Alpha-synuclein assay

Abstract

To provide an assay for alpha synuclein and its various forms.SOLUTION: An assay for alpha synuclein and its various forms includes: (a) providing a blood sample from a subject; (b) isolating central nervous system ("CNS")-derived exosomes from the blood sample; (c) removing proteins from the surface of the isolated exosomes to generate scrambled exosomes; (d) isolating the internal contents of the scrubbed exosomes; (e) determining the oligomeric α-synuclein protein in the isolated internal content; (f) separating oligomeric α-synuclein species into a plurality of fractions; and (g) determining quantitative measurements of one or more isolated oligomeric α-synuclein species and, optionally, one or more species selected from monomeric α-synuclein, tau-synuclein copolymers, amyloid β-synuclein copolymers and tau-amyloid β-synuclein copolymers.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Statement Regarding Federally Sponsored Research none.

[0002] REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of the priority date of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 841,118, filed April 30, 2019, the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety. [Background technology]

[0003] background Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by degenerative changes in the brain, including neuronal dysfunction and death, including, but not limited to, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and dementia with Lewy bodies.

[0004] Many neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the abnormal accumulation of oligomeric protein forms. These oligomeric forms are thought to contribute to neuronal degeneration and death. In particular, Parkinson's disease is characterized by the accumulation of oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein. It has also been found that alpha-synuclein can aggregate and form copolymers with other proteins, such as tau and amyloid beta. Summary of the Invention

[0005] Disclosure Overview Referring to FIG. 1, an assay for alpha synuclein involves the following steps: obtaining a blood sample from a subject (100). The blood sample may be processed to provide a blood fraction, such as a plasma sample. The blood sample is enriched for CNS-derived exosomes (e.g., CNS-derived exosomes are isolated from the blood sample) (200). This may be a two-step operation involving first isolating total exosomes (111) and second enriching CNS-derived exosomes from total exosomes (112). The isolated exosomes are enriched for their internal contents (120). This may involve scrubbing to remove proteins bound to their surface (121). The internal contents of the exosomes are released for analysis (122). The analysis first involves determining quantitative measurements of various protein forms in the exosomes (130). This includes measuring at least the amount of oligomeric alpha synuclein (e.g., total oligomeric alpha synuclein). Typically, this will also include measuring the amount of monomeric alpha-synuclein. Tau and amyloid-beta can bind to alpha-synuclein to form copolymers. Thus, this measurement procedure can also include measuring one or more forms of tau and / or amyloid-beta. Forms of tau include monomeric tau, oligomeric tau, and phosphorylated tau. Forms of amyloid-beta include A-beta 1-40, A-beta 1-42, and oligomeric A-beta. Oligomeric alpha-synuclein comes in various size classes. The oligomeric forms are fractionated or separated from one another (140). One or more oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein are then quantified (150). Determining a quantitative measurement can be achieved by separating the forms from one another, for example, by gel electrophoresis. Monomeric alpha-synuclein can also be determined in this procedure. In addition to quantifying the amount of oligomeric alpha synuclein, forms of alpha synuclein associated with various forms of tau and / or amyloid beta can also be detected.

[0006] Quantitative measurements of oligomeric alpha synuclein, alone or in combination with quantitative measurements of other forms discussed herein, e.g., monomeric alpha synuclein, tau and its forms, and amyloid beta and its forms, can be used in diagnostic tests to determine the presence or absence of a synucleopathic state or its progression, or to determine the efficacy of a drug to alter the amount or relative amount of one or more forms of the proteins described herein to normal amounts.

[0007] Various methodologies for detecting oligomers of alpha-synuclein are described in International Patent Application PCT / US2018 / 066612, filed December 18, 2018, entitled "Methods for developing pharmaceuticals for treating neurodegenerative conditions," the contents of which are incorporated herein in their entirety.

[0008] Disclosed herein are biomarker profiles for neurodegenerative conditions, such as synucleopathy, amyloidosis, tauopathy, and Huntington's disease, and related neurodegeneration.In some embodiments, the biomarker profile comprises the measurement of one or more different species (also referred to as "forms") of neurodegenerative proteins, such as alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin.The neurodegenerative protein profile can comprise the quantitative measurement of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms selected from: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) multiple oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and multiple monomeric forms; and (VI) multiple oligomeric forms and multiple monomeric forms.

[0009] Also disclosed is a method for developing pharmaceuticals for treating neurodegenerative conditions, such as synucleopathic conditions, amyloidopathic conditions, tauopathic conditions, and Huntington's disease. The method involves using biomarkers to determine the effect of candidate pharmaceuticals on the condition. The biomarker profile includes quantitative measurements of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms, where the neurodegenerative proteins are, for example, alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin. The biomarker profile includes one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. Neurodegenerative proteins can be quantified, for example, from CNS-derived exosomes from a subject's blood.

[0010] In some embodiments, protein species are measured from CNS-derived extracellular vesicles (hereinafter referred to as exosomes), for example, isolated from blood.The species examined can be derived from the internal compartment of exosomes, for example, can be derived from exosomes that have had surface proteins removed.The biomarker profile measured in this way represents a relatively simple and non-invasive measurement method.

[0011] Therefore, the disclosed method for measuring biomarker profiles for neurodegeneration is useful in drug development to test the neuroprotective efficacy of drug candidates (sometimes referred to herein as putative neuroprotective agents). For example, the methods described herein can be used to further understand the downstream effects and molecular basis of oligomerization in neurodegenerative conditions such as synucleinopathy, and to facilitate the development of effective therapeutic strategies. Such methods are also useful for identifying subjects for enrollment in clinical trials and for determining the diagnosis, prognosis, progression, or risk of developing a synucleopathy condition. Further provided herein are novel methods, particularly neuroprotective treatments, for treating subjects determined by the disclosed method to have or be at risk of developing neurodegeneration associated with a synucleopathy condition.

[0012] Other objects of the present disclosure may become apparent to those skilled in the art from a reading of the following specification and claims. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0013] The novel features of the present disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings.

[0014] [Figure 1] 1 shows a flow chart of an exemplary method for detecting monomeric and oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein and its differentiated oligomeric forms. [Figure 2] 1 shows a flow chart of an exemplary protocol for verifying drug efficacy. [Figure 3] 1 shows a flow chart of an exemplary method for detecting monomeric and oligomeric forms of proteins involved in neurodegenerative conditions. [Figure 4] 1 shows a flow chart of an exemplary method for detecting monomeric and oligomeric forms of a neurodegenerative protein. [Figure 5] 1 shows an exemplary flowchart for generating and validating a diagnostic model for diagnosing a neurodegenerative condition. [Figure 6] 1 shows an exemplary flowchart for classifying a subject according to any of several conditions by running a diagnostic algorithm, or model, against a biomarker profile. [Figure 7] Illustrated is an exemplary biomarker profile, comprising alpha-synuclein monomer species and five oligomeric species in five different situations. Such profiles can be used to correlate with various situations. The profiles can be used by human operators or by computer-implemented models. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0015] Detailed Description of Disclosure I. Neurodegenerative conditions and associated proteins The method disclosed herein is useful for the diagnosis of various neurodegenerative conditions and the development of drugs for them.These include, but are not limited to, synucleinopathy (for example, Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy), amyloidopathy (for example, Alzheimer's disease), tauopathy (for example, Alzheimer's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration) and Huntington's disease.These diseases have in common the accumulation of toxic oligomeric polypeptide species, and in some cases, abnormally phosphorylated oligomeric or monomeric forms, and these forms can be detected in CNS-derived exosomes.

[0016] As used herein, the term "neurodegenerative protein" refers to a protein that, in its oligomerized form, is associated with neurodegeneration. Neurodegenerative proteins include, but are not limited to, alpha-synuclein, tau, amyloid beta, and huntingtin.

[0017] It is believed that certain oligomerization forms or abnormally phosphorylated forms of brain polypeptides are the basis of various neurodegenerative conditions.This includes, for example, the role of alpha-synuclein in synucleinopathy conditions, amyloid beta in amyloidopathy conditions, tau in tauopathy conditions, and huntingtin in Huntington's disease.In particular, current evidence suggests that alpha-synuclein oligomers can act as toxic species in PD and other synucleinopathy.In some embodiments, the detected oligomer species is abnormally phosphorylated species.

[0018] A profile comprising the amount of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms (e.g., forms of alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin) selected from: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) a plurality of oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) a plurality of oligomeric forms is used in a model to predict, among other things, a neurodegenerative condition or progression to a neurodegenerative condition, and typically, one or more oligomeric forms included in the model indicate the presence and activity of or progression to disease. This includes increasing relative amounts of oligomeric alpha-synuclein forms, which indicate the presence and activity of, or progression to, a synucleinopathy; increasing relative amounts of oligomeric amyloid beta, which indicate the presence and activity of, or progression to, amyloidopathy; increasing relative amounts of oligomeric or abnormally phosphorylated tau, which indicate the presence and activity of, or progression to, a tauopathy; and increasing relative amounts of oligomeric huntingtin, which indicate the presence and activity of, or progression to, Huntington's disease. Thus, such abnormal oligomer profiles are indicative of neurodegenerative processes.

[0019] As used herein, the term "biomarker profile" refers to data showing quantitative measurements of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms, including one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms. This includes the amounts of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, hyperphosphorylated and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species. For example, a biomarker profile can include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) multiple oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and multiple monomeric forms; and (VI) multiple oligomeric forms and multiple monomeric forms.

[0020] A protein form can refer to an individual protein species or a collection of species. For example, a hexamer of alpha-synuclein is a form of alpha-synuclein. Similarly, a collection of hexamers to 18-mers of alpha-synuclein can collectively be a form of alpha-synuclein.

[0021] Biomarker profile can include multiple protein forms.In one embodiment, biomarker profile can include quantitative measurement values ​​of each of multiple oligomeric and monomeric forms of neurodegenerative proteins.Thus, for example, biomarker profile can include quantitative measurement values ​​of each of 2-mer, 3-mer, 4-mer, 5-mer, 6-mer, 7-mer, 8-mer, 9-mer, 10-mer, 11-mer, 12-mer, 13-mer, 14-mer, 15-mer, 16-mer, and 19-mer.

[0022] Quantitative measurements can be absolute measurements, normalized measurements (e.g., relative to a reference measurement), and relative measurements. For example, in one embodiment, a biomarker profile includes the relative amounts of oligomeric forms of a neurodegenerative protein relative to monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein.

[0023] The term "biomarker profile" can also be used to refer to particular patterns in the profile that the model predicts are associated with the diagnosis, stage, progression, rate, prognosis, drug responsiveness, and risk of developing a neurodegenerative condition. Thus, a "synuclein biomarker profile" refers to a profile comprising oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein, the term "amyloid biomarker profile" refers to a profile comprising oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric β-amyloid, the term "tau biomarker profile" refers to a profile comprising oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau, and the term "huntingtin biomarker profile" refers to a profile comprising oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin.

[0024] As used herein, the term "monomeric protein / polypeptide" refers to a single, non-aggregated protein or polypeptide molecule, including any species thereof, such as phosphorylated species. As used herein, the term "oligomeric protein / polypeptide" refers to an aggregate containing individual oligomeric species or multiple oligomeric species, including phosphorylated species. It is understood that measurement of the oligomeric form of a protein, as used herein, can refer to measurement of all oligomeric forms (total oligomeric forms) or a specified oligomeric form. A specified oligomeric form can include, for example, forms within a particular size range or physical condition, such as soluble fibrils.

[0025] An abnormal profile (e.g., an increased relative amount of oligomeric forms to monomeric forms, or an increase or decrease in one oligomeric form compared to another) indicates pathological activity and, therefore, the time to future clinical onset and the rate of subsequent clinical progression. Furthermore, a return to normal in the biomarker profile (e.g., a decrease in the relative amount of oligomeric forms to monomeric forms) reflects the efficacy of a candidate neuroprotective intervention. Thus, the biomarker profiles described herein are useful for determining the efficacy of drug candidates for neuroprotective effects.

[0026] Thus, biomarker profiles serve not only as diagnostics of existing pathological conditions, but also as sentinels for pathology before clinical onset, for example, when a subject is presymptomatic or preclinical, e.g., when they have signs or symptoms that are insufficient for diagnosing a disease. This is important because the relative success of neuroprotective treatments often appears to be related to their earliest possible administration. Furthermore, these biomarker profiles are thought to indicate the stage or extent of a neurodegenerative condition. Thus, determining biomarker profiles (e.g., the relative amounts of oligomeric and monomeric forms of a selected protein) is useful, for example, in clinical trials and in individuals, for determining the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions that are thought to be effective for treating neurodegeneration, including, for example, synucleinopathies, amyloidopathies, tauopathies, or Huntington's disease.

[0027] In each of these conditions, the oligomerized / aggregated forms of the polypeptides described herein are believed to be toxic to neurons, and biomarker profiles comprising the oligomeric and optionally monomeric forms of these polypeptides function in models to predict pathological activity.In particular, increased relative amounts of oligomeric forms compared to monomeric forms indicate pathology.Measurements of these biomarkers can be used to track subject responses to existing or developing therapies, and to predict the onset of disease or the status or progression of existing diseases.

[0028] A. Synucleinopathy 1. Status As used herein, the terms "synucleinopathy" and "synucleopathy condition" refer to a condition characterized by an abnormal profile of oligomeric alpha-synuclein, which is an abnormal aggregated form of alpha-synuclein.In some embodiments, synucleinopathy manifests as clinically evident synucleopathy disease, such as PD, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, and some forms of Alzheimer's disease, and other rare neurodegenerative disorders, such as various neuroaxonal dystrophies.Signs and optionally symptoms sufficient for clinical diagnosis of synucleopathy disease are generally sufficient for those skilled in the art of diagnosing such conditions to make such clinical diagnosis.

[0029] Parkinson's disease ("PD") is a progressive disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) with a prevalence of 1% to 2% in the adult population aged 60 years or older. PD is characterized by motor symptoms, including tremor, rigidity, postural instability, and slowness of voluntary movements. The cause of the idiopathic form of the disease, which constitutes over 90% of all PD cases, remains elusive but is now thought to involve both environmental and genetic factors. The motor symptoms are clearly related to the progressive degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra. More recently, PD has come to be recognized as one of a group of multisystem disorders that primarily affect the basal ganglia (e.g., PD), the cerebral cortex (e.g., Lewy body dementia), or the basal ganglia, brainstem, and spinal cord (e.g., multiple system atrophy), all of which are linked by the presence of intracellular deposits (Lewy bodies) composed primarily of a brain protein called alpha-synuclein. Therefore, these disorders, along with Halleborden-Spatz syndrome, neuroaxonal dystrophies, and traumatic brain injury, have often been referred to as "synucleinopathies."

