Desalinating water for drinking or agricultural use

Abstract

An example method includes generating a mixture of an aqueous solution that includes a salt with a desalination media that includes particles. The particles capture at least a portion of the salt from the mixture. The example method further includes generating treated water by removing the particles from the mixture, the treated water having a salinity of less than 25% of a salinity of the aqueous solution.

Description

DESALINATING WATER FOR DRINKING OR AGRICULTURAL USECROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional App. No. 63 / 620,622, which was filed on January 12, 2024, is titled "METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR DESALINATING WATER USING ZERO VALENT METAL NANOPARTICLES, ” and is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.BACKGROUND

[0002] Freshwater is essential for agricultural, industrial, and domestic uses. According to the United Nations (UN), about half of the world's population experiences severe freshwater scarcity every year (UN World Water Development Report, 19 March 2024). An increase in freshwater demand from trends of population growth and socio-economic development may further exacerbate this problem.

[0003] Freshwater can be produced by desalinating brackish water and seawater, which is more readily available than existing freshwater. Desalination is increasingly important for producing drinking water and irrigation water in arid climates. For example, a majority of drinking water in Israel is now produced using desalination. In the United States (US), desalination plants in some areas already produce a significant amount of municipal drinking water. Many existing desalination plants utilize reverse osmosis (RO) for water desalination. However, RO and many other previous desalination technologies (e.g., distillation, ion exchange, electrodialysis, etc.) have several drawbacks that prevent widespread use. For instance, many of these techniques utilize significant energy expenditures during operation. Other costs, as well as reliability concerns, associated with these techniques limit their widespread use.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0004] The detailed description is set forth with reference to the accompanying figures. In the figures, the left-most digit(s) of a reference number identifies the figure in which the reference number first appears. The use of the same reference numbers in different figures indicates similar or identical items or features.

[0005] FIG. 1 illustrates an example desalination system in accordance with various implementations of the present disclosure.

[0006] FIG. 2 illustrates an example environment for controlling a desalination system, such as the desalination system described above with reference to FIG. 1.

[0007] FIG. 3 illustrates an example environment in which a particle captures a sodium ion and a chlorine ion.

[0008] FIG. 4 illustrates an example process for removing solutes from an aqueous solution.

[0009] FIG. 5 illustrates at least one example device configured to enable and / or perform various functionality discussed herein.

[0010] FIG. 6 illustrates an example of a generation 1 pilot system utilized in an Experimental Example.

[0011] FIG. 7 illustrates a dose curve for desalination of different water formulations tested in the Experimental Example.

[0012] FIG. 8 illustrates chlorine and sodium removal during an example seawater desalination run using a generation 1 reactor system.

[0013] FIG. 9 illustrates the amount of Cl remaining in solution after the extended seawater desalination run using the generation 1 reactor system.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0014] Various systems, devices, and methods described herein relate to techniques for removing solutes from water, such as sodium ions, chloride ions, magnesium ions, and other dissolved salts. According to various examples, techniques described herein can remove solutes from water with minimal energy expenditures and costs.

[0015] In various cases, a mixture is generated by introducing a liquid desalination media containing metal particles to an aqueous solution of solutes. In particular cases, the particles include iron (e.g., zero-valent iron (ZVI)). In some examples, the particles include at least one of copper, aluminum, or zinc. In some examples, metal atoms within the particles are configured to oxidize, such as in the presence of water and an oxidizing gas (e.g., air) that is injected into the mixture. For instance, one or more species of metal oxyhydroxides are generated in the particles. In various cases, electrostatic forces of atoms within the particles attracts the solutes to the particles, thereby capturing the solutes from the mixture. When the particles (with the attached solutes) are removed from the mixture, the resultant water has a significantly lower concentration of the solutes than the original aqueous solution prior to treatment. In some cases, the water is further treated using an RO device. Seawater, saline, brine, and other types of aqueous solutions can be treated using various implementations described herein, in order to yield treated water that may be suitable for irrigation uses and / or for human consumption.

[0016] In various implementations of the present disclosure, techniques can be utilized to remove at least 75% of an amount of one or more solutes (e.g., salt) from the aqueous solution. In some cases, at least 80% of the solute(s) can be removed from the aqueous solution. The efficiency of the process can be impacted by the amount of solute(s) in the original aqueous solution, the amount of particles in the desalination media, the amount of metal in the desalination media relative to the volume of the aqueous solution, the amount of time the particles are present in a mixture with the aqueous solution prior to particle removal, the amount of oxidizing gas introduced into the mixture, the pH of the mixture, features of a desalination system that facilitates the desalination process, and other characteristics of implementations of the process described herein.

[0017] Various implementations of the present disclosure will now be described with reference to the accompanying figures.

[0018] FIG. 1 illustrates an example desalination system 100 in accordance with various implementations of the present disclosure. The desalination system 100 receives saline water from a saline water source 102. That is, the saline water may be influent water into the desalination system 100. As used herein, the terms "saline,” "saline water,” and their equivalents, may refer to an aqueous solution including dissolved salts, metals, solids, other contaminants, or any combination thereof at greater than a threshold concentration (e.g., greater than 3% salinity). In some cases, other types of aqueous solutions including other dissolved solutes can be substituted for the saline water in the saline water source 102. In various cases, saline water is unfit for human and / or animal consumption. In some cases, saline water is unfit for a water supply for plants, such as in an agricultural context. In various examples, saline may include seawater, industrial waste, mining waste, agricultural waste, produced water (e.g., a byproduct of ground oil and / or gas extraction), flowback (e.g., water injected and returned during a hydraulic fracturing process), or any combination thereof. In some examples, saline water includes brine. As used herein, the term "brine,” and its equivalents, may refer to an aqueous solution having greater than 5% salinity. The saline water source 102, for instance, includes a tank. In some cases, the saline water source 102 includes one or more pipes, pumps, tanks, valves, or other structures bywhich saline water can be transported to the desalination system 100. In some cases, the saline water has a nonzero total dissolved solid (TDS), such as a TDS in a range of about 10,000 parts-per-million (ppm) to about 100,000 ppm.

[0019] The saline water enters a first desalination tank 104-a through a water inlet 106, which is fluidly coupled to the saline water source 102. In the example illustrated in FIG. 1 , the water inlet 106 extends through a sidewall 108 of the first desalination tank 104-a. The sidewall 108 extends from a base 110 of the first desalination tank 104-a. The sidewall 108 may be parallel to a first direction 112 and the base 110 may be parallel to a second direction 114, wherein the first direction crosses the second direction. During operation of the desalination system 100, the first direction 112 may be opposite of a direction of gravity. In some cases, the sidewall 108 is perpendicular to the base 110. In some examples, the base 110 has a polygonal (e.g., rectangular) and / or circular shape. A lid 116 may be removably coupled to the sidewall 108. The sidewall 108, base 110, and lid 116 include one or more materials configured to contain water, such as saline water. In some examples, the sidewall 108 and base 110 include a metal (e.g., stainless steel), a polymer (e.g., polyethylene), glass, or any combination thereof.

[0020] In various implementations, a desalination media source 118 outputs a desalination media into the first desalination tank 104-a via a media inlet 120. In the example illustrated in FIG. 1 , the media inlet 120 extends through the sidewall 108 of the first desalination tank 104-a. However, in some cases, the media inlet 120 extends through the lid 116 of the first desalination tank 104-a. The desalination media is configured to capture one or more solutes in the saline water output from the saline water source 102.

