Proteins containing multiple different unnatural amino acids and methods of making and using such proteins

Abstract

The present invention relates generally to methods for producing proteins that include a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second, different UAA, and to proteins that include the first UAA and a second, different UAA.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 912,171, filed October 8, 2019, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0002] FIELD OF THEINVENTION The present disclosure relates generally to the field in which orthogonal tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs are used to incorporate multiple different UAAs into a protein of interest as the protein is synthesized. [Background technology]

[0003] In nature, proteins are produced in cells through processes known as transcription and translation. During transcription, genes containing a series of codons that collectively code for a protein of interest are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA). During translation, ribosomes attach to and move along the mRNA, incorporating specific amino acids into the polypeptide chain being synthesized (translated) from the mRNA at the position corresponding to the codon to produce the protein. During translation, specific naturally occurring amino acids bound to transfer RNA (tRNA) enter the ribosome. tRNAs containing anticodon sequences hybridize to their respective codon sequences in the mRNA and transfer the amino acids they carry to the appropriate positions of the nascent protein chain as the protein is synthesized.

[0004] Over the last several decades, considerable efforts have been made to produce homogenous preparations of site-specifically modified proteins, e.g., mammalian proteins, in commercial-scale quantities for use in a variety of applications, including, for example, therapeutics and diagnostics. Furthermore, efforts have been made to produce these modified mammalian proteins in eukaryotic cells (e.g., mammalian cells), because these proteins may be more easily produced in a properly folded, fully active form and / or may be post-translationally modified in a manner similar to the native (native) proteins naturally produced in mammalian cells.

[0005] One approach to producing proteins containing site-specific modifications involves the site-specific incorporation of one or more unnatural amino acids (UAAs) into a protein of interest. The ability to site-specifically incorporate UAAs into proteins in vivo has become a powerful tool to enhance protein function or introduce new chemical functionalities not found in nature. The core elements required for this technology include the following: an engineered tRNA, an engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) that attaches the UAA to the tRNA, and a unique codon, e.g., a stop codon, that directs the incorporation of the UAA into the protein being synthesized.

[0006] Central to this approach is the use of engineered tRNA / aaRS pairs, where the aaRS attaches a UAA of interest to a tRNA without cross-reacting with tRNAs and amino acids normally present in the expression host cell. This is achieved by using engineered tRNA / aaRS pairs derived from organisms in different domains of life as the expression host cell, to maximize orthogonality between the engineered tRNA / aaRS pair (e.g., an engineered bacterial tRNA / aaRS pair) and the tRNA / aaRS pair naturally found in the expression host cell (e.g., a mammalian cell). The engineered tRNA that attaches the UAA via the aaRS binds or hybridizes to a unique codon, such as a premature stop codon (UAG, UGA, UAA), present in the mRNA that codes for the protein to be expressed. For example, see FIG. 1, which shows the synthesis of a protein using an endogenous tRNA and an endogenous aaRS from an expression host cell and an engineered orthogonal tRNA and an orthogonal aaRS introduced into the host cell to facilitate the incorporation of a UAA into a protein as the protein is synthesized via the ribosome. To date, various orthogonal tRNA / aaRS pairs have been generated for some of the naturally occurring amino acids (see, for example, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2017 / 0349891 and Zheng et al. (2018) BIOCHEM. 57:441-445). This approach facilitates the expression of proteins containing site-specific modifications, such as bioconjugation handles and photoactivatable crosslinkers, that can be used as therapeutics (e.g., antibody drug conjugates (ADCs), bispecific antibodies (e.g., bispecific monoclonal antibodies), nanobodies, chemokines, vaccines, clotting factors, hormones, and enzymes).

[0007] Despite the efforts made so far, there has been limited success in utilizing this technology to incorporate multiple different UAAs into a single polypeptide. To incorporate multiple different UAAs into one polypeptide, each UAA must be encoded by a distinct nonsense codon, and each UAA must be bound by a different orthogonal aaRS / tRNA pair, where each pair must also be orthogonal to each other (mutually orthogonal). A significant degree of cross-reactivity has been found between aaRS / tRNA pairs, which, together with the inability to decode the full complement of nonsense codons, limits the overall efficiency of site-specific incorporation of two distinct UAAs in mammalian cells. [Prior art documents] [Patent documents]

[0008] [Patent Document 1] US Patent Application Publication No. 2017 / 0349891 [Non-patent literature]

[0009] [Non-Patent Document 1] Zheng et al. (2018) BIOCHEM. 57:441-445 Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0010] Thus, there remains a need for mammalian-based expression platforms that allow for the incorporation of multiple distinct unnatural amino acids into proteins with high efficiency. [Means for solving the problem]

[0011] The present invention is based, in part, on the discovery of combinations of nonsense codons, tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, and UAAs that allow efficient site-specific incorporation of multiple different UAAs into proteins expressed in mammalian cells.

[0012] In one aspect, the invention provides a method of producing a protein that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second, different UAA (e.g., the first and second UAA are each incorporated into the protein at specific, distinct positions in the protein polypeptide chain), comprising: (i) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a first tRNA that hybridizes to a first codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and includes an anticodon capable of binding (charging) the first UAA; (ii) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that is capable of binding (charging) the first tRNA; and (iii) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a second tRNA that hybridizes to a second codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and includes an anticodon capable of binding the second UAA, wherein the first and second tRNAs contain the same anticodon. The method includes culturing a mammalian cell having a nucleic acid that does not bind to the first codon, (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a second aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase capable of attaching the second UAA to the second tRNA, and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the first codon and the second codon, under conditions that allow the first tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the first UAA, to hybridize to the first codon and direct incorporation of the first UAA into the protein, and the second tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the second UAA, to hybridize to the second codon and direct incorporation of the second UAA into the protein.

[0013] In certain embodiments, the expression yield of the protein containing both the first and second UAA expressed by the cell is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the expression yield of a reference (standard) protein. For example, in certain embodiments, the amount of the protein containing the first and second UAA expressed by the cell is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the amount of the reference protein expressed by the same or a similar cell. In certain embodiments, the reference protein is a protein that does not contain the first and second UAA but is otherwise identical to the protein containing the first and second UAA. For example, the reference protein may comprise a wild-type amino acid sequence or may comprise wild-type amino acid residues at the positions corresponding to the first and second UAA.

[0014] In certain embodiments, the first or second tRNA is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic tryptophanyl-tRNA, such as an E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA. For example, the first or second tRNA may comprise a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 49-54 or 108-113. In certain embodiments, the first or second aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase, such as an E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase. For example, the first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise an amino acid sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 44-48. In certain embodiments, the first or second codon is UGA. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is a tryptophan analog, such as a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is 5-HTP or 5-AzW.

[0015] In certain embodiments, the first or second tRNA is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic leucyl-tRNA, e.g., E. coli leucyl-tRNA. For example, the first or second tRNA may comprise a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 16-43. In certain embodiments, the first or second aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic leucyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., E. coli leucyl-tRNA synthetase. For example, the first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise an amino acid sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1-15. In certain embodiments, the first or second codon is UAG. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is a leucine analog, e.g., a non-naturally occurring leucine analog. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is LCA or Cys-5-N3.

[0016] In certain embodiments, the first or second tRNA is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic tyrosyl-tRNA, e.g., an E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA. For example, the first or second tRNA may comprise a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 68-69 or 104-105. In certain embodiments, the first or second aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is an analog or derivative of a prokaryotic tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., an E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase. For example, the first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 70. In certain embodiments, the first or second codon is UAG. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is a tyrosine analog, e.g., a non-naturally occurring tyrosine analog. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is OmeY, AzF, or OpropY.

[0017] In certain embodiments, the first or second tRNA is an analog or derivative of an archaeal pyrrolysyl-tRNA, such as Methanosarcina barkeri (M. barkeri) pyrrolysyl-tRNA. For example, the first or second tRNA may comprise a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72-100 or 106-107. In certain embodiments, the first or second aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is an analog or derivative of an archaeal pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase, such as M. barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase. For example, the first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 101. In certain embodiments, the first or second codon is UAG. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is a pyrrolysine analog, such as a non-naturally occurring pyrrolysine analog. In certain embodiments, the first or second UAA is BocK, CpK, or AzK.

[0018] In certain embodiments, the protein is an antibody (or a fragment thereof, e.g., an antigen-binding fragment thereof), a bispecific antibody, a nanobody, an affibody, a viral protein, a chemokine, a cytokine, an antigen, a blood clotting factor, a hormone, a growth factor, an enzyme, a cell signaling protein, or any other polypeptide or protein. In certain embodiments, the protein is an antibody (or a fragment thereof, e.g., an antigen-binding fragment thereof), and the first UAA and / or the second UAA are located in the constant region of the antibody.

[0019] In certain embodiments, the cell is a human cell, such as a human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell or a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell.

[0020] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the cell with the first and / or second UAA. In certain embodiments, the method further comprises purifying the protein. In certain embodiments, the method further comprises chemically modifying the first and / or second UAA. For example, the chemical modification may comprise conjugation to a detectable label or molecule, such as a drug, e.g., a small molecule drug.

[0021] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein that includes a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a leucine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring leucine analog), the method comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA that hybridizes to a UGA codon and includes an anticodon capable of binding the tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase that is capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA that hybridizes to a UAG codon and includes an anticodon capable of binding the leucine analog; and (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA that is capable of binding the leucine analog to the derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA. and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli leucyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the leucine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the leucine analog into the protein.

[0022] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein that includes a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a tyrosine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tyrosine analog), the method comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA that comprises an anticodon that hybridizes to a UGA codon and is capable of binding the tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase that is capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA that comprises an anticodon that hybridizes to a UAG codon and is capable of binding the tyrosine analog; and (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA that is capable of binding the tyrosine analog to the derivative of E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA. and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tyrosine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the tyrosine analog into the protein.

[0023] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein comprising a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a pyrrolysine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring pyrrolysine analog), the method comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UGA codon and binding the tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of Methanosarcina barcheri pyrrolysyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UAG codon and binding the pyrrolysine analog; and (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of Methanosarcina barcheri pyrrolysyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UAG codon and binding the pyrrolysine analog. and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli pyrrolysyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the pyrrolysine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the pyrrolysine analog into the protein.

[0024] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second UAA produced by any of the methods described above.

[0025] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a second UAA that is a leucine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring leucine analog). In certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the leucine analog is selected from LCA and Cys-5-N3.

[0026] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a second UAA that is a tyrosine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tyrosine analog). In certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the tyrosine analog is selected from OmeY, AzF, and OpropY UAAs.

[0027] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog) and a second UAA that is a pyrrolysine analog (e.g., a non-naturally occurring pyrrolysine analog). In certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the pyrrolysine analog is selected from BocK, CpK, AzK, and CpK.

[0028] In certain embodiments of any of the above-mentioned proteins, a detectable label or molecule (e.g., a drug, e.g., a small molecule drug) is covalently attached to the protein via the first UAA and / or the second UAA. In certain embodiments, the protein is an antibody (or a fragment thereof, e.g., an antigen-binding fragment thereof), a bispecific antibody, a nanobody, an affibody, a viral protein, a chemokine, a cytokine, an antigen, a blood clotting factor, a hormone, a growth factor, an enzyme, a cell signaling protein, or any other polypeptide or protein.

[0029] These and other aspects and features of the present invention are set forth in the following detailed description and claims. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0030] The present invention can be more fully understood with reference to the following drawings.

[0031] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 depicts a schematic of genetic code expansion with unnatural amino acids (UAAs). [Figure 2A] FIG. 2A depicts a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for leucyl-tRNA synthetase. [Figure 2B] FIG. 2B depicts a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for leucyl-tRNA synthetase. [Figure 2C] FIG. 2C depicts a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for leucyl-tRNA synthetase. [Diagram 3] FIG. 3 shows a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase. [Figure 4A] FIG. 4A depicts the UAAs C5Az, LCA, and AzW. [Figure 4B] FIG. 4B depicts the synthetic route for C5Az. [Figure 4C] FIG. 4C depicts the synthetic route to AzW. [Figure 4D] FIG. 4D depicts the synthetic pathway of LCA. [Figure 4E] FIG. 4E depicts the synthetic pathway of LCA. [Figure 4F] FIG. 4F depicts the synthetic pathway of LCA. [Diagram 5] FIG. 5 depicts a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for tyrosyl-tRNA synthetases. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 depicts a subset of UAAs that are exemplary substrates for pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of the site-specific incorporation of two distinct unnatural amino acids (UAAs). [Figure 8] FIG. 8 shows a comparison of TGA stop codon suppression in mammalian cells of exemplary tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) pairs using a fluorescent reporter. [Figure 9A] Figures 9A-9B show the cross-reactivity of the tRNA-synthetase pairs tested: Figure 9A depicts a comparison of the TAG stop codon suppression of the LeuRS, EcTyrRS, PIRS, and EcTrpRS pairs in mammalian cells using a fluorescent reporter. [Figure 9B] Figures 9A-9B show the cross-reactivity of the tRNA-synthetase pairs tested, and Figure 9B depicts a comparison of the TGA stop codon suppression of the LeuRS, EcTyrRS, PyIRS, and EcTrpRS pairs in mammalian cells using a fluorescent reporter. [Figure 10A] 10A-10B show site-specific incorporation of two UAAs. Figure 10A is a bar graph showing the site-specific incorporation efficiency of an exemplary UAA pair using EGFP fluorescence as a reporter for incorporation. [Figure 10B] Figures 10A-10B show site-specific incorporation of two UAAs. Figure 10B is an SDS-PAGE gel showing production of an exemplary protein with two UAAs, using GFP protein production as a readout for site-specific incorporation. [Figure 11A]11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs: Figure 11A is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs HTP and BocK. [Figure 11B] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11B is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and OMeY. [Figure 11C] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11C is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and Cys-5-N3. [Figure 11D] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11D is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and BocK. [Figure 11E] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11E is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and cyclopropene-K. [Figure 11F] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11F is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs AzW and cyclopropene-K. [Figure 11G] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP proteins containing two UAAs, and Figure 11G is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and AzK. [Figure 11H]Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP protein containing two UAAs, and Figure 11H is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of fluorescent diazo-labeled EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and AzK. [Figure 11I] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP protein containing two UAAs. Figure 11I is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of DBCO-TAMRA labeled EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and AzK. [Figure 11J] Figures 11A-11J show electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) results of EGFP protein containing two UAAs, and Figure 11J is a histogram showing the mass spectrometry results of fluorescent diazo- and DBCO-TAMRA-labeled EGFP containing the exemplary UAAs 5HTP and AzK. [Figure 12A] FIG. 12A is an SDS-PAGE gel showing the production of fluorescently labeled EGFP with fluorescein. [Figure 12B] FIG. 12B is an SDS-PAGE gel showing the production of fluorescently labeled EGFP with TAMRA. [Figure 13A] Figures 13A-13B show protein yields of IgG containing two UAAs. Figure 13A is a bar graph showing total protein yield in mg / L for IgG with UAA incorporation at T202 (heavy chain) and K113 (light chain). [Figure 13B] Figures 13A-13B show protein yields of IgG containing two UAAs. Figure 13B is an SDS-PAGE gel of IgG with UAA incorporation at T202 and K113. [Figure 14A] Figures 14A-14B show ESI-MS results for EGFP protein containing two UAAs. Figure 14A is a histogram showing mass spectrometry results for PNGase-reduced IgG heavy chain (HC) containing an exemplary UAA HTP. [Figure 14B]Figures 14A-14B show ESI-MS results for EGFP protein containing two UAAs, and Figure 14B is a histogram showing mass spectrometry results for PNGase-reduced IgG light chain (LC) containing the exemplary UAA LCA. [Figure 15] FIG. 15 depicts conserved regions of IgG protein structure that are utilized for site-specific incorporation of multiple UAAs. [Figure 16] FIG. 16 depicts a schematic of an antibody containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling, for example, for mass spectrometry studies. [Figure 17A] 17A-17E show high performance liquid chromatography hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HPLC-HIC) traces of antibodies containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling. [Figure 17B] 17A-17E show high performance liquid chromatography hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HPLC-HIC) traces of antibodies containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling. [Figure 17C] 17A-17E show high performance liquid chromatography hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HPLC-HIC) traces of antibodies containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling. [Figure 17D] 17A-17E show high performance liquid chromatography hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HPLC-HIC) traces of antibodies containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling. [Figure 17E] 17A-17E show high performance liquid chromatography hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HPLC-HIC) traces of antibodies containing UAA HTP and LCA labeled with click chemistry and diazo coupling. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0032] The present invention is based, in part, on the discovery of combinations of nonsense codons, tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, and UAAs that allow for efficient site-specific incorporation of multiple different UAAs into proteins produced in mammalian cells. The selection of components that allow for successful and efficient incorporation of multiple UAAs into proteins is challenging, given that there are over 2 million possible combinations of different aaRSs, tRNAs, UAAs, codons, and pairwise combinations that can be used for such multi-site incorporation. As a result, it is difficult to find a specific combination of these elements that is suitable for use in site-specific incorporation of two separate bioconjugation handles.