[0030] Signs and symptoms of PD can include, for example, resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, postural instability, and a festinating parkinsonian gait. One manifestation of PD is the positive response of these motor dysfunctions to carbidopa-levodopa.

[0031] The clinically recognized stages of Parkinson's disease include: Stage 1 - mild; Stage 2 - moderate; Stage 3 - intermediate; Stage 4 - severe; Stage 5 - advanced.

[0032] Currently, the diagnosis of PD is based primarily on the results of a physical examination, often quantified by use of the modified Hoehn and Yahr staging scale (Hoehn and Yahr, 1967, Neurology, 17:5, 427-442) and the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). Differential diagnosis of PD from other forms of parkinsonism, such as progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), can prove difficult, and misdiagnosis can occur in up to 25% of patients. In fact, PD commonly remains undetected for several years before an initial clinical diagnosis can be made. By the time this occurs, the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra may already exceed 50% and approach 70%. No blood tests for PD or any related synucleinopathies have yet been validated. Although imaging studies using positron emission tomography (PET) or MRI have been used in the diagnosis of PD by providing information about the location and extent of the neurodegenerative process, they provide little or no information about the etiology of the observed degeneration and do not guide the selection of a particular synucleopathy-specific intervention.

[0033] Lewy body dementia (LBD) affects approximately 1.3 million people in the United States. Symptoms include, for example, dementia, cognitive fluctuations, parkinsonism, sleep disorders, and hallucinations. It is the second most common form of dementia after Alzheimer's disease and usually develops after the age of 50. Like Parkinson's disease, LBD is characterized by abnormal deposits of alpha-synuclein in the brain.

[0034] Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is classified into two types: Parkinson's disease type and cerebellar type. Parkinson's disease type is characterized by, for example, the parkinsonism-like symptoms of PD. Cerebellar type is characterized by, for example, movement and coordination disorders, dysarthria, visual disturbances and swallowing difficulties. MSA symptoms reflect cell loss and gliosis or astrocyte proliferation in the damaged areas of the brain, especially in the substantia nigra, striatum, inferior olivary nucleus and cerebellum. Abnormal alpha-synuclein deposits are characteristic.

[0035] The rate of misdiagnosis for PD and other synucleinopathies can be relatively high, especially in their early stages, a situation that could be important in the introduction of effective disease-modifying therapies, such as neuroprotective therapies.

[0036] 2. Alpha-synuclein Alpha-synuclein is a protein found in the human brain. The human alpha-synuclein protein is made up of 140 amino acids and is encoded by the SNCA gene (also known as PARK1). (Alpha-synuclein: Gene ID: 6622; Homo sapiens; Cytogenetic Location: 4q22.1.)

[0037] As used herein, the term "alpha-synuclein" includes normal (unmodified) species as well as modified species. Alpha-synuclein can exist in monomeric or aggregated forms. Alpha-synuclein monomers can abnormally aggregate into oligomers, and oligomeric alpha-synuclein can aggregate into fibrils. Fibrils can further aggregate to form intracellular deposits called Lewy bodies. Monomeric alpha-synuclein and its various oligomers are thought to exist in equilibrium. Alpha-synuclein processing in the brain can also produce other putatively abnormal species, such as alpha-synuclein phosphorylated at serine 129 ("p129 alpha-synuclein").

[0038] Alpha-synuclein is abundantly expressed in the human central nervous system (CNS) and to a lesser extent in various other organs. In the brain, alpha-synuclein is found primarily in the terminals of neurons, particularly in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra, and cerebellum, where it contributes to the regulation of neurotransmitter release. Under normal circumstances, this soluble monomeric protein tends to form a stably folded tetramer that resists aggregation. However, in certain pathological conditions, for unknown reasons, alpha-synuclein abnormally forms beta pleats, misfolds, oligomerizes, and aggregates, ultimately forming fibrils, a metabolic pathway that can result in highly cytotoxic intermediates.

[0039] As used herein, the term "monomeric alpha-synuclein" refers to a single, non-aggregated alpha-synuclein molecule, including any species thereof. As used herein, the term "oligomeric alpha-synuclein" refers to an aggregate containing multiple alpha-synuclein protein molecules. This includes total oligomeric alpha-synuclein and forms or selected species thereof. Oligomeric alpha-synuclein includes forms having at least two monomer units up to protofibrillar forms. This includes, for example, oligomeric forms having 2 to about 100 monomer units, e.g., 4 to 16 monomer units, or at least 2, 3, 4, or 5 dozen monomer units. As used herein, the term "relatively low molecular weight synuclein oligomer" refers to a synuclein oligomer composed of up to 30 monomer units (30-mer). Typically, relatively low molecular weight synuclein oligomers are soluble. In some embodiments, alpha-synuclein refers to the form(s) that are detected by a particular detection method. For example, the form may be detectable with an antibody raised against a particular monomeric or oligomeric form of alpha-synuclein.

[0040] The neurotoxic potential of abnormally processed oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein is currently believed to contribute to the onset and subsequent progression of the aforementioned pathological conditions, particularly PD, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, and several other disorders. These are generally defined as a group of neurodegenerative disorders characterized in part by the intracellular accumulation of abnormal alpha-synuclein aggregates, some of which appear to be toxic and may contribute to the pathogenesis of the aforementioned disorders. Although the role of such factors as oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage, and pore formation has been suggested, it remains unclear exactly how certain oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein can cause neurodegeneration. Nevertheless, many currently believe that the process leading to alpha-synuclein oligomerization and aggregation may be central to the cellular damage and destruction that occurs in these disorders.

[0041] Several studies have shown that prefibrillar synuclein oligomers and protofibrils are particularly prone to neurotoxicity (Loov et al., “α-Synuclein in Extracellular Vesicles: Functional Implications and Diagnostic Opportunities”, M. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2016 Apr;36(3):437-48. doi: 10.1007 / s10571-015-0317-0.). Others suggest that lower-grade oligomeric synuclein species are primarily responsible, and it remains largely unclear exactly which synuclein species, or which ensembles of species with different β-sheet configurations, are most neurotoxic in PD or in any related synucleinopathy, acting alone or in concert through single or multiple pathological mechanisms (Wong et al., “α-synuclein toxicity in neurodegeneration: mechanism and therapeutic strategies”, Nat Med. 2017 Feb 7;23(2):1-13. doi: 10.1038 / nm.4269).

[0042] A portion of intracellular synuclein, along with some of its metabolic products, is packaged into exosome vesicles and released into the intracellular fluid of the brain, from where it enters the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and peripheral blood circulation. Alpha-synuclein is a protein found in the human brain. The human alpha-synuclein protein is made of 140 amino acids and is encoded by the SNCA gene (also known as PARK1). (Alpha-synuclein: Gene ID: 6622; Homo sapiens; Cytogenetic Location: 4q22.1.)

[0043] B. Amyloidopathy 1. Status As used herein, the term " amyloidopathy " refers to the condition characterized by the accumulation of amyloid polymers in the brain.Amyloidopathy includes, but is not limited to, Alzheimer's disease and some other neurodegenerative disorders, such as late-stage PD.Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia.It is characterized at the anatomical level by the accumulation of amyloid plaques, which are made from the aggregated form of β-amyloid, and neurofibrillary tangles.Symptoms are characterized by progressive memory loss, cognitive decline and neurobehavioral changes.Alzheimer's disease is progressive, and currently there is no known method to stop or reverse this disease.

[0044] 2. Amyloid beta Amyloid beta (also known as amyloid-β, Aβ, A-beta, and beta-amyloid) is a peptide fragment of the amyloid precursor protein. Amyloid-β typically has 36-43 amino acids. Amyloid-β aggregates to form soluble oligomers that can exist in several forms. It is believed that misfolded oligomers of amyloid-β can induce other amyloid-β molecules to adopt misfolded oligomeric forms. A-β 1-42 is the amino acid sequence: I have TIFF0007732015000001.tif6142.

[0045] In Alzheimer's disease, amyloid-β and tau proteins oligomerize and accumulate in brain tissue, where they appear to cause neuronal damage and loss; indeed, some have postulated that such soluble intermediates of aggregation, or oligomers, are key species mediating toxicity and underlying the dissemination and spread of disease (The Amyloid-β Oligomer Hypothesis: Beginning of the Third Decade. Cline EN, Bicca MA, Viola KL, Klein WL. J Alzheimers Dis. 2018;64(s1):S567-S610; "Crucial role of protein oligomerization in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases," Choi ML, Gandhi S. FEBS J. 2018 Jun 20.). Amyloid-β oligomers are essential for the development and progression of AD, are a common drug target, and are perhaps the most direct biomarker. Tau protein can also be abnormally hyperphosphorylated.

[0046] Current methods for quantifying monomeric and oligomeric forms of A-β include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and methods for detecting single oligomers, which are primarily biosensor-based ("Methods for the Specific Detection and Quantitation of Amyloid-β Oligomers in Cerebrospinal Fluid", Schuster J, Funke SA. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016 May 7;53(1):53-67.).

[0047] Surface-based fluorescence intensity distribution analysis (sFIDA) is characterized by both highly specific and sensitive oligomer quantification and complete insensitivity to monomers ("Advancements of the sFIDA method for oligomer-based diagnostics of neurodegenerative diseases", Kulawik A. et al., FEBS Lett. 2018 Feb;592(4):516-534).

[0048] C. Tauopathy 1. Status As used herein, the term "tauopathy" refers to the condition characterized by accumulation and aggregation associated with neurodegeneration.Tauopathy includes, but is not limited to, Alzheimer's disease ("AD"), progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration, frontotemporal dementia linked to chromosome 17 and parkinsonism, and Pick's disease.

[0049] AD is also characterized by a second pathological hallmark, neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). NFTs are anatomically associated with neuronal loss, linking the process of NFT formation to neuronal damage and brain dysfunction. The main component of NFTs is a hyperphosphorylated form of tau, a microtubule-associated protein. During NFT formation, tau forms a variety of distinct aggregate species, including tau oligomers. Increasing evidence indicates that tau oligomer formation precedes the appearance of neurofibrillary tangles and contributes significantly to neuronal loss (J Alzheimers Dis. 2013;37(3):565-8 "Tauopathies and tau oligomers", Takashima A.).

[0050] The non-fibrillar soluble multimers appear to be more toxic than neurofibrillary tangles made from fibrillar tau.

[0051] In frontotemporal lobe dementia, full-length TAR DNA-binding protein (TDP-43) forms toxic amyloid oligomers that accumulate in the frontal lobe of the brain. TDP-43 proteinopathies, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterized by inclusion bodies formed by polyubiquitinated and hyperphosphorylated full-length and truncated TDP-43. Recombinant full-length human TDP-43 forms structurally stable, globular oligomers that share a common epitope with anti-amyloid oligomer-specific antibodies. TDP-43 oligomers have been shown to be neurotoxic both in vitro and in vivo. (Nat Commun. 2014 Sep 12;5:4824. Full-length TDP-43 forms toxic amyloid oligomers that are present in frontotemporal lobar dementia-TDP patients.) Determining the presence and abundance of TDP-43 oligomers can be achieved using a specific TDP-43 amyloid oligomer antibody, called TDP-O, among various subtypes of FTLD-TDP ("Detection of TDP-43 oligomers in frontotemporal lobar degeneration-TDP," Kao PF, Ann Neurol. 2015 Aug;78(2):211-21.).

[0052] 2. Tau Tau is a phosphoprotein with 79 potential serine (Ser) and threonine (Thr) phosphorylation sites on the longest tau isoform. Tau exists in six isoforms, distinguished by the number of binding domains. Three isoforms have three binding domains, while the other three have four. The isoforms result from alternative splicing in exons 2, 3, and 10 of the tau gene. Tau is encoded by the MAPT gene, which has 11 exons. Haplogroup H1 appears to be associated with an increased likelihood of certain dementias, such as Alzheimer's disease.

[0053] Various tau oligomer species, including those ranging from 6 to 18 mers, are involved in the neurotoxic processes associated with tauopathy brain disorders and have been measured by Western blot and other techniques, including single-molecule fluorescence (see, e.g., Kjaergaard M., et al., “Oligomer Diversity during the Aggregation of the Repeat Region of Tau,” ACS Chem Neurosci. 2018 Jul 17; Ghag G et al., “Soluble tau aggregates, not large fibrils, are the toxic species that display seeding and cross-seeding behavior,” Protein Sci. 2018 Aug 20. doi: 10.1002 / pro.3499; and Comerota MM et al., “Near Infrared Light Treatment Reduces Synaptic Levels of Toxic Tau Oligomers in Two Transgenic Mouse Models of Human Tauopathies,” Mol Neurobiol. 2018 Aug 17).

[0054] Methods for measuring oligomeric tau species include immunoassays. Tau can be isolated by conventional expression followed by chromatography, such as affinity, size exclusion, and anion exchange chromatography. This form can be used to immunize animals to generate antibodies. Tau aggregation can be induced using arachidonic acid. Oligomers can be purified by centrifugation through a sucrose step gradient. Oligomeric forms of tau can also be used to immunize animals to generate antibodies. A sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay utilizing the tau oligomer-specific TOC1 antibody can be used to detect oligomeric tau. The tau oligomeric complex 1 (TOC1) antibody specifically identifies oligomeric tau species in the Tris-insoluble, sarkosyl-soluble fraction. (Shirafuji N., et al, “Homocysteine ​​Increases Tau Phosphorylation, Truncation and Oligomerization”, Int J Mol Sci. 2018 Mar 17;19(3).) Epub 2017 Jul 14. Production of recombinant tau oligomers in vitro. See Combs B1, Tiernan CT 1, Hamel C1, Kanaan NM.).

[0055] D. Huntington's disease 1. Huntington's disease Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder caused by an autosomal dominant mutation in the huntingtin gene. The mutation is characterized by a duplication of a CAG triplet. It is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration. Symptoms include motor disorders, such as involuntary movements, gait disturbances, and difficulty swallowing and speaking. It is also characterized by progressive cognitive decline.

[0056] 2. Huntingtin protein The huntingtin protein is encoded by the huntingtin gene, also called HTT or HD. Normal huntingtin protein has approximately 3144 amino acids. The protein is usually about 300 KdA.

[0057] In Huntington's disease (HD), cleavage of the full-length mutant huntingtin (mHtt) protein into smaller, soluble, aggregation-prone mHtt fragments appears to be a key process in the pathophysiology of this disorder. Indeed, aggregation and cytotoxicity of mutant proteins containing an increased number of polyglutamine (polyQ) repeats are characteristic of several diseases in addition to HD. Intracellularly, mutant huntingtin (mHtt) and other polyglutamine-expanded mutant proteins exist as monomers, soluble oligomers, and insoluble inclusion bodies. (J Huntingtons Dis. 2012; 1 (1): 119-32. Detection of Mutant Huntingtin Aggregation Conformers and Modulation of SDS-Soluble Fibrillar Oligomers by Small Molecules. Sontag EM, et al., Brain Sci. 2014 Mar 3;4(1):91-122. Monomeric, oligomeric and polymeric proteins in Huntington disease and other diseases of polyglutamine expansion. Hoffner G. et al.) In some embodiments, the oligomers are 2-10 nm in height, have an aspect ratio (longest distance crossed to shortest distance crossed) of less than 2.5, and exhibit a globular structure.