[0021] The desalination media, in various cases, includes a fluid (e.g., a slurry) containing particles 122. For example, the particles 122 include copper, aluminum, magnesium, manganese, zinc, iron, or any combination thereof. In some cases the particles 122 include an alloy of multiple metals. In some examples, the particles 122 include at least one oxidized metal. For instance, the particles 122 include one or more metal oxyhydroxides (e.g., iron oxyhydroxide). In some cases, the particles 122 may include a network structure of atoms (e.g., metal atoms and / or any combination of metal atoms, hydrogen atoms, and oxygen atoms) that are bonded to each other. The network structure may be cubic, tetragonal, or the like. The desalination media, for instance, includes a mixture of water and the particles 122. According to various cases, a concentration of the particles in the desalination media is in a range of 0.1 grams per liter (g / L) to 100 g / L, such as in a range of 1 g / L to 50 g / L or a range of 10 g / L to 25 g / L.

[0022] According to various cases, the particles 122 include one or more metals in a zero valency state, such as zero-valent iron (ZVI). As used herein, the term "Zero Valent Iron (ZVI)," "zerovalent iron,” "nonvalent iron,” “Fe(0),” and their equivalents, can refer to one or more iron atoms with a valency of zero. In some cases, iron can change between a zerovalent state and a multivalent state, such as the trivalent Fe3+ form.

[0023] When metal atoms on the surface of the particles 122 become oxidized, the atoms may be converted into multivalent metal atoms. As used herein, the term "oxidation,” and its equivalents, can refer to a chemical reaction in which at least one atom loses electrons. As used herein, the term "reduction,” and its equivalents, can refer to a chemical reaction in which at least one atom gains electrons. In a "reduction-oxidation” or "redox” reaction, electrons are transferred from one chemical species (e.g., a species undergoing oxidation) to another chemical species (e.g., a species undergoing reduction). For example, ZVI can be oxidized when it reacts with an oxidizing species (e.g., oxygen gas, ozone, etc.) to form other valency states, such as Fe(ll) and / or Fe(lll). In particular cases, the particles 122 include an oxyhydroxide, such as Fe(lll) oxyhydroxide, (FeO(OH)).

[0024] When one or more metals in the particles 122 are converted into a multivalent state, such as through the process of oxidation, the resultant material may include charged atoms. For instance, oxygen atoms in the oxyhydroxide(s) of the particles 122 may be negatively charged, whereas hydrogen atoms in the oxyhydroxide(s) of the particles 122 may be positively charged. In various cases, the electrical charges of various atoms within the particles 122 is dependent on the pH of the bulk solution. The positive and negative charges of various atoms within the particles 122 causes the particles 122 to electrostatically attract charged solutes in the vicinity of the particles 122. For instance, negatively charged solutes (e.g., chloride ions) in the saline water may be electrostatically attracted to positively charged atoms (e.g., hydrogen atoms) in the particles 122. Further, positively charged solutes (e.g., sodium ions) in the saline water may be electrostatically attracted to negatively charged atoms (e.g., oxygen atoms) in the particles 122. Further, in some instances, the charged solutes may become covalently bonded to each other and / or to metals on the surface of the particles. Accordingly, the charged solutes in the saline water may be adsorbed onto the surfaces of the particles 122. In various cases, the particles 122 are configured to remove dissolved salts, such as dissolved sodium chloride, from the saline water. Accordingly, the particles 122 may be utilized to at least partially desalinate the saline water.

[0025] In some cases, the desalination media includes additional materials. In various cases, the desalination media is generated as a mixture of metal salts and a reducing agent. Examples of the metal salts include, for instance, metal chlorides (e.g., iron chloride), metal nitrates (e.g., iron nitrate), metal sulfates (e.g., iron sulfate), or other types of metal salts. Examples of the reducing agent, in various cases, include uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid. According to various examples, the desalination media may be acidic. For instance, the desalination media may have a pH in a range of 2 to 7, such as a pH in a range of 2.5 to 5.0. In some implementations, the desalination media may be configured to be stored for an extended period of time (e.g., days, weeks, months, or years), and may include one or more materials configured to prevent or minimize bacterial growth within the desalination media during storage. In some cases, the desalination media is stored in a kit (e.g., including a polymer package that prevents contamination during storage).

[0026] In various examples, the particles 122 within the desalination media include nanoparticles. As used herein, the term "nanoparticle, ” and its equivalents, can refer to a solid particle that is shorter than 100 nanometers (nm) in at least one dimension. In some cases, a nanoparticle can have a diameter of less than 100 nm. As used herein, a "size,” "length,” "diameter,” or their equivalents of a particle may refer to a Z-average diameter (e.g., as determined using Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)). In some cases, a "size,” "length,” "diameter,” or their equivalents, of multiple particles may refer to a Z-average diameter in which the particles have a weighted differential size distribution within ±10% of the Z-average diameter. In various implementations described herein, the particles 122 may, for instance, may be assumed to have spherical shapes, such that a Z-average diameter of the particles 122 (e.g., generated using DLS) in suspension may be between 1 and 100 nm. In some cases, the nanoparticles among the particles 122 may have a Z-average diameter that is between 40 to 60 nm, such as about 50 nm. In some implementations, at least 90% of a (volume or intensity) weighted differential size distribution of the particles 122 in solution (e.g., generated using DLS) may be between 20 and 80 nm, such as about 50 nm. In some cases, the length of the particle 122 can be defined by microscope measurements (e.g., via at least one optical microscope, an electron microscope, a scanning probe microscope, or the like), settling velocities (e.g., by applying Stokes' law to a measured velocity of the particle), and / or sedimentation methods.

[0027] A mixture 124 of the saline water and the desalination media travel through a fluid circuit including an interior space of the first desalination tank 104-a. In various cases, the fluid circuit further includes the interior of a second desalination tank 104-b, a third desalination tank 104-c, and a fourth desalination tank 104-d. The first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d are connected to one another in series, such that the mixture 124 travels through the first desalination tank 104-a, then the second desalination tank 104-b, then the third desalination tank 104-c, then the fourth desalination tank 104-d.

[0028] According to various implementations, the desalination media source 118 outputs an amount of desalination media into the fluid circuit (e.g., to form the mixture 124) that is dependent characteristics of the saline water output into the fluid circuit. For instance, a ratio of a mass of the particles 122 to a volume of the saline water is in a range of 0.01 g / L to 1.0 g / L, such as in a range of 0.04 g / L to 0.50 g / L. In some cases, the amount of the desalination media introduced into the fluid circuit is dependent on a salinity of the saline water. In various cases, the salinity of the saline water is represented in units of electrical conductance, such as millisiemens per centimeter (mS / cm) or mS per meter (mS / m). In some examples, the salinity of the saline water is measured by inserting electrodes into the saline water, applying a voltage between the electrodes, measuring a current between the electrodes, and calculating the electrical conductance based on the voltage and the current. In various implementations, a ratio of a mass of the particles 122 added to the the fluid circuit to a salinity of the saline water in the mixture 124 is in a range of 0.1 g / (mS / cm) to 0.5 g / (mS / cm) or 0.1 g / (mS / m) to 0.5 g / (mS / m).

