 (e.g., at room temperature).

[0092] In block 1206, method 1200 may include initiating (e.g., inducing) a flow of ternary cofusion gold (e.g., liquefied / molten in block 1204) within a vacuum chamber of a plasma confinement system, such as within a plasma confinement chamber configured within a vacuum chamber (e.g., a combined volume of an acceleration region and an assembly region). For example, one or more pumps may circulate, reflux, pump, or otherwise move at least a portion of the ternary cofusion gold within the plasma confinement chamber, and the ternary cofusion gold may absorb electric current and / or heat (e.g., generated by the fusion reaction during the plasma arc generation phase of the plasma confinement system, as will be described in more detail below). Additionally or alternatively, a heat exchanger may pump or otherwise receive at least a portion of the ternary conjugate metal heated within the plasma confinement system, extract heat from at least a portion of the ternary conjugate metal, and circulate, reflux, pump, or otherwise move at least a portion of the ternary conjugate metal back into the plasma confinement chamber (e.g., via one or more pumps) to continue absorbing current and / or heat.

[0093] In block 1208, method 1200 may include, for example, initiating a plasma arc generation step of the plasma confinement system following an initialization step. Specifically, in exemplary embodiments, the plasma arc generation step may involve powering the plasma confinement system (for example, one or more power sources may supply power to various components used during the plasma arc generation step), increasing one or more valve openings to form a plasma up to the acceleration region of the plasma confinement system using a fuel gas (e.g., dihydrogen (e.g., H2, D2, and / or T2), other protium, deuterium, and / or tritium-containing species, 3 He, 6 Li, 11The process can be initiated by supplying B, borane, and / or one or more pre-ionized gas species. In some embodiments, the injection of pre-ionized gases using a plasma injector, plasma gun, or ion source may be employed in combination to enhance the shear flow profile created by the injection of neutral gas. Thus, in such embodiments, plasma injection can occur rapidly and on the same scale as block 1208 and can be used to control the formation / initialization of the plasma arc and the dynamics of the plasma arc. In certain embodiments, when ternary cofusion gold flows into the plasma confinement chamber, it can increase the TBR in the plasma confinement chamber, for example, compared to when there is no ternary cofusion gold in the plasma confinement chamber, or compared to the TBR affected by a binary Pb-Li alloy flowing into the plasma confinement chamber.

[0094] For example, as shown in Figures 13A and 13B, one or more gas ports 116 are for fuel gas 310 (e.g., dihydrogen (e.g., H2, D2, and / or T2)), 3 He, 6 Li, 11 A fuel gas species (such as B, borane, and / or one or more pre-ionized gas species) can be directed into the acceleration region 121 between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108) that substantially surrounds the inner electrode 102. Figure 13A shows the initial amount of fuel gas 310 entering the acceleration region 121, and Figure 13B shows the additional amount of fuel gas 310 that subsequently enters the acceleration region 121.

[0095] After the fuel gas 310 has been introduced, the gas pressure adjacent to one or more gas ports 116 in the acceleration region 121 may be in the range of 1000 to 5800 Torr (e.g., 5450 to 5550 Torr) in front of the voltage between the inner electrode 102, which is applied via the power supply 118, and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108).

[0096] In block 1210, method 1200 may include, for example, generating a plasma arc between an inner electrode and a ternary cofusion gold (e.g., outer electrode) in a plasma confinement chamber during a plasma arc generation step. In exemplary embodiments, a plasma arc may be generated by repeatedly applying a Z-pinch discharge current between the inner electrode and the ternary cofusion gold. During operation of the plasma confinement system, the ternary cofusion gold may function as a cathode in some embodiments and as an anode in other embodiments. The plasma arc may be confined, compressed, and maintained by an axially symmetric (azimuthally symmetric, e.g., around a rotation axis) magnetic field generated by the Z-pinch discharge current, the Z-pinch discharge current being stabilized by a shear ion velocity flow generated and maintained via an applied residual current.