[0058] II. Detection and Measurement of Monomers and Oligomers A. Biological Samples As used herein, the term "sample" refers to a composition containing an analyte. A sample can be a raw sample (where the analyte is mixed with other materials in its natural form) (e.g., source material), a fractionated sample (where the analyte is at least partially concentrated), or a purified sample (where the analyte is at least substantially pure). As used herein, the term "biological sample" refers to a sample containing biological materials, including, for example, polypeptides, polynucleotides, polysaccharides, lipids, and higher levels of these materials, such as exosomes, cells, tissues, or organs.

[0059] Oligomeric and monomeric forms of neurodegenerative proteins such as alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau and huntingtin can be detected in exosomes from subject-derived body fluid samples.More specifically, CNS-derived exosome isolates are a preferred subset of exosomes for detecting and analyzing synucleopathy conditions.In particular, proteins from the inner compartment of exosomes are useful.

[0060] Exosomes can be isolated from various biological samples from subjects. In some embodiments, the biological sample is body fluid. Body fluid sources of exosomes include, for example, blood (e.g., whole blood or its fractions, such as serum or plasma, e.g., peripheral venous blood), cerebrospinal fluid, saliva, milk and urine, or fractions thereof. The use of venous blood as a source of exosomes is a preferred sample for diagnostic tests intended for use in both adults and children, due to the safety, acceptability and convenience of routine venipuncture in medical settings.

[0061] The use of venous blood as a source of exosomes is a preferred sample for diagnostic tests to be used in both adults and children due to the safety, acceptability, and convenience of routine venipuncture in medical settings. Because the target analyte may be present in small amounts in blood, a large amount of sample may be collected. For example, the sample may have at least 5 ml, at least 10 ml, or at least 20 ml of blood. Serum can be prepared by clotting whole blood and removing the clot, for example, by centrifugation. For example, plasma can be prepared by treating whole blood with an anticoagulant such as EDTA and removing blood cells, for example, by centrifugation. A blood sample can be provided by collecting a sample from a subject or by receiving a sample from a person who has collected blood from a subject. Blood samples are typically stored refrigerated, for example, on ice, or frozen at -80°C.

[0062] B. Methods for Determining the Amount of Oligomeric and Monomeric Polypeptides Monomeric and oligomeric forms of proteins can be detected by any method known in the art, including, but not limited to, immunoassays (e.g., ELISA), mass spectrometry, size exclusion chromatography, Western blot, and fluorescence-based methods (e.g., fluorescence spectroscopy or FRET) and proximity ligation assays.

[0063] 1. Alpha-synuclein The amounts of monomeric and oligomeric alpha-synuclein can be determined individually. Alternatively, the total alpha-synuclein in a sample can be measured, along with either monomeric or oligomeric alpha-synuclein, and the amount of the other species can be determined based on the difference.

[0064] Monomers, oligomers, and total alpha-synuclein can be detected, for example, by immunoassays (e.g., ELISA or Western blot), mass spectrometry, or size exclusion chromatography. Antibodies to alpha-synuclein are commercially available, for example, from Abeam (Cambridge, MA), ThermoFisher (Waltham, MA), and Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Dallas, TX).

[0065] The following references describe methods for measuring total alpha-synuclein content: Mollenhauer et al. (Movement Disorders, 32:8 p. 1117 (2017)) describe a method for measuring total alpha-synuclein from body fluids; Loov et al. (Cell Mol. Neurobiol., 36:437-448 (2016)) describe the use of antibodies to isolate L1CAM-positive exosomes from plasma; Abd-Elhadi et al. (Anal Bioanal Chem. (2016) Nov;408(27):7669-72016) describe a method for determining total alpha-synuclein levels in human blood cells, CSF, and saliva as determined by lipid-ELISA.

[0066] Total alpha-synuclein can be detected in an ELISA using, for example, anti-human alpha-syn monoclonal antibody 211 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, USA) for capture and anti-human alpha-syn polyclonal antibody FL-140 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, USA) for detection by a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated chemiluminescence assay. Such an approach avoids detection of monomeric alpha-synuclein but does not distinguish between different multimeric forms.

[0067] Monomeric and oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein can be detected, for example, by immunoassays using form-specific antibodies. See, for example, Williams et al. (Oligomeric alpha-synuclein and β-amyloid variants as potential biomarkers for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, Eur J Neurosci. (2016) Jan;43(1):3-16) and Majbour et al. (Oligomeric and phosphorylated alpha-synuclein as potential CSF biomarkers for Parkinson's disease, Molecular Neurodegeneration (2016) 11:7). El-Agnaf O. et al. (FASEB J. 2016;20:419-425) described the detection of oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein protein in human plasma as potential biomarkers for PD.

[0068] Antibodies against alpha-synuclein monomers and oligomers can be generated by immunizing animals with alpha-synuclein monomers or oligomers. (See, e.g., U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2016 / 0199522 (Lannfelt et al.) and 2012 / 0191652 (El-Agnaf).) Alpha-synuclein oligomers can be prepared by the method of El Agnaf (US 2014 / 0241987), in which a freshly prepared alpha-synuclein solution was mixed with dopamine at a molar ratio of 1:7 (alpha-synuclein:dopamine) and incubated at 37°C. Antibodies against different oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein have also been described in Emadi et al. (“Isolation of a Human Single Chain Antibody Fragment Against Oligomeric α-Synuclein that Inhibits Aggregation and Prevents α-Synuclein-Induced Toxicity”, J Mol Biol. 2007; 368:1132-1144. [PubMed: 17391701]) (dimers and tetramers) and Emadi et al. (“Detecting Morphologically Distinct Oligomeric Forms of α-Synuclein”, J Biol Chem. 2009; 284:11048-11058. [PubMed: 19141614]) (trimers and hexamers). Protofibril-binding antibodies are described, for example, in US 2013 / 0309251 (Nordstrom et al.).

[0069] Monomeric alpha-synuclein can be distinguished from polymeric alpha-synuclein by immunoassays using antibodies that are uniquely recognized by the oligomeric forms of synuclein. Another method involves detecting mass differences, for example, using mass spectrometry. Fluorescence methods can be used. (See, e.g., Sangeeta Nath, et al., "Early Aggregation Steps in α-Synuclein as Measured by FCS and FRET: Evidence for a Contagious Conformational Change," Biophys J. 2010 Apr 7; 98(7): 1302-1311, doi: 10.1016 / j.bpj.2009.12.4290; and Laura Tosatto et al., "Single-molecule FRET studies on alpha-synuclein oligomerization of Parkinson's disease genetically related mutants," Scientific Reports 5, December 2015.) Another method involves measuring total alpha-synuclein, followed by proteinase K digestion of non-pathological alpha-synuclein and detecting the remaining alpha-synuclein. Another method involves alpha-synuclein proximity ligation assays. Protein ligation assay probes are made from antibodies raised against the proteins of interest, one for each of the proteins involved in the putative interaction, and these are conjugated to short oligonucleotides. If the probes bind to the interacting proteins, the oligonucleotides are close enough to prime the amplification reaction, which can be detected by tagged oligonucleotides and observed as punctate signals, with each punctate indicating an interaction.(Roberts RF et al., “Direct visualization of alpha-synuclein oligomers reveals previously undetected pathology in Parkinson's disease brain. Brain”, 2015;138:1642-1657. doi: 10.1093 / brain / awv040, and Nora Bengoa-Vergniory et al., “Alpha-synuclein oligomers: a new hope”, Acta Neuropathol. 2017; 134(6): 819-838).

[0070] The relative amount of oligomeric forms of alpha-synuclein to monomers can be expressed as a ratio.

[0071] The quantity or amount can be expressed, for example, by mass per volume, as a signal output from an assay, or as an absolute amount after conversion, for example, from a standard curve.

[0072] Alpha-synuclein species in a sample can be further stratified, for example, oligomeric species can be divided into lower oligomers, e.g., 2-24 monomer units, higher oligomers, e.g., 24-100 monomer units, or protofibrils.

[0073] 2. Amyloid beta Oligomers and monomers can be distinguished using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). This assay is similar to sandwich ELISA. Aβ monomers contain one epitope, while oligomers contain multiple epitopes. Therefore, if epitope-overlapping antibodies directed against the unique epitopes are used for capture and detection, binding to the specific and unique epitopes will result in competition between these two antibodies. In other words, the monomers will be occupied by either the capture antibody or the detection antibody, but not both. ("Oligomeric forms of amyloid-β protein in plasma as a potential blood-based biomarker for Alzheimer's disease", Wang MJ et al. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2017 Dec 15;9(1):98. "Potential fluid biomarkers for pathological brain changes in Alzheimer's disease: Implication for the screening of cognitive frailty", Ruan Q et al., Mol Med Rep. 2016 Oct; 14(4):3184-98. "Methods for the Specific Detection and Quantitation of Amyloid-β Oligomers in Cerebrospinal Fluid," Schuster J, Funke SA. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016 May 7;53(1):53-67).

[0074] Examples of oligomeric forms of amyloid β for detection include 4- to 24-mers of amyloid β.

[0075] 3. Tau Tau oligomers in biological fluids, such as CSF, can be measured by ELISA and Western blot analysis using anti-tau oligomer antibodies (Sengupta U, et al., "Tau oligomers in cerebrospinal fluid in Alzheimer's disease", Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2017 Apr; 4(4): 226-235).

[0076] Tau oligomers for detection include, for example, low molecular weight oligomers, e.g., 20-mers or less, e.g., 3- to 18-mers. The presence of soluble oligomers in cerebrospinal fluid can be detected with monoclonal anti-oligomer antibodies using Western blot and sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (sELISA). David, MA et al., "Detection of protein aggregates in brain and cerebrospinal fluid derived from multiple sclerosis patients," Front Neurol. 2014 Dec 2;5:251. Oligomeric forms of tau include hyperphosphorylated forms of oligomeric tau.

[0077] 4. Hunting Chin Recent quantification studies have used TR-FRET-based immunoassays. One detection method, combining size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET), allows for the resolution and definition of the formation and aggregation of native soluble mhtt species and insoluble aggregates in the brain. “Fragments of HdhQ150 mutant huntingtin form a soluble oligomer pool that declines with aggregate deposition upon aging,” Marcellin D. et al., PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e44457.

[0078] Various published techniques have been used to assay oligomeric huntingtin species, including, for example, agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE) analysis (native or mildly denaturing, under 0.1% SDS conditions or Blue-Native PAGE, under native conditions), which provides numerous immunoreactive oligomers; anti-huntingtin antibodies differentially recognize specific huntingtin oligomers.

[0079] A one-step TR-FRET-based immunoassay was developed to quantify soluble and aggregated mHtt in cell and tissue homogenates (TR-FRET-based duplex immunoassay reveals an inverse correlation of soluble and aggregated mutant huntingtin in Huntington's disease. Baldo B, et al., Chem Biol. 2012 Feb 24;19(2):264-75).

[0080] Time-resolved Förster energy transfer (TR-FRET)-based assays are widely used high-throughput, homogeneous, and highly sensitive immunoassays for quantifying proteins of interest. TR-FRET is highly sensitive to short distances and can therefore provide structural information based on detecting the exposure and relative location of epitopes present on target proteins as recognized by selective antibodies. We previously reported a TR-FRET assay for quantifying HTT protein based on the use of antibodies specific for different amino-terminal HTT epitopes (Fodale, V. et al., "Polyglutamine- and temperature-dependent conformational rigidity in mutant huntingtin revealed by immunoassays and circular dichroism spectroscopy," PLoS One. 2014 Dec 2;9(12):e112262. doi:10.1371 / journal.pone.0112262. eCollection 2014).

[0081] C. Exosome Isolation Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that are believed to be released from cells when the intermediate endocytic compartment, the multivesicular body (MVB), fuses with the plasma membrane. The vesicles released in this process are called exosomes. Exosomes are believed to contribute to the spread of toxic synuclein species between CNS neurons and into CSF ​​and other body fluids. Exosomes are typically within the range of about 20 nm to about 100 nm.

[0082] Many methods for isolating exosomes are known in the art. These include, for example, immunoaffinity capture methods, size-based isolation methods, differential ultracentrifugation, exosome precipitation, and microfluidic isolation techniques. (Loov et al., "α-Synuclein in Extracellular Vesicles: Functional Implications and Diagnostic Opportunities", M. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2016 Apr;36(3):437-48. doi: 10.1007 / s10571-015-0317-0).

[0083] The amount of exosomes in a sample can be determined by any of a number of methods. These include, for example, (a) immunoaffinity capture (IAC), (b) asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4), (c) nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), (d) dynamic light scattering (DLS), and (e) surface plasmon resonance (SPR)

[66] . Reprinted with permission. Immunoaffinity capture (IAC) is an exosome capture technique that uses an indirect isolation method via immunoaffinity. IAC quantifies exosomes by analyzing color, fluorescence, or electrochemical signals. Asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation (AF4) separates and quantifies molecules using field-flow fractionation and diffusion. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) separates and quantifies particles according to their size. NTA uses the velocity of Brownian motion to analyze particles. This technique also tracks exosome concentration and size using light scattering techniques. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) determines particle size by light scattered by particles exhibiting Brownian motion. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is an immunoaffinity-based assay that captures exosomes with receptors on the surface of an SPR sensor. Binding changes the receptor's optical signal, and their resonance can then be quantified with a light source. Alternatively, exosomes can be examined by electron microscopy, for example, by visualization in a Zeiss LSM 200 transmission electron microscope at 120 kV.

[0084] 1. Immunoaffinity capture Immunoaffinity capture methods use antibodies conjugated to an extraction moiety to bind to exosomes and separate them from other materials in the sample. The solid support can be, for example, magnetically attractable microparticles. Latex immunobeads can be used.

[0085] Qiagen describes its exoEasy Maxi Kit as using membrane affinity spin columns to efficiently isolate exosomes and other extracellular vesicles from serum, plasma, cell culture supernatants and other biological fluids.

[0086] 2. Size-based method Size-based isolation methods include, for example, size exclusion chromatography and ultrafiltration.In size exclusion chromatography, porous stationary phase is used to separate exosomes based on size.In ultrafiltration, porous membrane filter is used to separate exosomes into two based on their size or molecular weight.

[0087] 3. Differential Ultracentrifugation Differential ultracentrifugation involves a series of centrifugation cycles at different centrifugal forces and durations to isolate exosomes based on their density and size differences from other components in the sample. Centrifugal forces can be, for example, approximately 100,000-120,000 x g. Protease inhibitors can be used to prevent proteolysis. A pre-cleaning step can be used to remove other large materials from the sample.