[0029] In various implementations, the particles 122 are configured to remove dissolved salt from the mixture 124 while dwelling within the fluid circuit. In various implementations, a retention time (also referred to as a "dwell time) of the mixture 124 in the fluid circuit is in a range of five minutes to 1 hour. Experimentally, it has been determined that the efficacy of salt removal within the fluid circuit is dependent on the pH of the mixture 124. In various implementations, a buffer source 126 is configured to inject, through a buffer inlet 128, a buffer solution that adjusts the pH of the mixture 124. The buffer solution, in various cases, includes an aqueous solution that has a basic pH. For example, the buffer solution includes a hydroxide (e.g., calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide) and / or a bicarbonate (e.g., calcium bicarbonate and / or magnesium bicarbonate). For instance, the buffer source 126 may inject the buffer solution into the mixture 124 such that the mixture 124 has a pH in a range of 7.5 to 12.0.

[0030] The first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d each include baffles 130. The baffles 130 extend parallel to the first direction 112 within the interior of each of the first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d. In various implementations, the baffles 130 extend from the lid 116 of the corresponding desalination tank among the first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d and are spaced apart from the base 110 of the corresponding desalination tank. In some cases, the baffles 130 may be coupled to a floatation device that floats on the surface of the mixture 124 and extends in a direction opposite to the first direction 112 into the mixture 124. In some cases, at least some of the baffles 130 are configured to extend from the base 110 of the corresponding desalination tank among the first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d and are spaced apart from the lid 116 and / or an upper surface of the mixture 124. Due to the spacings between the baffles 130 and the walls of the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d, the fluid circuit within the interior of the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d may have a winding path through the desalination system 100. In some cases, the baffles 130 enhance turbulence and / or mixing within the mixture 124 when the mixture 124 is moving through the fluid circuit.

[0031] According to various implementations, the particles 122 within the mixture 124 are configured to capture one or more solutes within the mixture 124. In various implementations, at least one metal (e.g., iron, such as ZVI) in the particles 122 oxidizes within the mixture 124. In some cases, one or more metal oxyhydroxides are formed. As a result of the oxidation reaction, the solute(s) are bound to the particles 122. In various implementations, the solute(s) include one or more metals, such as at least one of copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, selenium, or one or more radionuclides. In some cases, the solute(s) include dissolved ions, such as at least one of magnesium, sodium, chloride, phosphate, sulfate, arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, or hypochlorite. In various implementations of the present disclosure, the particles 122 within the mixture 124 can be used to desalinate the mixture 124 by binding to sodium and / or chloride ions.

[0032] In particular cases, the solute(s) in their aqueous form are charged. For example, at least some of the solute(s) may have a positive charge. Examples of solutes having a positive charge include, for instance, sodium ions (Na+), copper ions (Cu2+), zinc ions (Zn2+), magnesium ions (Mg2+), manganese ions (Mn2+), aluminum ions (AI3+), or arsenic ions (As5+). The metal oxide in the particles 122 has a negative charge. Accordingly, the positively charged solute(s) may electrostatically bind to the oxidized particles 122. Further, at least some of the solute(s) may have a negative charge. Examples of solutes having a negative charge include, for instance, chloride ions (CI-), selenium ions (Sn2-), phosphate ions (PO43-), sulfate ions (SO42-), nitrate ions (NO3-), nitrite ions (NO-), or hypochlorite ions (CIO-). The negatively charged solute(s) may electrostatically bind to the positively charged solute(s) bound to the particles 122. Various other mechanisms for capturing solute(s) are also possible.

[0033] In various cases, a gas is introduced from a gas source 132 and through gas inlets 134 within the base 110 of each desalination tank among the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d. The gas, for instance, propagates through the mixture 124 in the form of bubbles 136. The bubbles 136 travel through the mixture 124 in the first direction 112.

[0034] The gas in the bubbles 136, in various cases, includes an oxidizing gas that enhances the oxidation reaction of at least one the metal in the particles 122 (e.g., the formation of at least one oxyhydroxide). The gas, for example, includes at least one of air, oxygen, ozone, or carbon monozide. In some cases, the gas includes additional gases to prevent explosions, fires, and other risks when the desalination system 100 is operating. For instance, the gas may include nitrogen gas. In some examples, the gas includes air.

[0035] In at least a portion of the fluid circuit throughout the desalination system 100, the bubbles 136 move countercurrent to the desalination media within the mixture 124. For example, the particles 122 may travel in a direction that crosses and / or is opposite to the first direction 112 in at least a portion of the fluid circuit, while the bubbles 136 rise in the mixture 124 in the first direction 112. The baffles 130, in some cases, may cause the particles 122 and the mixture 124 to flow in a direction that opposes the first direction 112. In some examples, pumps and / or pipes (not illustrated) are included within the interior of the first to fourth desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d to cause the particles 122 from the desalination media to move countercurrent to the bubbles 136. In some cases, the bubbles 136 enhance mixing within the mixture 124.

[0036] To minimize space within the fluid circuit in which the bubbles 136 are not present, in various cases, the gas inlets 134 are distributed throughout the major area of the base 110. In some cases, the gas inlets 134 are distributed at a substantially even density throughout the base 110. For example, a number of gas inlets 134 per square area at a center of the base 110 may be substantially equal to a number of gas inlets 134 per square area at an edge of thebase 110. The distribution of gas inlets 134 may prevent spaces within the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d in which the bubbles 136 do not traverse, thereby increasing the volume within the fluid circuit in which the oxidizing reaction of the particles 122 takes place.

[0037] The size of the gas inlets 134 and / or the bubbles 136 may impact the efficiency of the reaction within the desalination system 100. In some cases, an individual gas inlet among the gas inlets 134 (e.g., each gas inlet 134) has a width in a range of 0.001 meter (m) to 0.1 m, a range of 0.001 m to 0.01 m, or the like. In some cases, the number of gas inlets 134 within a single base 110 is in a range of 1 to 1 ,000,000, 10 to 1 ,000, or 10 to 100.

[0038] Experimentally, it was observed that the rate of the gas entering the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d can impact the efficiency of the desalination reaction. If the gas is introduced into the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d at too low of a rate, the reaction may not be significantly enhanced by the gas. However, if the gas is introduced into the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d at too fast of a rate, then the reaction may occur so quickly that the solute(s) may be inefficiently bound to the particles 122. Accordingly, in various implementations of the present disclosure, the gas is introduced into the mixture 124 (e.g., at an atmospheric pressure) at a rate in a range defined between a lower threshold and an upper threshold, such as in a range of 1.0 L / minute (min) to 100.0 L / min, such as a range of 1.0 L / min to 80.0 L / min or a range of 2.0 L / min to 80.0 L / min.

[0039] Once the mixture 124 traverses the final desalination tank in the fluid circuit (e.g., the fourth desalination tank 104-d), the mixture 124 flows into a settling tank 138. In some cases, the settling tank 138 lacks baffles 130. In various examples, the settling tank 138 substantially lacks bubbles 136. In some examples, the settling tank 138 is at least partially cone-shaped. When the mixture 124 is in the settling tank 138, the solute-laden particles 122 (which may have a greater size, width, volume, mass, etc. than unbound particles 122) spontaneously sink to the bottom of the interior of the settling tank 138 in the form of waste media 140. According to some cases, the solute-laden particles 122 in the waste media 140 form complexes of crystalized solutes (e.g., halite). In various cases, the waste media 140 is removed from the fluid circuit. In some cases, a valve at the base of the settling tank 138 selectively opens, thereby allowing the waste media 140 to drain from the settling tank 138. In some examples, a vacuum line is coupled to the base of the settling tank 138, which pulls the waste media 140 out of the settling tank 138. Once removed, the waste media 140 may be disposed of and / or recycled. For instance, solute(s) within the waste media 140 can be dried and stored and / or disposed of in a dried form. In some cases, particles 122 within the waste media 140 are introduced to a reducing agent, and the particles 122 are reused for solute removal (e.g., the recycled particles 122 are moved back into the desalination media source 118).