[0033] In one aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second, different UAA (e.g., the first and second UAA are each incorporated into the protein at specific, distinct positions in the protein polypeptide chain), comprising: (i) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a first tRNA that hybridizes to a first codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and includes an anticodon capable of binding the first UAA, (ii) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a first aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that is capable of binding the first UAA to the first tRNA, (iii) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a second tRNA that hybridizes to a second codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and includes an anticodon capable of binding the second UAA, wherein the first and second tRNAs do not contain the same anticodon; (iv) a nucleic acid that includes a nucleotide sequence encoding a first tRNA that hybridizes to a first codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and includes an anticodon capable of binding the second UAA, wherein the first and second tRNAs do not contain the same anticodon; and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the first codon and the second codon, under conditions that allow the first tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the first UAA, to hybridize to the first codon and direct incorporation of the first UAA into the protein, and the second tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the second UAA, to hybridize to the second codon and direct incorporation of the second UAA into the protein.

[0034] In certain embodiments, the expression yield of the protein comprising the first and second UAAs expressed by a cell is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the expression yield of the reference protein. For example, in certain embodiments, the amount of the protein comprising the first and second UAAs expressed by a cell is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the amount of the reference protein expressed by the same or a similar cell. In certain embodiments, the reference protein is a protein that does not comprise the first and second UAAs but is otherwise identical to the protein comprising the first and second UAAs. For example, the reference protein may comprise a wild-type amino acid sequence or may comprise wild-type amino acid residues at the positions corresponding to the first and second UAAs. Protein expression may be measured by any method known in the art, including, for example, Western blot or ELISA. Expression may be measured by measuring protein concentration in a solution of a defined volume and purity after purification of the protein (e.g., by ultraviolet (UV) absorbance at 280 nm or Bradford assay). Expression of a fluorescent protein (e.g., a reporter protein) may be measured by fluorescence microscopy, as described in Examples 2-4 herein. In certain embodiments, the disclosed methods provide an expression yield of an EGFP reporter protein containing a first and a second UAA (e.g., an EGFP reporter protein encoded by a nucleotide sequence containing two stop codons, e.g., EGFP-39TAG-151TGA containing stop codons TAG and TGA, as described in Example 4) that is at least 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, or 90% of the expression yield of a corresponding EGFP reporter protein not containing the first and second UAA (e.g., a wild-type EGFP protein).

[0035] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein comprising a tryptophan analog and a leucine analog, comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon that hybridizes to a UGA codon and is capable of binding the tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon that hybridizes to a UAG codon and is capable of binding the leucine analog; and (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA synthetase capable of binding the leucine analog to the derivative of E. coli leucyl-tRNA. and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli leucyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the leucine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the leucine analog into the protein.

[0036] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for producing a protein comprising a tryptophan analog and a tyrosine analog, comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon that hybridizes to a UGA codon and is capable of binding the tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon that hybridizes to a UAG codon and is capable of binding the tyrosine analog; (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon that hybridizes to a UAG codon and is capable of binding the tyrosine analog; and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tyrosine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the tyrosine analog into the protein.

[0037] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing a protein comprising a tryptophan analog and a pyrrolysine analog, comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UGA codon and binding the tryptophan analog, (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase capable of binding the tryptophan analog to the derivative of E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of Methanosarcina barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UAG codon and binding the pyrrolysine analog, (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of Methanosarcina barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA comprising an anticodon capable of hybridizing to a UAG codon and binding the pyrrolysine analog, and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding a derivative of Methanosarcina barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA capable of binding the pyrrolysine analog to the derivative of Methanosarcina barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA. and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the UGA codon and the UAG codon, under conditions that allow the derivative of the E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the UGA codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan into the protein, and the derivative of the E. coli pyrrolysyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the pyrrolysine analog, to hybridize to the UAG codon and direct incorporation of the pyrrolysine analog into the protein.

[0038] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein comprising a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second UAA produced by any of the methods described above.

[0039] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog and a second UAA that is a leucine analog, hi certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the leucine analog is selected from LCA and Cys-5-N3.

[0040] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog and a second UAA that is a tyrosine analog, hi certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the tyrosine analog is selected from OmeY, AzF, and OpropY UAAs.

[0041] In another aspect, the invention provides a protein expressed in a mammalian cell that includes a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog and a second UAA that is a pyrrolysine analog, hi certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and / or the pyrrolysine analog is selected from BocK, CpK, AzK, and CpK.

[0042] In another aspect, the invention provides a composition comprising any of the above-mentioned proteins. In certain embodiments, the purity of the protein comprising the first and second UAA in the composition is at least 50% (i.e., the protein comprising the first and second UAA is at least 50% of the total protein in the composition). In certain embodiments, the purity of the protein in the composition is at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, or at least 99%. In certain embodiments, less than 50%, less than 40%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%, or less than 1% of the total protein in the composition is any protein that does not contain the first or second UAA but is otherwise identical to the protein comprising the first and second UAA.

[0043] As used herein, the term "orthogonal" refers to a molecule (e.g., an orthogonal tRNA or an orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase) that is used with low efficiency by an expression system of interest (e.g., an endogenous cellular translation system). For example, an orthogonal tRNA in a translation system of interest is aminoacylated by any endogenous aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase of the translation system of interest with reduced efficiency, or even zero efficiency, when compared to the aminoacylation of endogenous tRNA by the endogenous aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. In another example, an orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase aminoacylates any endogenous tRNA in a translation system of interest with reduced efficiency, or even zero efficiency, when compared to the aminoacylation of endogenous tRNA by the endogenous aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

[0044] Various features and aspects of the invention are discussed in further detail below.

[0045] I. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase The present invention relates to engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (or aaRSs) capable of attaching unnatural amino acids to tRNAs for incorporation into proteins. As used herein, the term "aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase" refers to any enzyme or functional fragment thereof that can attach or attach an amino acid (e.g., an unnatural amino acid) to a tRNA for incorporation into a protein. As used herein, the term "functional fragment" of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase refers to a fragment of a full-length aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase that retains, for example, at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or 100% of the enzymatic activity of the corresponding full-length tRNA synthetase (e.g., a naturally occurring tRNA synthetase). The enzymatic activity of an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may be assayed by any method known in the art. For example, in vitro aminoacylation assays are described in Hoben et al. (1985) METHODS ENZYMOL. 113:55-59 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003 / 0228593, and cell-based aminoacylation assays are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003 / 0082575 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2005 / 0009049. In certain embodiments, the functional fragment comprises at least 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, or 800 contiguous amino acids present in a full-length tRNA synthetase (e.g., a naturally occurring aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase).

[0046] The term aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase includes mutants (i.e., muteins) having one or more mutations (e.g., amino acid substitutions, deletions, or insertions) relative to a wild-type aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase sequence. In certain embodiments, an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase mutein may comprise, consist, or consist essentially of a single mutation (e.g., a mutation contemplated herein) or may comprise, consist, or consist essentially of a combination of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, or more than 15 mutations (e.g., mutations contemplated herein). It is contemplated that an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein may comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of 1-15, 1-10, 1-7, 1-6, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3, 1-2, 2-15, 2-10, 2-7, 2-6, 2-5, 2-4, 2-3, 3-15, 3-10, 3-7, 3-6, 3-5, or 4-10, 4-7, 4-6, 4-5, 5-10, 5-7, 5-6, 6-10, 6-7, 7-10, 7-8, or 8-10 mutations (e.g., mutations contemplated herein).

[0047] The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein may include conservative substitutions with respect to the wild-type sequence or the sequences disclosed herein. As used herein, the term "conservative substitution" refers to substitution with structurally similar amino acids. For example, conservative substitutions may include those in the following groups: Ser and Cys; Leu, Ile, and Val; Glu and Asp; Lys and Arg; Phe, Tyr, and Trp; and Gln, Asn, Glu, Asp, and His. Conservative substitutions may also be defined by the BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) algorithm, BLOSUM substitution matrix (e.g., BLOSUM 62 matrix), or PAM substitution:p matrix (e.g., PAM 250 matrix).

[0048] In certain embodiments, the substrate specificity of the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein is altered relative to the corresponding (or template) wild-type aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase such that only a desired unnatural amino acid, but not any of the 20 common amino acids, binds to the substrate tRNA.

[0049] The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may be derived from a bacterial source, such as Escherichia coli, Thermus thermophilus, or Bacillus stearothermphilus. The aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may also be derived from an archaeal source, for example, from the genera Methanosarcinacaea or Desulfitobacterium, any of the M. barkeri (Mb), M. alvus (Ma), M. mazei (Mm) or D. hafnisense (Dh) families, Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum, Haloferax volcanii, Halobacterium species NRC-1, or Archaeoglobus fulgidus. In other embodiments, eukaryotic sources, such as plants, algae, protists, fungi, yeast, or animals (e.g., mammals, insects, arthropods, etc.), can also be used. As used herein, the term "derivative" or "derived from" refers to a component that is isolated from or made using information from a specified molecule or organism. As used herein, the term "analog" refers to a component (e.g., a tRNA, a tRNA synthetase, or a non-natural amino acid) that is derived from or similar (in terms of structure and / or function) to a reference (reference) component (e.g., a wild-type tRNA, a wild-type tRNA synthetase, or a natural amino acid). In certain embodiments, a derivative or analog has at least 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100% or more of a given activity as the reference or source component (e.g., the wild-type component).

[0050] It is contemplated that the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may aminoacylate a substrate tRNA in vitro or in vivo and can be provided to a translation system (e.g., an in vitro translation system or a cell) as a polypeptide or protein, or as a polynucleotide encoding the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

[0051] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is derived from E. coli leucyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase preferentially aminoacylates E. coli leucyl-tRNA (or a variant thereof) with a leucine analog over the naturally occurring leucine amino acid.

[0052] For example, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise SEQ ID NO:1, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:1. In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises SEQ ID NO:1, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, and has one, two, three, four, five or more of the following mutations: (i) a substitution of a glutamine residue at a position corresponding to position 2 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with glutamic acid (Q2E); (ii) a substitution of a glutamic acid residue at a position corresponding to position 20 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with lysine (E20K), methionine (E20M), or valine (E20V); (iii) a substitution of a methionine residue at a position corresponding to position 40 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with isoleucine (M40I) or valine (M40V); (iv) a substitution of a leucine residue at a position corresponding to position 41 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with serine (L41S), valine (L41V), or alanine (L41A). (v) a substitution of a threonine residue at a position corresponding to position 252 of SEQ ID NO:1, for example with alanine (T252A) or arginine (T252R); (vi) a substitution of a tyrosine residue at a position corresponding to position 499 of SEQ ID NO:1, for example with isoleucine (Y499I), serine (Y499S), alanine (Y499A), or histidine (Y499H); (vii) a substitution of a tyrosine residue at a position corresponding to position 527 of SEQ ID NO:1, for example with alanine (Y527A), leucine (Y527L), isoleucine (Y527I), valine (Y527V), or glycine (Y527G); or (viii) a substitution of a histidine residue at a position corresponding to position 537 of SEQ ID NO:1, for example with glycine (H537G), or any combination of the above.

[0053] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises: (i) at least one substitution (e.g., a substitution with a hydrophobic amino acid) at a position corresponding to His537 of SEQ ID NO:1; (ii) at least one amino acid substitution selected from E20V, E20M, L41V, L41A, Y499H, Y499A, Y527I, Y527V, Y527G, and any combination thereof; (iii) at least one amino acid substitution selected from E20K and L41S, and any combination thereof, and at least one amino acid substitution selected from M40I, T252A, Y499I, and Y527A, and any combination thereof; or (iv) a combination of two or more of (i), (ii), and (iii), such as (i) and (ii), (i) and (iii), (ii) and (iii), and (i), (ii) and (iii).

[0054] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a substitution of a glutamic acid residue at a position corresponding to position 20 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with an amino acid other than Glu or Lys, e.g., with a hydrophobic amino acid (e.g., Leu, Val, or Met). In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a substitution of a leucine residue at a position corresponding to position 41 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with an amino acid other than Leu or Ser, e.g., with a hydrophobic amino acid other than Leu (e.g., Gly, Ala, Val, or Met). In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a substitution of a tyrosine residue at a position corresponding to position 499 of SEQ ID NO:1, e.g., with a small hydrophobic amino acid (e.g., Gly, Ala, or Val) or with a positively charged amino acid (e.g., Lys, Arg, or His). In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a substitution of a tyrosine residue at a position corresponding to position 527 of SEQ ID NO: 1, e.g., with a hydrophobic amino acid other than Ala or Leu (e.g., Gly, Ile, Met, or Val). In certain embodiments, the tRNA synthetase mutant protein comprises L41V.

[0055] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a combination of mutations selected from: (i) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (ii) Q2E, E20K, M40V, L41S, T252R, Y499S, Y527L, and H537G; (iii) Q2E, M40I, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (iv) Q2E, E20M, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (v) Q2E, E20V, M (vi) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (vii) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41A, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (viii) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499A, Y527A, and H537G; (ix) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499H, Y527A, and H537G; (x) Q2E, E20K, M40I , L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527I, and H537G; (xi) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527V, and H537G; (xii) Q2E, E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527G, and H537G; (xiii) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (xiv) E20M, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G; (xv) E20V, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y 499I, Y527A, and H537G;(xvi) E20K, M40I, L41V, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G;(vii) E20K, M40I, L41A, T252A, Y499I, Y527A, and H537G;(xviii) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499A, Y527A, and H537G;(xix) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499H, Y527A, and H537G;(xx) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527I, and H537G;(xxi) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527V, and H537G; and (xxii) E20K, M40I, L41S, T252A, Y499I, Y527G, and H537G.

[0056] In a specific embodiment, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2 to 13, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2 to 13.

[0057] In a specific embodiment, the tRNA synthetase mutant protein has X2 being Q or E, and X 20 is E, K, V or M, and X 40 is M, I or V, and X 41 is L, S, V or A, and X 252 is T, A or R, and X 499 is Y, A, I, H or S, and X 527 is Y, A, I, L, or V, and X 537 is H or G, and the tRNA synthetase mutant protein comprises at least one mutation (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or more mutations) compared to SEQ ID NO: 1. In certain embodiments, the tRNA synthetase mutant protein comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14, wherein X is H or G. 20 is K, V or M, and X 41 is S, V or A, and X 499 is A, I or H, and X 527 is A, I or V, and the tRNA synthetase mutant protein comprises at least one mutation compared to SEQ ID NO:1.

[0058] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is derived from E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase preferentially aminoacylates E. coli tryptophanyl-tRNA (or a variant thereof) with a tryptophan analog over the naturally occurring tryptophan amino acid.

[0059] For example, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise SEQ ID NO: 44, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 44. In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises SEQ ID NO: 44, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, but with one or more of the following mutations: (i) a substitution of a serine residue at a position corresponding to position 8 of SEQ ID NO: 44, such as with an alanine (S8A); (ii) a substitution of a valine residue at a position corresponding to position 144 of SEQ ID NO: 44, such as with a serine (V144S), glycine (V144G), or alanine (V144A); (iii) a substitution of a valine residue at a position corresponding to position 146 of SEQ ID NO: 44, such as with an alanine (V146A), isoleucine (V146I), or cysteine ​​(V146C). In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises a combination of mutations selected from: (i) S8A, V144S, and V146A, (ii) S8A, V144G, and V146I, (iii) S8A, V144A, and V146A, and (iv) S8A, V144G, and V146C.

[0060] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase comprises an amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 45-48, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 45-48.

[0061] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is derived from E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase preferentially aminoacylates E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA (or a variant thereof) with a tyrosine analog over the naturally occurring tryptophan amino acid. For example, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise SEQ ID NO: 70, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 70, or a functional fragment or variant thereof.

[0062] In certain embodiments, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is derived from M. barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase preferentially aminoacylates M. barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA (or a variant thereof) with a pyrrolysine analog over the naturally occurring pyrrolysine amino acid. For example, the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may comprise SEQ ID NO: 101, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 101, or a functional fragment or variant thereof.

[0063] Sequence identity may be determined in a variety of ways within the skill of the art, for example using publicly available computer software such as BLAST, BLAST-2, ALIGN or Megalign (DNASTAR) software. BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) analysis, using the algorithm employed by the programs blastp, blastn, blastx, tblastn and tblastx (Karlin et al., (1990) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. USA 87:2264-2268; Altschul, (1993) J. MOL. EVOL. 36:290-300; Altschul et al., (1997) NUCLEIC ACIDS RES. 25:3389-3402, which are incorporated herein by reference), is tailored for sequence similarity searches. For a discussion of basic issues in searching sequence databases, see Altschul et al. (1994) NATURE GENETICS 6:119-129, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Those skilled in the art can determine appropriate parameters for measuring alignment, including any algorithms necessary to achieve maximal alignment over the full length of the sequences being compared. The search parameters of histogram, description, alignment, expectation (i.e., the statistical significance threshold for reporting matches against database sequences), cutoff, matrix and filter are at default settings. The default scoring matrix used by blastp, blastx, tblastn, and tblastx is the BLOSUM62 matrix (Henikoff et al. (1992) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. USA 89:10915-10919, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). The four blastn parameters may be adjusted as follows: Q=10 (gap creation penalty); R=10 (gap extension penalty); wink=1 (wink along the query) thBLAST Advanced Searches may also be performed using Option parameters (e.g.: -G, cost for opening a gap [integer]: default = 5 for nucleotides / 11 for proteins; -E, cost for extending a gap [integer]: default = 2 for nucleotides / 1 for proteins; -q, penalty for nucleotide mismatch [integer]: default = -3; -r, reward for nucleotide match [integer]: default = 1; -e, expectation value [real]: default = 10; -W, word size [integer]: default = 11 for nucleotides / 28 for megablast / 3 for proteins; -y, dropoff for blast extension in bits (X): default = 20 for blastn / 7 for others; -X, X dropoff value (in bits) for gapped alignments: default = 15 for all programs, not applicable for blastn; and -Z, final X dropoff value (in bits) for gapped alignments: 50 for blastn, 25 for others). ClustalW for pairwise protein alignments may also be used (default parameters may include, for example, Blosum62 matrix and Gap Opening Penalty=10 and Gap Extension Penalty=0.1). Bestfit comparison between sequences available in the GCG package version 10.0 uses DNA parameters GAP=50 (gap creation penalty) and LEN=3 (gap extension penalty). Equivalent settings in Bestfit protein comparisons are GAP=8 and LEN=2.