[0088] 4. Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation Density gradient ultracentrifugation sorts exosomes using a gradient medium such as sucrose, Nycodenz (iohexol), and iodixanol. The exosomes are isolated into layers by ultracentrifugation, where the density of the gradient medium is equal to that of the exosomes.

[0089] 5. Polymer-based methods Exosomes can be isolated from solutions of biological materials by altering their solubility or dispersibility. For example, the addition of a polymer such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), e.g., with a molecular weight of 8000 Da, can be used to precipitate exosomes from solution.

[0090] 6. Microfluidic-based Methods Microfluidic methods can be used to isolate exosomes. These include sonic, electrophoretic, and electromagnetic methods. For example, acoustic nanofilters use ultrasonic standing waves to separate exosomes in a sample according to their size and density.

[0091] 7. Other Methods Other methods for isolating CNS-derived exosomes are described, for example, in Kanninnen, KM et al., “Exosomes as new diagnostic tools in CNS diseases”, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1862 (2016) 40 Differential ultracentrifugation-410.

[0092] 8. Enrichment for CNS-derived Exosomes CNS-derived exosomes are exosomes that are produced in the central nervous system, as distinct from the peripheral nervous system.

[0093] Immunoaffinity methods are useful for isolating CNS-derived exosomes using brain-specific biomarkers (e.g., neuronal and glial markers); one such marker is L1CAM. Another marker is KCAM. Other, relatively brain-specific proteins can also be useful in this capacity. CNS-derived exosomes are characterized by brain-related protein markers, including, for example, KCAM, L1CAM, and NCAM. (See, for example, US 2017 / 0014450, US 2017 / 0102397, US 9,958,460.) CNS-derived exosomes can be isolated using affinity capture methods. Such methods include, for example, paramagnetic beads bound to antibodies against specific markers such as L1CAM. (See, e.g., Shi et al., “Plasma exosomal α-alpha-synuclein is likely CNS-derived and increased in Parkinson's disease”, Acta Neuropathol. 2014 November; 128(5): 639-650).

[0094] D. Exosome Contents Many proteins, such as alpha-synuclein, that are linked to the pathogenesis of human neurodegenerative diseases are produced outside the CNS and in the brain and can be bound to the outer surface of exosomes, which can pass through the blood-brain barrier and reach the peripheral circulation.Therefore, in some embodiments of the methods disclosed herein, exosome fractions are treated to remove molecules bound to the exosome surface.This can be done by stringent washing procedures, such as with phosphate buffer solution (PBS).After such treatment, the contents of exosomes can be processed for assay.

[0095] The scrubbed exosomes can then be lysed, releasing their internal contents for analysis.

[0096] E. Detection of Protein Forms from Exosomes 1. Protein a) α-synuclein oligomers Alpha synuclein oligomers and, optionally, other protein species are determined from the scrubbed exosomal contents.

[0097] b) Copolymers of α-synuclein In addition to its ability to self-assemble into various oligomeric species, α-synuclein interacts with other proteins, including tau and amyloid beta. Alpha-synuclein and tau interact to form copolymers. In vitro amyloid beta 1-42 aggregation is influenced by α-synuclein and amyloid beta interactions. Amyloid beta 1-42 and amyloid beta 1-40 bind to α-synuclein in solution. Thus, detection of molecules according to the methods disclosed herein can include detection of copolymers of α-synuclein with either tau or amyloid beta.

[0098] 2. Total amount Quantitative measurement of protein form in sample can be measured.Quantitative measurement can be absolute measurement, normalized measurement (for example, relative to reference measurement), and relative measurement.For example, in one embodiment, biomarker profile comprises the relative amount of oligomeric form of neurodegenerative protein to monomeric form of neurodegenerative protein.In another embodiment, quantitative measurement can be shown by the pattern of protein form.

[0099] The total amount of various protein forms can be measured from the exosome content fraction. This includes total oligomeric α-synuclein. It can also include the total amount of monomeric α-synuclein or the total amount of phosphorylated α-synuclein. Furthermore, the total amount of one or more forms of tau and / or one or more forms of amyloid beta can also be quantified. Tau forms include monomeric tau, oligomeric tau, and phosphorylated tau. Amyloid beta forms include A-β1-40, A-β1-42, oligomeric A-β, and phosphorylated A-β. Any combination of these forms can be measured. This includes a group of forms, such as total α-synuclein, total tau, or total A-β.

[0100] 3. Oligomeric α-synuclein species Specific oligomeric forms of α-synuclein can be distinguished by using detection agents specific for the oligomeric species.

[0101] Alternatively, oligomeric species in a mixture can be separated from one another and then detected. Oligomeric species in a mixture can be separated by several methods. In one method, species are separated by electrophoresis. This includes gel electrophoresis. Electrophoretic methods include polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis ("PAGE") and agarose gel electrophoresis. In one method, native PAGE or blue native PAGE is used. Native PAGE Bis-Tris gels are available, for example, from ThermoFisher®. In a method called packed capillary electrophoresis, or "pCE," pores of any width are created by filling a capillary with nonporous colloidal silica. Alternatively, species can be separated by chromatography, such as size exclusion chromatography, liquid chromatography, or gas chromatography.

[0102] Once separated, specific oligomeric forms of α-synuclein can be distinguished. This can be done without the need for binding agents that specifically bind to specific oligomeric forms because they are already separated and therefore distinguishable. Binding agents that bind to α-synuclein oligomers can generally be used to detect those forms. Their location on a gel or elution time from a column can be used to indicate the specific form being detected. For example, larger oligomers typically migrate more slowly through a gel than smaller oligomers.

[0103] a) Western blot In one embodiment, the detection method is Western blotting. In Western blotting, proteins in a mixture are separated by electrophoresis. The separated proteins are typically blotted onto a solid support, such as a nitrocellulose filter, by electroblotting. The blotted proteins can be detected either by direct binding using a binding agent for α-synuclein oligomers, or by indirect binding. In indirect binding, for example, the blot is contacted with a labeled primary antibody directed against α-synuclein oligomers, which is capable of binding to the oligomers. Typically, the blot is washed to remove unbound antibody. The oligomeric form is then detected using a labeled antibody (typically called a secondary antibody) directed against the primary antibody or a tag bound to the primary antibody.

[0104] Labels can include, for example, gold nanoparticles, latex beads, fluorescent molecules, luminescent proteins, and enzymes that produce a detectable product from a substrate. Tags can include biotin.

[0105] In addition to detecting oligomeric forms of α-synuclein, copolymers of oligomeric α-synuclein with various forms of tau or amyloid-β can also be detected. These forms can be detected using binding agents that bind to the desired form of tau or amyloid-β. Copolymers may migrate at a different rate than oligomers of α-synuclein with the same number of monomeric α-synuclein subunits and therefore may be individually detectable.

[0106] Multiple different alpha-synuclein oligomeric forms can be detected, for example, simultaneously, and these measurements can be combined to form a biomarker profile.

[0107] III. Diagnosis, staging, progression, prognosis and risk of developing neurodegenerative conditions Biomarker profiles, including the amounts of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric forms of neurodegenerative protein biomarkers in a biological sample (e.g., the amounts of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, hyperphosphorylated and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species), and changes in the profile over time indicate the presence, severity, and direction of a neurodegenerative condition of a neurodegenerative type. In particular, abnormal ratios, e.g., elevated amounts, of the protein biomarkers disclosed herein are indicative of a neurodegenerative process that, unchecked, may lead to the manifestation of symptoms in a synucleopathic condition. Thus, provided herein are methods for ascertaining in a subject (e.g., a symptomatic or asymptomatic individual) the diagnosis, stage, progression, rate, prognosis, drug responsiveness, and risk of developing a neurodegenerative condition characterized by abnormal amounts of aggregated proteins, e.g., alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin (each referred to herein as a "neuropathic condition," e.g., a "synucleinopathy condition," an "amyloidopathy condition," a "tauopathy condition," or a "Huntington's condition").

[0108] As used herein, the term "diagnosis" refers to the classification of an individual as having or not having a particular pathogenic condition, including, for example, the stage of that condition.

[0109] As used herein, the term "clinically similar but etiologically distinct" refers to conditions that share clinical signs and / or symptoms but result from different biological causes.

[0110] As used herein, the term "stage" refers to the relative degree of severity of a condition, e.g., suspected, early, intermediate, or advanced stage of disease. Staging can be used to group patients based on etiology, pathophysiology, severity, etc.

[0111] As used herein, the term "progression" refers to a change, or lack thereof, in the stage or severity of a condition over time. This includes an increase, decrease, or stagnation in the severity of the condition. In some embodiments, the rate of progression, i.e., change over time, is measured.

[0112] As used herein, the term "prognosis" refers to the predicted course of a condition, e.g., the likelihood of progression. For example, prognosis can include a prediction that the severity of a condition is likely to increase, decrease, or remain the same at some point in the future. In the context of the present disclosure, prognosis can refer to the likelihood that an individual will: (1) develop a neurodegenerative condition, (2) progress from one stage of a condition to another, more advanced stage, (3) show a decrease in the severity of the condition, (4) show functional decline at a certain rate, (5) survive with a condition for a certain period of time (e.g., survival rate), or (6) have a recurrence of the condition. The condition may be a synucleopathic condition (e.g., PD, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, or some related synucleinopathies), an amyloidopathy condition (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), a tauopathy condition (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), and Huntington's disease. These terms are not intended to be absolute, as will be recognized by those skilled in the art of medical diagnostics.

[0113] As used herein, the term "risk of developing" refers to the probability that an asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic individual will develop a definitive diagnosis of a disease. Determining the probability includes both exact and relative probabilities, such as "more likely," "more likely," "less likely," or percentage chances, for example, "90%." Risk can be compared with the general population, or can be compared with a population that is matched with the subject based on any of age, sex, genetic risk, and environmental risk factors. In such cases, the subject can be determined to have an increased or decreased risk compared with other members of the population.

[0114] Generally, the increasing relative amount of oligomeric neurodegenerative proteins to monomeric neurodegenerative proteins, such as alpha-synuclein, beta-amyloid, tau and huntingtin, correlates with neurodegenerative process, the existence of disease, the more advanced stage of disease, the progression to more severe stage, worse prognosis, the increased risk of developing disease, or the ineffectiveness of experimental therapeutic intervention.In some embodiments, it is preferred to measure the alpha-synuclein from CNS-derived exosomes in peripheral blood.For example, the increase in the relative amount of oligomeric form to monomeric form by at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 50%, at least 100%, at least 250%, at least 500% or at least 1000% compared to normal indicates an abnormal state, such as the existence of disease.

[0115] IV. Modeling Neurodegenerative Protein Species Profiles to Infer Diagnosis, Staging, Progression, Prognosis, and Risk of Onset of Neurodegenerative Conditions Determining the diagnosis, stage, progression, prognosis and risk of neurodegenerative conditions is the process of classifying subjects into different conditions or into different classes or conditions within a condition, such as disease / health (diagnosis), stage I / stage II / stage III (disease stage), likely to remit / likely to progress (prognosis), or assigning a score within a range. Classification methods using biomarker profiles can involve identifying profiles that are characteristic of various conditions and correlating them with profiles from subjects with classes or conditions. Identifying such profiles involves analyzing biomarker profiles from subjects belonging to different conditions and distinguishing between patterns or profiles. Analysis can be performed by visual inspection of the profiles or by statistical analysis.

[0116] A. Statistical analysis Typically, analysis involves statistical analysis of a sufficiently large number of samples to provide statistically significant results. Any statistical method known in the art can be used for this purpose. Such methods or tools include, but are not limited to, correlation, Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, chi-square, mean comparison (for example, paired T-test, independent T-test, ANOVA), regression analysis (for example, simple regression, multiple regression, linear regression, nonlinear regression, logistic regression, polynomial regression, stepwise regression, ridge regression, lasso regression, elastic net regression) or nonparametric analysis (for example, Wilcoxon rank sum test, Wilcoxon signed rank test, sign test). Such tools are included in commercially available statistical packages such as MATLAB, JMP Statistical Software and SAS. Such methods create models or classifiers that can be used to classify specific biomarker profiles into specific conditions.

[0117] The statistical analysis can be performed by an operator or by machine learning.

[0118] B. Machine Learning In some embodiments, statistical analysis is enhanced by the use of machine learning tools. Such tools use learning algorithms, in which relevant variables (possibly multiple) are measured in different possible situations, patterns that distinguish between the situations are determined, and then used to classify test subjects. Thus, any classification method of the present disclosure can be developed by comparing the measurement of one or more variables in subjects belonging to various states within a specific synucleinopathy situation. This includes, for example, determining a biomarker profile comprising the amount of oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, one or more forms of monomeric alpha-synuclein in subjects with various diagnoses or at various disease stages at various time points, allowing for prediction of diagnosis, disease stage, progression, prognosis, drug responsiveness, or risk. Other variables can also be included, such as family history, lifestyle, exposure to chemicals, and various phenotypic traits.

[0119] 1. Training Dataset A training dataset is a dataset that typically includes a vector of values ​​for each of a plurality of features for each of a plurality of subjects (more commonly referred to as objects). One of the features can be a measurement of the subject's classification, e.g., a diagnosis or degree on a scale. This can be used in supervised learning methods. Another feature can be, for example, a measurement of each of a plurality of different forms of a neurodegenerative protein. The different forms include, for example, a plurality of different species, including one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms. Typically, the feature includes a plurality of different oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms. Thus, for example, a vector for an individual subject can include a diagnosis of a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., a diagnosis of having or not having Parkinson's disease) and measurements of a plurality of forms selected from monomeric alpha synuclein, dimeric alpha synuclein, trimeric alpha synuclein, tetrameric alpha synuclein, ... 28-mer alpha synuclein, 29-mer alpha synuclein, and 30-mer alpha synuclein. In other embodiments, the form is a collection of species, such as relatively low molecular weight alpha-synuclein species. In certain embodiments, the training dataset used to generate the classifier includes data from at least 100, at least 200, or at least 400 different subjects. The ratio of subjects classified as having the condition to subjects classified as not having the condition can be at least 2:1, at least 1:1, or at least 1:2. Alternatively, subjects pre-classified as having the condition can comprise at most 66%, at most 50%, at most 33%, or at most 20% of the subjects.

[0120] 2. Learning Algorithm Learning algorithms, also called machine learning algorithms, are computer-implemented algorithms that automate the building of analytical models, for example, for clustering, classification, or profile recognition. Learning algorithms perform analysis on training data sets that are provided to the algorithm.

[0121] The learning algorithm outputs a model, also called a classifier, classification algorithm, or diagnostic algorithm, that accepts test data as input and produces as output a prediction or classification of the input data as belonging to some class, cluster group, or location on a scale, such as diagnosis, stage, prognosis, disease progression, response to a drug, etc.