[0040] The remaining mixture 124 in the settling tank 138 flows into a filter 142. The filter 142, in various cases, further removes waste media 140 from the mixture 124. The waste media 140, in various cases, includes the solute(s) bound to the particles 122 from the mixture 124. According to some cases, the waste media 140 includes at least a portion of the TDS in the aqueous solution. In some examples, the solute(s) bound to the particles 122 have a larger size (e.g., width) than unbound particles 122, and can be therefore excluded from unbound particles 122 on the basis of size. In various cases, the filter 142 is a physical filter that includes activated carbon. For instance, the filter 142 includes a housing (e.g., a polymer and / or metal housing) that encloses activated carbon particles. In various cases, a remaining portion of the particles 122 bound to the solute(s) is removed from the mixture by the filter 142. The filter 142, in various cases, releases treated water 144.

[0041] In various implementations, the treated water 144 has significantly less dissolved salt than the saline water introduced into the fluid circuit by the saline water source 102. For instance, the treated water 144 omits at least 75% of the salt originally included in the saline water. In some cases, the treated water 144 omits at least 80%, 85%, or 90% of the salt originally included in the saline water. In various implementations, a salinity of (e.g., dissolved sodium ions and chloride ions) the treated water 144 is less than 25% (or less than 20%) of the salinity of the saline water originally received in the environment 100.

[0042] In some cases, however, at least a portion of the dissolved salt from the saline water is retained in the treated water 144. This portion of the dissolved salt may prevent the treated water 144 from being suitable for drinking water and / or agricultural uses. In various cases, the treated water 144 may have a salinity that is greater than or equal to 5.0 mS / cm, 4.0 mS / cm, 3.0 mS / cm, 2.0 mS / cm, 1.0 mS / cm, 0.7 mS / cm, 0.5 mS / cm, 0.1 mS / cm, or 0.0 mS / cm.

[0043] In various cases, a reverse osmosis (RO) device 146 is configured to substantially remove the remaining portion of the dissolved salt from the treated water 144. In various cases, the RO device 146 includes a membrane 148 that divides a first space and a second space. The membrane 148 is semipermeable, such that water can pass through the membrane 148 but ions (e.g., sodium and / or chloride ions) and particles cannot move through the membrane 148. In some cases, the membrane 148 includes cellulose acetate, polyamide, or any combination thereof. The treated water 144 is introduced into concentrated water 150 disposed in the first space. In various implementations, the RO device 146 actively induces greater than a threshold pressure within the first space. For instance, the RO device 146 includes a pump or other pressure-inducing device configured to induce a pressure of at least 2 bar, 5 bar, 10 bar, 20 bar, 40 bar, 60 bar, 80 bar, or 85 bar. As a result of the pressure in the first space, water within the concentrated water 150 flows through the membrane 148 and is output as purified water 152. The purified water 152, for instance, is permeate of the RO device 146. In various implementations, the purified water 152 has a salinity in a range of 0.0 mS / cm to 5.0 mS / cm or 0.0 mS / cm to 0.5 mS / cm. Thus, the purified water 152 may be suitable for irrigation, human consumption, or animal consumption. In some cases, purified water 152 is suitable as drinking water.

[0044] Although not specifically illustrated in FIG. 1 , additional structures may be added to the desalination system 100. It has been observed that the temperature of the mixture 124 impacts the speed of the desalination process implemented by the desalination system 100. In some examples, the desalination system 100 includes one or more heaters (not illustrated) that increase a temperature of the mixture 124 above a lower threshold of 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 degrees Celsius (°C) (and below a boiling temperature), such as a temperature in a range of 17°C to 35°C. In some cases, the desalination system 100 operates in an environment in which an ambient temperature is greater than 20, 25, or 30°C, such that the heater(s) may be unnecessary and / or deactivated.

[0045] According to various cases, fluids are propelled through the fluid circuit within the desalination system 100 via passive and / or active forces. In some examples, the desalination system 100 leverages hydrostatic pressure to propel the mixture 124 through the fluid circuit. For example, the saline water source 102 may store the saline at a higher altitude (with respect to gravity) than an outlet of the filter 142. In various cases, the water inlet 106 of the first desalination tank 104-a has a greater altitude than an outlet of the first desalination tank 104-a, such that the mixture 124 flows spontaneously through the first desalination tank 104-a. The inlets and outlets of the second to fourth desalination tanks 104-b to 104-d, for instance, may have similar relative altitudes. In some cases, the movement offluids throughout the desalination system 100 are controlled through the fluid circuit via one or more pumps (not illustrated) and / or one or more valves (not illustrated).

[0046] In some examples, various components of the desalination system 100 are controlled by one or more processors (e.g., a controller, computing device, or the like). According to some examples, the processor(s) activate one or more of the components based on a predetermined schedule. For example, the processor(s) may cause a valve in the base of the settling tank 138 to open for a predetermined amount of time (e.g., ten minutes) at a predetermined frequency (e.g., every two hours).

[0047] In some cases, the processor(s) control the components of the desalination system 100 in response to conditions within the desalination system 100 and / or the saline water source 102. In some cases, one or more sensors (not illustrated) are disposed within the fluid circuit, communicatively coupled with the processor(s), and configured to detect at least one parameter of the desalination system 100. Examples of sensors include temperature sensors, salinity sensors, pH sensors, pressure sensors, light sensors, and the like. Examples of parameters detected by the sensors include, for instance, temperature, salinity, pH, pressure, light absorbance, light transmittance, and the like. The processor(s), for instance, may selectively activate components of the desalination system 100 based on one or more parameters detected by the sensor(s). According to various cases, the processor(s) may activate or deactivate an example component in response to detecting that a parameter is above a first threshold or below a second threshold.

[0048] In various cases, the desalination system 100 is a hybrid system that has various advantages over systems that exclusively use RO to remove solutes from water. First, the purified water 152 can be produced with significantly less energy expenditure using the desalination system 100 as compared to a pure RO system. In various cases, the fluid circuit within the desalination system 100 can be operated in a substantially passive fashion, wherein the mixture 124 is substantially propelled through the fluid circuit using gravitational force. For instance, if the saline water source 102 is elevated with respect to the desalination tanks 104-a to 104-d and the filter 142, then the mixture 124 may spontaneously flow through the fluid circuit. In some cases, one or more pumps are also included to increase the flow of the mixture 124 through the fluid circuit. However, the energy utilized by the pump(s) may nevertheless be significantly lower than energy that would be utilized by a pump in a hypothetical RO system configured to purify the saline water directly.

[0049] Second, waste produced by the hybrid desalination system 100 is more easily managed than waste produced by a pure RO system. A hypothetical pure RO system would produce highly concentrated brine as a result of extracting permeate from the saline water. The salinity of the brine could be harmful to the environment if discharged without utilizing specialized disposal methods (e.g., deep-well injection) that can be costly and difficult. In contrast, the waste media 140 produced by the hybrid desalination system 100 can be easily converted to solid salt, which can be disposed of more easily than brine. In various cases, the particles 122 within the waste media 140 can additionally be recycled through the desalination system 100. Moreover, the concentrated water 150 produced by the operation of the RO device 146 can be recycled back through the desalination system 100. For instance, the concentrated water 150 can be discharged back into the fluid circuit of the desalination system 100 (e.g., into the saline water source 102, the first desalination tank 104-a, or the like) in order to remove additional salt from the concentrated water 150 into the waste media 140.