[0064] Methods for producing proteins, such as aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, are known in the art. For example, DNA molecules encoding proteins of interest can be synthesized chemically or by recombinant DNA methods. The resulting DNA molecules encoding proteins of interest can be ligated to other appropriate nucleotide sequences, including, for example, expression control sequences, to produce conventional gene expression constructs (i.e., expression vectors) encoding the desired proteins. The production of well-defined gene constructs is within the routine skill of the art.

[0065] A nucleic acid encoding a desired protein (e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase) can be incorporated (ligated) into an expression vector, which can be introduced into a host cell by conventional transfection or transformation techniques. Exemplary host cells are E. coli cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, HeLa cells, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells, monkey kidney cells (COS), human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (e.g., Hep G2), and myeloma cells. The transformed host cells can be grown under conditions that allow the host cells to express the desired protein.

[0066] Specific expression and purification conditions vary depending on the expression system used. For example, if the gene is expressed in E. coli, the gene is first cloned into an expression vector by placing the engineered gene downstream of a suitable bacterial promoter (e.g., Trp or Tac) and a prokaryotic signal sequence. The expressed protein may be secreted. The expressed protein may accumulate in refractile or inclusion bodies, which can be collected after disruption of cells by French press or sonication. The refractile bodies are then solubilized, and the protein may be refolded and / or cleaved by methods known in the art.

[0067] When the engineered gene is expressed in a eukaryotic host cell, such as a CHO cell, the gene is first inserted into an expression vector containing a suitable eukaryotic promoter, secretion signal, polyA sequence, and a stop codon. Optionally, the vector or gene construct may contain enhancers and introns. This gene construct can be introduced into the eukaryotic host cell using conventional techniques.

[0068] A protein of interest (e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase) can be produced by growing (culturing) a host cell transfected with an expression vector encoding the protein under conditions that allow expression of such protein. After expression, the protein can be recovered and purified or isolated using techniques known in the art, for example, an affinity tag, such as a glutathione-S-transferase (GST) tag or a histidine tag.

[0069] Additional methods for generating aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and for altering the substrate specificity of these synthetases can be found in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2003 / 0108885 and 2005 / 0009049, Hamano-Takaku et al. (2000) JOURNAL OF BIOL.CHEM. 275(51):40324-40328, Kiga et al. (2002) PROC.NATL.ACAD.SCI.USA 99(15):9715-9723, and Francklyn et al. (2002) RNA, 8:1363-1372.

[0070] The present invention also encompasses nucleic acids encoding the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase disclosed herein. For example, the nucleotide sequences encoding the leucyl-tRNA synthetase mutant proteins disclosed herein are shown in SEQ ID NOs: 55 to 67. Thus, the present invention provides nucleic acids comprising any one of the nucleotide sequences of SEQ ID NOs: 55 to 67, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOs: 55 to 67. The present invention also provides nucleic acids comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence encoded by any one of SEQ ID NOs: 55 to 67, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence encoding an amino acid sequence encoded by any one of SEQ ID NOs: 55 to 67.

[0071] The nucleotide sequence encoding the tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase disclosed herein is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 103. Thus, the present invention provides a nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 103, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 103. The present invention also provides a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 103, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to the nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 103.

[0072] A nucleotide sequence encoding the tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase disclosed herein is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 71. Thus, the present invention provides a nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 71, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 71. The present invention also provides a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 71, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to the nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 71.

[0073] The nucleotide sequence encoding the pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase disclosed herein is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 102. Thus, the present invention provides a nucleic acid comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 102, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 102. The present invention also provides a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 102, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to the nucleotide sequence encoding the amino acid sequence encoded by SEQ ID NO: 102.

[0074] II. tRNA The present invention relates to transfer RNAs (tRNAs) that mediate the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into proteins.

[0075] During protein synthesis, tRNA molecules deliver amino acids to ribosomes for incorporation into a growing protein (polypeptide) chain. tRNAs are typically around 70-100 nucleotides in length. Active tRNAs contain a 3'CCA sequence that may be transcribed into the tRNA during its synthesis or added later during post-transcriptional processing. During aminoacylation, an amino acid bound to a given tRNA molecule is covalently linked to the 2' or 3' hydroxyl group of the 3'-terminal ribose to form an aminoacyl-tRNA (aa-tRNA). Although amino acids can spontaneously transfer from the 2'-hydroxyl group to the 3'-hydroxyl group and vice versa, it is understood that they are incorporated into the growing protein chain at the ribosome from the 3'-OH position. The loop at the other end of the folded aa-tRNA molecule contains a three-base sequence known as the anticodon. When this anticodon sequence hybridizes or base pairs with a complementary three-base codon sequence in the ribosome-bound mRNA, the aa-tRNA binds to the ribosome and that amino acid is incorporated into the polypeptide chain being synthesized by the ribosome. Translation of the genetic code is carried out by tRNAs, since every tRNA that base pairs with a particular codon is aminoacylated with a single specific amino acid. Each of the 61 non-terminating codons in the mRNA directs the binding of its cognate aa-tRNA and the addition of a single specific amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain being synthesized by the ribosome. The term "cognate" refers to components that function together, e.g., tRNA and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

[0076] Suppressor tRNAs are modified tRNAs that alter the reading of mRNA in a given translation system. For example, suppressor tRNAs may read through codons such as stop codons, four-base codons, or rare codons. The use of the word suppressor is based on the fact that, under certain circumstances, the modified tRNA "suppresses" the typical phenotypic effect of a codon in an mRNA. Suppressor tRNAs typically contain a mutation (modification) either in the anticodon that alters the codon specificity, or in a position that alters the aminoacylation properties (identity) of the tRNA. The term "suppressor activity" refers to the ability of a tRNA, such as a suppressor tRNA, to read a codon that is not read by the endogenous translation machinery in the system of interest (e.g., a premature stop codon).

[0077] In certain embodiments, a tRNA (eg, a suppressor tRNA) contains a modified anticodon region, where the modified anticodon hybridizes to a codon that differs from the corresponding naturally occurring anticodon.

[0078] In certain embodiments, the tRNA comprises an anticodon that hybridizes to a codon selected from UAG (i.e., the "amber" stop codon), UGA (i.e., the "opal" stop codon), and UAA (i.e., the "ochre" stop codon).

[0079] In certain embodiments, the tRNA comprises an anticodon that hybridizes to a non-standard codon, such as a four-nucleotide codon or a five-nucleotide codon. Examples of four-base codons include AGGA, CUAG, UAGA, and CCCU. Examples of five-base codons include AGGAC, CCCCU, CCCUC, CUAGA, CUACU, and UAGGC. tRNAs that include anticodons that hybridize to non-standard codons, such as 4-nucleotide or 5-nucleotide codons, and methods for incorporating unnatural amino acids into proteins using such tRNAs are described, for example, in Moore et al. (2000) J.MOL.BIOL. 298:195; Hohsaka et al. (1999) J.AM.CHEM.SOC. 121:12194; Anderson et al. (2002) CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 9:237-244; Magliery (2001) J.MOL.BIOL. 307:755-769; and WO 2005 / 007870.

[0080] As used herein, the term "tRNA" includes variants having one or more mutations (e.g., nucleotide substitutions, deletions, or insertions) compared to a reference (e.g., wild-type) tRNA sequence. In certain embodiments, a tRNA may comprise, consist, or consist essentially of a single mutation (e.g., a mutation contemplated herein) or may comprise, consist, or consist essentially of a combination of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, or more than 15 mutations (e.g., mutations contemplated herein). It is contemplated that the tRNA may comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of 1-15, 1-10, 1-7, 1-6, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3, 1-2, 2-15, 2-10, 2-7, 2-6, 2-5, 2-4, 2-3, 3-15, 3-10, 3-7, 3-6, 3-5, or 3-4 mutations (e.g., mutations contemplated herein).

[0081] In certain embodiments, the mutant suppressor tRNA has increased activity to incorporate an unnatural amino acid (e.g., an unnatural amino acid contemplated herein) into a mammalian protein as compared to a corresponding wild-type suppressor tRNA (in this context, wild-type suppressor tRNA refers to a suppressor tRNA that corresponds to the wild-type tRNA molecule except for any modifications to the anticodon region to confer suppression activity). The activity of the mutant suppressor tRNA is, for example, about 2.5 to about 200 times, about 2.5 to about 150 times, about 2.5 to about 100 times, about 2.5 to about 80 times, about 2.5 to about 60 times, about 2.5 to about 40 times, about 2.5 to about 20 times, about 2.5 to about 10 times, about 2.5 to about 5 times, about 5 to about 200 times, about 5 to about 150 times, about 5 to about 100 times, about 5 to about 80 times, about 5 to about 60 times, about 5 to about 40 times, about 5 to about 20 times, about 5 to about 10 times, about 10 to about 200 times, about 10 to about 150 times, about 10 to about 100 times, about 10 to about 80 times, about 1 The increase may be 0 to about 60 times, about 10 to about 40 times, about 10 to about 20 times, about 20 to about 200 times, about 20 to about 150 times, about 20 to about 100 times, about 20 to about 80 times, about 20 to about 60 times, about 20 to about 40 times, about 40 to about 200 times, about 40 to about 150 times, about 40 to about 100 times, about 40 to about 80 times, about 40 to about 60 times, about 60 to about 200 times, about 60 to about 150 times, about 60 to about 100 times, about 60 to about 80 times, about 80 to about 200 times, about 80 to about 150 times, about 80 to about 100 times, about 100 to about 200 times, about 100 to about 150 times, or about 150 to about 200 times.

[0082] It is contemplated that the tRNAs may function in vitro or in vivo and can be provided to a translation system (e.g., an in vitro translation system or a cell) either as a mature tRNA (e.g., an aminoacylated tRNA) or as a polynucleotide encoding the tRNA.

[0083] The tRNA may be derived from a bacterial source, such as Escherichia coli, Thermus thermophilus, or Bacillus stearothermophilus. The tRNA may also be derived from an archaeal source, such as Methanosarcinae or Desulfitobacterium, any of the M. barkeri (Mb), M. albus (Ma), M. mazei (Mm), or D. hafniens (Dh) families, Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum, Haloferax volcanii, Halobacterium species NRC-1, or Archaeoglobus fulgidus. In other embodiments, eukaryotic sources, such as plants, algae, protists, fungi, yeast, or animals (e.g., mammals, insects, arthropods, etc.), may also be used.

[0084] In certain embodiments, the tRNA is derived from E. coli leucyl-tRNA, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase derived from E. coli leucyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase contemplated herein, preferentially binds a leucine analog over the naturally occurring leucine amino acid.

[0085] For example, the tRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of the nucleotide sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 16 to 43, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 16 to 43.

[0086] In certain embodiments, the tRNA is derived from an E. coli tryptophanyl tRNA, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase derived from an E. coli tryptophanyl tRNA synthetase, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase contemplated herein, preferentially binds a tryptophan analog over the naturally occurring tryptophan amino acid.

[0087] For example, the tRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of the nucleotide sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 49 to 54 or 108 to 113, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 49 to 54 or 108 to 113.

[0088] In certain embodiments, the tRNA is derived from an E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase derived from an E. coli tyrosyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase contemplated herein, preferentially binds a tyrosine analog over the naturally occurring tyrosine amino acid.

[0089] For example, the tRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of the nucleotide sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 68 to 69 or 104 to 105, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 68 to 69 or 104 to 105.

[0090] In certain embodiments, the tRNA is derived from an M. barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase derived from an M. barkeri pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase, e.g., an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase contemplated herein, preferentially binds a pyrrolysine analog over the naturally occurring pyrrolysine amino acid.

[0091] For example, the tRNA may comprise, consist essentially of, or consist of the nucleotide sequence of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 100 or 106 to 107, or a nucleotide sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 72 to 100 or 106 to 107.

[0092] It is understood that throughout the specification, in each case where a tRNA comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a nucleotide sequence containing one or more thymines (T), a tRNA that comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of the same nucleotide sequence containing uracil (U) in place of one or more thymines (T), or uracil (U) in place of all thymines (T), is also contemplated. Similarly, in each case where a tRNA comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a nucleotide sequence containing uracil (U) in place of one or more uracils (U), a tRNA that comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a nucleotide sequence containing thymine (T) in place of one or more uracils (U), or thymine (T) in place of all uracils (U) is also contemplated. In addition, further modifications to the bases may be present.

[0093] Methods for producing recombinant tRNAs are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2003 / 0108885 and 2005 / 0009049, Forster et al. (2003) PROC.NATL.ACAD.SCI.USA 100(11):6353-6357, and Feng et al. (2003) PROC.NATL.ACAD.SCI.USA 100(10):5676-5681.

[0094] The tRNA may be aminoacylated (i.e., may have a desired unnatural amino acid attached) with a desired unnatural amino acid (UAA) by any method, including enzymatic or chemical methods.

[0095] Enzyme molecules that can be bound to tRNA include aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, such as the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases disclosed herein. Additional enzyme molecules that can be bound to tRNA include, for example, ribozymes described in Illangakekare et al. (1995) SCIENCE 267:643-647, Lohse et al. (1996) NATURE 381:442-444, Murakami et al. (2003) CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 10:1077-1084, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003 / 0228593.

[0096] Chemical aminoacylation methods include those described in Hecht (1992) ACC.CHEM.RES. 25:545, Heckler et al. (1988) BIOCHEM. 1988, 27:7254, Hecht et al. (1978) J.BIOL.CHEM. 253:4517, Cornish et al. (1995) ANGEW.CHEM.INT.ED.ENGL. 34:621, Robertson et al. (1991) J.AM.CHEM.SOC. 113:2722, Noren et al. (1989) SCIENCE 244:182, Bain et al. (1989) J.AM.CHEM.SOC. 111:8013, Bain et al. (1992) NATURE 356:537, and Gallivan et al. (1997) CHEM.BIOL. 4:740, Turcatti et al. (1996) J.BIOL.CHEM. 271:19991, Nowak et al. (1995) SCIENCE 268:439, Saks et al. (1996) J.BIOL.CHEM. 271:23169, and Hohsaka et al. (1999) J.AM.CHEM.SOC. 121:34.

[0097] III. Unnatural Amino Acids (UAA) The present invention relates to unnatural amino acids (UAA) and their incorporation into proteins.

[0098] As used herein, unnatural amino acid refers to any amino acid, modified amino acid, or amino acid analog other than the 20 genetically encoded α-amino acids: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine. For structures of the 20 natural amino acids, see, e.g., Biochemistry by L. Stryer, 3rd ed., 1988, Freeman and Company, New York. The term unnatural amino acid also includes amino acids that arise by modification (e.g., post-translational modification) of natural amino acids but are not naturally incorporated into a growing polypeptide chain by the translation complex.

[0099] Unnatural amino acids typically differ from natural amino acids only in the structure of the side chain, so that unnatural amino acids may form amide bonds with other amino acids, for example, in the same manner as they do in naturally occurring proteins. Unnatural amino acids, however, have side chain groups that distinguish them from natural amino acids. For example, the side chain may include alkyl-, aryl-, acyl-, keto-, azido-, hydroxyl-, hydrazine, cyano-, halo-, hydrazide, alkenyl, alkyl, ether, thiol, seleno-, sulfonyl-, borate, boronate, phospho, phosphono, phosphine, heterocyclic, enone, imine, aldehyde, ester, thioacid, hydroxylamine, amine, etc., or any combination thereof. Other unnatural amino acids include, but are not limited to, amino acids comprising photoactivatable crosslinkers, spin-labeled amino acids, fluorescent amino acids, metal-binding amino acids, metal-containing amino acids, radioactive amino acids, amino acids with novel functional groups, amino acids that interact covalently or non-covalently with other molecules, photocaged and / or photoisomerizable amino acids, amino acids comprising biotin or a biotin analogue, glycosylated amino acids such as sugar-substituted serines, other carbohydrate-modified amino acids, keto-containing amino acids, amino acids comprising polyethylene glycol or polyethers, heavy atom substituted amino acids, chemically cleavable and / or photocleavable amino acids, amino acids with extended side chains compared to natural amino acids, including but not limited to polyethers or long chain hydrocarbons, including but not limited to greater than about 5 or greater than about 10 carbons, carbon-linked sugar-containing amino acids, redox-active amino acids, aminothioacid-containing amino acids, and amino acids comprising one or more toxic moieties.

[0100] In addition to unnatural amino acids containing novel side chains, unnatural amino acids also optionally include modified backbone structures.