[0097] For example, as shown in Figures 13C to 13F, the power supply 118 can apply a voltage between the inner electrode 102 and the outer electrode 103 (e.g., a solid conductive shell 108) to convert at least a portion of the fuel gas 310 into a Z-pinch plasma 318 (see Figures 13C to 13F) flowing between (i) the fused gold 110 located on the solid conductive shell 108 of the outer electrode 103 and on the longitudinal axis 106 of the plasma confinement system 100, and (ii) the rounded first end 104 of the inner electrode 102.

[0098] For example, the power supply 118 can apply a voltage between the inner electrode 102 and the solid conductive shell 108, thereby converting at least a portion of the fuel gas 310 into a plasma 316 having a substantially annular cross-section (see Figures 13C to 13F). Due to the magnetic field generated by its own current, the plasma 316 can flow axially through the acceleration region 121 toward the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 and the first end 120 of the outer electrode 103, as shown sequentially in Figures 13C to 13F.

[0099] As shown in Figures 13E and 13F, as the plasma 316 moves beyond the acceleration region 121, a Z-pinch plasma 318 can be established in the assembly region 124 within the outer electrode 103 between (i) the cofusion gold 110 positioned on the solid conductive shell 108 of the outer electrode 103 and on the longitudinal axis 106 of the plasma confinement system 100, and (ii) the rounded first end 104 of the inner electrode 102. In some embodiments, such as when the inner electrode 102 acts as the anode and the outer electrode 103 acts as the cathode, the ionic current forming the Z-pinch plasma 318 and the shear-axis (ionic velocity) flow stabilizing the ionic current can each flow from the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 to the outer electrode 103. In other embodiments, such as when the inner electrode 102 functions as the cathode and the outer electrode 103 functions as the anode, the ionic current can flow from the outer electrode 103 to the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102, and the shear axial flow can flow from the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102 to the outer electrode 103. Thus, in the preceding embodiments, the plasma velocity (e.g., shear axial flow) can flow from within the assembly region 124 (e.g., from the first end 104 of the inner electrode 102) to the outer electrode 103 (e.g., towards the first end 102 of the outer electrode 103), while the ionic current can flow from the anode to the cathode.

[0100] Z-pinch plasma 318 can exhibit shear axial flow and / or a radius of 0.1 mm to 5 mm, an ion temperature of 900 to 50,000 eV, an electron temperature exceeding 500 eV (e.g., up to 50,000 eV), and 1 × 10⁻¹⁶ 23 Ions / m 3 Ion number density exceeding 1 × 10⁻⁶ 23 electron / m 3 It can have an electron number density exceeding 1 / 2 and / or a magnetic field exceeding 8T, and / or be stable for at least 10 μs (e.g., up to 1 ms or more).

[0101] In block 1212, method 1200 may include determining, for example, whether to stop plasma arc generation in accordance with a request generated by the plasma confinement system. If stopping plasma arc generation is not indicated, method 1200 can return to block 1210 and continue generating the plasma arc in the plasma confinement chamber.

[0102] If a cessation of plasma arc generation is indicated, regardless of whether method 1200 may include a cessation of plasma arc generation, method 1200 may proceed to block 1214. Specifically, the application of the Z-pinch discharge current to the plasma may be suspended, and one or more valve openings may be reduced or completely closed to reduce or suspend the supply of fuel gas to the plasma confinement chamber, thereby making the plasma arc unsustainable and cessating.

[0103] In block 1216, method 1200 may include suspending the flow of ternary cofusion gold within a plasma confinement chamber. For example, one or more pumps and / or heat exchangers may be deactivated to prevent the flow of ternary cofusion gold. Additionally or alternatively, if heating elements are used to liquefy / melt the ternary cofusion gold, the heating elements may be deactivated to allow the ternary cofusion gold to return to a solid or more viscous state.