[0050] FIG. 2 illustrates an example environment 200 for controlling a desalination system, such as the desalination system 100 described above with reference to FIG. 1. The environment 200 includes one or more tanks 202 that accommodate a fluid circuit 204. For instance, the tank(s) 202 include the first desalination tank 104-a, the second desalination tank 104-b, the third desalination tank 104-c, the fourth desalination tank 104-d, the settling tank 138, the filter 142, or any combination thereof. The fluid circuit 204, in various cases, includes a hollow space that is disposed within the tank(s) 202. In some cases, the fluid circuit 204 includes one or more pipes, tubes, or other structures that connect multiple tanks among the tank(s) 202 together. A fluid, such as water (with or without dissolved solutes), a desalination media, a gas (e.g., air, oxygen, etc.), or any combination thereof, can be disposed in the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, the fluid flows through the fluid circuit 204. Although not specifically illustrated, in some cases, the fluid circuit 204 includes one or more inlets and / or one or more outlets.

[0051] In various implementations of the present disclosure, a desalination controller 206 is configured to analyze and / or cause modifications to conditions within the fluid circuit 204. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 is configured to optimize the conditions in the fluid circuit 204 to enhance efficient removal of one or more solutes from water disposed in the fluid circuit 204. The desalination controller 206 can be embodied in software and / or hardware. For example, the desalination controller 206 includes at least one computing device, such as a server computer, a laptop, a tablet computer, a smart phone, or other type of computer. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 includes one or more processors configured to execute instructions. The instructions, for instance, are stored in memory and / or non-transitory computer-readable media. By executing the instructions, the desalination controller 206 performs various functions described herein.

[0052] In some cases, the desalination controller 206 is located on the premises of the desalination system. For instance, the desalination controller 206 could be packaged with the tank(s) 202 of the desalination system. In some cases, the desalination controller 206 is located remotely from the premises of the desalination system. For instance, the desalination controller 206, in some cases, is implemented in at least one server computer located at least one kilometer (km) away from the tank(s) 202.

[0053] Various sensors may be communicatively coupled to the desalination controller 206. As used herein, endpoints are "communicatively coupled,” if they are connected to one another via at least one wired (e.g., electrical, optical, etc.) interface and / or at least one wireless interface (e.g., BLUETOOTH™, cellular, near-field communication (NFC), etc.) over which communication signals can be transmitted between the endpoints. These sensors, in various cases, are configured to detect one or more parameters of the fluid circuit 204. These parameters include at least one of salinity, pH, temperature, pressure, light transmittance, or light reflectance, for example.

[0054] At least one salinity sensor 208, for instance, is disposed within the fluid circuit 204. The salinity sensor(s) 208 is configured to detect a salinity level of water in one or more locations within the fluid circuit 204. Examples of the salinity sensor(s) 208 include, for instance, an electrical sensor configured to detect an electrical conductivity of the fluid in the fluid circuit 204. In various cases, the salinity sensor(s) 208 includes an anode and a cathode that are suspended in the fluid, as well as a power source that applies a voltage across the anode and the cathode. In some examples, the salinity sensor(s) 208 detects the electrical conductivity of the fluid by detecting an electrical current between the anode and the cathode. Alternatively, the salinity sensor(s) 208 includes a current source that outputs a current across the anode and the cathode, and then a voltage detector that detects the voltage between the anodeand the cathode in order to detect the electrical conductivity of the fluid. In various implementations, the electrical conductivity is proportional to an amount of dissolved solute(s) in the fluid.

[0055] At least one pH sensor 210 is disposed in the fluid circuit 204, for example. The pH sensor(s) 210 is configured to detect a pH of the fluid at one or more positions in the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, the pH sensor(s) 210 include a pH electrode bulb including a membrane (e.g., including glass) that is permeable to H+ ions in the fluid. The pH sensor(s) 210 may further include a reference cell that contains a pH neutral electrolyte solution. An electrical sensor is connected to the pH electrode bulb and the reference cell and is configured to detect a voltage between the pH electrode bulb and the reference cell. If H+ ions in the fluid enter the pH electrode bulb, then a voltage is detected by the electrical sensor. The magnitude of the voltage, for instance, is dependent on an amount of H+ ions in the fluid, and is therefore indicative of the acidity of the fluid.

[0056] At least one temperature sensor 212 may be disposed in the fluid circuit 204. The temperature sensor(s) 212 is configured to detect the temperature of the fluid circuit 204 at one or more positions within the fluid circuit 204. Various types of temperature sensors can be utilized in the environment 200. According to various implementations, the temperature sensor(s) 212 include one or more thermocouples, thermistors, Peltier elements, or any combination thereof. In various examples, the temperature sensor(s) 212 is configured to output an electrical signal indicative of one or more detected temperatures by the temperature sensor(s) 212.

[0057] In some cases, one or more pressure sensor(s) 214 are disposed in the fluid circuit 204. The pressure sensor(s) 214 is configured to detect a pressure at one or more positions within the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, the pressure sensor(s) 214 include one or more capacitive and / or piezoelectric pressure sensors. For example, the pressure sensor(s) 214 include a membrane disposed between a space with a reference pressure and a space within the fluid circuit 204. When the pressure in the space within the fluid circuit 204 is different than the reference pressure, the membrane is configured to deform. In various implementations, the pressure sensor(s) 214 detects the pressure in the space based on an amount of deformation of the membrane. For instance, the capacitance of a capacitor including the membrane as a plate, or an electrical signal output by the membrane (e.g., due to the piezoelectric effect), is indicative of the deformation of the membrane and the pressure in the space.

[0058] According to some examples, one or more light sensors 216 are disposed in the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, the light sensor(s) 216 include one or more light sources (e.g., light-emitting diodes (LEDs)) and one or more light detectors (e.g., photodiodes, phototransistors, etc.) configured to detect light emitted by the light source(s). In some cases, the fluid in the fluid circuit 204 is physically disposed between the light source(s) and the light detector(s). An amount of light detected by the light detector(s), for example, is dependent on an amount of the light that is transmitted (e.g., not absorbed) by the fluid in the fluid circuit 204. In some examples, the light detector(s) is configured to detect an amount of light that is both emitted by the light source(s) and reflected by the fluid in the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, a frequency of the light emitted by the light source(s) and detected by the light detector(s) is optimized for absorbance and / or reflectance of a particular material (e.g., oxidized particles) in the fluid disposed in the fluid circuit 204. For example, the absorbance of the light of an aqueous solution of the oxidized nanoparticles at a predetermined concentration may be greater than a predetermined threshold. In various cases, the light detector(s) output an electrical signal indicative of an amount of light absorbed and / or reflected by the fluid in the fluid circuit 204. This signal may be indicative of an amount of the material present in the fluid in the fluid circuit 204.

[0059] The desalination controller 206, in various cases, receives signals from the salinity sensor(s) 208, the pH sensor(s) 210, the temperature sensor(s) 212, the pressure sensor(s) 214, the light sensor(s) 216, or any combination thereof, that are indicative of parameters detected by the respective sensors. In some cases, the signals include one or more analog signals, and the desalination controller 206 includes one or more analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) configured to convert the signals into digital signals indicative of the detected parameters. In some cases, the signals output by the sensors include digital signals that are indicative of the detected parameters. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 is configured to analyze data (e.g., in the form of digital signals) indicative of the detected parameters.

