Advanced reactor for electrochemical reactions of CO2, CO and other chemical compounds

Abstract

CO x A device and method for electrochemically reducing (CO2, CO, or a combination thereof) to carbon-containing compounds is provided. [Solution] CO x A platform technology has been developed that uses a novel membrane electrode assembly in a reduction reactor, which includes a cathode layer 220, an anode layer 240, and a membrane layer disposed between and conductively connecting the cathode and anode layers. The reactor can be used to synthesize a wide range of carbon-based compounds from carbon dioxide and other carbon-containing gases.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] The present disclosure relates generally to the field of electrochemical reactions, and more particularly to the electrochemical reaction of CO x (CO 2 The present invention relates to devices and methods for electrochemically reducing hydrogen (CO, CO, or a combination thereof) to carbon-containing compounds.

[0002] Government Support Statement The Government has rights in this invention pursuant to User Agreement FP00003032 between Opus 12, Incorporated and The Regents of the University of California, operating the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.

[0003] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 331,387, filed May 3, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [Background technology]

[0004] Anthropogenic CO 2 Emissions are linked to climate change.

[0005] As global greenhouse gas emissions become a growing concern, CO 2 Technologies that can reuse waste materials in high-value products are attracting attention.

[0006] CO x (CO 2 , CO or a combination thereof) is electrochemically reduced by CO xThe electrochemical reactor combines three inputs, a proton source and electricity, and converts them into fuels, chemicals and other products, such as methanol, ethanol, carbon monoxide and acetic acid. However, it has not been possible to achieve industrial-scale production of such fuels and chemicals. One of the barriers is the lack of a suitable electrochemical reactor. One of the difficulties in achieving an efficient reactor using conventional designs is the need to convert CO in aqueous solutions into x CO is generated due to its low solubility in water and the inability to control the competing water reduction reaction that leads to hydrogen production. x The problem is that it is difficult to transport the catalyst surface in the reactor.

[0007] The present disclosure provides a CO x We present a novel and useful electrochemical reactor for the reduction of CO dissolved in water. x In contrast to gas-phase CO x can be fed to the reactor to achieve efficient transport and product production rates. x An ionically conductive polymer surrounding the conversion catalyst minimizes competing hydrogen-forming reactions. The reactor is energy efficient, has high current density, fast response time, is robust and flexible in the types of chemical products it can produce. Summary of the Invention

[0008] In one embodiment of the present invention, CO xA membrane electrode assembly (MEA) for use in a reduction reactor is provided. The MEA includes a cathode layer including a reduction catalyst and a first ion conducting polymer, and an anode layer including an oxidation catalyst and a second ion conducting polymer. Between the anode layer and the cathode layer is a polymer electrolyte membrane including a third ion conducting polymer. The polymer electrolyte membrane provides ionic communication between the anode layer and the cathode layer. Also between the cathode layer and the polymer electrolyte membrane is a cathode buffer layer including a fourth ion conducting polymer, a cathode buffer. There are three classes of ion conducting polymers: anion conductors, cation conductors, and cation and anion conductors. At least two of the first, second, third and fourth ion conducting polymers are from different classes of ion conducting polymers.

[0009] In one configuration, the reduction catalyst is selected from the group consisting of V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Sn, Zr, Nb, Mo, Au, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, Hg, Al, Si, In, Ga, Tl, Pb, Bi, Sb, Te, Sm, Tb, Ce, and Nd, and combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable reduction catalyst. The reduction catalyst may further include conductive support particles selected from the group consisting of carbon, boron-doped diamond, fluorine-doped tin oxide, and combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable reduction catalyst.

[0010] In one configuration, the cathode layer comprises 10 to 90 weight percent of a first ion-conducting polymer. The first ion-conducting polymer can include at least one ion-conducting polymer that is an anion conductor.

[0011] The first ion-conducting polymer may include one or more covalently attached positively charged functional groups configured to transport negatively charged mobile ions. The first ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of aminated tetramethylpolyphenylene, poly(ethylene-co-tetrafluoroethylene)-based quaternary ammonium polymers, quaternized polysulfones), mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymers. The first ion-conducting polymer may be configured to solubilize bicarbonate or hydroxide salts.

[0012] The first ion-conducting polymer may include at least one ion-conducting polymer that is a cation and anion conductor. The first ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of polyethers capable of transporting cations and anions and polyesters capable of transporting cations and anions. The first ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of polyethylene oxide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinylidene fluoride, and polyurethane.

[0013] In one configuration, the oxidation catalyst is selected from the group consisting of metals and oxides of Ir, Pt, Ni, Ru, Pd, Au and alloys thereof, IrRu, PtIr, Ni, NiFe, stainless steel, and combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable metal or metal oxide. The oxidation catalyst may further include conductive support particles selected from the group consisting of carbon, boron-doped diamond, and titanium.

[0014] In one configuration, the anode layer comprises 5 to 95 weight percent of a second ion-conducting polymer. The second ion-conducting polymer may comprise at least one ion-conducting polymer that is a cation conductor.

[0015] The second ion-conducting polymer may include one or more polymers that include covalently bound negatively charged functional groups configured to transport positively charged mobile ions. The second ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of ethanesulfonyl fluoride, 2-[1-[difluoro-[(trifluoroethenyl)oxy]methyl]-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethoxy]-1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoro-, tetrafluoroethylene, tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoro-3,6-dioxa-4-methyl-7-octenesulfonic acid copolymers, other perfluorosulfonic acid polymers, mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymers.