[0122] A variety of machine learning algorithms can be used to predict the state or condition of the subject.Machine learning algorithms can be supervised or unsupervised.Learning algorithms include, for example, artificial neural networks (for example, backpropagation networks), discriminant analysis (for example, Bayesian classifiers or Fischer analysis), support vector machines, decision trees (for example, recursive partitioning processes, for example, CART - classification and regression trees), random forests, linear classifiers (for example, multiple linear regression (MLR), partial least squares (PLS) regression and principal component regression (PCR)), hierarchical clustering and cluster analysis.Learning algorithms create models or classifiers that can be used to make predictions, for example, to predict the disease state of the subject.

[0123] 3. Verification The model may subsequently be validated using a validation dataset, which typically contains data for the same features as the training dataset. The model is run on the training dataset and the number of true positives, true negatives, false positives, and false negatives is determined as an indication of the model's performance.

[0124] The model can then be tested against a validation data set to determine its usefulness.Typically, the learning algorithm creates multiple models.In some embodiments, the model can be validated based on the fidelity to the standard clinical scale used to diagnose the condition under consideration.One or more of these can be selected based on their performance characteristics.

[0125] C. Computer The classification of the state of a subject based on any of the conditions described herein can be carried out by a programmable digital computer.The computer can include a tangible memory that receives and optionally stores at least the measured values ​​of one or more oligomeric forms and optionally monomeric forms of protein biomarkers in a subject (for example, oligomeric and optionally monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and optionally monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and optionally monomeric tau; and oligomeric and optionally monomeric huntingtin species), and a processor that processes this data by executing a code that embodies a classification algorithm.The classification algorithm can be the result of statistical analysis that is performed by an operator or by machine learning.

[0126] The system includes a first computer as described in communication with a communications network configured to transmit data to the first computer and / or transmit results of tests, such as classifications as described herein, to a remote computer. The communications network may utilize high-speed transmission networks, including, for example, but not limited to, digital subscriber line (DSL), cable modem, fiber, wireless, satellite, and broadband over power line (BPL). The system may further include a remote computer connected to the first computer through the communications network.

[0127] D. Model execution and estimation The selected model can result from either operator-performed statistical analysis or machine learning. In either case, the model can be used to make inferences (e.g., predictions) about the test subject. For example, a biomarker profile, e.g., in the form of a test dataset, including a vector containing values ​​of the features used by the model, can be generated from samples taken from the test subject. The test dataset can include all of the same features used in the training dataset, or a subset of these features. The model is then applied to or run on the test dataset. Correlating the neurodegenerative protein profile with a condition, disease status, prognosis, risk of progression, likelihood of drug response, etc., is a form of running the model. The correlation can be performed by a human or a machine. The selection can depend on the complexity of the correlation operation. This results in an inference, e.g., classification of the subject as belonging to a class or cluster group (e.g., diagnosis), or place on a scale (e.g., likelihood of responding to a therapeutic intervention).

[0128] In some embodiments, the classifier includes multiple oligomeric protein forms and typically, but not necessarily, one or more monomeric forms of a neurodegenerative protein. The classifier may or may not be a linear model, e.g., of the form AX+BY+CZ=N, where A, B, and C are measures of forms X, Y, and Z. The classifier may involve, for example, support vector machine analysis. For example, the predictive model may perform pattern recognition, where biomarker profiles lie on a scale between normal and abnormal, with various profiles trending more toward normal or abnormal. Thus, the classifier may indicate a confidence level that a profile is normal or abnormal.

[0129] A classifier or model can generate a single diagnostic number from one or more measured features to serve as a model. Classifying a neuropathological condition, such as a synucleopathy condition (e.g., diagnosis, stage, progression, prognosis, and risk), can involve determining whether the diagnostic number is above or below a threshold ("diagnostic level"). For example, the diagnostic number can be the relative amount of an oligomeric neurodegenerative protein (e.g., alpha-synuclein) relative to a monomeric neurodegenerative protein (e.g., alpha-synuclein) (including measurement of specific species or phosphorylated forms of each). The threshold can be determined, for example, based on a certain deviation of the diagnostic number above that of normal individuals who do not have any symptoms of a neurodegenerative (e.g., synucleopathy) condition. A representative value, such as the mean, median, or mode, of the diagnostic number can be determined in a statistically significant number of normal and abnormal individuals. A cutoff above the normal amount can be selected as the diagnostic level for a neurodegenerative (e.g., synucleinopathy) condition. The number can be a certain degree of deviation from the representative value, such as variation or standard deviation. In one embodiment, the deviation measure is a Z-score or number of standard deviations from the normal mean value. In certain embodiments, an amount of oligomeric alpha-synuclein to monomeric alpha-synuclein greater than 1.5:1, 2:1, 5:1, or 10:1 indicates the presence of or increased risk of developing a neurodegenerative, e.g., synucleopathic, condition.

[0130] Model can be selected to provide desired level of sensitivity, specificity or positive predictive power.For example, diagnostic level can provide at least 80%, 90%, 95% or 98% sensitivity, and / or at least 80%, 90%, 95% or 98% specificity, and / or at least 80%, 90%, 95% or 98% positive predictive value.The sensitivity of test is the percentage of actual positives that produce positive test results.The specificity of test is the percentage of actual negatives that produce negative test results.The positive predictive value of test is the probability that the subject that produces positive test results is actually positive.

[0131] V. Development of Therapeutic Interventions to Treat Neurodegenerative Conditions In another aspect, provided herein are methods that enable the practical development of therapeutic interventions for neurodegenerative conditions, such as synucleopathic conditions, amyloidopathic conditions, tauopathic conditions, and Huntington's disease. The methods involve, among other things, selecting subjects for clinical trials and determining the efficacy of the therapeutic intervention in a set of subjects.

[0132] Methods involving monitoring biomarker profiles of neurodegenerative proteins (e.g., oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species) are useful for determining whether experimental therapeutic interventions are effective in preventing the clinical onset or inhibiting the subsequent progression of synucleinopathies, or whether subjects should be enrolled in clinical trials to test the efficacy of drug candidates for treating such conditions. The biomarker profile of neurodegenerative proteins or changes in the biomarker profile (e.g., the relative amounts or rates of change in the relative amounts of the oligomeric and monomeric forms of protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and monomeric huntingtin species)) allows for direct determination of the effect of treatment on a condition, including, for example, an underlying disease process.

[0133] A. Targeted Registration Clinical trials involve the enrollment of subjects to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic interventions, such as pharmaceuticals. Typically, subjects are selected to have different conditions; for example, subjects with or without a diagnosis of disease, or at different disease stages, or with different disease subtypes, or with different prognoses. Clinical trial subjects can be stratified into different groups that are treated the same or differently. Stratification can be based on any number of factors, including the stage of the disease. Disease staging is a classification system that uses diagnostic findings to cluster patients based on factors such as etiology, pathophysiology, and severity. It can cluster clinically homogeneous patients and serve as a basis for evaluating the quality of care, analysis of clinical outcomes, resource utilization, and the efficacy of alternative treatments.

[0134] In one method, potential clinical trial subjects are stratified, at least in part, against the biomarker profile of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric forms of protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species). Thus, for example, subjects with different biomarker profiles (e.g., higher and lower relative amounts) can be assigned to different groups.

[0135] The population of subjects in clinical trials should be sufficient to show whether a drug brings about a statistically significant difference in outcome. Depending on this power level, the number of individuals in the study can be at least 20, at least 100, or at least 500 subjects. Among them, there must be a significant number of individuals who show a biomarker profile consistent with having a neurodegenerative condition (for example, an increased level of synuclein biomarker, i.e., the relative level of oligomeric alpha-synuclein to monomeric alpha-synuclein). For example, at least 20%, at least 35%, at least 50%, or at least 66% of subjects can initially have such a biomarker profile (for example, including various species of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin). Furthermore, a significant number of subjects are divided between class statuses. For example, at least 20%, at least 35%, at least 50%, at least 66%, or 100% of the subjects may initially have a diagnosis of a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., a synucleopathic condition (e.g., PD), an amyloidopathic condition, a tauopathic condition, and Huntington's disease).

[0136] B. Drug Development At the start of clinical trials, the efficacy of therapeutic interventions for different stratified groups can be rapidly determined as a function of their effect on the biomarker profile of neurodegenerative proteins (e.g., profiles of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species). More specifically, changes in the biomarker profile of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric forms of proteins predict the clinical efficacy of the therapeutic intervention. The methods generally involve first testing individuals to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric forms of protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species). Following measurement, a therapeutic intervention, e.g., an experimental drug, is administered to at least a subset of subjects. Typically, at least a subset of subjects will receive a placebo or no treatment. In some cases, subjects will serve as their own controls, first receiving a placebo, and then receiving the experimental intervention for comparison, or vice versa. In some cases, this may be done in conjunction with the administration of a recognized form of treatment. The population may be divided by the dosage, timing, and administration rate of the therapeutic intervention. Ethical regulations may require that the trial be stopped if a statistically significant improvement is seen in the test subject. As used herein, "experimental drug" and "drug candidate" refer to agents that have been or will be tested for therapeutic efficacy. "Putative neuroprotective agent" refers to an agent that has been or will be tested to have neuroprotective effects.

[0137] After administration of the therapeutic intervention, the biomarker profile is again determined.

[0138] Therapeutic intervention can be the administration of a drug candidate. Standard statistical methods can be used to determine whether the therapeutic intervention has a significant effect on the biomarker profile, including the oligomeric and optionally monomeric forms of protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and optionally monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and optionally monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and optionally monomeric tau; and oligomeric and optionally monomeric huntingtin species). Generally, a statistically significant change, particularly a shift toward a normal profile compared to the initial biomarker profile, indicates that the therapeutic intervention is neuroprotective and therefore delays the clinical onset or slows or preferably reverses the progression of neurodegenerative conditions (e.g., synucleopathy, amyloidopathy, tauopathy, Huntington's disease).

[0139] Thus, subjects for whom a biomarker profile comprising oligomeric versus monomeric forms of a protein (e.g., species of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin) (alternatively, oligomeric and total forms of a protein) may be measured include, for example: (1) subjects who are asymptomatic for a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., a synucleopathic condition, an amyloidopathic condition, a tauopathic condition, Huntington's disease); (2) subjects who have minimal neurodegenerative disease symptoms or no signs suggestive of a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., subjects who may be diagnosed as "suspected" or "pre-clinical" for a neurodegenerative condition, particularly if certain genetic and / or environmental risk factors are identified); (3) subjects with a diagnosis of a "probable" neurodegenerative condition and subjects who have been diagnosed with a neurodegenerative condition (a "definitive diagnosis"). These include, for example: (1) subjects who are asymptomatic for a synucleopathic condition; (2) subjects who have minimal Parkinson's disease-like symptoms or no signs suggestive of a synucleopathic condition (e.g., subjects who may be diagnosed as "suspected" or "pre-clinical" for PD or some related synucleinopathy, particularly if certain genetic and / or environmental risk factors are identified); (3) subjects with a diagnosis of a "probable" synucleinopathy (e.g., PD) and subjects who have been diagnosed with a synucleopathic condition ("definitive diagnosis").

[0140] The subject is typically a human, but also includes non-human animals, such as non-human animals used as models for PD, such as rodents (e.g., mice and rats), cats, dogs, other domesticated quadrupeds (e.g., horses, sheep, and pigs), and non-human primates (e.g., monkeys). Animal models include both genetic and neurotoxin-based models. Neurotoxins used in such models include, for example, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) and 1-methyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) administration, as well as paraquat and rotenone. Genetic models include gene mutations in SNCA (α-syn, PARK1 and 4), PRKN (parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase, PARK2), PINK1 (PTEN-induced putative kinase 1, PARK6), DJ-1 (PARK7), and LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2, PARK8).

[0141] Clinical trials for neuroprotective therapies for neurodegenerative conditions, such as synucleinopathies, require a rapid measure of the efficacy of potential therapies. Otherwise, determining drug efficacy based on clinical observations typically takes months. Biomarker profiles containing neurodegenerative protein oligomers and, optionally, monomers, provide such a measure, thus enabling practical assessment of disease-modifying drug efficacy in subjects suffering from fatal brain disorders, such as PD.

[0142] VI. Treatment Method Depending on the stage or class of neurodegenerative condition (e.g., synucleopathy, amyloidopathy, tauopathy, Huntington's disease) into which the subject is classified based on a biomarker profile as described herein, the subject may be in need of therapeutic intervention. Provided herein are methods of treating a subject determined to exhibit a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., synucleopathy, amyloidopathy, tauopathy, Huntington's disease) by the methods disclosed herein with a therapeutic intervention effective for treating the condition. Therapeutic interventions that alter, particularly reduce, the amount of oligomeric forms of protein biomarkers relative to their monomeric forms (e.g., oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and monomeric tau; and oligomeric and monomeric huntingtin) reflect effective treatments, e.g., therapeutic interventions developed by the methods herein and clinically validated.

[0143] As used herein, the terms "therapeutic intervention," "therapy," and "treatment" refer to an intervention that produces a therapeutic effect (e.g., is "therapeutically effective"). A therapeutically effective intervention prevents, slows the progression of, delays the onset of symptoms of, improves the condition (e.g., brings about remission of), improves the symptoms of, or cures a disease, such as a synucleinopathy condition. Therapeutic intervention can include, for example, the administration of a treatment, a pharmaceutical, or a biological or nutritional supplement with therapeutic intent. A response to a therapeutic intervention can be complete or partial. In some aspects, the severity of the disease is reduced by at least 10%, for example, when compared to the individual before administration or a control individual not receiving treatment. In some aspects, the severity of the disease is reduced by at least 25%, 50%, 75%, 80%, or 90%, or in some cases, is no longer detectable using standard diagnostic techniques. Recognizing that some subgroups of subjects may not respond to therapy, one measure of treatment effectiveness may be efficacy for at least 90% of subjects receiving the intervention, for at least 100 subjects.

[0144] As used herein, the term "effective" as used to modify a therapeutic intervention ("effective treatment" or "treatment effective against") or the amount of a pharmaceutical drug ("effective amount") refers to the treatment or amount for improving the disorder as described above. For example, for a given parameter, a therapeutically effective amount indicates an increase or decrease of the parameter of at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 75%, 80%, 90%, or at least 100%. Therapeutic efficacy can also be expressed as a "fold" increase or decrease. For example, a therapeutically effective amount can have an effect of at least 1.2-fold, 1.5-fold, 2-fold, 5-fold, or more compared to the control. Currently, clinical efficacy for the severity of motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease-like subjects can be measured using standardized scales such as the UPDRS and Hoehn and Yahr scales; and for mental and cognitive symptoms, the ADAS-cog or MMPI scales. (It is recognized that the usefulness of such a scale does not necessarily depend on the type or nature of the underlying disease state).