[0101] Many unnatural amino acids are based on natural amino acids such as tyrosine, glutamine, phenylalanine, etc. Tyrosine analogs include para-substituted tyrosines, ortho-substituted tyrosines, and meta-substituted tyrosines, which may be substituted with keto groups (including but not limited to acetyl groups), benzoyl groups, amino groups, hydrazines, hydroxylamine, thiol groups, carboxy groups, isopropyl groups, methyl groups, C6-C 20 straight chain or branched hydrocarbons, saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbon groups, O-methyl groups, polyether groups, nitro groups, and the like. In addition, polysubstituted aryl rings are also contemplated. Glutamine analogs include, but are not limited to, α-hydroxy derivatives, γ-substituted derivatives, cyclic derivatives, and amide substituted glutamine derivatives. Exemplary phenylalanine analogs include, but are not limited to, para-substituted phenylalanines, ortho-substituted phenylalanines, and meta-substituted phenylalanines, where the substituents include hydroxy, methoxy, methyl, allyl, aldehyde, azido, iodo, bromo, keto groups (including, but not limited to, acetyl groups), and the like. Specific examples of unnatural amino acids include, but are not limited to, p-acetyl-L-phenylalanine, p-propargyl-phenylalanine, O-methyl-L-tyrosine, L-3-(2-naphthyl)alanine, 3-methyl-phenylalanine, O-4-allyl-L-tyrosine, 4-propyl-L-tyrosine, tri-O-acetyl-GlcNAcβ-serine, L-Dopa, fluorinated phenylalanine, isopropyl-L-phenylalanine, p-azido-L-phenylalanine, p-acyl-L-phenylalanine, p-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine, L-phosphoserine (phosphorylated serine), phosphonoserine, phosphonotyrosine, p-iodo-phenylalanine, p-bromophenylalanine, p-amino-L-phenylalanine, isopropyl-L-phenylalanine, and p-propargyloxy-phenylalanine.

[0102] Examples of structures of various unnatural amino acids are provided in US Patent Application Publication Nos. 2003 / 0082575 and 2003 / 0108885, WO 2002 / 085923, and Kiick et al. (2002) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. USA 99:19-24.

[0103] In certain embodiments, the unnatural amino acid (UAA) comprises a bioconjugation handle. In certain embodiments, the methods disclosed herein may be used to site-specifically incorporate two different UAAs, each with a different bioconjugation handle, into a single protein. In certain embodiments, the two bioconjugation handles can be selected such that each can be chemoselectively conjugated to two different labels using mutually orthogonal conjugation chemistries. Such bioconjugation handle pairs include, for example, the following: azide and alkyne, azide and ketone / aldehyde, azide and cyclopropene, ketone / aldehyde and cyclopropene, 5-hydroxyindole and azide, 5-hydroxyindole and cyclopropene, and 5-hydroxyindole and ketone / aldehyde.

[0104] Unnatural amino acids in polypeptides can be used in conjunction with any of a variety of compounds, including but not limited to, labels, dyes, polymers, water soluble polymers, stabilizers (e.g., derivatives of polyethylene glycol, photoactivatable crosslinkers, radionuclides, cytotoxic compounds, drugs, affinity labels, photoaffinity labels, reactive compounds, resins, second proteins or polypeptides or polypeptide analogs, antibodies or antibody fragments, metal chelators, cofactors, fatty acids, carbohydrates, polynucleotides, DNA, RNA, antisense polynucleotides, sugars, water soluble dendrimers, cyclodextrins, inhibitory ribonucleic acids (e.g., small interfering RNA (siRNA)), small nuclear RNA (small nuclear RNA, snRNA), or non-coding RNA), biomaterials, nanoparticles, spin labels, fluorophores (fluorescent dyes), metal-containing moieties, radioactive moieties, novel functional groups, groups that interact covalently or noncovalently with other molecules, photocaged moieties, actinic radiation-activated ligands, and the like. In some embodiments, the polypeptide may be used to attach another molecule to the polypeptide, including, but not limited to, a photoisomerizable moiety, a photoisomerizable moiety, biotin, a derivative of biotin, a biotin analog, a moiety incorporating a heavy atom, a chemically cleavable group, a photocleavable group, an extended side chain, a carbon-linked sugar, a redox-active agent, an aminothioacid, a toxic moiety, an isotopically labeled moiety, a biophysical or biochemical probe (e.g., a PET probe, a fluorescent probe or an EPR probe), a phosphorescent group, a chemiluminescent group, an electron-dense group, a magnetic group, an intercalating group, a chromophore, an energy transfer agent, a bioactive agent, a detectable label (e.g., for analysis of uptake in living versus non-living cells), a small molecule, a quantum dot, a nanotransmitter, an immunomodulatory molecule, a targeting agent, a lipid-based structure (e.g., a lipid-based nanoparticle), a microsphere, or any combination of the above.

[0105] Any suitable unnatural amino acid can be used with the methods described herein for incorporation into a protein of interest.

[0106] The unnatural amino acid may be a leucine analog (also referred to herein as a derivative). In certain embodiments, the leucine analog is a non-naturally occurring leucine analog. The present invention provides a leucine analog as depicted in FIG. 2A, or a composition comprising the leucine analog. For example, formula A in FIG. 2A depicts an amino acid analog containing a side chain comprising a carbon-containing chain of n units (0-20 units) in length. An O, S, CH2, or NH is present at the X position, which can be followed by another carbon-containing chain of n units (0-20 units) in length. A functional group Y is attached to the terminal carbon of the second carbon-containing chain (e.g., functional groups 1-12 depicted in FIG. 2A, where R represents a linking moiety to the terminal carbon atom of the second carbon-containing side chain). In one example, these functional groups can be used for bioconjugation of any suitable ligand to any protein of interest that is amenable to site-specific UAA incorporation. Formula B in FIG. 2A depicts similar amino acid analogs containing side chains shown as either Z-Y2 or Z-Y3 attached to a second or first carbon-containing chain, respectively. Z represents a carbon chain containing (CH2)n units, where n is any integer from 0 to 20. Y2 or Y3 can independently be the same or different groups as Y1. The present invention also provides a leucine analog (LCA, LKET, or ACA) shown in FIG. 2B, or a composition comprising a leucine analog shown in FIG. 2B. Further exemplary leucine analogs include linear alkyl halides and linear aliphatic chains containing functional groups, e.g., alkyne, azide, cyclopropene, alkene, ketone, aldehyde, diazirine, or tetrazine functional groups, as well as those selected from structures 1-6 shown in FIG. 2C. However, it is contemplated that the amino group and carboxylate group both attached to the first carbon of any amino acid shown in Figures 2A-2C will form part of a peptide bond when the leucine analog is incorporated into a protein or polypeptide chain.

[0107] In addition, the leucine analogs shown in FIG. 4A, designated C5AzMe and LCA, can be used in the practice of the invention.

[0108] C5AzMe (compound 5 shown in FIG. 4B) can be prepared in a similar manner to the synthesis outlined in FIG. 4B. Compound 5 can be obtained, for example, by deprotection of compound 4. Deprotection of compound 4 involves removal of a protecting group (e.g., Boc). Conditions for deprotection can include, but are not limited to, HCl in DCM. Compound 4 can be prepared, for example, by deprotection of compound 4 with a suitable nucleophile (e.g., N3 - ) can be generated via nucleophilic displacement of compound 3 when exposed to NaN3 in DMF at 80° C. Exemplary conditions for nucleophilic displacement include, but are not limited to, NaN3 in DMF at 80° C. Compound 3 can be prepared, for example, via nucleophilic addition of compound 1 to compound 2. Exemplary conditions for nucleophilic addition include, but are not limited to, K2CO3 at 0° C. to RT. Furthermore, if desired, the ester of compound 5 can be removed by exposure to mild aqueous basic conditions to generate the carboxylic acid form of the UAA.

[0109] LCA (compound 21 shown in FIG. 4F) can be prepared in a similar manner to the synthesis outlined in FIG. 4F. Compound 21 can be prepared, for example, from compound 20 by exposing compound 20 to a suitable acid, for example, but not limited to, 4M HCl in dioxane. Compound 20 can be generated by hydrolysis of imine 19. Hydrolysis of imine 19 can be accomplished, for example, with 1M HCl (aq) in THF. Compound 19 can be condensed, for example, with a suitable nucleophile (e.g., N3 - ) can be generated via nucleophilic displacement of compound 18 when exposed to NaN3 in DMF. Exemplary conditions for nucleophilic displacement include, but are not limited to, NaN3 in DMF. Compound 18 can be prepared by nucleophilic addition of the enolate of compound 16 to compound 17. Suitable conditions for achieving the synthesis of compounds from compounds 16 and 17 include, but are not limited to, tetrabutylammonium hydrogen sulfate (TBAHS) and 10% NaOH in DCM. Further methods for the synthesis of LCA are shown in Figures 4D and 4E.

[0110] In certain embodiments, the unnatural amino acid is a tryptophan analog (also referred to herein as a derivative). In certain embodiments, the tryptophan analog is a non-naturally occurring tryptophan analog. Exemplary tryptophan analogs include 5-azidotryptophan, 5-propargyloxytryptophan, 5-aminotryptophan, 5-methoxytryptophan, 5-O-allyltryptophan, or 5-bromotryptophan. Further exemplary tryptophan analogs are depicted in Figure 3. However, it is contemplated that the amino and carboxylate groups both attached to the first carbon of the tryptophan analog of Figure 3 constitute part of a peptide bond when the tryptophan analog is incorporated into a protein or polypeptide chain.

[0111] In addition, a tryptophan analog shown in FIG. 4A, designated AzW, can be used in the practice of the invention.

[0112] AzW (compound 15 shown in FIG. 4C) can be prepared in a similar manner to the synthesis outlined in FIG. 4C. Compound 15 can be prepared, for example, from its hydrochloride salt 14 under basic conditions. Exemplary basic conditions include, but are not limited to, KOtBu in THF. Hydrochloride salt 14 can be prepared, for example, by saponification of compound 13 followed by deprotection. Conditions for saponification and deprotection of protecting groups (e.g., Boc) are known to those of skill in the art. For example, saponification can be accomplished using 1M NaOH in MeOH. In certain embodiments, conditions for deprotection include, but are not limited to, HCl (aq). Compound 13 can be synthesized, for example, by metal-mediated coupling of compound 12 with a suitable azide source. Compound 13 can be made, for example, from compound 12 using NaN3, Cu(OAc)2 in MeOH. Compound 12 can be prepared, for example, from compound 11 by metal-catalyzed borylation of compound 11. Exemplary conditions for metal-catalyzed borylation include, but are not limited to, B2pin2, PdCl2·dppf, and KOAc in 1,4-dioxane. Compound 11 can be prepared, for example, via protection of compound 10 with a suitable protecting group (e.g., Boc). Protection of compound 10 can be achieved using Boc2O, Et3N, and DMAP in CHCl2. Compound 10 can be synthesized, for example, from compound 9 under conditions suitable for reducing the oxime, for example, using Zn in AcOH. Compound 9 can be synthesized, for example, via nucleophilic addition of indole 8 to compound 7. Narcoleptic addition of compound 8 to compound 7 can occur in the presence of Na2CO3 in CHCl2. Compound 7 can be prepared, for example, by exposing compound 6 to hydroxylamine hydrochloride in methanol.

[0113] In certain embodiments, the unnatural amino acid is a tyrosine analog (also referred to herein as a derivative). In certain embodiments, the tyrosine analog is a non-naturally occurring tyrosine analog. Exemplary tyrosine analogs include o-methyltyrosine (OmeY), p-azidophenylalanine (AzF), o-propargyltyrosine (OpropY or PrY), and p-acetylphenylalanine (AcF). Exemplary tryptophan analogs are depicted in FIG. 5.

[0114] In certain embodiments, the unnatural amino acid is a pyrrolysine analog (also referred to herein as a derivative). In certain embodiments, the pyrrolysine analog is a non-naturally occurring pyrrolysine analog. Exemplary pyrrolysine analogs include aminocaprylic acid (Cap), H-Lys(Boc)-OH (Boc-lysine, BocK), azidolysine (AzK), H-propargyl-lysine (hPrK), and cyclopropene lysine (CpK). Exemplary pyrrolysine analogs are depicted in FIG. 6.

[0115] Many unnatural amino acids are commercially available, for example from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), Novabiochem (Darmstadt, Germany), or Peptech (Burlington, MA, USA). Those that are not commercially available can be synthesized using standard methods known to those of skill in the art. For organic synthesis techniques, see, for example, Fessendon and Fessendon's Organic Chemistry (1982, 2nd ed., Willard Grant Press, Boston, MA); March's Advanced Organic Chemistry (3rd ed., 1985, Wiley and Sons, New York); and Carey and Sundberg's Advanced Organic Chemistry (3rd ed., Parts A and B, 1990, Plenum Press, New York). Further exemplary publications describing the synthesis of unnatural amino acids include WO 2002 / 085923, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2004 / 0198637, Matsoukas et al. (1995) J. MED. CHEM. 38:4660-4669, King et al. (1949) J. CHEM. SOC. 3315-3319, Friedman et al. (1959) J. AM. CHEM. SOC. 81:3750-3752, Craig et al. (1988) J. ORG. CHEM. 53:1167-1170, Azoulay et al. (1991) EUR. J. MED. CHEM. 26:201-5, Koskinen et al. (1989) J. ORG. CHEM. 54:1859-1866, Christie et al. (1985) J. ORG. CHEM. 50:1239-1246, Barton et al. (1987) TETRAHEDRON 43:4297-4308, and Subasinghe et al. (1992) J. MED. CHEM. 35:4602-7.

[0116] IV. Vectors A tRNA, an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, or any other molecule of interest may be expressed in a cell of interest by incorporating a gene encoding the molecule into an appropriate expression vector. As used herein, an "expression vector" refers to a vector that contains a recombinant polynucleotide that includes an expression control sequence operably linked to the nucleotide sequence to be expressed. An expression vector contains sufficient cis elements for expression. Other elements for expression can be supplied by the host cell or in an in vitro expression system.

[0117] A tRNA, an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, or any other molecule of interest may be introduced into a cell of interest by incorporating a gene encoding the molecule into an appropriate transfer vector. The term "transfer vector" refers to a vector containing a recombinant polynucleotide that can be used to deliver a polynucleotide to the inside of a cell. It is understood that a vector may be both an expression vector and a transfer vector.

[0118] Vectors (e.g., expression vectors or transfer vectors) include all vectors known in the art, such as cosmids, plasmids (e.g., naked or contained in liposomes), retrotransposons (e.g., piggyback, sleeping beauty), and viruses (e.g., lentiviruses, retroviruses, adenoviruses, and adeno-associated viruses) that incorporate a recombinant polynucleotide of interest.

[0119] A typical vector contains transcription and translation terminators, transcription and translation initiation sequences, and promoters useful for regulating the expression of a particular target nucleic acid. A vector optionally contains at least one independent terminator sequence (transcription termination sequence), sequences that allow replication of the cassette in eukaryotes or prokaryotes, or both (including, but not limited to, shuttle vectors), and a universal expression cassette that contains selectable markers for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic systems.

[0120] In certain embodiments, the vector comprises a regulatory sequence or promoter operably linked to the nucleotide sequence encoding the suppressor tRNA and / or tRNA synthetase. The term "operably linked" refers to the linkage of polynucleotide elements in a functional relationship. A nucleic acid sequence is "operably linked" when it is placed in a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For example, a promoter or enhancer is operably linked to a gene if it affects the transcription of the gene. Operably linked nucleotide sequences are typically contiguous. However, since enhancers generally function when separated by several kilobases from the promoter and intron sequences may be of variable length, some polynucleotide elements may be operably linked but not directly adjacent and may even function in trans from different alleles or chromosomes.

[0121] Exemplary promoters that may be used include, but are not limited to, retroviral LTR, SV40 promoter, human cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter, U6 promoter, EF1α promoter, CAG promoter, H1 promoter, UbiC promoter, PGK promoter, 7SK promoter, pol II promoter, pol III promoter, or any other promoter (e.g., cellular promoters such as eukaryotic cellular promoters, including but not limited to histone, pol III, and β-actin promoters). Other viral promoters that may be used include, but are not limited to, adenovirus promoters, TK promoters, and B19 parvovirus promoters. The selection of a suitable promoter will be apparent to one of skill in the art from the teachings contained herein. In certain embodiments, the vector comprises a nucleotide sequence encoding an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase operably linked to a CMV or EF1α promoter, and / or a nucleotide sequence encoding a suppressor tRNA operably linked to a U6 or H1 promoter.

[0122] In certain embodiments, the vector is a viral vector. The term "virus" is used herein to refer to an obligate intracellular parasite that does not have a protein synthesis or energy generation mechanism. Exemplary viral vectors include retroviral vectors (e.g., lentiviral vectors), adenoviral vectors, adeno-associated viral vectors, herpes viral vectors, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) vectors, polyoma viral vectors (e.g., simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV40) vectors), pox viral vectors, and pseudotyped viral vectors.