[0104] Embodiments of this disclosure can be described in view of the following clauses. 1. A plasma confinement system comprising a solid conductive shell and a liquid composition for coating at least a portion of the solid conductive shell, wherein the liquid composition comprises a plurality of metals and has a lower vapor pressure at the operating temperature level of the plasma confinement system than another composition formed from at least two of the plurality of metals. 2. The plasma confinement system according to Clause 1, wherein the liquid composition comprises a ternary eutectic alloy containing one or more of Sn, Pb, In, Ga, or Tl. 3. The plasma confinement system according to Clause 2, wherein the ternary eutectic alloy comprises Pb, Li, and Sn. 4. The ternary eutectic alloy is Pb x Li y Sn z A plasma confinement system according to Clause 3, having the composition of 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0.3, where 0.1 ≤ y ≤ 0.4, and 0.4 ≤ z ≤ 0.7. 5. A plasma confinement system according to any one of Clauses 1 to 4, wherein the liquid composition comprises one or more of Na, K, Bi, Hg, Be, Na-78K alloy, Bi-43.7Pb cofusion gold, or FLiBe. 6. A plasma confinement system according to any one of clauses 1 to 5, wherein the liquid composition has a melting point in the range of -40°C to 450°C at 1 atm. 7. The plasma confinement system according to Clause 6, wherein the melting point is in the range of 35°C to 330°C at 1 atm. 8. The plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 7, wherein the liquid composition remains homogeneous during the operation of the plasma confinement system. 9. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 8, wherein at least one of the plurality of metals has an atomic radius within 15% of that of another of the plurality of metals. 10. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the above-mentioned multiple metals, wherein each of the metals includes crystal lattice affinity. 11. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 10, wherein each of the multiple metals contains >96% metallic bonding. 12. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 11, wherein each of the plurality of metals has a melting point no more than 150°C of each of the other metals of the plurality of metals. 13. The temperature level is >700°C, and the plasma confinement system is <10 -6 A plasma confinement system operating at a Torr vacuum level, as described in any one of clauses 1 to 12. 14. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 13, wherein the liquid composition increases the tritium growth rate within the plasma confinement system. 15. A plasma confinement system according to any one of the clauses 1 to 14, wherein the plasma confinement system is a Z-pinch plasma confinement system. 16. A method comprising inducing a flow of cofused gold, The method wherein the fused metal comprises a first metal, a second metal, and a third metal, and the first metal reduces the vapor pressure of an alloy formed from the second metal and the third metal. 17. Maintain the free flow of the aforementioned fused gold at temperatures between 500°C and 700°C. The vapor pressure is 10 at the temperature -10 atm~10 -8 The method described in clause 16, which is reduced during the ATM. 18. The method according to clause 16 or 17, wherein the flow of the cofusion gold is induced within a vacuum chamber of a Z-pinch plasma confinement system. 19. The Z-pinch plasma confinement system comprising electrodes containing an electrode material that flows freely at the operating temperature of the Z-pinch plasma confinement system and has a vapor pressure lower than that of a binary Pb-Li alloy at the operating temperature. 20. A vapor pressure lower than the above is 10 -9 A Z-pinch plasma confinement system according to Clause 19, wherein the operating temperature is less than 600°C.

[0105] The specification and drawings are to be considered illustrative rather than restrictive. However, it is clear that various modifications and changes can be made herein without departing from the broad spirit and scope of the invention as described in the claims.

[0106] Other variations are within the scope of the spirit of this disclosure. Therefore, the disclosed technology is susceptible to various modifications and alternative structures, although specific embodiments are illustrated in the drawings and described in detail above. However, it should be understood that there is no intention to limit the invention to one or more specific embodiments disclosed; rather, the intention is to cover all modifications, alternative structures, and equivalents that fall within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

[0107] The use of the terms “a,” “an,” and “the,” and similar demonstrative pronouns relating to describing the disclosed embodiments (particularly relating to the following claims), should be interpreted as encompassing both singular and plural forms unless otherwise indicated herein or unless it is clearly inconsistent with the context. Similarly, the use of the term “or,” should be interpreted as meaning “and / or,” unless explicitly or contextually inconsistent. The terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing,” should be interpreted as unrestricted terms (i.e., “including, but not limited to”) unless otherwise stated. The term “connected,” when unmodified and referring to a physical connection, should be interpreted as being partially or entirely contained, attached, or joined together, even if there is something intervening. The descriptions of value ranges in this specification are intended, unless otherwise indicated herein, simply as a concise way of referring individually to each distinct value contained within the range, and each distinct value is incorporated herein as if it were described individually herein. The use of the terms “set” (e.g., “set of items”) or “subset” should be interpreted as a non-empty set containing one or more elements, unless otherwise specified or contextually inconsistent. Furthermore, unless otherwise specified or contextually inconsistent, the term “subset” of a corresponding set does not necessarily refer to a suitable subset of the corresponding set, although a subset and a corresponding set can be equivalent. The use of the phrase “based on” means “at least partially based on” unless otherwise explicitly stated or evident from the context, and is not limited to “based only on”