[0145] Therefore, according to some methods, a subject is first tested for a biomarker profile comprising oligomeric and / or monomeric forms of neurodegenerative proteins in a biological sample from the subject. A classification into an appropriate state or class is determined based on the biomarker profile. Based on the classification, a decision can be made regarding the type, amount, route and timing of administering an optimally effective therapeutic intervention to the subject.

[0146] A. Synucleinopathy conditions In some embodiments, symptom-modifying therapeutic interventions (i.e., symptomatic or palliative treatments) for PD include dopamine agonists (e.g., pramipexole (e.g., Mirapex), ropinirole (e.g., Requip), rotigotine (e.g., Neupro), apomorphine (e.g., Apokyn)), levodopa, carbidopa-levodopa (e.g., Rytary, Sinemet), MAO-B inhibitors (e.g., selegiline (e.g., Eldepryl, Zelapar) or includes the administration of a drug selected from rasagiline (e.g., Azilect), a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) inhibitor (e.g., entacapone (Comtan) or tolcapone (Tasmar)), an anticholinergic (e.g., benztropine (e.g., Cogentin) or trihexyphenidyl), amantadine, or a cholinesterase inhibitor (e.g., rivastigmine (Exelon)), or some similar drug or group of drugs.

[0147] In certain embodiments, neuroprotective or disease-modifying therapeutic intervention for PD includes administration of a putative disease-modifying drug such as those described in any of the following provisional patent applications, the entireties of which are incorporated herein by reference: Serial No. 62 / 477187, filed March 27, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 483,555, filed April 10, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 485,082, filed April 13, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 511,424, filed May 26, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 528,228, filed July 3, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 489,016, filed April 24, 2017; Serial No. 62 / 527,215, filed June 30, 2017.

[0148] B. Amyloidopathy conditions In some embodiments, symptom-modifying therapeutic interventions (i.e., symptomatic or palliative treatments) for amyloidopathy conditions include administration of drugs such as Razadyne® (galantamine), Exelon® (rivastigmine), and Aricept® (donepezil).

[0149] C. Tauopathy conditions In some embodiments, symptom-modifying therapeutic intervention (i.e., symptomatic or palliative treatment) for a tauopathy condition includes administration of drugs such as Razadyne® (galantamine), Exelon® (rivastigmine), and Aricept® (donepezil), or those cited herein used for the symptomatic treatment of PD.

[0150] D. Huntington's disease In certain embodiments, a symptom-modifying therapeutic intervention (i.e., symptomatic or palliative treatment) for Huntington's disease is tetrabenazine (Austedo® (deutetrabenazine), IONIS-HTT Rx , and the administration of drugs such as various neuroleptics and benzodiazepines.

[0151] VII. Methods for assessing response to therapeutic intervention In subjects suffering from neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., synucleopathy, amyloidopathy, tauopathy, Huntington's disease), the effectiveness of therapeutic intervention or the subject's responsiveness to therapeutic intervention can be determined by assessing the effect of the therapeutic intervention on the biomarker profile. This includes the effectiveness in any neurodegenerative condition, such as diagnosis, stage, progression, prognosis, and risk. A shift in the biomarker profile toward a more normal profile indicates the effectiveness of the therapeutic intervention.

[0152] The use of biomarker profiles comprising oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric forms of protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric amyloid beta; oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric tau; and oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric huntingtin species) offers advantages over traditional means for determining treatment efficacy in such situations (e.g., changes in symptomatology, functional scales, or radiological scans). Such traditional means of determining efficacy are not only insensitive, imprecise, and semi-quantitative, but also typically require long periods of time (e.g., years) before they are large enough to be accurately measured. Thus, the number of potentially useful treatments tested is significantly reduced, and the cost of clinical trials and, therefore, the ultimate cost of useful drugs, increases substantially.

[0153] In some embodiments, the biomarker profile of a protein biomarker species (e.g., alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin) is measured multiple times, typically before, during, and after administration of a therapeutic intervention, or at multiple time points after the therapeutic intervention.

[0154] VIII. Kit In another aspect, the present invention provides a kit for detecting oligomeric and monomeric protein biomarkers (e.g., oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein; oligomeric and monomeric amyloid beta, oligomeric and monomeric tau; and oligomeric and monomeric huntingtin species) and interpreting the results obtained. The kit can include a container for holding a reagent for isolating exosomes from a body fluid, a reagent for preferentially isolating CNS-derived exosomes from all exosomes, a first reagent sufficient to detect oligomeric forms of the protein biomarker (e.g., alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin), and a second reagent sufficient to detect monomeric forms of the protein biomarker (e.g., alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin), or a reagent for detecting total protein biomarker species (e.g., alpha-synuclein, amyloid beta, tau, or huntingtin).

[0155] For example, a kit for use in detecting and staging a synucleinopathy disease state in a biological sample can include reagents, buffers, enzymes, antibodies, and other compositions specific for this purpose. The kit also typically includes instructions for use and software for data analysis and interpretation. The kit can further include a sample that serves as a standard. Each solution or composition can be contained in a vial or bottle, and all vials can be kept in a securely sealed box for commercial sale.

[0156] Exemplary Embodiments Exemplary aspects of the present invention include, but are not limited to, the following. 1. The following steps: (a) enriching each biological sample in a collection of biological samples for brain-derived exosomes, wherein: (i) The collection of biological samples is derived from subjects in a cohort of subjects, wherein the cohort is: (1) a plurality of subjects diagnosed with a neurodegenerative condition at each of a plurality of different disease stages, wherein each of the diagnosed subjects has received a putative neuroprotective agent; and / or (2) multiple healthy control subjects; wherein biological samples are collected prior to administration of a putative neuroprotective agent, and again one or more times during administration, and optionally after administration; (b) isolating the protein content from the internal compartment of the exosome to generate a biomarker sample; (c) measuring the amount of each of the one or more neurodegenerative protein forms in the biomarker sample to generate a dataset; wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms include one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (d) To compare the differences in the amounts of each of the neurodegenerative protein forms, (i) in individual subjects over time to determine diagnostic algorithms that predict the rate of disease progression or the degree of response to putative neuroprotective agents; or (ii) across different subjects to determine a diagnostic algorithm that (1) makes a pathogenic diagnosis, (2) separates clinically similar but etiologically distinct neurodegenerative disorder subgroups, or (3) predicts whether or to what extent a subject is likely to respond to a putative neuroprotective agent. The process of performing statistical analysis on a data set A method comprising: 2. Before the concentration step: (I) providing a cohort of subjects, wherein the cohort includes: (i) a plurality of subjects diagnosed with a neurodegenerative condition at each of a plurality of different disease stages, and / or (ii) a plurality of healthy control subjects; (II) administering to each of the diagnosed subjects a putative neuroprotective agent; (III) collecting a biological sample from each of the subjects in the cohort prior to administration of the putative neuroprotective agent, and again one or more times during administration, and optionally after administration. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising: 3. The neurodegenerative protein forms measured are: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method is selected from: 4. The diagnostic algorithm is as follows: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form (e.g., relative amounts; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, using a form(s) selected from: 5. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 6. (h) validating one or more of the diagnostic algorithms against standard clinical measures The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising: 7.

[0023] The method of embodiment 1, or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis comprises correlation, Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, chi-squared, comparison of means (e.g., paired t-test, independent t-test, ANOVA), regression analysis (e.g., simple regression, multiple regression, linear regression, nonlinear regression, logistic regression, polynomial regression, stepwise regression, ridge regression, lasso regression, elastic net regression), or nonparametric analysis (e.g., Wilcoxon rank sum test, Wilcoxon signed rank test, sign test). 8. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis is performed by a computer. 9. The method of embodiment 8 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis comprises machine learning. 10. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject is a human. 11. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is a synucleinopathy disorder. 12. The method of embodiment 11 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the synucleinopathy disorder is Parkinson's disease. 13. The method of embodiment 11 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the synucleinopathy disorder is Lewy body dementia. 14. The method of embodiment 12 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is alpha-synuclein and the oligomeric form comprises one or more relatively low molecular weight synuclein oligomers. 15. The method of embodiment 12 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is alpha-synuclein and the oligomeric synuclein forms comprise oligomeric forms in the size range of about 6-mer to 18-mer. 16. The method of embodiment 12 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the standard clinical measure is selected from UPDRS score, CGI score, and radiological findings. 17. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is an amyloidopathy, a tauopathy, or Huntington's disease. 18. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the biological sample comprises a venous blood sample. 19. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the different disease stages comprise one or more of suspected, early, intermediate, and clinically advanced. 20. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the above embodiments, wherein the time during or after administration is selected from 1, 2, 3 or more months after treatment. twenty one. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the enriching step comprises using one or more brain-specific protein markers. twenty two. The method of embodiment 21 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the brain-specific markers comprises K1cam. twenty three. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the isolating step comprises washing the exosomes in each enriched sample to remove surface membrane-associated proteins. twenty four. The method of embodiment 23 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the exosomes are washed with PBS. twenty five. The method of embodiment 1 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the form of the neurodegenerative protein is measured by gel electrophoresis, Western blot, or fluorescence techniques. 26. The following steps: (a) enriching a biological sample from a subject for brain-derived exosomes; (b) isolating the protein content from the internal compartment of the exosome to generate a biomarker sample; (c) measuring the amount of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms in the biomarker sample to generate a neurodegenerative protein profile, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms include one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (d) correlating neurodegenerative protein profiles, comprising: (1) Conduct pathogen diagnosis; (2) classifying subjects into one of multiple clinically similar but etiologically distinct neurodegenerative disorder subgroups; or (3) predicting whether or to what extent a subject is likely to respond to a putative neuroprotective agent; A process that involves one of the following: A method comprising: 27. The method of embodiment 26 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the associating step comprises running the diagnostic algorithm of embodiment 1 on the neurodegenerative protein profile. 28. The diagnostic algorithm is as follows: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms (e.g., the relative amounts of oligomeric forms to monomeric forms); and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 26 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method uses a neurodegenerative protein form selected from: 29.

[0041] Embodiment 27. The method of embodiment 26 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 30. 27. The method of embodiment 26, comprising collecting a plurality of biological samples from the subject over a period of time, optionally wherein the subject has received a putative or known neuroprotective agent during the period of time, and wherein the diagnostic algorithm predicts the rate of disease progression or the degree of response to the putative neuroprotective agent. 31. The method of embodiment 26 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the diagnostic algorithm uses the relative amounts of oligomeric versus monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 32. The method of embodiment 26 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the diagnostic algorithm uses the pattern of one or more oligomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 33. The following steps: (a) for each of a plurality of subjects: (1) the status of the neurodegenerative condition, and (2) a quantitative measurement of the amount of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms in a biological sample enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles; wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (b) performing statistical analysis on the dataset to develop a model that predicts the status of the neurodegenerative condition in the individual; A method comprising: 34. Quantitative measurements of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms (e.g., the relative amounts of oligomeric forms to monomeric forms); and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the 35.

[0039] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 36. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis is performed by a computer. 37. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis is not performed by a computer. 38.

[0039] Embodiment 34, or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis comprises correlation, Pearson correlation, Spearman correlation, chi-square, comparison of means (e.g., paired t-test, independent t-test, ANOVA), regression analysis (e.g., simple regression, multiple regression, linear regression, nonlinear regression, logistic regression, polynomial regression, stepwise regression, ridge regression, lasso regression, elastic net regression), or nonparametric analysis (e.g., Wilcoxon rank sum test, Wilcoxon signed rank test, sign test). 39.

[0039] Embodiment 37. The method of embodiment 36 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the statistical analysis comprises training a machine learning algorithm on the dataset. 40.

[0023] Embodiment 39, or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the machine learning algorithm is selected from the following: artificial neural networks (e.g., backpropagation networks), decision trees (e.g., recursive partitioning processes, CART), random forests, discriminant analysis (e.g., Bayesian classifiers or Fischer analysis), linear classifiers (e.g., multiple linear regression (MLR), partial least squares (PLS) regression, principal component regression (PCR)), mixed or random effects models, nonparametric classifiers (e.g., k-nearest neighbors), support vector machines, and ensemble methods (e.g., bagging, boosting). 41. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the condition is selected from diagnosis, staging, prognosis or progression of a neurodegenerative condition. 42. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the status is measured as a categorical variable (e.g., a binary status or one of multiple categorical statuses). 43. The method of embodiment 42, or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the categories include diagnoses consistent with having a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., positive or diagnosed as having) and diagnoses inconsistent with having a neurodegenerative condition (e.g., negative or diagnosed as not having). 44. The method of embodiment 42 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the categories comprise different stages of the neurodegenerative condition. 45. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the condition is measured as a continuous variable (e.g., on a scale). 46. The method of embodiment 41 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the continuous variable is the range or degree of the neurodegenerative condition. 47. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject is an animal, e.g., a fish, bird, amphibian, reptile, or mammal, e.g., a rodent, primate, or human. 48. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the plurality of subjects is at least any of 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, or 800. 49.

[0039] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33, or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein for each subject, the sample from which the quantitative measure is determined is collected at a first time point, and the status of the neurodegenerative condition is determined at a second, later time point. 50. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is selected from alpha-synuclein, tau, amyloid beta, and huntingtin. 51.

[0039] Embodiment 34, or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the biological sample comprises blood or a blood fraction (e.g., plasma or serum). 52. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one oligomeric form comprises a phosphorylated form. 53.

[0039] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33, or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is alpha-synuclein, and the dataset comprises quantitative measurements, individually or collectively, of oligomers in the 4-16 mer range, or oligomers comprising p129 alpha-synuclein. 54.

[0039] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is a soluble oligomeric form of amyloid beta, and wherein the dataset comprises quantitative measurements of oligomers, individually or collectively, within the approximate size range of 8-24 mers. 55.

[0039] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is tau, and wherein the dataset comprises quantitative measurements of oligomers, individually or collectively, in the approximate range of 3-15 mers. 56.

[0042] Embodiment 34. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is tau and the oligomeric form is a hyperphosphorylated form of tau. 57. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative protein is huntingtin. 58. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is a synucleinopathy selected from Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple system atrophy, or a related disorder. 59. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is an amyloidopathy, e.g., Alzheimer's disease. 60. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is a tauopathy, e.g., Alzheimer's disease. 61. The method of embodiment 33 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the neurodegenerative condition is Huntington's disease. 62. 1. A method for predicting the risk of developing, diagnosing, staging, prognosis, or progression of a neurodegenerative condition characterized by a neurodegenerative protein, comprising the steps of: (a) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (b) running a model, e.g., a model of embodiment 33, on the dataset to predict risk of development, diagnosis, stage, prognosis, or progression of a neurodegenerative condition. A method comprising: 63. The neurodegenerative protein forms for which quantitative measurements are determined include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, selected from: 64.

[0082] Embodiment 63. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 65.