[0016] In one configuration, the third ion-conducting polymer includes at least one ion-conducting polymer that is a cation conductor. The third ion-conducting polymer can include one or more covalently attached negatively charged functional groups configured to transport positively charged mobile ions. The third ion-conducting polymer can be selected from the group consisting of ethanesulfonyl fluoride, 2-[1-[difluoro-[(trifluoroethenyl)oxy]methyl]-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethoxy]-1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoro-, tetrafluoroethylene, tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoro-3,6-dioxa-4-methyl-7-octenesulfonic acid copolymers, other perfluorosulfonic acid polymers, mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymers.

[0017] In one configuration, the cathode buffer layer has a porosity of 0.01% to 95% (e.g., by weight %, volume %, mass %, etc., approximately therebetween), however, in other configurations, the cathode buffer layer can have any suitable porosity (e.g., 0.01 to 95%, 0.1 to 95%, 0.01 to 75%, 1 to 95%, 1 to 90%, etc.).

[0018] In one configuration, the fourth ion-conducting polymer comprises at least one ion-conducting polymer that is an anion conductor. The fourth ion-conducting polymer can comprise one or more covalently attached positively charged functional groups configured to transport negatively charged mobile ions. The fourth ion-conducting polymer can be selected from the group consisting of aminated tetramethylpolyphenylene, poly(ethylene-co-tetrafluoroethylene)-based quaternary ammonium polymers, quaternized polysulfones, mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymers.

[0019] In one configuration, the first ion-conducting polymer and the fourth ion-conducting polymer are from the same class. In one configuration, the second ion-conducting polymer and the third ion-conducting polymer are from the same class.

[0020] In one configuration, the membrane electrode assembly further includes an anode buffer layer between the anode layer and the polymer electrolyte membrane, the anode buffer layer comprising a fifth ion-conducting polymer.

[0021] In the membrane electrode assembly, the fifth ion-conducting polymer includes at least one ion-conducting polymer that is a cation conductor. The fifth ion-conducting polymer can include one or more covalently bound negatively charged functional groups configured to transport positively charged mobile ions.

[0022] The fifth ion-conducting polymer may be selected from the group consisting of ethanesulfonyl fluoride, 2-[1-[difluoro-[(trifluoroethenyl)oxy]methyl]-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethoxy]-1,1,2,2,-tetrafluoro-, tetrafluoroethylene, tetrafluoroethylene-perfluoro-3,6-dioxa-4-methyl-7-octenesulfonic acid copolymer, other perfluorosulfonic acid polymers, mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymer. The second ion-conducting polymer and the fifth ion-conducting polymer may be from the same class.

[0023] In one configuration, the anode buffer layer has a porosity of 0.01% to 95% (e.g., by weight %, volume %, mass %, etc., approximately therebetween), however, in other configurations, the anode buffer layer can have any suitable porosity (e.g., 0.01 to 95%, 0.1 to 95%, 0.01 to 75%, 1 to 95%, 1 to 90%, etc.).

[0024] In another embodiment of the present invention, CO x A membrane electrode assembly (MEA) for use in a reduction reactor is provided. The MEA has a cathode layer including a reduction catalyst and a first ion-conducting polymer, and an anode layer including an oxidation catalyst and a second ion-conducting polymer. Between the anode layer and the cathode layer is a polymer electrolyte membrane. The polymer electrolyte membrane includes a third ion-conducting polymer and provides ionic communication between the anode layer and the cathode layer. There are three classes of ion-conducting polymers: anion conductors, cation conductors, and cation and anion conductors. At least two of the first, second, and third ion-conducting polymers are from different classes of ion-conducting polymers.

[0025] In another embodiment of the present invention, CO xA reduction reactor is provided. The reactor has at least one electrochemical cell including any of the membrane electrode assemblies described herein. The reactor also has a cathode support structure adjacent to the cathode, the cathode support structure including a cathode plate, at least one cathode gas diffusion layer, at least one inlet, and at least one outlet. There is also an anode cell support structure adjacent to the anode. The anode support structure includes an anode plate, at least one anode gas diffusion layer, at least one inlet, and at least one outlet. In yet another embodiment of the present invention, x A method of operating a reduction reactor is provided, which results in the production of a reaction product. The process includes the steps of providing an electrochemical reactor, the electrochemical reactor comprising at least one electrochemical cell including a membrane electrode assembly, a cathode support structure adjacent to the cathode, the cathode support structure including a cathode plate, at least one cathode gas diffusion layer, at least one inlet and at least one outlet, and an anode cell support structure adjacent to the anode, the anode support structure including an anode plate, at least one anode gas diffusion layer, at least one inlet and at least one outlet; applying a direct current voltage to the cathode plate and the anode plate; supplying one or more oxidation reactants to the anode to cause an oxidation reaction; supplying one or more reduction reactants to the cathode to cause a reduction reaction; recovering an oxidation reaction product from the anode; and recovering a reduction reaction product from the cathode.

[0026] The oxidation reactant may be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, methane, ammonia, water, or combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable oxidation reactant. In one configuration, the oxidation reactant is water.