[0108] Conjunctions such as phrases in the form of "at least one of A, B, and C" or "at least one of A, B, and C" (i.e., the same phrase with or without an Oxford comma) are understood separately in contexts in which they are commonly used to indicate that an item, term, etc., may be any one of A, B, or C, any non-empty subset of the set A, B, and C, or any set that is not contextually inconsistent or otherwise excluded, containing at least one A, at least one B, or at least one C, unless otherwise specifically stated or unless it is clearly inconsistent in context. For example, a useful example for describing a set having three elements is the conjunction "at least one of A, B, and C". The conjunction "at least one of A, B, and C" refers to any of the sets {A}, {B}, {C}, {A,B}, {A,C}, {B,C}, {A,B,C}, and any set having {A}, {B}, and / or {C} as a subset (e.g., a set having multiple "A"s), where this is not explicitly or contextually inconsistent. Thus, such conjunctions are not generally intended to mean that a particular embodiment requires the presence of at least one A, at least one B, and at least one C, respectively. Similarly, phrases such as "at least one of A, B, or C" and "at least one of A, B, or C" refer to the same thing as "at least one of A, B, and C," and "at least one of A, B, and C" refers to any of the sets {A}, {B}, {C}, {A,B}, {A,C}, {B,C}, or {A,B,C} unless a different meaning is explicitly stated or evident from the context. Furthermore, unless otherwise stated or contextually inconsistent, the term "plurality" indicates a state of being multiple (for example, "plurality items" refers to multiple items). The number of multiple items is at least two, but can be two or more when indicated so explicitly or contextually.

[0109] The operation of the processes described herein may be carried out in any suitable order, unless otherwise indicated herein or unless it is clearly inconsistent with the context. In some embodiments, the processes described herein (or their variations and / or combinations thereof) are carried out under the control of one or more computer systems consisting of executable instructions and are implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs, or one or more applications) that are executed collectively by hardware or a combination thereof on one or more processors. In some embodiments, the code is stored in a computer-readable storage medium in the form of a computer program containing, for example, a number of instructions executable by one or more processors. In some embodiments, the computer-readable storage medium is a non-temporary computer-readable storage medium which excludes temporary signals (e.g., transient electrical or electromagnetic transmissions that propagate) but includes non-temporary data storage circuits (e.g., buffers, caches, and queues) within the transceivers of temporary signals. In one embodiment, code (e.g., executable code or source code) is stored in one or more sets of non-temporary computer-readable storage media that store executable instructions causing the computer system to perform the operations described herein when executed by one or more processors of the computer system (i.e., in response to the results of execution). In one embodiment, the set of non-temporary computer-readable storage media comprises a plurality of non-temporary computer-readable storage media, where one or more of the individual non-temporary storage media of the plurality lack all of the code, while the plurality of non-temporary computer-readable storage media store all of the code together. In one embodiment, the executable instructions are executed such that different instructions are executed by different processors. For example, in one embodiment, a non-temporary computer-readable storage medium stores instructions, and the main CPU executes some of the instructions while a graphics processor unit executes other instructions. In another embodiment, different components of the computer system have separate processors, and the different processors execute different subsets of instructions.

[0110] Accordingly, in one embodiment, the computer system is configured to perform one or more services that perform the operations of the processes described herein, either individually or collectively, and such computer system consists of appropriate hardware and / or software that enables the performance of the operations. Furthermore, in embodiments of the present disclosure, the computer system is a single device, and in another embodiment, the distributed computer system performs the operations described herein and is a distributed computer system comprising multiple devices that operate differently so that no single device performs all the operations.