[0060] In various implementations, the desalination controller 206 is communicatively coupled to one or more active elements that are configured to change conditions within the fluid circuit 204. The desalination controller 206, for instance, is configured to output one or more signals (also referred to as "control signals”) to the active elements in order to cause changes to conditions within the fluid circuit 204.

[0061] In various cases, one or more pumps 218 are present in the fluid circuit 204. The pump(s) 218, in various cases, are configured to control pressure differentials between different subspaces in the fluid circuit 204, thereby inducing fluid flow within the fluid circuit 204. The pump(s) 218, for instance, include at least one peristaltic pump, at least one centrifugal pump, at least one diaphragm pump, at least one magnetic pump, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the pump(s) 218 can include one or more propellers configured to cause fluid movement within the fluid circuit 204.

[0062] According to some implementations, one or more valves 220 are present in the fluid circuit 204. The valve(s) 220, for instance, are configured to selectively open or close portions of the fluid circuit 204 to fluid flow. In various cases, the valve(s) 220 include check valves, ball valves, butterfly valves, or any combination thereof. Notably, the valve(s) 220 may include at least one valve configured to control liquid (e.g., saline and / or desalination media slurry) flow in the fluid circuit 204 and / or to control gas (e.g., air) flow in the fluid circuit 204.

[0063] In various cases, one or more heaters 222 are present in the fluid circuit. The heater(s) 222, for instance, are configured to heat portions of the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, the heater(s) 222 include one or more resistive elements that output heat when a voltage is applied. In some cases, the heater(s) 222 include one or more Peltier elements.

[0064] In some examples, the pump(s) 218 and / or valve(s) 220 are configured to control the flow of fluid between the fluid circuit 204 and one or more external spaces (e.g., receptacles). These external spaces may include a gas source 224 (e.g., the gas source 132), a desalination media source 226 (e.g., the desalination media source 118), a saline water source 228 (e.g., the saline water source 102), a buffer source 230, and one or more waste receptacles 232. In various cases, the gas source 224 is a space that contains a gas (e.g., air and / or oxygen). The desalination media source 226, for instance, is a space that contains desalination media (e.g., nano media slurry). In some examples, the saline water source 228 includes saline water that is to be desalinated by the desalination system. In various cases, the buffer source 230 is a space that includes a buffer solution (e.g., a bicarbonate solution) that can be used to adjust the pH within the fluid circuit 204. In various examples, the waste receptacle(s) 232 includes a space that is configured to receive waste media and / or captured solute(s) from the fluid in the fluid circuit 204. These external spaces, for instance, include one or more tanks, tubs, or other containers that are fluidly and selectively coupled to the fluid circuit 204.

[0065] In various implementations of the present disclosure, the desalination controller 206 is configured to control the pump(s) 218, the valve(s) 220, the heater(s) 222, or any combination thereof, based on one or more parameters detected by the salinity sensor(s) 208, the pH sensor(s) 210, the temperature sensor(s) 212, the pressure sensor(s) 214, the light sensor(s) 216, or any combination thereof. For example, the desalination controller 206 may output a control signal that activates or deactivates the pump(s) 218, the valve(s) 220, the heater(s) 222, or any combination thereof, in response to determining that one or more parameters are above a first threshold and / or below a second threshold.

[0066] In particular cases, the desalination controller 206 controls the pump(s) 218 and / or the valve(s) 220 in response to detecting that a salinity detected by the salinity sensor(s) 208 is above a threshold. In some examples, the desalination controller 206 causes the pump(s) 218 to recirculate fluid in the fluid circuit 204 until the salinity is below the threshold. In some examples, the desalination controller 206 causes the valve(s) 220 to block the fluid from being discharged (e.g., into a filter, such as the filter 142, or into a settling tank, such as the settling tank 138) until the salinity is above the threshold. In some cases, the desalination controller 206 causes the pump(s) 218 and / or valve(s) 220 to release desalination media from the desalination media source 226 in response to detecting that the salinity is above the threshold. In some examples, the desalination controller 206 causes the pump(s) 218 and / or valve(s) 220 to release saline water from the saline water source 228 into the fluid circuit 204 in response to detecting that the salinity is below the threshold.

[0067] According to some cases, the desalination controller 206 controls conditions within the fluid circuit 204 based on a pH detected by the pH sensor(s) 210. In some examples, the desalination media has a relatively low pH (e.g., due to the presence of phenols added to the desalination media during particle synthesis). It has been observed that the efficiency and speed by which the desalination media removes solute(s) from saline can be enhanced by lowering the pH of the saline added to the fluid circuit 204. In some examples, the desalination controller 206 causes the pump(s) 218 and / or valve(s) 220 to release buffer (e.g., water containing bicarbonate or some other type of basic solution) from the buffer source 230 into the fluid circuit 204 in response to detecting that the pH detected by the pH sensor(s) 210 is below a threshold.

[0068] In some examples, the desalination controller 206 adjusts conditions within the fluid circuit 204 based on a temperature detected by the temperature sensor(s) 212. In various implementations, it has been observed that the efficiency and speed by which the desalination media removes solute(s) from saline can be enhanced by controlling the temperature of the fluid in the fluid circuit 204 to be in a range of 25°C to 50°C. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 causes the heater(s) 222 to activate in response to determining that a temperature detected by the temperature sensor(s) 212 is below a threshold.

[0069] In various instances, the desalination controller 206 adjusts the conditions within the fluid circuit 204 based on a pressure detected by the pressure sensor(s) 214. A pressure differential between different locations along the fluid circuit 204 may be indicative of an amount of fluid flow in the fluid circuit 204. In some cases, an initial phase of flow through the fluid circuit 204 is achieved via hydrostatic flow from the saline water source 228 into the fluid circuit 204, wherein the saline water source 228 may be elevated with respect to the fluid circuit 204. However, after a sufficient amount of saline water has left the saline water source 228, in some cases, pressure in the fluid circuit 204 may equilibrate, causing limited to nonexistent fluid flow. In some examples, the desalination controller 206 activatesthe pump(s) 218 to activate in response to determining that a difference between a pressure detected at a first part of the fluid circuit 204 and a pressure detected at a second part of the fluid circuit 204 is below a threshold.

[0070] According to some cases, the desalination controller 206 may cause the valve(s) 220 to selectively vent gasses in the fluid circuit 204 to an environment outside of the fluid circuit 204. For instance, if the fluid circuit 204 is sealed from an external environment, and the gas source 224 releases gas into the fluid circuit 204, the pressure within the fluid circuit 204 may build to an undesirable level. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 causes the valve(s) 220 to vent fluid in the fluid circuit 204 to the external environment in response to detecting that a pressure detected by the pressure sensor(s) 214 is above a threshold.

[0071] In some examples, the desalination controller 206 selectively causes removal of waste media and / or solute from fluid in the fluid circuit 204. In particular examples, particles capture solute from the fluid during oxidation. The oxidation of particles in the fluid, in various cases, changes the absorbance and / or reflectance of the fluid. For instance, oxidized nanoparticles can cause treated water to appear opaque and / or as an orange color. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 causes the pump(s) 218 and / or valve(s) 220 to release waste media and solute from the fluid circuit 204 and into the waste receptacle(s) 232 in response to determining that a light absorbance and / or reflectance of the fluid in the fluid circuit 204 exceeds a first threshold and / or that a light transmittance of the fluid in the fluid circuit 204 is below a second threshold. The desalination controller 206, in various implementations, determines the light absorbance, reflectance, or transmittance based on signals output by the light sensor(s) 216.