[0027] The reduction reactant may be selected from the group consisting of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable and / or any other suitable reduction reactant. In one configuration, the reduction reactant is carbon dioxide. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0028] The foregoing and other aspects will be readily understood by those of ordinary skill in the art from the following description of exemplary embodiments, when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. [Figure 1] FIG. 1 shows a typical membrane electrode assembly used in a conventional water electrolysis reactor to produce hydrogen and oxygen. [Diagram 2] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a membrane electrode assembly for use in a novel COx reduction reactor (CRR) according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Diagram 3] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing possible morphologies of two different catalysts supported on a catalyst support particle according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a membrane electrode assembly for use in a novel CRR according to another embodiment of the present invention. [Diagram 5] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram illustrating a membrane electrode assembly for use in a novel CRR according to yet another embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing the main components of a COx reduction reactor (CRR) according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing the main components of a CRR according to one embodiment of the present invention, with arrows indicating the flow of molecules, ions and electrons. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram showing the main inputs and outputs of the CRR reactor. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0029] A preferred embodiment is x (CO 2The present invention is illustrated in the context of reducing CO, CO2, or a combination thereof to produce useful chemicals and fuels. However, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the materials and methods disclosed herein have application in many other situations in which reduction reactions are desirable, particularly in many other situations in which it is important to produce a variety of chemicals under a variety of reaction conditions. x The reactor used to reduce can also be used to reduce other compounds, such as N 2 , S.O. x , NO x , Acetic acid, Ethylene, O 2 and any other suitable reducible compound or combinations thereof.

[0030] All publications mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes as if fully set forth herein.

[0031] Table 1 lists some abbreviations used throughout this application. TIFF0007657763000001.tif47170

[0032] The term "ion-conducting polymer" is used herein to describe a polymer electrolyte having a specific conductivity greater than about 1 mS / cm for anions and / or cations. The term "anion conductor" refers to an ion-conducting polymer that conducts primarily anions (although there is still a small amount of cation conductivity) and has a transport number for the anions greater than about 0.85 at a thickness of about 100 microns. The terms "cation conductor" and / or "cation-conducting polymer" refer to an ion-conducting polymer that conducts primarily cations (e.g., there is still an incidental amount of anion conductivity) and has a transport number for the cations greater than about 0.85 at a thickness of about 100 microns. For ion-conducting polymers that are described as conducting both anions and cations ("cation and anion conductors"), neither the anions nor the cations have a transport number greater than about 0.85 or less than about 0.15 at a thickness of about 100 microns. To say that a material conducts ions (anions and / or cations) is to say that the material is an ion-conducting material.

[0033] Hydration is effective for ionic conduction in most ion-conducting polymers. x Alternatively, anode feed humidification can be used to supply liquid water to the MEA to keep the ion-conducting polymer hydrated.

[0034] In one embodiment of the present invention, the novel membrane electrode assembly is used in an electrochemical cell. x A CO2 reduction reactor (CRR) has been developed. Table 2 shows the CO2 reduction rate in such a reactor. x Listed below are some examples of useful chemicals that can be produced from TIFF0007657763000002.tif68170

[0035] Membrane Electrode Assembly A conventional membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 100 used for water electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen is shown in Figure 1. The MEA 100 comprises a cathode 120 and an anode 140 separated by an ion-conducting polymer layer 160, which provides a path for ions to travel between the cathode 120 and the anode 140. The cathode 120 and anode 140 each contain an ion-conducting polymer, catalyst particles, and an electronically conductive catalyst support. The ion-conducting polymers in the cathode 120, anode 140, and ion-conducting polymer layer 160 are all cation conductors or all anion conductors.

[0036] Conventional MEAs 100 are not suitable for use in CRRs. If all ion-conducting polymers were cation conductors, the environment would favor water reduction, producing hydrogen in an undesirable side reaction. Hydrogen production would be accompanied by CO x This reduces the rate of product formation and reduces the overall efficiency of the process. If all ion-conducting polymers are anion conductors, then CO 2 reacts with hydroxide anions in the ionically conductive polymer to form bicarbonate anions. The electric field in the reactor moves the bicarbonate anions from the cathode side of the cell to the anode side of the cell. At the anode, the bicarbonate anions are converted to CO 2 This results in CO being transported from the cathode to the anode of the cell. 2 There is a net transfer of CO to the anode side of the cell, where it does not react and is diluted by the anode reactants and products. 2 This loss reduces the efficiency of the process.

[0037] A novel membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 200 for use in a CRR according to one embodiment of the present invention is shown in Figure 2. The MEA 200 has a cathode 220 and an anode 240 separated by an ion-conducting polymer layer 260, which provides a pathway for ions to travel between the cathode 220 and the anode 240. It is generally particularly useful for the cathode and anode layers of the MEA to be porous to facilitate gas and fluid transport and to maximize the catalytic surface area available for reaction.

[0038] The cathode 220 comprises a mixture of reduced catalyst particles, electronically conductive support particles that support the reduced catalyst particles, and a cathode ionically conductive polymer. There is a trade-off in the selection of the amount of cathode ionically conductive polymer in the cathode. It is important to have enough cathode ionically conductive polymer to provide sufficient ionic conductivity. However, it is also important that the cathode is porous so that reactants and products can easily move through the cathode and maximize the catalytic surface area available for reaction. In various configurations, the cathode ionically conductive polymer comprises any of the following ranges: 30-70 wt%, 20-80 wt%, or 10-90 wt% or other suitable ranges of material in the cathode layer. The weight percent of ionically conductive polymer in the cathode will affect the porosity and ionic conductivity of the cathode layer relative to the CO2. xIt is selected to provide the highest current density for reduction. Examples of materials that can be used for the reduction catalyst particles include, but are not limited to, transition metals such as V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zr, Nb, Mo, Au, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Ir, Pt, and Hg, and combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable materials. Other catalyst materials include alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, actinides, and metals to the right of the transition metals in the periodic table such as Sn, Si, Ga, Pb, Al, Tl, Sb, Te, Bi, Sm, Tb, Ce, Nd, and In, or combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable catalyst materials. The catalyst can be in the form of nanoparticles in the size range of about 1-100 nm, or particles in the size range of about 0.2-10 nm, or particles in the size range of about 1-1000 nm, or particles in any other suitable range.