[0123] The virus may be an RNA virus (having a genome composed of RNA) or a DNA virus (having a genome composed of DNA). In certain embodiments, the viral vector is a DNA viral vector. Exemplary DNA viruses include parvoviruses (e.g., adeno-associated viruses), adenoviruses, asphalt viruses, herpes viruses (e.g., herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2)), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), cytomegalovirus (CMV)), papilloma viruses (e.g., HPV), polyoma viruses (e.g., simian vacuolating virus 40 (SV40)), and pox viruses (e.g., vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, smallpox virus, fowlpox virus, sheeppox virus, myxoma virus). In certain embodiments, the viral vector is an RNA viral vector. Exemplary RNA viruses include bunyaviruses (e.g., hantaviruses), coronaviruses, flaviviruses (e.g., yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, dengue virus), hepatitis viruses (e.g., hepatitis A virus, hepatitis C virus, hepatitis E virus), influenza viruses (e.g., influenza A virus, influenza B virus, influenza C virus), measles virus, mumps virus, noroviruses (e.g., Norwalk virus), poliovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), retroviruses (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1)), and toroviruses.

[0124] Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors In a particular embodiment, the vector is an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector. AAV is a small, non-enveloped, icosahedral virus of the genus Dependoparvovirus and family Parvoviridae. AAV has a single-stranded linear DNA genome of about 4.7 kb. AAV can infect both dividing and quiescent cells of several tissue types, and different AAV serotypes show different tissue tropism.

[0125] AAV includes numerous serologically distinguishable types, including serotypes AAV-1 through AAV-12, as well as over 100 serotypes from non-human primates (see, e.g., Srivastava (2008) J. CELL BIOCHEM., 105(1):17-24, and Gao et al. (2004) J. VIROL., 78(12), 6381-6388). The serotype of the AAV vector used in the present invention can be selected by one of skill in the art based on efficiency of delivery, tissue tropism, and immunogenicity. For example, AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-8, and AAV-9 can be used for delivery to the central nervous system. AAV-1, AAV-8, and AAV-9 can be used for delivery to the heart. AAV-2 can be used for delivery to the kidney. AAV-7, AAV-8, and AAV-9 can be used for delivery to the liver. AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-9 can be used for delivery to the lungs, AAV-8 can be used for delivery to the pancreas, and AAV-2, AAV-5, and AAV-8 can be used for delivery to photoreceptor cells. AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-4, AAV-5, and AAV-8 can be used for delivery to the retinal pigment epithelium. AAV-1, AAV-6, AAV-7, AAV-8, and AAV-9 can be used for delivery to skeletal muscle. In certain embodiments, the AAV capsid proteins include sequences disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951, such as, but not limited to, AAV-9 (SEQ ID NOs: 1-3 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951), AAV-2 (SEQ ID NO: 4 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951), AAV-1 (SEQ ID NO: 5 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951), AAV-3 (SEQ ID NO: 6 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951), and AAV-8 (SEQ ID NO: 7 of U.S. Pat. No. 7,198,951). AAV serotypes identified from rhesus monkeys, such as rh.8, rh.10, rh.39, rh.43, and rh.74, are also contemplated in the present invention. In addition to the native AAV serotypes, modified AAV capsids have been developed to improve efficiency of delivery, tissue tropism, and immunogenicity.Exemplary native and modified AAV capsids are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,906,111, 9,493,788, and 7,198,951, as well as WO2017189964A2.

[0126] The wild-type AAV genome contains two 145-nucleotide inverted terminal repeats (ITRs) that contain signal sequences directing AAV replication, genome encapsidation, and integration. In addition to the ITRs, three AAV promoters, p5, p19, and p40, drive the expression of two open reading frames encoding the rep and cap genes. The two rep promoters, coupled with alternative splicing of a single AAV intron, result in the production of four rep proteins (Rep78, Rep68, Rep52, and Rep40) from the rep gene. The Rep proteins are involved in genome replication. The Cap gene is expressed from the p40 promoter and encodes three capsid proteins (VP1, VP2, and VP3) that are splice variants of the cap gene. These proteins form the capsid of the AAV particle.

[0127] Because cis-acting signals for replication, encapsidation, and integration are contained within the ITRs, some or all of the 4.3 kb internal genome may be replaced with foreign DNA, for example, an expression cassette for an exogenous gene of interest. Thus, in certain embodiments, the AAV vector comprises a genome that includes an expression cassette for an exogenous gene flanked by a 5'ITR and a 3'ITR. These ITRs may be from the same serotype as the capsid or a derivative thereof. Alternatively, the ITRs may be of a different serotype than the capsid, thereby generating a pseudotyped AAV. In certain embodiments, the ITRs are from AAV-2. In certain embodiments, the ITRs are from AAV-5. At least one of the ITRs may be modified to mutate or delete a terminal resolution site, thereby allowing the production of a self-complementary AAV vector.

[0128] The rep and cap proteins can be provided in trans, for example, on a plasmid, to produce an AAV vector. A host cell line permissive for AAV replication must express the rep and cap genes, an ITR-flanked expression cassette, and helper functions provided by a helper virus, such as the adenovirus genes E1a, E1b55K, E2a, E4orf6, and VA (Weitzman et al., Adeno-Associated virus biology. Adeno-Associated virus: Methods and Protocols, pp. 1-23, 2011). Methods for producing and purifying AAV vectors have been described in detail (see, for example, Mueller et al., (2012) CURRENT PROTOCOLS IN MICROBIOLOGY, 14D.1.1-14D.1.21, Production and Discovery of Novel Recombinant Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors). A number of cell types are suitable for producing AAV vectors, including HEK293 cells, COS cells, HeLa cells, BHK cells, Vero cells, and insect cells (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303, U.S. Pat. No. 5,387,484, U.S. Pat. No. 5,741,683, U.S. Pat. No. 5,691,176, U.S. Pat. No. 5,688,676, and U.S. Pat. No. 8,163,543, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20020081721, and WO 00 / 47757, WO 00 / 24916, and WO 96 / 17947). AAV vectors are typically produced in these cell types by one plasmid containing an ITR-flanked expression cassette and one or more additional plasmids providing additional AAV and helper virus genes.

[0129] Any serotype of AAV may be used in the present invention.Similarly, it is contemplated that any adenovirus type may be used, and those skilled in the art can identify the AAV and adenovirus types suitable for producing their desired recombinant AAV vector (rAAV).AAV particles may be purified, for example, by affinity chromatography, iodixanol gradient, or CsCl gradient.

[0130] The AAV vector may have a single-stranded genome that is 4.7 kb in size or is larger or smaller than 4.7 kb (including genomes that are as large as 5.2 kb or as large as 3.0 kb in size). Thus, if the exogenous gene of interest expressed from the AAV vector is small, the AAV genome may include a stuffer sequence. Furthermore, the vector genome may be substantially self-complementary, thereby allowing for rapid expression in cells. In certain embodiments, the genome of a self-complementary AAV vector includes, from 5' to 3', a 5' ITR; a first nucleic acid sequence that includes a promoter and / or enhancer operably linked to the coding sequence of the gene of interest; a modified ITR that does not have a functional terminal separation site; a second nucleic acid sequence that is complementary or substantially complementary to the first nucleic acid sequence; and a 3' ITR. AAV vectors containing all types of genomes are suitable for use in the methods of the present invention.

[0131] Non-limiting examples of AAV vectors include pAAV-MCS (Agilent Technologies), pAAVK-EF1α-MCS (System Bio Catalog No. AAV502A-1), pAAVK-EF1α-MCS1-CMV-MCS2 (System Bio Catalog No. AAV503A-1), pAAV-ZsGreen1 (Clontech Catalog No. 6231), pAAV-MCS2 (Addgene Plasmid No. 46954), AAV-Stuffer (Addgene Plasmid No. 106248), pAAVscCBPIGpluc (Addgene Plasmid No. 35645), AAVS1_Puro_PGK1_3xFLAG_Twin_Strep (Addgene Plasmid No. pAAVS1-Nst-MCS (Addgene Plasmid No. 80487), pAAVS1-Nst-CAG-DEST (Addgene Plasmid No. 80489), pAAVS1-P-CAG-DEST (Addgene Plasmid No. 80490), pAAVf-EnhCB-lacZnls (Addgene Plasmid No. 35642), and pAAVS1-shRNA (Addgene Plasmid No. 62806), pAAVS1-P-MCS (Addgene Plasmid No. 80488), pAAV-Gateway (Addgene Plasmid No. 32671), pAAV-Puro_siKD (Addgene Plasmid No. 86695), pAAVS1-Nst-MCS (Addgene Plasmid No. 80487), pAAVS1-Nst-CAG-DEST (Addgene Plasmid No. 80489), pAAVS1-P-CAG-DEST (Addgene Plasmid No. 80490), pAAVf-EnhCB-lacZnls (Addgene Plasmid No. 35642), and pAAVS1-shRNA (Addgene Plasmid No. 35642). Examples of vectors that may be used include plasmid p53 (plasmid no. 82697). These vectors can be modified to make them suitable for therapeutic use. For example, an exogenous gene of interest can be inserted into the multiple cloning site, and the selectable marker (e.g., a gene encoding a puro or fluorescent protein) can be deleted or replaced with another (same or different) exogenous gene of interest.Further examples of AAV vectors are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,871,982, U.S. Pat. No. 6,270,996, U.S. Pat. No. 7,238,526, U.S. Pat. No. 6,943,019, U.S. Pat. No. 6,953,690, U.S. Pat. No. 9,150,882, and U.S. Pat. No. 8,298,818, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2009 / 0087413, and WO2017075335A1, WO2017075338A2, and WO2017201258A1.

[0132] Lentiviral Vectors In certain embodiments, the viral vector can be a retroviral vector.Examples of retroviral vectors include Moloney murine leukemia virus vector, splenic necrosis virus vector, and vectors derived from retroviruses such as Rous sarcoma virus, Harvey sarcoma virus, avian leukosis virus, human immunodeficiency virus, myeloproliferative sarcoma virus, and mammary tumor virus.Retroviral vectors are useful as agents for mediating retroviral-mediated gene transfer into eukaryotic cells.

[0133] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector is a lentiviral vector. Exemplary lentiviral vectors include vectors derived from human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), human immunodeficiency virus-2 (HIV-2), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), Jembrana disease virus (JDV), equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), and caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV).

[0134] Retroviral vectors are typically constructed such that most of the sequences encoding the structural genes of the virus are deleted and replaced by the gene(s) of interest. The structural genes (i.e., gag, pol, and env) are often removed from the retroviral backbone using genetic engineering techniques known in the art. Thus, a minimal retroviral vector includes, from 5' to 3', a 5' long terminal repeat (LTR), a packaging signal, an optional exogenous promoter and / or enhancer, an exogenous gene of interest, and a 3'LTR. If no exogenous promoter is provided, gene expression is driven by the 5'LTR, which is a weak promoter and requires the presence of Tat to activate expression. The structural genes can be provided in a separate vector for lentivirus production, which renders the produced virions replication-deficient. Specifically, for lentiviruses, the packaging system may include a single packaging vector encoding the Gag, Pol, Rev, and Tat genes, and a third separate vector encoding the envelope protein Env (usually VSV-G due to its broad infectivity). To improve the safety of the packaging system, the packaging vector can be split to express Rev from one vector and Gag and Pol from another. Tat can also be eliminated from the packaging system by using a retroviral vector containing a chimeric 5'LTR, in which the U3 region of the 5'LTR is replaced with a heterologous regulatory element.

[0135] Genes can be incorporated into the proviral backbone in several general ways. The simplest construct is one in which the structural genes of the retrovirus are replaced by a single gene that is transcribed under the control of viral regulatory sequences in the LTR. Retroviral vectors capable of introducing multiple genes into target cells have also been constructed. Usually, in such vectors, one gene is under the regulatory control of the viral LTR, while the second gene is expressed from a spliced ​​message or under the control of its own internal promoter.

[0136] Thus, the new gene(s) are flanked by 5'LTR and 3'LTR, which function to facilitate transcription and polyadenylation of virion RNA, respectively. The term "long terminal repeat" or "LTR" refers to a domain of base pairs located at the end of retroviral DNA that, in the context of its native sequence, is a direct repeat and contains the U3, R and U5 regions. LTRs generally provide essential functions for retroviral gene expression (e.g., promotion, initiation and polyadenylation of gene transcripts) and viral replication. LTRs contain a number of regulatory signals, including transcriptional control elements, polyadenylation signals, and sequences required for viral genome replication and integration. The U3 region contains enhancer and promoter elements. The U5 region is a sequence between the primer binding site and the R region, and contains polyadenylation sequences. The R (repeat) region is flanked by the U3 and U5 regions. In certain embodiments, the R region contains a transactivation response (TAR) gene element, which interacts with a transactivator (tat) gene element to enhance viral replication. This element is not required in embodiments in which the U3 region of the 5'LTR is replaced by a heterologous promoter.

[0137] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector comprises a modified 5'LTR and / or 3'LTR. Modification of the 3'LTR is often done to improve the safety of lentiviral or retroviral systems by making the virus replication-deficient. In a specific embodiment, the retroviral vector is a self-inactivating (SIN) vector. As used herein, a SIN retroviral vector refers to a replication-deficient retroviral vector in which the 3'LTR U3 region has been modified (e.g., by deletion or substitution) to prevent viral transcription beyond the first round of viral replication. This is because the 3'LTR U3 region is used as a template for the 5'LTR U3 region during viral replication, and thus viral transcripts cannot be made without the U3 enhancer-promoter. In a further embodiment, the 3'LTR is modified such that the U5 region is replaced, for example, with an ideal polyadenylation sequence. It should be noted that modifications to the LTR, such as modifications to the 3'LTR, 5'LTR, or both the 3'LTR and 5'LTR, are also included in the present invention.

[0138] In certain embodiments, the U3 region of the 5'LTR is replaced with a heterologous promoter to drive the transcription of the viral genome during the production of viral particles. Examples of heterologous promoters that can be used include, for example, viral simian virus 40 (SV40) (e.g., early or late), cytomegalovirus (CMV) (e.g., immediate early), Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMLV), Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), and herpes simplex virus (HSV) (thymidine kinase) promoters. Typical promoters can drive high levels of transcription in a Tat-independent manner. This replacement reduces the possibility of recombination to generate replication-competent virus, since there is no complete U3 sequence in the virus production system.

[0139] Adjacent to the 5'LTR are sequences required for reverse transcription of the genome (tRNA primer binding site) and for efficient packaging of viral RNA into particles (Psi site). As used herein, the term "packaging signal" or "packaging sequence" refers to a sequence located in the retroviral genome that is required for encapsidation of retroviral RNA strands during viral particle formation (see, for example, Clever et al., 1995 J. VIROLOGY, 69(4):2101-09). The packaging signal may be a minimal packaging signal (also called psi (Ψ) sequence) required for encapsidation of the viral genome.

[0140] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector (e.g., lentiviral vector) further comprises a FLAP. As used herein, the term "FLAP", "flap" refers to a nucleic acid whose sequence comprises the central polypurine tract and central termination sequence (cPPT and CTS) of a retrovirus, e.g., HIV-1 or HIV-2. Suitable FLAP elements are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,682,907 and Zennou et al. (2000) CELL, 101:173. During reverse transcription, the central initiation of the positive strand DNA at the cPPT and the central termination at the CTS results in the formation of a triple-stranded DNA structure: a central DNA flap. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, the DNA flap may act as a cis-acting determinant of lentiviral genome nuclear import and / or increase viral titer. In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector backbone comprises one or more FLAP elements upstream or downstream of the heterologous gene of interest in the vector. For example, in certain embodiments, the transfer plasmid comprises a FLAP element. In one embodiment, a vector of the invention comprises a FLAP element isolated from HIV-1.

[0141] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector (e.g., lentiviral vector) further comprises a nuclear export element. In one embodiment, the retroviral vector comprises one or more nuclear export elements. The term "nuclear export element" refers to a cis-acting post-transcriptional regulatory element that regulates the transport of RNA transcripts from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of a cell. Examples of RNA nuclear export elements include, but are not limited to, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) RRE (see, e.g., Cullen et al., (1991) J. VIROL. 65:1053; and Cullen et al., (1991) CELL 58:423) and the hepatitis B virus post-transcriptional regulatory element (HPRE). In general, the RNA nuclear export element is located within the 3'UTR of a gene and can be inserted as one or multiple copies.

[0142] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector (e.g., lentiviral vector) further comprises a post-transcriptional regulatory element. Various post-transcriptional regulatory elements, such as the woodchuck hepatitis virus post-transcriptional regulatory element (WPRE; see Zufferey et al., (1999) J. VIROL., 73:2886); the post-transcriptional regulatory element (HPRE) present in Hepatitis B virus (Huang et al., MOL. CELL. BIOL., 5:3864); and the like (Liu et al., (1995), GENES DEV., 9:1766), can increase the expression of heterologous nucleic acid. The post-transcriptional regulatory element is usually located at the 3' end of the heterologous nucleic acid sequence. This configuration results in the synthesis of an mRNA transcript whose 5' portion comprises the heterologous nucleic acid coding sequence and whose 3' portion comprises the post-transcriptional regulatory element sequence. In certain embodiments, the vectors of the invention lack or do not include post-transcriptional regulatory elements such as a WPRE or HPRE, because in some instances these elements increase the risk of cell transformation and / or do not substantially or significantly increase the amount of mRNA transcript or do not increase mRNA stability. Thus, in certain embodiments, the vectors of the invention lack or do not include a WPRE or HPRE as an additional safety measure.