[0072] An RO device 234 may be configured to receive treated water from the fluid circuit 204. In some implementations, the desalination controller 206 further controls the pump(s) 218 to induce greater than a threshold pressure on a side of a membrane of the RO device 234, which may cause the RO device 234 to generate purified water by removing an additional amount of solute(s) from the treated water. In various cases, the desalination controller 206 is further configured to cause the pump(s) 218 to move brine from the side of the membrane of the RO device 234 to fluid circuit 204 and / or the saline water source 228.

[0073] FIG. 3 illustrates an example environment 300 in which a particle 302 captures a sodium ion (Na+) 310 and a chlorine ion (CI-) 308. Although FIG. 3 is described with reference to removing sodium and chlorine ions, it should be understood that in some cases, other positive and negative ions can be removed from water using similar techniques.

[0074] In various implementations, the particle 302 is a nanoparticle. According to various implementations, the particle 302 may have a width that is less than 1 ,000 nm. In some cases, a length (e.g., a diameter) of the particle 302 may be between 10 and 100 nm, 20 to 80 nm, or 35 to 55 nm. In various implementations, the particle 302 may have a surface area between 0.1 square meters per gram (m2 / g) to 25 m2 / g. The particle 302 may include at least one metal, such as at least one of copper, aluminum, magnesium, manganese, zinc, or iron (e.g., ZVI or Fe(0)). In some cases, the particle 302 includes at least one zero valent metal (ZVM).

[0075] In some cases, when metal atoms in the particle 302 begins to oxidize in the presence of water, the metal atoms on the surface of the particle 302 is converted into at least one metal oxyhydroxide (e.g., metal-O(OH)). For instance, hydroxyl (-OH) groups 304 are bound to the surface of the particle 302. In various cases, oxygens 306 are additionally exposed on the surface of the particle 302 when hydrogens from at least a portion of the hydroxyl groups 304 are removed from the hydroxyl groups 304. For instance, the hydrogens may spontaneously be removed fromthe hydroxyl groups 304 based on a pH of a solution in which the particle 302 is present. In various cases, the pH of the solution is optimized to produce a mixture of hydroxyl groups 304 and oxygens 306 exposed on the surface of the particle 302. In various cases, the hydroxyl groups 304 electrostatically attract negatively charged ions and / or solutes within the solution, such as Cl- 308. In some implementations, the oxygens 306 electrostatically attract positively charged ions and / or solutes within the solution, such as Na+ 310.

[0076] In particular cases, the particle 302 includes ZVI. When ZVI, for instance becomes oxidized, two types of complexes may be formed: FeOOH2+ (e.g., including the hydroxyl groups 304) and FeOOH- (e.g., including the oxygens 306). The positively charged FeOOH2+ may electrostatically attract the negatively charged Cl- 308 dissolved in the water. The negatively charged FeOOH- may electrostatically attract the positively charged Na+ 310 dissolved in the water. The electrostatic attraction between the charged complexes and the Cl- 308 and Na+ 310 ions may cause a first layer of Cl- 308 and Na+ 310 ions to be adsorbed onto the surface of the particle 302.

[0077] According to various cases, once a first layer of Na+ 310 and Cl- 308 is adsorbed onto the surface of the particle 302, additional ions may be further adsorbed onto the first layer. For instance, additional negatively charged Cl- 308 may be electrostatically attracted to the positively charged Na+ 310 in the first layer, and additional positively charged Na+ 310 may be electrostatically attracted to the negatively charged Cl- 308 in the first layer. Multiple layers of Cl- 308 and Na+ 310 may assemble on the surface of the particle 302. In some cases, the Cl- 308 and Na+ 310 may form a crystal structure.

[0078] The adsorption of the Na+ 310 and Cl- 308 due to electrostatic forces with oxidized forms of the metal in the particle 302 may occur relatively quickly. As Cl- 308 is attracted to, and attaches to, Fe(OH)4+ (for example), functional groups on the surface of the particle 302, a subsequent, slower reaction may take place that also causes desalination. In some examples, the Cl- 308 may further catalyze the oxidation of other metal atoms (e.g., other ZVM atoms, such as Fe(0)) in the particle 302. Additional Cl- 308 may diffuse through the surface layer of the particle 302 and cause further oxidation of the metal atoms below the outer surface of the particle 302 and within the interior of the particle 302. Additional layers of metal-O-H-CI and metal-O-Na may be generated within the interior of the particle 302.

[0079] Both reactions (the surface adsorption and capture by metal within the interior of the particle 302) may cause water uptake. In addition, when the particle 302 is submerged in water, the salinity gradient may increase as a distance to the particle 302 decreases, due to the capture of the Na+ 310 and the Cl- 308. Accordingly, in some cases, a desalination media including the particle 302 may aggregate into solid particles that expand in size, due to water uptake and osmosis, when exposed to saline water.

[0080] FIG. 4 illustrates an example process 400 for removing solutes from an aqueous solution. The process 400 is performed by an entity, such as a desalination system (e.g., the desalination system 100), at least one processor, a computing device, a controller (e.g., the desalination controller 206), a desalination environment (e.g., the desalination environment 200), or any combination thereof.

[0081] At 402, the entity receives an aqueous solution that includes a salt dissolved in water. For example, the aqueous solution includes saline, seawater, brine, produced water, flowback, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the salt includes sodium and / or chloride. In various cases, the salt includes halite, magnesium sulfate, potassium bicarbonate, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, or any combination thereof. In some examples, the saltincludes magnesium, sulfate, potassium, carbonate, calcium, or any combination thereof. According to various examples, the aqueous solution as a pH in a range of 7.5 to 12.

[0082] At 404, the entity captures, by particles, salt from the aqueous solution. In some cases, the particles are included in a desalination media, such as a slurry. The particles, in some examples, include nanoparticles. In various cases, the particles include at least one type of metal, such as iron, aluminum, copper, zinc, or a combination thereof. In some cases, the metal(s) include at least one type of ZVM. In some examples, the particles include at least one metal oxyhydroxide. In some instances, the entity flows the aqueous solution and the particles through one or more reactors (e.g., desalination tanks). According to some cases, the particles are generated by mixing a reducing agent with at least one type of metal salt. The reducing agent includes, for instance, at least one of uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid. In some cases, the reducing agent includes a tea extract. In some examples, desalination media has an acidic pH, such as a pH in a range of 2.5 to 5.0.

[0083] In various cases, the entity introduces the desalination media to the aqueous solution, or vice versa. In some cases, the entity mixes the desalination media with the aqueous solution. A mass-to-volume ratio of the particles in the desalination media may be in a range of 1 g / L to 50 g / L, such as a range of 10 g / L to 25 g / L. The desalination media, for instance, is added to the aqueous solution such that a ratio of a mass of the particles in the desalination media to the volume of the aqueous solution is in a range of 0.04 g / L to 0.50 g / L. In some cases, the desalination media is added to the aqueous solution such that a ratio of the mass of the particles in the desalination media to the salinity of the aqueous solution is in a range of 0.1 g / (mS / cm) to 0.5 g / (mS / cm).

[0084] According to some implementations, the entity injects an oxidizing gas into a mixture of the aqueous solution and the particles (e.g., the desalination media) to enhance the capture of the salt. The oxidizing gas, for instance, includes at least one of air, oxygen, or ozone. In particular cases, the entity injects the oxidizing gas at a rate of 10 L / min to 80.0 L / min, such as into each of the reactor(s) or a combination of the reactor(s).