[0039] The conductive support particles of the cathode can be carbon particles of various forms. Other possible conductive support particles include boron doped diamond or fluorine doped tin oxide. In one configuration, the conductive support particles are vulcanized carbon. The conductive support particles may be nanoparticles. The size range of the conductive support particles is about 20 nm to 1000 nm or any other suitable range. It is particularly useful for the conductive support particles to be compatible with the chemistry present in the cathode 220 when the CRR is operating, to be reductively stable, and to have a high hydrogen generation overpotential so as not to participate in any electrochemical reactions.

[0040] Such conductive support particles are generally larger than the reduced catalyst particles, and each conductive support particle can support many reduced catalyst particles. Figure 3 is a schematic diagram showing possible configurations of two different catalysts supported on a catalyst support particle 310, such as a carbon particle. A first type of catalyst particle 330 and a second type of second catalyst particle 350 are attached to the catalyst support particle 310. In various configurations, there is only one type of catalyst particle attached to the catalyst support particle 310, or there are two or more types of catalyst particles.

[0041] Referring again to FIG. 2, the anode 240 includes a mixture of an oxidation catalyst and an anode ion-conducting polymer. There is a trade-off in the selection of the amount of ion-conducting polymer in the anode. It is important to have enough anode ion-conducting polymer to provide sufficient ion conductivity. However, it is also important that the anode is porous so that reactants and products can easily move through the anode and maximize the catalytic surface area available for reaction. In various configurations, the ion-conducting polymer in the anode constitutes about 50% by weight of the layer, or about 5-20%, 10-90%, 20-80%, 25-70% by weight or any suitable range. It is particularly useful for the anode 240 to be able to withstand high voltages, such as voltages greater than about 1.2 V versus a reversible hydrogen electrode. It is particularly useful for the anode 240 to be porous to maximize the catalytic surface area available for reaction and to facilitate gas and liquid transport.

[0042] There are various oxidation reactions that can occur at the anode, depending on the reactants provided to the anode and the anode catalyst. Table 3 lists oxidation reactions that can occur at the anode and some exemplary catalysts that support those reactions. The oxidation catalyst may be in the form of a structured mesh or in the form of particles. If the oxidation catalyst is in the form of particles, the particles can be supported by electronically conductive support particles. The conductive support particles may be nanoparticles. It is particularly useful for the conductive support particles to be compatible with the chemicals present in the anode 240 when the CRR is operating and to be oxidatively stable so that they do not participate in any electrochemical reactions. It is particularly useful to select the conductive support particles considering the voltage and reactants at the anode. In some configurations, the conductive support particles are titanium, which is well suited for high voltages. In other configurations, the conductive support particles are carbon, which may be most useful at low voltages. Generally, such conductive support particles are larger than the oxidation catalyst particles, and each conductive support particle can support many oxidation catalyst particles. An example of such a configuration is shown in FIG. 3, as described above. In one configuration, the oxidation catalyst is ruthenium iridium oxide. Examples of other materials that can be used for the oxidation catalyst include, but are not limited to, those shown in Table 3. It should be understood that many of these metal catalysts may be in the oxide form, particularly under the reaction conditions.

[0043] TIFF0007657763000003.tif125170

[0044] The ion exchange layer 260 can include three sublayers: a cathode buffer layer 225, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) 265, and an optional anode buffer layer 245. Although some layers of the ion exchange layer can be porous, it is useful to have at least one layer non-porous so that reactants and products of the cathode cannot pass to the anode, and vice versa.

[0045] The polymer electrolyte membrane 265 has high ionic conductivity (ionic conductivity greater than about 1 mS / cm) and is mechanically stable. Mechanical stability can be demonstrated in various ways, such as high tensile strength, modulus, elongation at break, and tear resistance. Many commercially available membranes can be used for the polymer electrolyte membrane 265. Examples include, but are not limited to, various Nafion® formulations, GORE-SELECT, FumaPEM® (PFSA) (FuMA-Tech GmbH), and Aquivion® (PFSA) (Solvay).

[0046] It is important to note that when the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 is a cation conductor and conducting protons, it contains a high concentration of protons during operation of the CRR, while the cathode 220 operates best when there is a low concentration of protons. It may be useful to include a cathode buffer layer 225 between the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 and the cathode 220 to provide a transition region from a high concentration of protons to a low concentration of protons. In one configuration, the cathode buffer layer 225 is an ion-conducting polymer that has many of the same properties as the ion-conducting polymer in the cathode 220. The cathode buffer layer 225 provides a transition region of proton concentration from the polymer electrolyte membrane 265, which has a high concentration of protons, to the cathode 220, which has a low concentration of protons. In the cathode buffer layer 225, the protons from the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 meet the anions from the cathode 220 and they neutralize each other. The cathode buffer layer 225 helps to prevent a detrimental number of protons from the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 from reaching the cathode 220 and increasing the proton concentration. If the proton concentration in the cathode 220 is too high, CO x A high proton concentration is believed to be in the range of about 10 to 0.1 molar, and a low concentration is believed to be less than about 0.01 molar.