[0143] Elements that direct efficient termination and polyadenylation of heterologous nucleic acid transcripts increase heterologous gene expression. Transcription termination signals are usually found downstream of polyadenylation signals. Thus, in certain embodiments, retroviral vectors (e.g., lentiviral vectors) further comprise a polyadenylation signal. As used herein, the term "polyadenylation signal" or "polyadenylation sequence" refers to a DNA sequence that directs both the termination and polyadenylation of nascent RNA transcripts by RNA polymerase H. Efficient polyadenylation of recombinant transcripts is desirable, since transcripts lacking a polyadenylation signal are unstable and rapidly degraded. Specific examples of polyadenylation signals which can be used in the vectors of the present invention include ideal polyadenylation sequences (e.g., AATAAA, ATTAAA, AGTAAA), the bovine growth hormone polyadenylation sequence (BGHpA), the rabbit β-globin polyadenylation sequence (rβgpA), or another suitable heterologous or endogenous polyadenylation sequence known in the art.

[0144] In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector further comprises an insulator element. The insulator element may contribute to protecting the retroviral expression sequence, e.g., a therapeutic gene, from integration site effects (i.e., position effects; see, e.g., Burgess-Beusse et al. (2002) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI., USA, 99:16433; Zhan et al., 2001, HUM. GENET., 109:471), which may be mediated by cis-acting elements present in genomic DNA and may result in deregulated expression of the introduced sequence. In certain embodiments, the retroviral vector comprises an insulator element in one or both LTRs or elsewhere in the region of the vector that is integrated into the cellular genome. Insulators suitable for use in the present invention include, but are not limited to, the chicken β-globin insulator (see Chung et al., (1993) CELL 74:505; Chung et al., (1997) PROC.NATL.ACAD.SCI.,USA 94:575; and Bell et al., 1999. CELL 98:387). Examples of insulator elements include, but are not limited to, insulators from the β-globin locus, such as chicken HS4.

[0145] Non-limiting examples of lentiviral vectors include pLVX-EF1alpha-AcGFP1-C1 (Clontech Catalog No. 631984), pLVX-EF1alpha-IRES-mCherry (Clontech Catalog No. 631987), pLVX-Puro (Clontech Catalog No. 632159), pLVX-IRES-Puro (Clontech Catalog No. 632186), pLenti6 / V5-DEST™ (Thermo Fisher), pLenti6.2 ... Fisher), pLKO.1 (Addgene plasmid no. 10878), pLKO.3G (Addgene plasmid no. 14748), pSico (Addgene plasmid no. 11578), pLJM1-EGFP (Addgene plasmid no. 19319), FUGW (Addgene plasmid no. 14883), pLVTHM (Addgene plasmid no. 12247), pLVUT-tTR-KRAB (Addgene plasmid no. 11651), pLL3.7 (Addgene plasmid no. 11795), pLB (Addgene plasmid no. 11619), pWPXL (Addgene plasmid no. 12257), pWPI (Addgene plasmid no. 12254), EF.CMV.RFP (Addgene plasmid no. 17619), pLenti CMV Puro DEST (Addgene plasmid no. 17452), pLenti-puro (Addgene plasmid no. 39481), pULTRA (Addgene plasmid no. 24129), pLX301 (Addgene plasmid no. 25895), pHIV-EGFP (Addgene plasmid no. 21373), pLV-mCherry (Addgene plasmid no. 36084), pLionII (Addgene plasmid no. 1730), pInducer10-mir-RUP-PheS (Addgene plasmid no. 44011). These vectors can be modified to suit therapeutic use.For example, the selection marker (e.g., puro, EGFP, or mCherry) can be deleted or replaced with a second exogenous gene of interest. Further examples of lentiviral vectors are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,629,153, 7,198,950, 8,329,462, 6,863,884, 6,682,907, 7,745,179, 7,250,299, 5,994,136, and 6,287,814. Nos. 6,013,516, 6,797,512, 6,544,771, 5,834,256, 6,958,226, 6,207,455, 6,531,123, and 6,352,694, as well as WO 2017 / 091786.

[0146] Adenovirus Vectors In certain embodiments, the viral vector can be an adenoviral vector. Adenoviruses are medium-sized (90-100 nm), non-enveloped (naked), icosahedral viruses composed of a nucleocapsid and a double-stranded linear DNA genome. The term "adenovirus" refers to any virus of the genus Adenovirus, including but not limited to the human, bovine, ovine, equine, canine, porcine, murine, and simian Adenovirus subgenera. Typically, adenoviral vectors are generated by introducing one or more mutations (e.g., deletions, insertions, or substitutions) into the adenoviral genome of an adenovirus to accommodate, for example, the insertion of a non-native nucleic acid sequence into the adenovirus for gene transfer.

[0147] Human adenoviruses can be used as a source of adenoviral genome for adenoviral vectors. For example, the adenovirus can be of subgroup A (e.g., serotypes 12, 18, and 31), subgroup B (e.g., serotypes 3, 7, 11, 14, 16, 21, 34, 35, and 50), subgroup C (e.g., serotypes 1, 2, 5, and 6), subgroup D (e.g., serotypes 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 22-30, 32, 33, 36-39, and 42-48), subgroup E (e.g., serotype 4), subgroup F (e.g., serotypes 40 and 41), unclassified serogroups (e.g., serotypes 49 and 51), or any other adenoviral serogroup or serotype. Adenovirus serotypes 1-51 are available from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, Va.). Non-group C adenovirus vectors, methods of making non-group C adenovirus vectors, and methods of using non-group C adenovirus vectors are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,801,030, 5,837,511, and 5,849,561, as well as WO 1997 / 012986 and WO 1998 / 053087.

[0148] Non-human adenoviruses (e.g., ape, monkey, avian, canine, ovine, or bovine adenoviruses) can be used to generate adenovirus vectors (i.e., as a source of adenovirus genome for adenovirus vectors). For example, adenovirus vectors can be based on simian adenoviruses (including both New World and Old World monkeys) (see, for example, International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, Virus Taxonomy: VHIth Report (2005)). Phylogenetic analysis of adenoviruses infecting primates is disclosed, for example, in Roy et al. (2009) PLOS PATHOG. 5(7):e1000503. Gorilla adenoviruses can be used as a source of adenovirus genome for adenovirus vectors. Gorilla adenoviruses and adenoviral vectors are described, for example, in WO 2013 / 052799, WO 2013 / 052811, and WO 2013 / 052832. Adenoviral vectors can also include combinations of subtypes, thereby being "chimeric" adenoviral vectors.

[0149] Adenoviral vectors can be replication competent, conditionally replication competent, or replication deficient. Replication competent (replicative) adenoviral vectors can replicate in typical host cells, i.e., cells that can be normally infected with adenovirus. Conditionally replicating adenoviral vectors are adenoviral vectors engineered to replicate under certain conditions. For example, replication essential gene functions, e.g., gene functions encoded by adenoviral early regions, can be operably linked to inducible, repressible, or tissue-specific transcription control sequences, e.g., promoters. Conditionally replicating adenoviral vectors are further described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,998,205. Replication deficient adenoviral vectors are adenoviral vectors that require complementation of one or more gene functions or regions of the adenoviral genome required for replication, e.g., as a result of a deficiency of one or more replication essential gene functions or regions, so that the adenoviral vector does not replicate in typical host cells, particularly in human host cells infected by the adenoviral vector.

[0150] Preferably, the adenoviral vector is replication-deficient, and therefore the replication-deficient adenoviral vector requires complementation of at least one replication-essential gene function of one or more regions of the adenoviral genome for propagation (e.g., to form an adenoviral vector particle). The adenoviral vector may be deficient in replication-essential gene functions of only the early region of the adenoviral genome (i.e., E1-E4 regions), only the late region of the adenoviral genome (i.e., L1-L5 regions), both the early and late regions of the adenoviral genome, or one or more of all adenoviral genes (i.e., high-capacity adeno vectors (HC-Ad)). See, e.g., Morsy et al. (1998) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. USA 95:965-976, Chen et al. (1997) PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. USA 94:1645-1650, and Kochanek et al. (1999) HUM. GENE THER. 10(15):2451-9. Examples of replication-deficient adenoviral vectors are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,837,511, 5,851,806, 5,994,106, 6,127,175, 6,482,616, and 7,195,896, as well as WO 1994 / 028152, WO 1995 / 002697, WO 1995 / 016772, WO 1995 / 034671, WO 1996 / 022378, WO 1997 / 012986, WO 1997 / 021826, and WO 2003 / 022311.

[0151] The replication-defective adenoviral vector of the present invention can be produced in a complementing cell line that provides the gene functions that are not present in the replication-defective adenoviral vector but are required for viral growth at a suitable level to generate high-titer viral vector stocks.Such complementing cell lines are known, and examples thereof include, but are not limited to, 293 cells (e.g., as described in Graham et al. (1977) J.GEN.VIROL. 36:59-72), PER.C6 cells (e.g., as described in WO 1997 / 000326, and U.S. Patent Nos. 5,994,128 and 6,033,908), and 293-ORF6 cells (e.g., as described in WO 1995 / 034671, and Brough et al. (1997) J.VIROL. 71:9206-9213). Other suitable complementing cell lines for producing the replication-defective adenoviral vectors of the present invention include complementing cells made for propagating adenoviral vectors encoding transgenes that inhibit viral growth in host cells when expressed (see, for example, US Patent Application Publication No. 2008 / 0233650). Further suitable complementing cells are described, for example, in US Patent Nos. 6,677,156 and 6,682,929, and WO 2003 / 020879. Formulations for adenoviral vector-containing compositions are further described, for example, in US Patent Nos. 6,225,289 and 6,514,943, and WO 2000 / 034444.

[0152] Further exemplary adenoviral vectors and / or methods of making or propagating adenoviral vectors are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,559,099, 5,837,511, 5,846,782, 5,851,806, 5,994,106, 5,994,128, 5,965,541, 5,981,225, 6,040,174, 6,020,191, 6,083,716, 6,113,913, 6,303,362, 7,067,310, and 9,073,980.

[0153] Commercially available adenoviral vector systems include the ViraPower™ Adenoviral Expression System available from Thermo Fisher Scientific, the AdEasy™ Adenoviral Vector System available from Agilent Technologies, and the Adeno-X™ Expression System 3 available from Takara Bio USA, Inc.

[0154] V. Host Cells and Cell Lines Also encompassed by the invention are host cells or cell lines (e.g., prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cells or cell lines) that contain the tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, unnatural amino acids, nucleic acids, and / or vectors disclosed herein. Nucleic acids encoding engineered tRNAs and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases can be expressed in the expression host cell either as vectors (e.g., plasmids or viral particles) that replicate autonomously within the expression host cell, or via a stable integrated element or series of stable integrated elements in the genome of the expression host cell, e.g., a mammalian host cell.

[0155] The host cell is genetically engineered (including, but not limited to, transformed, transduced or transfected) using, for example, a nucleic acid or vector disclosed herein. For example, in certain embodiments, one or more vectors include coding regions for an orthogonal tRNA, an orthogonal aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, and a protein, optionally modified by including one or more UAAs, operably linked to gene expression control elements that are functional in a desired host cell or cell line. For example, genes encoding tRNA synthetase and tRNA, as well as any selection marker (e.g., an antibiotic resistance gene, e.g., a puromycin resistance cassette), can be incorporated into an introduction vector (e.g., a plasmid that can be linearized prior to transfection), e.g., the gene encoding the tRNA synthetase can be under the control of a polymerase II promoter (e.g., CMV, EF1α, UbiC, or PGK, e.g., CMV or EF1α), and the gene encoding the tRNA can be under the control of a polymerase III promoter (e.g., U6, 7SK, or H1, e.g., U6). The vectors are transfected into cells and / or microorganisms by standard methods, including electroporation or infection with viral vectors, and clones can be selected via expression of a selectable marker (eg, by antibiotic resistance).

[0156] Exemplary prokaryotic host cells or cell lines include cells derived from bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Thermus thermophilus, Bacillus stearothermophilus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Pseudomonas putida. Exemplary eukaryotic host cells or cell lines include cells derived from plants (e.g., complex plants such as monocots or dicots), algae, protists, fungi, yeast (including Saccharomyces cerevisiae), or animals (including mammals, insects, arthropods, etc.). Further exemplary host cells or cell lines include HEK293, HEK293T, Expi293, CHO, CHOK1, Sf9, Sf21, HeLa, U20S, A549, HT1080, CAD, P19, NIH 3T3, L929, N2a, MCF-7, Y79, SO-RB50, HepG2, DUKX-X11, J558L, BHK, COS, Vero, NS0, or ESC. It is understood that a host cell or cell line may comprise individual colonies, isolated populations (monoclonals), or a heterogeneous mixture of cells.

[0157] Contemplated cells or cell lines include, for example, one or more copies of an orthogonal tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pair, optionally stably maintained in the genome of the cell or in another piece of DNA maintained by the cell. For example, the cell or cell line may contain one or more copies of (i) a tryptophanyl tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pair (wild-type or engineered) that is stably maintained by the cell, and / or (ii) a leucyl-tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pair (wild-type or engineered) that is stably maintained by the cell.

[0158] For example, in certain embodiments, the cell line is a stable cell line, which comprises a genome into which a nucleic acid sequence encoding (i) an aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (e.g., a prokaryotic tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein capable of attaching an unnatural amino acid to a tRNA, or a prokaryotic leucyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein capable of attaching an unnatural amino acid to a tRNA) and / or (ii) a suppressor tRNA (e.g., a prokaryotic suppressor tryptophanyl-tRNA capable of attaching an unnatural amino acid, or a prokaryotic suppressor leucyl-tRNA capable of attaching an unnatural amino acid, such as a suppressor tRNA disclosed herein) has been stably integrated.

[0159] Methods for introducing nucleic acids encoding tRNA and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases into the genome of a cell of interest, or for stably maintaining such nucleic acids in DNA replicated by the cell outside of its genome, are well known in the art.

[0160] The nucleic acid encoding the tRNA and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase can be provided to the cell in an expression vector, transfer vector, or DNA cassette, such as the expression vector, transfer vector, or DNA cassette disclosed herein. The expression vector, transfer vector, or DNA cassette encoding the tRNA and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase can contain one or more copies of the tRNA and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, optionally under the control of an inducible or constitutively active promoter. The expression vector, transfer vector, or DNA cassette may contain, for example, other standard components (enhancers, terminators, etc.). It is contemplated that the nucleic acid encoding the tRNA and the nucleic acid encoding the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase may be on the same or different vectors, may be present in the same or different ratios, may be introduced into the cell simultaneously or sequentially, or may be stably integrated into the cell genome.

[0161] One or more copies of DNA cassettes encoding tRNAs and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases can be integrated into the host cell genome or stably maintained in the cell using transposon systems (e.g., PiggyBac), viral vectors (e.g., lentiviral or other retroviral vectors), CRISPR / Cas9-based recombination, electroporation and natural recombination, the BxB1 recombinase system, or using replication / maintenance DNA fragments (such as those from Epstein-Barr virus).

[0162] Selection markers can be used to select cell lines that stably maintain nucleic acids encoding tRNAs and / or aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and / or are efficient at incorporating UAAs into proteins of interest. Exemplary selection markers include zeocin, puromycin, neomycin, dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), glutamine synthetase (GS), mCherry-EGFP fusions, or other fluorescent proteins. In certain embodiments, the gene encoding the selection marker protein (or a gene encoding a protein required for a detectable function, e.g., viability, in the presence of the selection marker) may contain a premature stop codon such that the protein is expressed only if the cell line is able to incorporate a UAA at the site of the premature stop codon.

[0163] In certain embodiments, to develop host cells or cell lines containing two or more tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs, multiple identical or different UAA-inducing (directing) codons can be used to identify host cells or cell lines that have integrated multiple copies of two or more tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs through repeated rounds of genomic integration and selection. Host cells or cell lines containing enhanced UAA integration efficiency, low background, and reduced toxicity can first be isolated via a selection marker that contains one or more stop codons. The host cells or cell lines can then be subjected to a selection scheme to identify host cells or cell lines that contain the desired copies of tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pairs and express a gene of interest (either genomically integrated or not) that contains one or more stop codons. Protein expression may be assayed using any method known in the art, including, for example, Western blot using an antibody that binds to the protein of interest or a C-terminal tag.

[0164] The host cells or cell lines can be cultured in conventional nutrient media modified for activities such as screening steps, activating promoters or selecting transformants. These cells can be optionally cultured into transgenic organisms. For example, other useful references for cell isolation and culture (e.g., subsequent nucleic acid isolation) include Freshney (1994) Culture of Animal Cells, a Manual of Basic Technique, 3rd Edition, Wiley-Liss, New York; Payne et al. (1992) Plant Cell and Tissue Culture in Liquid Systems, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY; Gamborg and Phillips (eds.) (1995) Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture; Fundamental Methods Springer Lab Manual, Springer-Verlag (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York), and Atlas and Parks (eds.) The Handbook of Microbiological Media (1993) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

[0165] The production of exemplary cell lines capable of producing antibodies incorporating UAAs is described in Roy et al. (2020) MABS 12(1), e1684749.

[0166] VI. PROTEINS CONTAINING UNNATURAL AMINO ACIDS (UAA) AND METHODS FOR PRODUCING SAME Proteins that contain unnatural amino acids (UAAs) and methods for producing the same are also encompassed by the present invention.