[0082] Embodiment 63. The method of embodiment 62, or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model comprises comparing the relative amounts of oligomeric to monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein with the relative amounts in a statistically significant number of control individuals. 66.

[0082] Embodiment 63. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model comprises detecting patterns of relative amounts of a plurality of oligomeric forms, from which the model makes inferences. 67. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject is asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic for the neurodegenerative condition. 68. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject presents to a health care provider, such as a physician, during a routine visit or as part of the physician's normal medical practice. 69. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is implemented by a computer. 70. The method of embodiment 62 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is not implemented by a computer. 71. 1. A method for determining the effectiveness of a therapeutic intervention in the treatment of a neurodegenerative condition characterized by a neurodegenerative protein, comprising the steps of: (a) the following: (1) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (2) Using a model, e.g., the model of embodiment 33, to estimate the initial situation. inferring an initial status of a neurodegenerative condition in each subject in a population comprising a plurality of subjects by (b) administering a therapeutic intervention to the subject after the inferring step; (c) after the step of: (1) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (2) Using the model to predict subsequent situations Inferring a subsequent state of the neurodegenerative condition in each subject in the population by (d) determining, based on the initial and subsequent estimates in the population, that the therapeutic intervention is effective if the subsequent estimates show a statistically significant change toward normal status compared to the initial estimate, or that the therapeutic intervention is not effective if the subsequent estimates do not show a statistically significant change toward normal status compared to the initial estimate. A method comprising: 72. The neurodegenerative protein forms for which quantitative measurements are determined include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, selected from: 73.

[0072] Embodiment 72. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 74. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the therapeutic intervention comprises administration of a drug or combination of drugs. 75.

[0072] Embodiment 71, or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the population comprises at least 20, at least 50, at least 100, or at least 200 subjects, wherein at least 20%, at least 35%, at least 50%, or at least 75% of the subjects initially have an elevated relative amount of the oligomeric form of the protein relative to the monomeric form of the protein. 76. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, or at least 35%, at least 50%, at least 66%, at least 80%, or 100% of the subjects initially have a diagnosis of a neurodegenerative condition. 77.

[0072] Embodiment 72. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses the relative amounts of oligomeric versus monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 78.

[0072] Embodiment 71 or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses patterns of one or more oligomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 79. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the inference is performed by a computer. 80. The method of embodiment 71 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the inference is performed by a computer. 81. 1. A method for qualifying subjects for clinical trials of therapeutic interventions for the treatment or prevention of a neurodegenerative condition, comprising the steps of: (a) the following: (i) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from the subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (ii) running a model, e.g., a model of embodiment 33, against the profile to infer that the subject is abnormal with respect to the neurodegenerative condition. determining that the subject is abnormal with respect to a neurodegenerative condition characterized by the neurodegenerative protein by: (c) enrolling the subject in a clinical trial of a potential therapeutic intervention for said neurodegenerative condition. A method comprising: 82. The neurodegenerative protein forms for which quantitative measurements are determined include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 81 or any of the preceding embodiments, selected from: 83.

[0082] Embodiment 81 or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 84.

[0082] Embodiment 81 or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses the relative amounts of oligomeric versus monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 85.

[0082] Embodiment 81 or the method of any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses patterns of one or more oligomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 86. The method of embodiment 81 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is implemented by a computer. 87. The method of embodiment 81 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is not implemented by a computer. 88. 1. A method of monitoring the progress of a subject in a therapeutic intervention for a neurodegenerative condition, comprising the steps of: (a) the following: (1) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (2) running a model, e.g., the model of embodiment 33, to predict an initial state of a neurodegenerative condition; inferring an early stage of a neurodegenerative condition in a subject by (b) administering a therapeutic intervention to the subject after the inferring step; (c) after the step of: (1) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (2) running a model, e.g., the model of embodiment 33, to predict the consequences of the neurodegenerative condition; inferring in the subject a subsequent status of a neurodegenerative condition by (d) determining, based on the estimates of the initial and subsequent conditions, that the subject is responding positively to the therapeutic intervention if the subsequent estimate indicates a change toward normal conditions compared to the initial estimate, or that the therapeutic intervention is not effective if the subsequent estimate does not indicate a change toward normal conditions compared to the initial estimate. A method comprising: 89. The neurodegenerative protein forms for which quantitative measurements are determined include: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and a plurality of monomeric forms; and (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the method is selected and determined by: 90.

[0082] Embodiment 89. The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein at least one of the oligomeric forms constitutes a collection of species of neurodegenerative proteins. 91.

[0082] Embodiment 89. The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses the relative amounts of oligomeric versus monomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 92. The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model uses patterns of one or more oligomeric forms of the neurodegenerative protein. 93. The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is implemented by a computer. 94. The method of embodiment 88 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the model is not implemented by a computer. 95. (a) determining that a subject has a neurodegenerative condition characterized by a neurodegenerative protein by the method of embodiment 62; and (b) administering to the subject an effective palliative or neuroprotective therapeutic intervention to treat the condition. A method comprising: 96. The method of embodiment 97 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the therapeutic intervention shifts the subject's biomarker profile toward normal, wherein a shift toward normal indicates neuroprotection. 97. administering to the subject determined to have an abnormal biomarker profile by the method of embodiment 62 a palliative or neuroprotective therapeutic intervention effective to treat the condition. A method comprising: 98. The method of embodiment 97 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the subject is asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic for the neurodegenerative condition. 99. A kit comprising a first reagent sufficient to detect an oligomeric form of a protein selected from alpha-synuclein, tau, amyloid beta, and huntingtin, and a second reagent sufficient to detect a monomeric form of a protein selected from alpha-synuclein, tau, amyloid beta, and huntingtin. 100. 99. The kit of embodiment 99 or any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the first and second reagents comprise antibodies. 101. 1. A method for predicting the risk of developing, diagnosing, staging, prognosis, or progression of a neurodegenerative condition characterized by a neurodegenerative protein, comprising the steps of: (a) determining a neurodegenerative protein profile comprising quantitative measurements of each of one or more neurodegenerative protein forms from a biological sample from a subject enriched for CNS-derived microsomal particles to generate a dataset, wherein the neurodegenerative protein forms comprise one or more oligomeric forms and, optionally, one or more monomeric forms; and (b) correlating the neurodegenerative protein profile with the risk of developing, diagnosing, staging, prognosis, or progression of a neurodegenerative condition. A method comprising: 102. Neurodegenerative protein profile: (I) at least one oligomeric form; (II) multiple oligomeric forms; (III) at least one oligomeric form and at least one monomeric form; (IV) a plurality of oligomeric forms and at least one monomeric form; (V) at least one oligomeric form and multiple monomeric forms; or (VI) Multiple Oligomeric and Multiple Monomeric Forms The method of embodiment 101 or any of the preceding embodiments, comprising a quantitative measure selected from: 103. (a) providing a blood sample from a subject; (b) isolating central nervous system (“CNS”)-derived exosomes from the blood sample; (c) removing proteins from the surface of the isolated exosomes to generate scrubbed exosomes; (d) isolating the internal contents of the scrubbed exosomes; (e) determining, in the isolated internal contents, quantitative measurements of oligomeric α-synuclein protein and, optionally, one or more protein forms selected from monomeric α-synuclein, phosphorylated α-synuclein, monomeric tau, oligomeric tau, phosphorylated tau, amyloid beta ("α-β") 1-40, amyloid beta 1-42, and oligomeric amyloid beta; (f) separating the oligomeric α-synuclein species into a plurality of fractions; (g) determining a quantitative measure of each of one or more separated oligomeric α-synuclein species and, optionally, one or more species selected from monomeric α-synuclein, tau-synuclein copolymer, amyloid β-synuclein copolymer, and tau-amyloid β-synuclein copolymer. A method comprising: 104. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the blood sample is a plasma sample. 105. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the blood sample comprises between about 5 ml and 20 ml of blood. 106. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the subject is a human subject. 107. The method of embodiment 106, wherein the subject has a synucleinopathy (e.g., Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, or multiple system atrophy). 108. Isolating CNS-derived exosomes comprises: (i) isolating total exosomes from a blood sample; and (ii) isolating CNS-derived exosomes from total exosomes 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 109. Isolating CNS-derived exosomes comprises: (i) Ultracentrifugation; (ii) density gradient centrifugation; or (iii) Size Exclusion Chromatography 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 110. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the step of isolating the CNS-derived exosomes comprises capturing the CNS-derived exosomes using a binding moiety that binds to a CNS-specific protein. 111. 111. The method of embodiment 110, wherein the CNS-specific protein is LCAM. 112. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the step of removing proteins from the surface of the isolated exosomes comprises washing the isolated exosomes with an aqueous solution (e.g., phosphate buffered saline ("PBS")). 113. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the quantitative measure is the total amount of protein form. 114. determining a quantitative measure of monomeric alpha-synuclein in the isolated internal contents; 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 115. determining, in the isolated internal contents, a quantitative measure of one or more species selected from monomeric tau, oligomeric tau, and phosphorylated tau. 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 116. Determining p129 alpha-synuclein 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 117. determining, in the isolated internal contents, a quantitative measure of one or more species selected from amyloid beta 1-40, amyloid beta 1-42, and oligomeric amyloid beta. 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 118. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein separating species comprises into a plurality of fractions comprises separating by electrophoresis. 119. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein separating the species into a plurality of fractions comprises separating by chromatography. 120. determining, among the separated species, at least one oligomeric form of alpha-synuclein selected from forms having 2 to about 100 monomer units, 4 to 16 monomer units, and forms having about 30 or less monomer units; 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 121. determining a quantitative measure of monomeric alpha-synuclein among the separated species; 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 122. determining quantitative measurements of the plurality of different oligomeric alpha-synuclein species among the separated species. 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: one two three. determining a quantitative measure of the copolymer comprising alpha-synuclein and tau among the separated species. 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 124. determining a quantitative measure of the copolymer comprising α-synuclein and amyloid beta among the separated species. 104. The method of embodiment 103, comprising: 125. 104. The method of embodiment 103, wherein the step of determining quantitative measurements in the separated species comprises detecting one or more separated species by immunoassay. 126. 125. The method of embodiment 124, wherein the immunoassay comprises immunoblotting. 127. 125. The method of embodiment 124, wherein the immunoassay comprises a Western blot. 128. 125. The method of embodiment 124, wherein the immunoassay uses an antibody directly coupled to a label. 129. 125. The method of embodiment 124, wherein the immunoassay uses an antibody coupled to an indirect label. 130. (f) determining a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease in the subject based on the quantitative measurement of one or more isolated oligomeric α-synuclein species. 104. The method of embodiment 103, further comprising: 131. The following steps: (f) determining the quantitative amount of the protein in the subject before and after administration of the putative neuroprotective agent; and (g) determining a change in the protein amount or pattern of the biomarker profile, wherein a change to normal amount or profile indicates efficacy of the neuroprotective agent. 104. The method of embodiment 103, further comprising: 132. The following steps: (f) determining the quantitative amount of the protein in the subject at two different time points; and (g) determining a change in the amount of a protein or a change in the pattern of a biomarker profile, wherein the change indicates a change in the neurodegenerative status. 104. The method of embodiment 103, further comprising: 133. The following steps: (a) providing a sample comprising a mixture of proteins, wherein the proteins consist essentially of proteins from the inner compartment of CNS-derived exosomes; (b) fractionating oligomeric α-synuclein species in the sample; and (c) determining a quantitative measure of each of the one or more separated oligomeric α-synuclein species and, optionally, one or more species selected from monomeric α-synuclein, tau-synuclein copolymer, amyloid β-synuclein copolymer, and tau-amyloid β-synuclein copolymer. A method comprising: 134. 134. The method of embodiment 133, wherein the product comprises oligomeric alpha-synuclein species isolated from a product enriched for scrubbed CNS-derived exosomes. [Example]

[0157] The following examples are offered by way of illustration and not by way of limitation.

[0158] Example 1: Alpha-synuclein oligomers are elevated relative to alpha-synuclein monomers in synucleopathic conditions The subject of the study is a cohort of individuals who are diagnosed with a synucleopathy condition and given an active therapeutic intervention, and then given a different, possibly inactive, one, or vice versa. Alternatively, the subject of the study is a cohort that includes a plurality of subjects who are asymptomatic for the synucleopathy condition among a plurality of subjects who have been diagnosed with a synucleopathy condition. In either case, venous blood samples are collected from each subject by venipuncture at various times, including under baseline or control (e.g., inactive intervention treatment) conditions, and again during the administration of potentially active (e.g., experimental intervention) treatment. CNS-derived exosomes are isolated from blood using the method described herein. The amount of monomeric alpha-synuclein and oligomeric alpha-synuclein or specific species contained in the isolated exosomes is measured. The ratio of oligomeric alpha-synuclein species to monomeric alpha-synuclein is determined. The results show that in a cohort of subjects diagnosed with a synucleopathic condition, the ratio of oligomeric to monomeric alpha-synuclein increases to a statistically significant degree. Those found to have significant changes in the results of this biomarker assay are later found to have proportional changes in the clinical setting.

[0159] Example 2: Subject Stratification / Clinical Trials Volunteer subjects with and without PD are tested to determine the relative amounts of oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein in CNS-derived exosomes. Based on the determined relative amounts and using the cutoffs determined in the above examples, the subjects are clustered into test groups. One test group is given a placebo. Other test groups are administered different amounts of the compound in the clinical trial. The test is repeated during and / or after administration. The collected measurements are analyzed. The therapeutic intervention is determined to result in a statistically significant decrease in the relative amount of oligomeric alpha-synuclein to monomeric alpha-synuclein.

[0160] Example 3: Clinical trials of drug candidates that are neuroprotective for synucleinopathies The objective of this Phase II study is to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and initial efficacy of pramipexole, given with aprepitant and optionally with or without lovastatin or similarly effective medications, in patients with PD and related disorders. A sequential-treatment, ascending-dose, crossover, outpatient study will be conducted in up to 30 patients with PD (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), dementia with Lewy bodies (LBD), or related synucleopathic disorders. None of the participants will be treated with dopamine agonists or other centrally acting medications during the three months prior to clinical study entry, except for levodopa-carbidopa (Sinemet), which will be maintained at a stable dose throughout the study to the extent deemed medically acceptable. Following baseline clinical and laboratory assessments, including the Unified PD Rating Scale (UPDRS-Part III) and synuclein biomarker determination, consenting individuals who meet enrollment criteria will be switched from their pre-study PD treatment regimen to one containing pramipexole ER and aprepitant. The pramipexole ER dose will be titrated to an optimally tolerated dose (or up to 9 mg / day) and then maintained stable for up to approximately 12-16 weeks. Co-treatment with an additional drug (e.g., a statin) given at its maximum approved dose may then be initiated for an additional 3 months if deemed clinically appropriate, at which time all subjects will return to their pre-hospital treatment regimen. Baseline efficacy and safety measurements, including determination of synuclein biomarker levels, were repeated at regular intervals throughout the study. Efficacy was determined as a function of a statistically significant shift toward normal in the biomarker profile, including oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein species.