[0047] The cathode buffer layer 225 can include a single polymer or multiple polymers. When the cathode buffer layer 225 includes multiple polymers, the multiple polymers can be mixed with each other or can be disposed in separate adjacent layers. Examples of materials that can be used for the cathode buffer layer 225 include, but are not limited to, FumaSep FAA-3, Sustainion®, Tokuyama anion exchange membrane materials, and polyether-based polymers such as polyethylene oxide (PEO), mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable ion-conducting polymer or material. The thickness of the cathode buffer layer can be adjusted to accommodate the low proton concentration, resulting in a high CO x The thickness is selected so that the reduction activity is sufficiently high. This sufficiency may vary depending on the cathode buffer layer material. In general, the thickness of the cathode buffer layer is about 200 nm to 100 μm, 300 nm to 75 μm, 500 nm to 50 μm, or any suitable range.

[0048] It may be useful for some or all of the layers, cathode 220, cathode buffer layer 225, anode 240, and anode buffer layer 245, to be porous. In some configurations, porosity is achieved by combining inert filler particles with the polymer in those layers. Suitable materials for the inert filler particles include TiO 2, silica, PTFE, zirconia and alumina. In various configurations, the size of the inert filler particles is 5 nm to 500 μm, 10 nm to 100 μm, or any suitable size range. In other configurations, porosity is achieved by using a specific processing method when the layer is formed. One example of such a processing method is laser ablation, which forms nano- to micro-sized channels in the layer. Laser ablation can additionally or alternatively achieve porosity in the layer by subsurface ablation. Subsurface ablation can form voids in the layer by focusing a beam at a point in the layer to vaporize the layer material in the vicinity of that point. By repeating this process, voids can be formed throughout the layer and porosity in the layer can be achieved. The volume of the voids is preferably determined by the laser power (e.g., higher laser power corresponds to a larger void volume), but can additionally or alternatively be determined by the focal size of the beam or any other suitable laser parameter. Another example is to mechanically perforate a layer to form channels through the layer. The porosity can have any suitable distribution within the layer (e.g., uniform, an increasing porosity gradient through the layer, a random porosity gradient, a decreasing porosity gradient through the layer, periodic porosity, etc.).

[0049] In some CRR reactions, bicarbonate is produced at the cathode 220. To prevent migration of bicarbonate out of the cathode, it may be useful to have a polymer somewhere between the cathode 220 and the anode 240 that blocks bicarbonate transport. As the bicarbonate migrates, it releases some CO 2 can be captured, making CO available for reaction at the cathode. 2In one configuration, the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 includes a polymer that blocks bicarbonate transport. Examples of such polymers include, but are not limited to, Nafion® formulations, GORE-SELECT, FumaPEM® (PFSA) (FuMA-Tech GmbH), and Aquivion® (PFSA) (Solvay). In another configuration, between the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 and the anode 240 is an anode buffer layer 245 that blocks bicarbonate transport. If the polymer electrolyte membrane is an anion conductor or does not block bicarbonate transport, an additional anode buffer layer to prevent bicarbonate transport may be useful. Materials that can be used to block bicarbonate transport include, but are not limited to, Nafion® formulations, GORE-SELECT, FumaPEM® (PFSA) (FuMA-Tech GmbH), and Aquivion® (PFSA) (Solvay). Of course, if bicarbonate is not present in the CRR, it is not particularly desirable for the ion exchange layer 260 to include bicarbonate blocking functionality.

[0050] In another embodiment of the invention, the anode buffer layer 245 provides a region of proton concentration transition between the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 and the anode 240. The proton concentration in the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 depends on both its composition and the ions it conducts. For example, a Nafion polymer electrolyte membrane 265 that conducts protons has a high proton concentration. A FumaSep FAA-3 polymer electrolyte membrane 265 has a low proton concentration. For example, if the desired proton concentration in the anode 240 differs from the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 by more than three orders of magnitude, the anode buffer layer 245 may be useful to make a transition from the proton concentration of the polymer electrolyte membrane 265 to the desired proton concentration of the anode. The anode buffer layer 245 may include a single polymer or multiple polymers. If the anode buffer layer 245 includes multiple polymers, the multiple polymers may be mixed together or may be disposed in adjacent separate layers. Materials useful for providing regions for pH transition include, but are not limited to, Nafion, FumaSep FAA-3, Sustainion®, Tokuyama anion exchange polymers, and polyether-based polymers such as polyethylene oxide (PEO), mixtures thereof, and / or any other suitable materials. High proton concentrations are believed to be in the range of about 10 to 0.1 molar, and low concentrations are believed to be less than about 0.01 molar. Ion-conducting polymers can be placed into different classes based on the type of ions they conduct, as discussed in detail above. Table 4 below lists three classes of ion-conducting polymers. In one embodiment of the present invention, at least one of the ion-conducting polymers in the cathode 220, anode 240, polymer electrolyte membrane 265, cathode buffer layer 225, and anode buffer layer 245 is from a different class than at least one of the others.

[0051] TIFF0007657763000004.tif189170

[0052] Some class A ion-conducting polymers are known by trade names such as 2259-60 (Pall RAI), AHA from Tokuyama Co, fumasep® FAA-3 (fumatech GbbH), Sustainion®, Morgane ADP from Solvay, or Tosflex® SF-17 anion exchange membrane material from Tosoh. Some class C ion-conducting polymers are known by trade names such as various formulations of Nafion® (DuPont™), GORE-SELECT® (Gore), fumapem® (fumatech GmbH) and Aquivion® PFSA (Solvay).