[0167] Incorporation of unnatural amino acids can be done for a variety of purposes, including tailoring changes in protein structure and / or function, altering size, acidity, nucleophilicity, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobicity, accessibility of protease target sites, targeting to moieties (e.g., in the case of protein arrays), adding biologically active molecules, attaching polymers, attaching radionuclides, modulating serum half-life, modulating tissue penetration (e.g., tumors), modulating active transport, modulating tissue, cell or organ specificity or distribution, modulating immunogenicity, modulating protease resistance, etc. Proteins that include unnatural amino acids may have enhanced catalytic or biophysical properties, or even entirely new catalytic or biophysical properties. For example, the following properties are optionally modified by including unnatural amino acids in a protein: toxicity, biodistribution, structural properties, spectroscopic properties, chemical and / or photochemical properties, catalytic ability, half-life (including but not limited to serum half-life), ability to react with other molecules (including but not limited to covalently or non-covalently), etc. Compositions including proteins that include at least one unnatural amino acid are useful as, but not limited to, novel therapeutic agents, diagnostic agents, enzymes, and binding proteins (eg, therapeutic antibodies).

[0168] A protein may have at least one, e.g., at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, or at least ten or more UAAs. The UAAs may be the same or different. For example, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten or more different sites can be present in a protein that contains one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or ten or more different UAAs. A protein may have at least one (but fewer than all) specific amino acids present in the protein substituted with a UAA. For a given protein with multiple UAAs, the UAAs may be the same or different (e.g., a protein can contain two or more different types of UAAs, or can contain two of the same UAAs). For a given protein with more than two UAAs, the UAAs can be the same, different, or a combination of multiple unnatural amino acids of the same type with at least one different UAA.

[0169] In certain embodiments, the protein is an antibody (or a fragment thereof, e.g., an antigen-binding fragment thereof), a bispecific antibody, a nanobody, an affibody, a viral protein, a chemokine, a cytokine, an antigen, a blood clotting factor, a hormone, a growth factor, an enzyme, a cell signaling protein, or any other polypeptide or protein.

[0170] As used herein, unless otherwise specified, the term "antibody" refers to an intact antibody (e.g., an intact monoclonal antibody), or a fragment thereof, such as an Fc fragment of an antibody (e.g., an Fc fragment of a monoclonal antibody), or an antigen-binding fragment of an antibody (e.g., an antigen-binding fragment of a monoclonal antibody), and is understood to include modified, engineered, or chemically conjugated intact antibodies, antigen-binding fragments, or Fc fragments. Examples of antigen-binding fragments include Fab, Fab', (Fab')2, Fv, single-chain antibodies (e.g., scFv), minibodies, and diabodies. Examples of modified or engineered antibodies include chimeric antibodies, humanized antibodies, and multispecific antibodies (e.g., bispecific antibodies). An example of a chemically conjugated antibody is an antibody conjugated to a toxin moiety.

[0171] Typically, antibodies are multimeric proteins containing four polypeptide chains. Two of the polypeptide chains are called immunoglobulin heavy chains (H chains) and two of the polypeptide chains are called immunoglobulin light chains (L chains). The immunoglobulin heavy and light chains are connected by interchain disulfide bonds. The immunoglobulin heavy chains are connected by interchain disulfide bonds. The light chains contain one variable region (V L ) and one constant region (C L The heavy chain consists of one variable region (V H ) and at least three constant regions (CH1, CH2 and CH3). The variable regions determine the binding specificity of the antibody.

[0172] The variable heavy (VH) and variable light (VL) regions can be further subdivided into regions of hypervariability called "complementarity determining regions" ("CDRs"), which are interspersed with more conserved regions called "framework regions" (FRs). Human antibodies have three VH CDRs and three VL CDRs separated by framework regions FR1 through FR4. The extent of FRs and CDRs has been defined (Kabat, E. A. et al. (1991) SEQUENCES OF PROTEINS OF IMMUNOLOGICAL INTEREST, 5th ed., US Department of Health and Human Services, NIH Publication No. 91-3242; and Chothia, C. et al. (1987) J. MOL. BIOL. 196:901-917). Each VH and VL is typically composed of three CDRs and four FRs, arranged from amino-terminus to carboxyl-terminus in the following order: FR1, CDR1, FR2, CDR2, FR3, CDR3, and FR4.

[0173] The antibody molecule may have (i) a heavy chain constant region chosen from, for example, an IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgM, IgA1, IgA2, IgD, and IgE heavy chain constant region; in particular, a heavy chain constant region chosen from, for example, an IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 (e.g., human) heavy chain constant region, and / or (ii) a light chain constant region chosen from, for example, a κ (kappa) or λ (lambda) (e.g., human) light chain constant region.

[0174] In certain embodiments, the UAA, e.g., the first and / or second UAA, is located in a heavy or light chain constant region of an antibody. For example, in certain embodiments, the protein comprising the first and / or second UAA is an antibody or fragment thereof comprising a heavy chain constant region of the human IgG1 isotype (e.g., having an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 114 or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 114), and the first and / or second UAA is located within the heavy chain constant region of the human IgG1 isotype (e.g., at a position corresponding to the threonine at position 78 of SEQ ID NO: 114). In certain embodiments, the protein comprising the first and / or second UAA is an antibody or fragment thereof comprising a human κ constant region (e.g., having an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:115, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:115), and the first and / or second UAA is located within the human κ constant region.

[0175] In certain embodiments, the UAA, e.g., the first and / or second UAA, is located in a framework region, e.g., FR4, of the variable heavy (VH) and / or variable light (VL) region of the antibody.

[0176] In certain embodiments, the protein comprising the first and / or second UAA is an antibody or fragment thereof comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 116, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 116, and the first and / or second UAA is located within SEQ ID NO: 116 (e.g., at a position corresponding to threonine at position 11 of SEQ ID NO: 116). In certain embodiments, the protein comprising the first and / or second UAA is an antibody or fragment thereof comprising an amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 117, or an amino acid sequence having at least 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 117, and the first and / or second UAA is located within SEQ ID NO: 117 (e.g., at a position corresponding to lysine at position 11 of SEQ ID NO: 117).

[0177] Further examples of therapeutic, diagnostic, and other proteins that can be modified to include one or more unnatural amino acids are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2003 / 0082575 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2005 / 0009049.

[0178] The tRNAs, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, and / or unnatural amino acids disclosed herein may be used to incorporate the unnatural amino acid into a protein of interest using any suitable translation system.

[0179] The term "translation system" refers to a system that contains the necessary components to incorporate an amino acid into a growing polypeptide chain (protein). Components of a translation system can include, for example, ribosomes, tRNA, synthetases, mRNA, etc. A translation system can be cellular or acellular and can be of prokaryotic or eukaryotic origin. For example, a translation system can include or be derived from a non-eukaryotic cell, such as a bacterium (e.g., E. coli), a eukaryotic cell, such as a yeast cell, a mammalian cell, a plant cell, an algae cell, a fungal cell, or an insect cell.

[0180] Translation systems include host cells or cell lines, such as those contemplated herein. To express a polypeptide of interest having an unnatural amino acid in a host cell, a polynucleotide encoding the polypeptide can be cloned into an expression vector that contains, for example, a promoter to direct transcription, a transcription / translation terminator, and, in the case of a nucleic acid encoding a protein, a ribosome binding site for translation initiation.

[0181] Translation systems also include whole cell preparations, such as permeabilized cells or cell cultures, in which a desired nucleic acid sequence can be transcribed into mRNA and the mRNA translated. Cell-free translation systems are commercially available and many different types and systems are known. Examples of cell-free systems include, but are not limited to, prokaryotic lysates, such as E. coli lysates, and eukaryotic lysates, such as wheat germ extracts, insect cell lysates, rabbit reticulocyte lysates, rabbit oocyte lysates, and human cell lysates. Reconstituted translation systems may be used. Reconstituted translation systems may include mixtures of purified translation factors, as well as combinations of lysates or lysates supplemented with purified translation factors, such as initiation factor-1 (IF-1), IF-2, IF-3 (α or β), elongation factor T (EF-Tu), or translation termination factors (terminators). Cell-free systems may be coupled transcription / translation systems in which DNA is introduced into the system, transcribed into mRNA, and the mRNA is translated.

[0182] The invention provides methods for expressing proteins that contain unnatural amino acids, and for producing proteins with one or more unnatural amino acids at specific positions in the protein. The methods include incubating a translation system (e.g., culturing or growing a host cell or cell line, such as a host cell or cell line disclosed herein) under conditions that allow for incorporation of the unnatural amino acid into a protein expressed in a cell. The translation system may be contacted with one or more unnatural amino acids (e.g., leucyl or tryptophanyl analogs) (e.g., cell culture medium may be contacted with the one or more unnatural amino acids) under conditions suitable for incorporation of the one or more unnatural amino acids into the protein.

[0183] In certain embodiments, the protein is expressed from a nucleic acid sequence that includes a premature stop codon. The translation system (e.g., a host cell or cell line) may contain, for example, a leucyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein (e.g., a leucyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein disclosed herein) that can attach to a suppressor leucyl-tRNA (e.g., a suppressor leucyl-tRNA disclosed herein) an unnatural amino acid (e.g., a leucyl analog) to be incorporated into the protein at the position corresponding to the premature stop codon. In certain embodiments, the leucyl suppressor tRNA includes an anticodon sequence that hybridizes to the premature stop codon to allow incorporation of the unnatural amino acid into the protein at the position corresponding to the premature stop codon.

[0184] In certain embodiments, the protein is expressed from a nucleic acid sequence that includes a premature stop codon. The translation system (e.g., a host cell or cell line) may contain, for example, a tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein (e.g., a tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase mutant protein disclosed herein) that can bind to a suppressor tryptophanyl tRNA (e.g., a suppressor tryptophanyl tRNA disclosed herein) an unnatural amino acid (e.g., a tryptophan analog) to be incorporated into the protein at the position corresponding to the premature stop codon. In certain embodiments, the tryptophanyl suppressor tRNA includes an anticodon sequence that hybridizes to the premature stop codon to allow incorporation of the unnatural amino acid into the protein at the position corresponding to the premature stop codon.

[0185] In certain embodiments, the protein (e.g., a protein containing a UAA, e.g., a first and / or second UAA) is expressed or produced in a eukaryotic cell (e.g., a mammalian cell). Characteristics may distinguish a protein produced in a prokaryotic cell (e.g., a bacteria) from a protein produced in a eukaryotic cell (e.g., a mammalian cell). For example, a protein produced in a mammalian cell may undergo post-translational modifications, e.g., modifications that depend on enzymes located in organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus. For example, disulfide bond formation in the endoplasmic reticulum may affect the conformation and / or stabilization of the protein. Further examples of such post-translational modifications include, but are not limited to, sulfation, amidation, palmitation, and glycosylation (e.g., N-linked glycosylation and O-linked glycosylation). Thus, in certain embodiments, a protein (e.g., a protein containing a UAA, e.g., a first and / or second UAA) includes one or more post-translational modifications selected from sulfation, amidation, palmitation, and glycosylation (e.g., N-linked glycosylation and O-linked glycosylation).

[0186] Throughout this specification, although compositions are described as having, including, or comprising particular components, or processes and methods are described as having, including, or comprising particular steps, it is contemplated that in addition there are compositions of the invention that consist essentially of, or consist of, the recited components, and there are processes and methods of the invention that consist essentially of, or consist of, the recited processing steps.

[0187] Although the application describes an element or component as being included in and / or selected from a list of enumerated elements or components, it is understood that the element or component may be any one of the enumerated elements or components, or the element or component can be selected from a group consisting of two or more of the enumerated elements or components.

[0188] Furthermore, it should be understood that the elements and / or features of the compositions or methods described herein, whether express or implied herein, can be combined in various ways without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, a particular compound may be referenced, but that compound may be used in various embodiments of the compositions of the invention and / or methods of the invention, unless otherwise understood to the contrary from the context. In other words, although embodiments have been described and depicted within this application to enable clear and concise applications to be described and depicted, it is intended and will be understood that the embodiments may be combined or separated in various ways without departing from the teachings and the invention. For example, it will be understood that all features described and depicted herein may be applicable to all aspects of the invention described and depicted herein.

[0189] The phrase "at least one of" should be understood to include each of the listed objects following the phrase individually, and various combinations of two or more of the listed objects, unless otherwise understood to the contrary from context and usage. The phrase "and" with respect to three or more listed objects should be understood to have the same meaning, unless otherwise understood to the contrary from context.

[0190] Use of the terms "include," "includes," "including," "have," "has," "having," "contain," "contains," or "containing," including grammatical equivalents thereof, should be understood as being open-ended and open-ended as a whole, e.g., not excluding additional, unrecited elements or steps, unless specifically stated or understood from the context to the contrary.

[0191] When the term "about" is used before a quantitative value, the present invention includes the specific quantitative value itself unless otherwise specifically stated. As used herein, the term "about" refers to a ±10% variation from the stated value unless otherwise stated or inferred.

[0192] It should be understood that the order of steps or order for performing certain actions is immaterial so long as the invention remains operable. Moreover, two or more steps or actions may be conducted simultaneously.

[0193] The use of any and all examples or exemplary phrases, such as "such as" or "including" in this specification is intended merely to better describe the invention and does not limit the scope of the invention unless recited in the claims. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to the practice of the invention.

[0194] Sequence Listing [Table 1(1)] [Table 1(2)] [Table 1(3)]

Table 1(4)

Table 1(5)

Table 1(6)

Table 1(7)

Table 1(8)

Table 1(9)

Table 1(10)

Table 1(11)

Table 1(12)

Table 1(13)

Table 1(14)

Table 1(15)

Table 1(16)

Table 1(17)

Table 1(18)

Table 1(19)

Table 1(20)

[0195] The following examples are merely illustrative and are not intended to limit the scope or content of the invention in any way.

[0196] Example 1 – Multi-site incorporation scheme for the incorporation of multiple unnatural amino acids (UAA) in proteins This example describes an approach utilized for the incorporation of multiple UAAs into a single protein.

[0197] Figure 7 depicts a general scheme for site-specific incorporation of two different UAAs into a protein expressed in mammalian cells. The UGA codon is used with the appropriate tRNA / aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) pair 1 to incorporate a first UAA (UAA1), while the UAG codon is used with a second tRNA / aaRS pair 2 to incorporate a second UAA (UAA2). Regardless of the position of the codons, the two different codons in combination with the appropriate tRNA / aaRS pair will generate a ribosomally expressed protein that contains two different UAAs incorporated at the respective sites.

[0198] Selecting components that allow for successful and efficient incorporation of multiple UAAs into a protein is challenging, given that there are over 2 million possible combinations of different aaRS, tRNA, UAA, codon, and pairwise combinations that can be used for such multisite incorporation. As a result, it is difficult to find a specific combination of these elements suitable for use in site-specific incorporation of two separate bioconjugation handles.

[0199] Example 2 – Comparison of TGA-stop codon-mediated suppression in mammalian cells This example describes studies to analyze the effectiveness of the TGA-stop codon for the incorporation of multiple UAAs into a single protein.

[0200] For all small-scale EGFP integration analyses, the following protocol was used: HEK293T cells were seeded at a density of 600,000 cells per well for 12-well plates the day before transfection. A total of 1.2 μg DNA + 4 μl PEI + 20 μl DMEM was used for each well transfection. For modular 3-plasmid transfections, 0.4 μg of each plasmid was used. For 2-plasmid transfections, 0.6 μg of each plasmid was used. Fluorescent images were acquired by fluorescence microscopy and subsequent EGFP expression analysis was performed 48 hours after transfection. To obtain EGFP expression data, cells were harvested and lysed as previously described (see PCT / US2020 / 045506). EGFP fluorescence in the lysates was collected in 96-well plates (ex=480 nm and em=530 nm) using a SpectraMAX M5 (Molecular Devices). The average of three independent experiments is reported, and error bars represent the standard deviation.

[0201] For larger-scale protein expression studies incorporating two UAAs, HEK293T cells were seeded in 100 mm cell culture dishes (5 million cells per dish) 2 days prior to transfection. Transfection was performed on 80%-90% confluent cells with a reaction mixture of 12 μg DNA + 50 μl PEI + 200 μl DMEM. UAAs were supplemented at the time of transfection to a final concentration of 1 mM. Cells were harvested 48 h post-transfection, lysed with CelLytic M, and C-terminal polyhistidine-tagged proteins were purified using cobalt-containing TALON metal affinity resin columns (Clontech) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Purified proteins were subjected to further characterization, e.g., SDS-PAGE gels and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) (Agilent TOF HPLC-MS).

[0202] Figure 8 describes the comparison of different codon incorporation efficiencies between tRNA / aaRS pairs using pAcBac plasmid with aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (aaRS) under the CMV promoter and tRNA under the h1 / U6 promoter. The tRNA / aaRS used in this study were E. coli tyrosine, pyrrolysine, E. coli leucyl, and E. coli tryptophan plus 1 mM OmeY, BocK, C5Az (Figure 2, Eq. 1, X=S, n=3), and HTP, respectively. Full-length EGFP reporter expression, measured by characteristic fluorescence in cell-free extracts, was determined in each case to represent nonsense suppression efficiency. Each aaRS (Tyr, Pyl, Leu, or Trp) was cotransfected with either the TAG or TGA suppressor of its cognate tRNA and the appropriate EGFP variant (TAG or TGA) to assess how well each pair suppressed two different nonsense codons.