[0111] The use of any and all examples or illustrative language (e.g., "etc.") provided herein is intended solely to better illustrate embodiments of the invention and, unless otherwise requested, does not limit the scope of the invention. Nothing in this specification should be construed as indicating that unclaimed elements are essential for the practice of the invention.

[0112] Embodiments of the Disclosure, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention, are described herein. Variations of those embodiments may become apparent to those skilled in the art by reading the foregoing description. The inventors anticipate that those skilled in the art will use such variations as needed, and the inventors intend to carry out embodiments of the Disclosure beyond those specifically described herein. Accordingly, the scope of the Disclosure includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter described in the claims appended herein as permitted by applicable law. Furthermore, any combination of any possible variations of the above elements is included in the scope of the Disclosure unless otherwise indicated herein or unless it is clearly inconsistent with the context.

[0113] All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents cited herein, are incorporated herein by reference to the same extent as if they were included herein in their entirety, as each reference is shown to be incorporated individually and specifically by reference.

Claims

1. A solid conductive shell, A plasma confinement system comprising: a liquid composition for coating at least a portion of the solid conductive shell, wherein the liquid composition comprises a plurality of metals and has a lower vapor pressure at the operating temperature level of the plasma confinement system than another composition formed from at least two of the plurality of metals.

2. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein the liquid composition comprises a ternary eutectic alloy containing one or more of Sn, Pb, In, Ga, or Tl.

3. The plasma confinement system according to claim 2, wherein the ternary eutectic alloy comprises Pb, Li, and Sn.

4. The aforementioned ternary eutectic alloy has Pb < ｘ Li ｙ Sn ｚ The plasma confinement system according to claim 3, having the following composition, where 0.1 ≤ x ≤ 0.3, 0.1 ≤ y ≤ 0.4, and 0.4 ≤ z ≤ 0.

7.

5. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein the liquid composition comprises one or more of Na, K, Bi, Hg, Be, Na-78K alloy, Bi-43.7Pb cofusion gold, or FLiBe.

6. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein the liquid composition has a melting point in the range of -40°C to 450°C at 1 atm.

7. The plasma confinement system according to claim 6, wherein the melting point is in the range of 35°C to 330°C at 1 atm.

8. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein the liquid composition remains homogeneous during the operation of the plasma confinement system.

9. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein at least one of the plurality of metals has an atomic radius within 15% of that of another of the plurality of metals.

10. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of metals includes crystal lattice affinity.

11. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of metals contains >96% metallic bonding.

12. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of metals has a melting point of no more than 150°C of each of the other metals in the plurality of metals.

13. The temperature level is >700°C, and the plasma confinement system is <10 －６ A plasma confinement system according to claim 1, operating at a Torr vacuum level.

14. The plasma confinement system according to claim 1, wherein the liquid composition increases the tritium growth rate within the plasma confinement system.

15. The plasma confinement system according to any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the plasma confinement system is a Z-pinch plasma confinement system.

16. A method comprising inducing a flow of a conjugate metal, wherein the conjugate metal comprises a first metal, a second metal, and a third metal, and the first metal reduces the vapor pressure of an alloy formed from the second metal and the third metal.

17. The aforementioned fused gold is maintained to flow freely at a temperature between 500°C and 700°C, and the vapor pressure is 10 at the aforementioned temperature. －１０ atm~10 －８ The method according to claim 16, which is reduced during atm.

18. The method according to claim 16 or 17, wherein the flow of the cofusion gold is guided within a vacuum chamber of a Z-pinch plasma confinement system.

19. The Z-pinch plasma confinement system includes an electrode comprising an electrode material that flows freely at the operating temperature of the Z-pinch plasma confinement system and has a vapor pressure lower than that of a binary Pb-Li alloy at the operating temperature.

20. A vapor pressure lower than the above is 10 －９ The Z-pinch plasma confinement system according to claim 19, wherein the operating temperature is less than 600°C.

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