[0053] 4 shows a novel membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 400 for use in a CRR according to another embodiment of the present invention. The MEA 400 has a cathode 420, an anode 440, and an ion-conducting polymer layer 460. The ion-conducting polymer layer 460 includes an ion-conducting polymer membrane 465 and a cathode buffer layer 425. The anode 440 and the ion-conducting polymer membrane 465 include ion-conducting polymers that are cation conductors, and the ion-conducting polymer membrane 465 does not allow significant amounts of bicarbonate to reach the anode 440, so an anode buffer layer is not used here.

[0054] 5 shows a novel membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 500 for use in a CRR according to yet another embodiment of the present invention. The MEA 500 has a cathode 520, an anode 540, and an ion conducting polymer membrane 560. In this configuration, the transition from a high proton concentration in the ion conducting polymer membrane 560 to a low proton concentration in the cathode layer is achieved at the interface between the cathode layer 520 and the ion conducting polymer membrane 560, so no additional buffer layer is used between these two layers. The ability to achieve a proton concentration difference without a buffer layer depends on the type of ion conducting polymers used in the cathode layer 520 and the ion conducting polymer membrane 560, and how the ion conducting polymers intermix at the interface of these layers.

[0055] In another particular example, a membrane electrode assembly includes a cathode layer including a reduction catalyst and a first anion conducting polymer (e.g., Sustainion, FumaSep FAA-3, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer), an anode layer including an oxidation catalyst and a first cation conducting polymer (e.g., PFSA polymer), a membrane layer including a second cation conducting polymer disposed between the cathode layer and the anode layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the anode layer, and a cathode buffer layer including a second anion conducting polymer (e.g., Sustainion, FumaSep FAA-3, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer) disposed between the cathode layer and the membrane layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the membrane layer. In this example, the cathode buffer layer can have a porosity of about 1-90% by volume, but can additionally or alternatively have any suitable porosity (e.g., including no porosity). In other examples, the cathode layer can have any suitable porosity (eg, 0.01 to 95%, 0.1 to 95%, 0.01 to 75%, 1 to 95%, 1 to 90%, etc.).

[0056] In a related example, the membrane electrode assembly includes an anode buffer layer including a third cation-conducting polymer, the anode buffer layer being disposed between the membrane layer and the anode layer and conductively connecting the membrane layer and the anode layer. The anode buffer layer preferably has a porosity of about 1-90% by volume, but can additionally or alternatively have any suitable porosity (e.g., including no porosity). However, in other configurations and examples, the anode buffer layer can have any suitable porosity (e.g., 0.01-95%, 0.1-95%, 0.01-75%, 1-95%, 1-90%, etc.).

[0057] In another specific example, a membrane electrode assembly includes a cathode layer comprising a reduction catalyst and a first anion conducting polymer (e.g., Sustainion, FumaSep FAA-3, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer), an anode layer comprising an oxidation catalyst and a first cation conducting polymer, a membrane layer comprising a second anion conducting polymer (e.g., Sustainion, FumaSep FAA-3, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer) disposed between and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the anode layer, and an anode buffer layer comprising the second cation conducting polymer disposed between and conductively connecting the anode layer and the membrane layer.

[0058] In a related example, the membrane electrode assembly can include a cathode buffer layer including a third anion conducting polymer, the cathode buffer layer being disposed between the cathode layer and the membrane layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the membrane layer. The third anion conducting polymer can be the same as or different from the first and / or second anion conducting polymer. The cathode buffer layer preferably has a porosity of about 1-90% by volume, but can additionally or alternatively have any suitable porosity (e.g., including no pores). However, in other configurations and examples, the cathode buffer layer can have any suitable porosity (e.g., 0.01-95%, 0.1-95%, 0.01-75%, 1-95%, 1-90%, etc.).

[0059] The porosity of the above-mentioned examples and other examples and variations (e.g., cathode buffer layer, anode buffer layer, membrane layer, cathode layer, anode layer, other suitable layers, etc.) preferably has a uniform distribution, but can additionally or alternatively have any suitable distribution (e.g., random distribution, a gradient of increasing pore size through or across the layer, a gradient of decreasing pore size through or across the layer, etc.). The porosity can be formed by any suitable mechanism, such as inert filler particles (e.g., diamond particles, boron-doped diamond particles, polydifluoride / PVDF particles, polytetrafluoroethylene / PTFE particles, etc.), and any other suitable mechanism that forms substantially non-reactive regions within the polymer layer. The inert filler particles can have any suitable size, such as a minimum of about 10 nanometers and a maximum of about 200 nanometers, and / or any other suitable dimension or distribution of dimensions.

[0060] CO x Reduction Reactor (CRR) FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a CO x FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing the main components of the reduction reactor (CRR) 605.

[0061] The CRR 605 has a membrane electrode assembly 600 as described above with reference to Figure 2. The membrane electrode assembly 600 has a cathode 620 and an anode 640 separated by an ion exchange layer 660. The ion exchange layer 660 can include three sublayers: a cathode buffer layer 625, a polymer electrolyte membrane 665, and an optional anode buffer layer 645. Additionally, the CRR 605 has a cathode support structure 622 adjacent to the cathode 620 and an anode support structure 642 adjacent to the anode 640.

[0062] In one embodiment of the invention, the cathode 620 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described in Class A of Table 4, the anode 640 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described in Class C of Table 4, and the polymer electrolyte membrane 665 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described as Class C of Table 4. In one configuration, the cathode buffer layer 625 comprises at least two ion-conducting polymers, one described in Class A and one described in Class B of Table 4.