[0203] In the studies corresponding to Figure 8, the following tRNA / aaRS pairs were used: tyrosine - SEQ ID NOs: 70, 69 (CUA), and 68, pyrrolysine - SEQ ID NOs: 101, 73 (CUA), and 72, leucyl - SEQ ID NOs: 4, 16, and 17, and tryptophan - SEQ ID NOs: 45, 50, and 51.

[0204] In these studies, tryptophan demonstrated the highest TGA expression levels.

[0205] Example 3 – Analysis of synthetic enzyme cross-reactivity This example provides an examination of the cross-reactivity of selected combinations of tRNA / aaRS pairs.

[0206] EGFP TAG or TGA reporters were used according to the same protocol described in PCT / US2020 / 045506. 1 mM UAA OmeY, BocK, C5Az, or HTP was used in combination with each tRNA and the respective LeuRS, TyrRS, PylRS, and TrpRS synthetases (Figure 9). In the studies corresponding to Figure 9, the following tRNA / aaRS pairs were used: tyrosine - SEQ ID NO: 70, 69 (CUA), and 68, pyrrolysine - SEQ ID NO: 101, 73 (CUA), and 72, leucyl - SEQ ID NO: 4, 16, and 17, and tryptophan - SEQ ID NO: 45, 50, and 51.

[0207] Figure 9A highlights the cross-reactivity with the TAG suppressor tRNA, while Figure 9B highlights the cross-reactivity with the TGA suppressor tRNA. For example, LeuRS showed selectivity only for its cognate tRNA (Figure 9A), making LeuRS a good candidate for use in multisite UAA incorporation. In contrast, EcTyrRS can bind OmeY to its cognate tyrosine tRNA, but not to Leu-tRNA. CUA (Figure 9A). This trend of cross-reactivity was also observed in TGA suppression between tyrosyl-aaRS and leucyl-tRNA, albeit at a lower rate (Figure 9B). The cross-reactivity between the tyrosyl- and leucyl-tRNA / aaRS pairs is due to the EcTyrRS being able to bind to the leucyl suppressor tRNA, and therefore this combination is incompatible with dual suppression in this setting.

[0208] Example 4 – EGFP ** Site-specific incorporation of two UAAs demonstrated via reporter assay This example demonstrates that it is possible to incorporate two UAAs into a protein in mammalian cells using an EGFP reporter system.

[0209] Plasmids were constructed specifically for the integration of double UAAs. Typically, the plasmid components for each pair contain a CMV-promoted aaRS and a multicopy cassette of tRNA ranging from 4 to 16 copies under the U6 / H1 promoter. By introducing a reporter under a constitutive promoter in one of the plasmids, it is intended to reduce the number of plasmids required in transfection.

[0210] In the studies corresponding to Figure 10, the following tRNA / aaRS pairs were used: tyrosine - SEQ ID NOs: 70, 69 (CUA), and 68, pyrrolysine - SEQ ID NOs: 101, 73 (CUA), and 72, leucyl - SEQ ID NOs: 4, 16, and 17, and tryptophan - SEQ ID NOs: 45, 50, and 51.

[0211] In some instances, EcTyr TGA +Pyl TAG For the plasmid pAcBac3-EcTyr TGA -EGFP ** (EGFP ** represents EGFP-39TAG-151TGA) and pAcBac1-UbiCMbPylRS-8xtRNA CUA Pyl was constructed. EcTyr TAG +Pyl TGA For the plasmid pAcBac3-EcTyr TAG EGFP ** and pAcBac1-CMV-MbPylRS-8xtRNA UCA Pyl was constructed. pAcBac3-EcTyr TAG -EGFP ** was constructed as previously described (e.g., Zheng et al. (2017) CHEM SCI. 8(10):7211-7217), except that it incorporated only 16 tRNA copies (instead of the 20 copies in the original pAcBac3). TGA -EGFP ** A plasmid was constructed similarly, except that it incorporated eight tRNA copies: pAcBac1-CMV-MbPylRS-8xtRNA.UCA To generate the Pyl plasmid, we first synthesized tandem tRNAs, each driven by a U6 promoter. UCA pIDT-Kan-8xtRNA containing eight copies of Pyl UCA The Pyl plasmid was prepared. The 8xtRNA cassette was excised from this plasmid by NheI / AvrII digestion and inserted into the SpeI site of the previously reported pAcBac1-MbPylRS plasmid. A similar cloning strategy was used to create the corresponding TAG-suppressed plasmid pAcBac1-UbiC-MbPylRS8xtRNA CUA We constructed pyl. pAcBac3-EcLeuTAG-EGFP. ** For the construction of the plasmid, the DNA sequence encoding EcLeuRS was amplified by PCR to replace AnapRS in the previously reported plasmid pAcBac2R-8xEcLtR-AnapRS3 with NheI and EcoRI restriction enzyme sites. The EcLeuRS gene was also replaced with other aaRS mutants in the work described below. ** was PCR amplified and inserted into the SfiI site to generate the final plasmid. A similarly designed plasmid was generated for the E. coli TrpRS / tRNA pair with minimal differences in the DNA regions.

[0212] EGFP ** Expression levels of multisite UAA incorporation in reporter pAcBac-tRNA / aaRS and pAcBac-tRNA / aaRS / EGFP ** The first plasmid combination of the tyrosine TGA suppressor and pyrrolysine TAG suppressor plasmids was determined in Figure 10 using various combinations of UAAs. 1 mM of each UAA was used. For example, the first plasmid combination of the tyrosine TGA suppressor and pyrrolysine TAG suppressor plasmids was determined in Figure 10 using the EGFP suppressor with UAA combination OMeY + BocK or the UAA combination AzF + CpK. **The fluorescence levels of low but bioconjugation-friendly amino acid combinations, such as AzF+CpK (797) and Cy5-N3+CpK (204), are important to compare with high-yielding combinations, such as 5HTP+CpK (1226), Cy5-N3+5HTP (1077), and 5HTP+AzF (1670), which show 2- to 10-fold improvements in yield compared to all other existing bioconjugation options. For the tested UAA combinations, a single band was observed when the protein was analyzed by SDS-PAGE, indicating a homogenous product (Figure 10B).

[0213] Standard whole-protein ESI-MS analysis was performed on the 10 EGFPs described above. ** mutants. In Figure 11A-G, unlabeled proteins containing two different UAAs were analyzed for molecular weight and purity. Figure 11A shows the results for EGFP containing UAA HTP and BocK, Figure 11B shows the results for EGFP containing UAA 5HTP and OMeY, Figure 11C shows the results for EGFP containing UAA 5HTP and Cys-5-N3, Figure 11D shows the results for EGFP containing UAA 5HTP and BocK, Figure 11E shows the results for EGFP containing UAA 5HTP and cyclopropene-K, Figure 11F shows the results for EGFP containing UAA AzW and cyclopropene-K, and Figure 11G shows the results for EGFP containing UAA 5HTP and AzK. All protein samples were homogenous, demonstrating site-specific incorporation of each UAA. The expected mass was observed in each example.

[0214] EGFP ** The reporter contains an EGFP protein with two stop codons (TAG and TGA). A fluorophore was then conjugated to this mutant in a one-pot reaction. EGFP with azide ** For click labeling of proteins, 1 μg purified EGFP **was incubated with 20 μM DBCO-Cy5 (Sigma). EGFP containing an alkyne UAA ** For labeling, 1 μg of protein was incubated with 50 μM Alexa Fluor 488 picolyl azide (Fisher Scientific) for 2 h at room temperature. As a control experiment, an identical reaction with wild-type EGFP was set up. To label EGFP containing CpK, 5 μM of protein was incubated with 200 μM tetrazine fluorescein in PBS for 30 min at room temperature. For protein containing 5HTP, 1 μg of purified EGFP was incubated with 200 μM tetrazine fluorescein in PBS for 30 min at room temperature. ** (approximately 6-10 μM) was labeled with a 5-fold excess of diazonium. ** Figure 11I shows the liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LCMS) results of single labeling using the conditions described above with a diazonium fluorophore that labels only the target 5HTP, depicting the single expected mass shift from the unlabeled Figure 11G. Figure 11I shows the EGFP containing 5HTP and AzK. ** FIG. 11J shows the LCMS results of single labeling with DBCO-TAMRA using the conditions described above, where only the target azide is labeled, depicting the single expected mass shift from the unlabeled FIG. 11G. FIG. 11J shows the LCMS results of single labeling with DBCO-TAMRA using the conditions described above, depicting the single expected mass shift from the unlabeled FIG. 11G. ** The LCMS results of dual labeling with diazonium fluorophores and DBCO-TAMRA using the conditions described above, in which 5HTP is selectively labeled with diazonium and AzK is selectively labeled with DBCO-TAMRA, are shown, depicting the single expected mass shift from the unlabeled form in Figure 11G.

[0215] After labeling, the resulting proteins were also subjected to SDS-PAGE analysis and imaged with a BioRad Chemidoc imaging instrument using either the Fluorescein or TAMRA settings. Under these settings, only bands containing the labeled protein were visible, and the results of this analysis are shown in Figure 12.

[0216] Example 5 –Incorporation of multiple different UAAs into antibodies and subsequent characterization This example describes the incorporation of two UAAs into an antibody and subsequent characterization of the antibody protein.

[0217] The ability to incorporate two different UAAs into proteins was extended to antibodies. The antibody utilized in this study was a full-length human IgG1 subclass monoclonal antibody (mAb) that contains a region of homology to antibodies such as trastuzumab (Herceptin). UCA A tryptophan plasmid was constructed containing the CMV-promoted TrpRS.h14 (SEQ ID NO: 45) with the 4xU6-promoted LeutRNA.h14 (SEQ ID NO: 51). CUA The construct contained the CMV-promoted LeuRS.v1 (SEQ ID NO: 2) with the LC- and HC-chain antibody fragments (SEQ ID NO: 16). The light chain (LC) and heavy chain (HC) antibody fragments were constitutively expressed under the CMV promoter. An improved system is contemplated herein to introduce the LC and HC antibody fragments on a suppressor plasmid, increasing the transient transfection yields that are already significantly higher than any other multisite suppressor protein reported. These plasmids were transfected into Expi293 according to the manufacturer's protocol, together with one plasmid containing the HC mutant and one plasmid containing the LC mutant with a stop codon, as depicted in FIG. 15.

[0218] Proteins were purified through a standard Protein G column as described in the manufacturer's protocol using 1 mM UAA and as described above, yielding 66 mg / L and 72 mg / L total protein for HC-T202-TGA / LC-K113-TAG (incorporating UAA HTP and LCA) and HC-T202-TAG / LC-K113-TGA (incorporating UAA LCA and HTP) antibodies. Protein yields are shown in Figure 13A. Protein concentrations were measured using Bradford assay or ultraviolet-visible (UV / Vis) absorbance using Nanodrop in IgG settings. SDS-PAGE analysis (Figure 13B) depicts clean bands for wild type (WT) (1), HTP / LCA (2) and LCA / HTP (3) with no gross cleavage observed. These antibodies contain two site-specific distinct UAAs with orthogonal / compatible conjugation chemistries. Figure 14 depicts the targeted PNGase / reduced LCMS data. The target mass of LC containing K113-LCA is observed alone (Figure 14A). For the HC mass, two peaks are observed (Figure 14A). A deglycosylated target mass of 49,853 was observed, but partial deglycosylation resulted in a glycosylated product (51,296). Without wishing to be bound by theory, this result may occur when the incorporation site of UAA is sterically close to the glycosylation site. Nevertheless, what is important is that in the absence of PNGase / reduction, a pure intact protein mass is observed.

[0219] The HC-T202-TGA / LC-K113-TAG (HTP / LCA) antibody was labeled with diazo-PEG4-biotin and DBCO-AF647, depicted diagrammatically in FIG. 16, using the methodology as described above. FIG. 16 is a simplified depiction since due to the dimeric nature of the mAb, each labeling reagent labels the antibody twice (resulting in a total of four conjugates). The HPLC-HIC traces in FIG. 17 showed the appropriate shifts with the addition of the hydrophobic molecules AF647 and biotin. FIG. 17A shows the unlabeled LC and HC peaks. FIG. 17B shows the shift of the LC peak with the addition of DBCO-AF647. Two additional peaks are seen, but these correspond to the DBCO-AF647 addition, as revealed by the DBCO-AF647 only control without mAb (FIG. 17E), and therefore do not indicate a decrease in sample purity. Figure 17C shows the HC peak shift upon addition of diazo-biotin, and Figure 17D shows the complete shift to a more hydrophobic peak when co-labeled. Overall, approximately 100% labeling was observed by HPLC-HIC, indicating very high overall protein purity.

[0220] Overall, these studies demonstrate the ability to incorporate multiple different UAAs into antibodies and to use these antibodies (as described above for EGFP ** The ability to label with therapeutic payloads or fluorophores (as was done in reporter experiments) has been demonstrated.

[0221] Incorporation by Reference The entire disclosure of each patent and scientific literature referred to herein is incorporated by reference for all purposes.

[0222] Equivalent The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The above-described embodiments are therefore considered in all respects to be illustrative and not limiting of the invention described herein. The scope of the invention is therefore indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description, and all changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are intended to be embraced therein.

Claims

1. 1. A method for producing a protein that comprises a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) and a second, different UAA, comprising: (i) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an analog or derivative of tryptophanyl-tRNA, the anticodon hybridizing to a first codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and capable of binding a tryptophan analog; (ii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an analog or derivative of a tryptophanyl-aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase capable of attaching said tryptophan analog to said analog or derivative of said tryptophanyl-tRNA; (iii) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an analog or derivative of leucyl-tRNA that comprises an anticodon that hybridizes to a second codon selected from UAG, UGA, and UAA and is capable of binding a leucine analog, wherein the analog or derivative of tryptophanyl-tRNA and the analog or derivative of leucyl-tRNA do not contain the same anticodon; (iv) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding an analog or derivative of a leucyl-aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase capable of attaching the leucine analog to the analog or derivative of the leucyl-tRNA; and (v) a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding the protein comprising the first codon and the second codon; under conditions that allow an analog or derivative of the tryptophanyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the tryptophan analog, to hybridize to the first codon and direct incorporation of the tryptophan analog into the protein, and an analog or derivative of the leucyl-tRNA, when expressed in the cell and binding the leucine analog, to hybridize to the second codon and direct incorporation of the leucine analog into the protein, the analog or derivative of tryptophanyl-tRNA comprises a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 49-54, and 108-113; the tryptophanyl-aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase analog or derivative comprises an amino acid sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 44 to 48; the leucyl-tRNA analog or derivative comprises a nucleotide sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 17 to 43; The leucyl-aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase analog or derivative comprises an amino acid sequence selected from any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1 to 15; the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW; the leucine analog is selected from LCA and Cys-5-N3; A method wherein the amount of the protein containing the first and second UAAs expressed by the cell is at least 10% of the amount of a reference protein expressed by the same cell or a similar cell, the reference protein being the same protein except that it does not contain the first and second UAAs.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the amount of the protein containing the first and second UAA expressed by the cell is at least 20% of the amount of the reference protein expressed by the same or a similar cell.

3. The method of claim 1 or 2, wherein the reference protein comprises wild-type amino acid residues at positions in the reference protein that correspond to the positions of the first and second UAAs in a protein comprising the first and second UAAs.

4. 4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the protein is an antibody, or a fragment thereof, or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a bispecific antibody, a nanobody, an affibody, a viral protein, a chemokine, a cytokine, an antigen, a blood clotting factor, a hormone, a growth factor, an enzyme, a cell signaling protein, or any other polypeptide or protein.

5. a) the cell is a human cell, the cell being a human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell, or The method according to any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the cell is a Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell.

6. The method of any one of claims 1 to 5, further comprising a step of chemically modifying the first or second UAA, or both UAAs, wherein the chemical modification is different from the first or second UAA, and the chemical modification is selected from the group consisting of conjugation to a detectable label, conjugation to a molecule, or conjugation to a drug.

7. 1. A protein expressed in a mammalian cell, comprising a first unnatural amino acid (UAA) that is a tryptophan analog and a second UAA, wherein the tryptophan analog is selected from 5-HTP and 5-AzW, and the second UAA is selected from a leucine analog, a tyrosine analog, and a pyrrolysine analog; the leucine analog is selected from LCA and Cys-5-N3; the tyrosine analogue is selected from OmeY, and OpropY; The protein, wherein the pyrrolysine analog is selected from BocK, CpK, and AzK.

8. The protein of claim 7 , wherein a detectable label or molecule is covalently attached to the protein via the first UAA and / or the second UAA.

9. The protein of claim 8, wherein the detectable label or molecule attached to the protein via the first UAA is different from the detectable label or molecule attached to the protein via the second UAA.

10. 10. The protein of any one of claims 7 to 9, wherein the protein is an antibody, or a fragment thereof, or an antigen-binding fragment thereof, a bispecific antibody, a nanobody, an affibody, a viral protein, a chemokine, a cytokine, an antigen, a blood clotting factor, a hormone, a growth factor, an enzyme, a cell signaling protein, or any other polypeptide or protein.

11. 11. The protein of any one of claims 7 to 10, wherein the protein is a human IgG1 antibody, the first UAA is incorporated into a light chain of the antibody, and the second UAA is incorporated into a heavy chain of the antibody.

12. The protein of claim 11, wherein the first UAA is 5-HTP and the second UAA is LCA.

13. The protein of claim 11 or claim 12, wherein the first UAA and the second UAA are chemically conjugated to a detectable label, a small molecule, or a drug.

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