[0161] Example 4: Diagnosis A subject is considered to have certain symptoms consistent with PD, but is at a pre-symptomatic level if they still lack many of the disease's hallmark clinical features. Blood is drawn from the subject by venipuncture. The amount of oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein is measured from CNS-derived exosomes in the blood. A biomarker profile is determined. A diagnostic algorithm classifies the profile as being consistent with a diagnosis of PD. The subject is diagnosed with PD and placed on a treatment regimen of either palliative treatment to alleviate symptoms or treatment directed at the etiology of the disease for the purpose of neuroprotection.

[0162] Example 5: Staging A subject presents with a diagnosis of PD. A physician orders a blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on the biomarker profile including oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, monomeric, the physician determines that the subject is in the early stages of PD and therefore may be more responsive to a particular therapeutic intervention.

[0163] Example 6: Prognosis / Progression The subject presents with a diagnosis of PD. The physician orders first and second blood tests for the subject, several months apart, to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on the biomarker profile, oligomeric versus monomeric alpha-synuclein, the physician determines that the subject's disease is slowly progressing and that the subject is expected to have a life expectancy of several years, even without risky therapeutic intervention.

[0164] Example 7: Risk Assessment A subject shows no symptoms of synucleinopathy disease upon physical examination. In this case, the individual is aware of genetic or environmental risk factors. A physician orders a blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on a relatively abnormal biomarker profile of some or all measurable species of oligomeric alpha-synuclein compared to healthy control individuals, the physician determines that the subject has a low probability of developing PD.

[0165] Example 8: Response to Therapy The subject is diagnosed with PD. The physician orders an initial blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile, including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein, before treatment begins. After a course of treatment, but before clinical symptoms change, the physician orders a second blood test. Based on the change in a toward normal, the physician determines whether the treatment is effective or whether the dose needs to be modified or repeated.

[0166] Example 9: Diagnostic Development Volunteer subjects who do not have PD and have PD at different diagnosed stages are tested, and a biomarker profile is determined, comprising a plurality of oligomeric alpha-synuclein and monomeric alpha-synuclein.Based on the determined biomarker profile, subjects are classified as showing the presence or absence of disease and optionally the stage of disease.Profile is determined using computerized learning algorithm, which generates a classification algorithm that predicts diagnosis after data analysis.Prediction model is selected to bring about test with desired sensitivity and specificity.

[0167] Example 10: Alpha-synuclein oligomer profiles are altered in synucleopathic states The cohort of individuals who are the subjects of the study have been diagnosed with a synucleopathy condition. The subjects are given an active therapeutic intervention, followed by a different, possibly inactive, one. Alternatively, the interventions can be given in reverse order. Alternatively, the cohort of subjects who are diagnosed with a synucleopathy condition and are asymptomatic for the synucleopathy condition are the subjects of the study. In either case, venous blood samples are collected from each subject by venipuncture at various times, including under baseline or control (e.g., inactive intervention treatment) conditions, and again during the administration of a potentially active (e.g., experimental intervention) treatment. CNS-derived exosomes are isolated from blood using the methods described herein. The amount of multiple alpha-synuclein forms, including monomeric alpha-synuclein and oligomeric alpha-synuclein, contained in the isolated exosomes is measured. These data are combined into a data set. The data set is analyzed using statistical methods, and in this case, is used to train a learning algorithm (e.g., a support vector machine) to develop a model that predicts whether a subject should be classified as having or not having a synucleopathy condition. The results show that in a cohort of subjects diagnosed with a synucleopathy condition, certain oligomeric alpha-synuclein species are increased to a statistically significant degree compared to other oligomeric species and, optionally, monomeric species. Those found to have significant changes in the results of this biomarker assay are later found to have proportional changes in clinical situations.

[0168] Example 11: Subject Stratification / Clinical Trials Volunteer subjects with and without PD are tested to determine the biomarker profile of oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein in CNS-derived exosomes. Based on the determined biomarker profile and using the classifier determined in the above example, the subjects are clustered into several test groups. One test group is given a placebo. Other test groups are administered different amounts of the compound in the clinical trial. The test is repeated during and, optionally, after administration. The collected measurements are analyzed. The therapeutic intervention is determined to result in a statistically significant change in the biomarker profile, including oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein, toward normal.

[0169] Example 12: Clinical trials of drug candidates that are neuroprotective for synucleinopathies The objective of this Phase II study is to evaluate the safety, tolerability, and initial efficacy of pramipexole, given with aprepitant and optionally with or without lovastatin or similarly effective medications, in patients with PD and related disorders. A sequential-treatment, ascending-dose, crossover, outpatient study will be conducted in up to 30 patients with PD (PD), multiple system atrophy (MSA), dementia with Lewy bodies (LBD), or related synucleopathic disorders. None of the participants will be treated with dopamine agonists or other centrally acting medications during the three months prior to clinical study entry, except for levodopa-carbidopa (Sinemet), which will be maintained at a stable dose throughout the study to the extent deemed medically acceptable. Following baseline clinical and laboratory assessments, including the Unified PD Rating Scale (UPDRS-Part III) and synuclein biomarker determination, consenting individuals who meet enrollment criteria will be switched from their pre-study PD treatment regimen to one containing pramipexole ER and aprepitant. The pramipexole ER dose will be titrated to an optimally tolerated dose (or up to 9 mg / day) and then maintained stable for up to approximately 12-16 weeks. Co-treatment with an additional drug (e.g., a statin) given at its maximum approved dose may then be initiated for an additional 3 months if deemed clinically appropriate, at which time all subjects will return to their pre-hospital treatment regimen. Baseline efficacy and safety measurements, including determination of synuclein biomarker levels, will be repeated at regular intervals throughout the study. Efficacy will be determined as a function of a statistically significant shift toward normal in the biomarker profile, including oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein species.

[0170] Example 13: Diagnosis A subject is considered to have certain symptoms consistent with PD, but is at a pre-clinical level if they still lack many of the disease's hallmark clinical features. Blood is drawn from the subject by venipuncture. The amount of oligomeric and monomeric alpha-synuclein is measured from CNS-derived exosomes in the blood. A biomarker profile is determined. A diagnostic algorithm classifies the profile as consistent with a diagnosis of PD. The subject is diagnosed with PD and placed on a treatment regimen of either palliative treatment to alleviate symptoms or treatment directed at the etiology of the disease for the purpose of neuroprotection.

[0171] Example 14: Staging A subject presents with a diagnosis of PD. A physician orders a blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on the biomarker profile including oligomeric alpha-synuclein and, optionally, monomeric, the physician determines that the subject is in the early stages of PD and therefore may be more responsive to a particular therapeutic intervention.

[0172] Example 15: Prognosis / Progression The subject presents with a diagnosis of PD. The physician orders first and second blood tests for the subject, several months apart, to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on the biomarker profile, oligomeric versus monomeric alpha-synuclein, the physician determines that the subject's disease is slowly progressing and that the subject is expected to have a life expectancy of several years, even without risky therapeutic intervention.

[0173] Example 16: Risk Assessment A subject shows no symptoms of synucleinopathy disease upon physical examination. In this case, the individual is aware of genetic or environmental risk factors. A physician orders a blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein. Based on a relatively abnormal biomarker profile of some or all measurable species of oligomeric alpha-synuclein compared to healthy control individuals, the physician determines that the subject has a low probability of developing PD.

[0174] Example 17: Response to Therapy The subject presents with a diagnosis of PD. The physician orders an initial blood test for the subject to determine a biomarker profile, including oligomeric and, optionally, monomeric alpha-synuclein, before treatment begins. After a course of treatment, but before clinical symptoms change, the physician orders a second blood test. Based on the change in a toward normal, the physician determines whether the treatment is effective or whether the dose needs to be modified or repeated.

[0175] Example 18: Exemplary Biomarker Profiles Figure 7 shows an exemplary biomarker profile including a monomeric species and five oligomeric species of alpha-synuclein in five different conditions. The conditions include normal, Parkinson's disease stage 1 (PD-1), Parkinson's disease stage 2 (PD-2), treatment with Therapeutic Agent 1 (Rx-1), and treatment with Therapeutic Agent 2 (Rx-2). The relative amount of each oligomeric species is indicated by the darkness of the line. As can be seen, oligomer 4 is elevated in both stage 1 and stage 2 Parkinson's disease. In contrast, oligomers 1, 2, and 3 are elevated in stage 1 but not in stage 2. Therapeutic Agent 1 reduces the relative amount of oligomer 4 and is considered to have neuroprotective activity. In comparison, Therapeutic Agent 2 does not reduce oligomer 4 and is considered not neuroprotective in this example.

[0176] Example 19: Development of a diagnostic method for Alzheimer's disease Volunteer subjects diagnosed by a medical professional as having or not having Alzheimer's disease provide blood samples for testing. The contents of brain-derived exosomes are isolated. The amounts of monomeric a-beta and multiple species of oligomeric a-beta are determined. Comparison of the results shows that one oligomeric form is consistently increased compared to monomeric a-beta in subjects diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. It is further determined that an amount of this form above a predetermined threshold level provides a diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease with 85% sensitivity and 98% specificity. This threshold level is used to diagnose other subjects with Alzheimer's disease.

[0177] Example 19: Development of a diagnostic method for Huntington's disease Volunteer subjects who have been diagnosed by medical professionals as having or not having Huntington's disease provide blood samples for testing. The contents of brain-derived exosomes are isolated. The amount of each of multiple species of oligomeric Huntington's protein is determined. Using linear regression analysis, it is found that the amount of three distinct oligomeric forms can be combined to diagnose Huntington's disease in the form of a linear mathematical model.

[0178] As used herein, the following meanings apply unless otherwise specified: The word "may" is used in a permissive sense (i.e., meaning having the possibility) rather than an obligatory sense (i.e., meaning must). The words "include," "including," and "includes," etc., mean including but not limited to. The singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents. Thus, for example, a reference to "an element" includes a combination of two or more elements, notwithstanding the use of other terms and phrases for one or more elements, such as "one or more." The term "or" is non-exclusive unless otherwise indicated, i.e., encompasses both "and" and "or." The term "any of" between a modifier and a series means that the modifier modifies each member of the series. Thus, for example, the phrase "any of at least 1, 2, or 3" means "at least 1, at least 2, or at least 3." The phrase "at least one" includes "a plurality."

[0179] While certain embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention, and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

[0180] All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

[0181] Sequence information SEQUENCE LISTING <110> CHASE THERAPEUTICS CORPORATION <120> ALPHA-SYNUCLEIN ASSAYS <150> US 62 / 841,118 <151> 2019-04-30 <160> 1 <170> PatentIn version 3.5 <210> 1 <211> 42 <212> PRT <213> Unknown <220> <223> Description of Unknown: Amyloid beta sequence <400> 1 Asp Ala Glu Phe Arg His Asp Ser Gly Tyr Glu Val His His Gln Lys 1 5 10 15 Leu Val Phe Phe Ala Glu Asp Val Gly Ser Asn Lys Gly Ala Ile Ile 20 25 30 Gly Leu Met Val Gly Gly Val Val Ile Ala 35 40

Claims

1. (a) receiving a blood sample collected from a subject; (b) storing the blood sample at −80° C.; (c) enriching the blood sample for central nervous system (“CNS”)-derived exosomes; (d) removing proteins from the surface of exosomes to generate scrubbed exosomes; (e) isolating the internal contents of the scrubbed exosomes; (f) separating the oligomeric alpha-synuclein species into a plurality of fractions; (g) determining a quantitative measure of each of the one or more separated oligomeric alpha-synuclein species and a quantitative measure of monomeric alpha-synuclein; and (h) determining the relative amounts of the quantitatively measured separated oligomeric alpha-synuclein species to the quantitatively measured amount of monomeric alpha-synuclein.

1. A method for measuring oligomeric alpha-synuclein species, comprising:

2. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the blood sample is a plasma sample.

3. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the blood sample comprises between 5 ml and 20 ml of blood.

4. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the subject is a human subject.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the subject has a synucleinopathy.

6. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of enriching for CNS-derived exosomes comprises (i) isolating total exosomes from the blood sample, and (ii) isolating CNS-derived exosomes from the total exosomes.

7. enriching for CNS-derived exosomes, (i) Ultracentrifugation; (ii) density gradient centrifugation; or (iii) Size Exclusion Chromatography 2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

8. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of enriching for CNS-derived exosomes comprises capturing the CNS-derived exosomes using a binding moiety that binds to a CNS-specific protein.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the CNS-specific protein is L1CAM.

10. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of removing proteins from the surface of the exosomes comprises washing the exosomes with an aqueous solution.

11. 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising determining a quantitative measure of total alpha-synuclein oligomers.

12. determining, in the isolated internal contents, a quantitative measure of one or more species selected from monomeric tau, oligomeric tau, and phosphorylated tau.

2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

13. Determining p129 alpha-synuclein 2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

14. determining, in the isolated internal contents, a quantitative measure of one or more species selected from amyloid beta 1-40, amyloid beta 1-42, and oligomeric amyloid beta.

2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

15. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein separating the species into a plurality of fractions comprises separating by electrophoresis.

16. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein separating the species into a plurality of fractions comprises separating by chromatography.

17. determining, among the separated species, at least one oligomeric form of alpha-synuclein selected from forms having 2 to 100 monomeric units, 4 to 16 monomeric units, and forms having 30 or fewer monomeric units; 2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

18. determining quantitative measurements of the plurality of different oligomeric alpha-synuclein species among the separated species.

2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

19. determining a quantitative measure of the copolymer comprising alpha-synuclein and tau among the separated species.

2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

20. determining a quantitative measure of the copolymer comprising α-synuclein and amyloid beta among the separated species.

2. The method of claim 1, comprising:

21. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein determining a quantitative measurement in the separated species comprises detecting one or more separated species by immunoassay.

22. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the immunoassay comprises immunoblotting.

23. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the immunoassay comprises a Western blot.

24. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the immunoassay uses an antibody directly coupled to a label.

25. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the immunoassay uses an antibody coupled to an indirect label.

26. (i) comparing the relative amounts in the subject with the relative amounts in a normal subject, wherein a difference in the relative amounts indicates the presence of a synucleopathic condition; 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

27. The following steps: (i) determining the relative amounts in a blood sample obtained from the subject before and after administration of the putative neuroprotective agent; and (j) determining a change in the relative amount, wherein a change to normal amount indicates efficacy of the neuroprotective agent.

10. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

28. The following steps: (i) determining the relative amount in the subject at two different time points; and (j) determining a change in the relative amount, wherein the change indicates a change in synucleopathic status; 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

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