[0063] In another embodiment of the invention, the cathode 620 comprises both an ion-conducting polymer as described in class A and an ion-conducting polymer as described in class B, the anode 640 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described in class C, the polymer electrolyte membrane 665 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described in class A, the cathode buffer layer 625 comprises both an ion-conducting polymer as described in class A and an ion-conducting polymer as described in class B, and the anode buffer layer 645 comprises an ion-conducting polymer as described in class C. Other combinations of ion-conducting polymers are possible.

[0064] The cathode support structure 622 has a cathode plate 624, typically made of graphite, to which a voltage can be applied. There may be flow field channels, such as serpentine channels, cut into the inside surface of the cathode plate 624. There is also a cathode gas diffusion layer 626 adjacent the inside surface of the cathode plate 624. In some configurations, there are two or more cathode gas diffusion layers (not shown). The cathode gas diffusion layer 626 facilitates the flow of gas into and out of the membrane electrode assembly 600. One example of a cathode gas diffusion layer 626 is carbon paper with a carbon microporous layer.

[0065] The anode support structure 642 has an anode plate 644, typically made of metal, to which a voltage can be applied. There may be flow field channels, such as serpentine channels, cut into the inner surface of the anode plate 644. There is also an anode gas diffusion layer 646 adjacent the inner surface of the anode plate 644. In some configurations, there is more than one anode gas diffusion layer (not shown). The anode gas diffusion layer 646 facilitates the flow of gas into and out of the membrane electrode assembly 600. One example of an anode gas diffusion layer 646 is titanium mesh or titanium felt. In some configurations, the gas diffusion layers 626, 646 are microporous.

[0066] There are also inlets and outlets (not shown) associated with the support structures 622, 642 to allow the flow of reactants and products, respectively, to the membrane electrode assembly 600. There are also various gaskets (not shown) that prevent leakage of the reactants and products from the cell.

[0067] In one embodiment of the present invention, a direct current (DC) voltage is applied to the membrane electrode assembly 600 via the cathode plate 624 and the anode plate 642. Water is supplied to the anode 640 and oxidized over an oxidation catalyst to produce molecular oxygen (O 2 ) and forms a proton (H + ) and electrons (e - ) The protons migrate through ion exchange layer 660 toward cathode 620. The electrons flow through an external circuit (not shown). In one embodiment of the present invention, this reaction can be written as follows: 2H 2 O---4H + +4e - +O 2

[0068] In other embodiments of the invention, other reactants can be provided to anode 640 and other reactions can occur, some of which are described in Table 3.

[0069] FIG. 7 shows the flow of reactants, products, ions and electrons through a CRR705 reactor according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0070] The CRR 705 has a membrane electrode assembly 700 as described with reference to Figure 2. The membrane electrode assembly 700 has a cathode 720 and an anode 740 separated by an ion exchange layer 760. The ion exchange layer 760 may include three sublayers: a cathode buffer layer 725, a polymer electrolyte membrane 765, and an optional anode buffer layer 745. Additionally, the CRR 705 has a cathode support structure 722 adjacent to the cathode 720 and an anode support structure 742 adjacent to the anode 740.

[0071] The cathode support structure 722 has a cathode plate 724, typically made of graphite, to which a voltage can be applied. There may be flow field channels, such as serpentine channels, cut into the inner surface of the cathode plate 724. There is also a cathode gas diffusion layer 726 adjacent the inner surface of the cathode plate 724. In some configurations, there are two or more cathode gas diffusion layers (not shown). The cathode gas diffusion layer 726 facilitates the flow of gas into and out of the membrane electrode assembly 700. One example of a cathode gas diffusion layer 726 is carbon paper with a carbon microporous layer.

[0072] The anode support structure 742 has an anode plate 744, typically made of metal, to which a voltage can be applied. There may be flow field channels, such as serpentine channels, cut into the inner surface of the anode plate 744. There is also an anode gas diffusion layer 746 adjacent the inner surface of the anode plate 744. In some configurations, there are two or more anode gas diffusion layers (not shown). The anode gas diffusion layer 746 facilitates the flow of gas into and out of the membrane electrode assembly 700. One example of an anode gas diffusion layer 746 is titanium mesh or titanium felt. In some configurations, the gas diffusion layers 726, 746 are microporous.

[0073] There may also be inlets and outlets associated with the support structures 722, 742 to allow the flow of reactants and products, respectively, to the membrane electrode assembly 700. Various gaskets may also be provided to prevent leakage of reactants and products from the cell.

[0074] CO x can be fed to the cathode 720, where in the presence of protons and electrons, CO x It can be reduced over a reduction catalyst. x CO can be supplied to the cathode 720 at a pressure between 0 psig and 1000 psig, or any other suitable range of pressure. x CO may be supplied to the cathode 720 with a mixture of other gases, at a concentration of less than 100%, or at other suitable percentages. x The concentration can be as low as about 0.5%, as low as 5%, or as low as 20%, or any other suitable percentage.

[0075] In one embodiment of the present invention, about 10% to 100% unreacted CO x is collected at an outlet adjacent the cathode 720, separated from the reduced reaction products, and then recycled to the inlet adjacent the cathode 720. In one embodiment of the invention, the oxidation products at the anode 740 are compressed to a pressure between 0 psig and 1500 psig.

[0076] In one embodiment of the present invention, multiple CRRs (such as the one shown in FIG. 6) are arranged in an electrochemical stack and operated together. The CRRs that make up the individual electrochemical cells of the stack can be electrically connected in series or parallel. Reactants are fed to the individual CRRs and then the reaction products are collected.

[0077] The main inputs and outputs to the reactor are shown in Figure 8. x , anode feed material and electricity are supplied to the reactor. x Reduction products and any unreacted CO xleaves the reactor. Unreacted CO x can be separated from the reduction products and recycled to the input side of the reactor. The anodic oxidation products and any unreacted anode feed material exit the reactor in separate streams. The unreacted anode feed material can be recycled to the input side of the reactor.

[0078] The various catalysts at the cathode of the CRR are x The reduction reaction produces various products or mixtures of products. Possible CO at the cathode x An example of a reduction reaction is as follows: TIFF0007657763000005.tif66170

[0079] In another embodiment of the present invention, the CO x A method of operating a reduction reactor is provided that includes applying a DC voltage to cathode and anode plates, supplying an oxidation reactant to the anode to effect an oxidation reaction, supplying a reduction reactant to the cathode to effect a reduction reaction, recovering an oxidation reaction product from the anode, and recovering a reduction reaction product from the cathode.

[0080] In one configuration, the DC voltage is greater than -1.2V. In various configurations, the oxidizing reactant can be any of hydrogen, methane, ammonia, water, or combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable oxidizing reactant. In one configuration, the oxidizing reactant is water. In various configurations, the reducing reactant can be any of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, or combinations thereof, and / or any other suitable reducing reactant. In one configuration, the reducing reactant is carbon dioxide.

[0081] In another particular example, CO XThe reduction reactor includes a membrane electrode assembly including a cathode layer including a reduction catalyst and a first anion conducting polymer (e.g., FumaSep FAA-3, Sustainion, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer). The reactor also includes an anode layer including an oxidation catalyst and a first cation conducting polymer (e.g., Nafion324, Nafion350, Nafion417, Nafion424, Nafion438, Nafion450, Nafion521, Nafion551, other Nafion formulations, Aquivion, GORE-SELECT, Flemion, PSFA, etc.). The reactor also includes a membrane layer including a second cation conducting polymer, the membrane layer being disposed between the cathode layer and the anode layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the anode layer. The reactor also includes a cathode manifold coupled to the cathode layer and an anode manifold coupled to the anode layer. In this example, the cathode manifold can include a cathode support structure adjacent to the cathode layer, the cathode support structure having a cathode plate, a cathode gas diffusion layer disposed between the cathode plate and the cathode layer, a first inlet fluidly connected to the cathode gas diffusion layer, and a first outlet fluidly connected to the cathode gas diffusion layer. Also in this example, the anode manifold can include an anode support structure adjacent to the anode layer, the anode support structure having an anode plate, an anode gas diffusion layer disposed between the anode plate and the anode layer, a second inlet fluidly connected to the anode gas diffusion layer, and a second outlet fluidly connected to the anode gas diffusion layer. In a related example, the reactor membrane electrode assembly includes a cathode buffer layer including a second anion conducting polymer (e.g., FumaSep FAA-3, Sustainion, Tokuyama anion exchange polymer), the cathode buffer layer being disposed between the cathode layer and the membrane layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the membrane layer. The buffer layer (e.g., cathode buffer layer, anode cathode layer) in this example can have a porosity of about 1-90% by volume, but can alternatively have any suitable porosity (e.g., including no porosity).However, in other configurations and examples, the buffer layer can have any suitable porosity (e.g., 0.01-95%, 0.1-95%, 0.01-75%, 1-95%, 1-90%, etc.). In a related example, the first and second anion conducting polymers of the membrane electrode assembly can be the same anion conducting polymer (e.g., comprising the same polymer formulation).

[0082] The invention has been described in detail herein to provide those skilled in the art with information relevant to applying the novel principles and to constructing and using the particular components required, however, it will be understood that the invention can be practiced with different apparatus, materials and devices, and that various changes can be made with respect to the apparatus and operating procedures without departing from the scope of the invention.

Claims

1. 1. A membrane electrode assembly for use in a COx reduction reactor, comprising: a cathode layer comprising a reduction catalyst and a first anion conducting polymer; an anode layer comprising an oxidation catalyst and a first cation-conducting polymer; a membrane layer disposed between the cathode layer and the anode layer, the membrane layer comprising a second anion-conducting polymer and inert filler particles, conductively connecting the cathode layer and the anode layer; an anode buffer layer comprising a second cation-conducting polymer, the anode buffer layer being disposed between the anode layer and the membrane layer and conductively connecting the anode layer and the membrane layer.

2. 2. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 1 , The second anion conducting polymer is selected from the group consisting of imidazolium functionalized styrene polymers and polyaromatic compounds having fixed quaternary ammonium charge groups.

3. 2. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 1 , a cathode buffer layer comprising a third anion conducting polymer, the cathode buffer layer being disposed between the cathode layer and the membrane layer and conductively connecting the cathode layer and the membrane layer.

4. 4. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 3, The cathode buffer layer has a porosity of 0.01 to 95% by volume.

5. 4. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 3, The anode buffer layer has a second porosity of 0.01 to 95 volume %.

6. 2. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 1 , The membrane has porosity formed by inert filler particles.

7. 2. The membrane electrode assembly according to claim 1 , The membrane electrode assembly, wherein the first anion conducting polymer and the second anion conducting polymer are the same.

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