[0085] In various cases, the mixture of the aqueous solution and the particles (e.g., the desalination media) has a basic pH. For instance, the pH of the mixture is in a range of 7.5 to 12.0. Optionally, the entity adds a buffer to the mixture in order to achieve the basic pH. For instance, the buffer includes a hydroxide (calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide) and / or bicarbonate.

[0086] At 406, the entity removes the particles from the aqueous solution. In various cases, the removal of the particles results in a removal of at least 75% (or at least 80%) of the salt originally included in the aqueous solution. In some cases, the entity removes the particles using a filter, such as a filter including activated carbon. Optionally, the water is further processed using an RO device, which may remove an additional portion of the salt (e.g., up to 25% of the salt originally included in the aqueous solution, such as at least 1 % of the salt originally included in the aqueous solution) from the water. A concentrate produced by the RO device, for instance, can be fed back into the reactor(s), in some examples.

[0087] FIG. 5 illustrates at least one example device 500 configured to enable and / or perform various functionality discussed herein. Further, the device(s) 500 can be implemented as one or more server computers, a network element on a dedicated hardware, as a software instance running on a dedicated hardware, or as a virtualized function instantiated on an appropriate platform, such as a cloud infrastructure, and the like. It is to be understood in the contextof this disclosure that the device(s) 500 can be implemented as a single device or as a plurality of devices with components and data distributed among them.

[0088] As illustrated, the device(s) 500 comprise a memory 504. In various embodiments, the memory 504 is volatile (including a component such as Random Access Memory (RAM)), non-volatile (including a component such as Read Only Memory (ROM), flash memory, etc.) or some combination of the two.

[0089] The memory 504 may include various components, such as instructions for executing various functions of the desalination controller 206. The memory 504 can store methods, threads, processes, applications, or any other sort of executable instructions. The memory 504 can also store files and / or databases.

[0090] The memory 504 may include various instructions (e.g., instructions of the desalination controller 206), which can be executed by at least one processor 508 to perform operations. In some embodiments, the processor(s) 508 includes a Central Processing Unit (CPU), a Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), or both CPU and GPU, or other processing unit or component known in the art.

[0091] The device(s) 500 can also include additional data storage devices (removable and / or non-removable) such as, for example, magnetic disks, optical disks, or tape. Such additional storage is illustrated in FIG. 5 by removable storage 510 and non-removable storage 512. Tangible computer-readable media can include volatile and nonvolatile, removable and non-removable media implemented in any method or technology for storage of information, such as computer readable instructions, data structures, program modules, or other data. The memory 504, removable storage 510, and non-removable storage 512 are all examples of computer-readable storage media. Computer- readable storage media include, but are not limited to, RAM, ROM, EEPROM, flash memory or other memory technology, CD-ROM, Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs), Content-Addressable Memory (CAM), or other optical storage, magnetic cassettes, magnetic tape, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store the desired information and which can be accessed by the device(s) 500. Any such tangible computer-readable media can be part of the device(s) 500.

[0092] The device(s) 500 also can include input device(s) 514, such as a keypad, a cursor control, a touch-sensitive display, voice input device, one or more sensors, and the like. In various cases, the device(s) 500 include output device(s) 516 such as a display, speakers, printers, one or more active elements (e.g., pumps, valves, heaters, etc.), and the like. In particular implementations, a user can provide input to the device(s) 500 via a user interface associated with the input device(s) 514 and / or the output device(s) 516.

[0093] As illustrated in FIG. 5, the device(s) 500 can also include one or more wired or wireless transceiver(s) 518. For example, the transceiver(s) 518 can include a Network Interface Card (NIC), a network adapter, a LAN adapter, or a physical, virtual, or logical address to connect to the various base stations or networks contemplated herein, for example, or the various user devices and servers. To increase throughput when exchanging wireless data, the transceiver(s) 518 can utilize Multiple-Input / Multiple-Output (MIMO) technology. The transceiver(s) 518 can include any sort of wireless transceivers capable of engaging in wireless, Radio Frequency (RF) communication. The transceiver(s) 518 can also include other wireless modems, such as a modem for engaging in Wi-Fi, WiMAX, Bluetooth, or infrared communication. In some implementations, the transceiver(s) 518 can be used to communicate between various functions, components, modules, or the like, that are comprised in the device(s) 500.EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLE

[0094] In the present Experimental Example, two pilot scale desalination system employing carbon modified nanosized, zero valent metals (n-ZVM) were constructed and tested to determine (1) the degree to which high salt water (20 to 130 mS / cm) could be desalinated and (2) if this degree of desalination could be maintained throughout an extended treatment period. Two pilot systems were tested (referred to as Generation 1 and Generation 2) including parallel lines of four individual desalination tanks (also referred to as "reactors”) in series, a settling tank and an activated carbon cell at the end of each line of desalination tanks (each line is also referred to as a "reactor line”). The system capacity was 300 gallons (gal) (about 1 ,136 liters (L)) in Generation 1 and 600 gal (about 2,271 L) in Generation 2 in total with a total hydraulic residence time of 6 hours per reactor line (one hour per cell / tank).

[0095] A slurry of n-ZVM was introduced in the first reactor on each line to yield approximately 5 to 25 grams (g) of nano-metal per 100 L of influent salt water. The n-ZVM slurry was made from mixing tea extract with metal salts (e.g., ferrous sulfate, ferric chloride) to produce the carbon modified metal slurry. Initial runs had variable dosing to determine appropriate dosages of the n-ZVM slurry that could maximize salt removal at each of three influent salt water concentrations (salinity levels of the influent salt water samples being 28 mS / cm, 44 mS / cm, and 123 mS / cm, respectively).

[0096] Once an appropriate dosing was determined, continuous runs (14 days, 23 days, and 9 days, respectively) were carried out to (1) examine the ability of the pilot to maintain the removal efficiency over an extended period, (2) to determine the weaknesses inherent in the pilot systems, and (3) to begin to develop capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) estimates for the pilot and pre-design, full-scale mobile desalination unit (MDU) system.

[0097] The results of the formulations tested in this Experimental Example demonstrated that a maximum removal occurred with 10 g / 100L of salt for the 30 mS / cm salt solution, 16 g / 100 L of salt for the 40 mS / cm influent water and 40 g / 100 L for the 130 mS / cm influent. Salt removal (expressed as sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) removed) approached 78% for the 30 mS / cm influent and 41 mS / cm influent respectively while removal for the highest salt influent (130 mS / cm) approached 81 %. Addition of greater amounts of carbon modified slurry than those described in this Experimental Example resulted in a pH less than 6, which was found to inhibit continued salt removal. Nevertheless, such greater amounts of carbon modified slurry could be used to achieve even greater salt removal by adding calcium or magnesium oxides / hydroxides or bicarbonate solutions at the influent side.

[0098] Continuous operation over the extended time-period showed no significant decrease in salt removal with typical day-to-day variation of no more than 10% suggesting that this approach to desalination could rapidly provide usable water from saline aquifers, seawater, or even produced water. Treatment of saline waters at 30 mS / cm or less yields effluent water in the range suitable for irrigation use of many crops while treatment of seawater or produced water levels of salt (40 mS / cm or higher) yields effluent in the range of 8 to 10 mS / cm a range ideal for RO influent that would prevent the production of large volumes of brine. Pilot testing continues with seawater extracted from Puget Sound, Seattle WA to confirm these results. CAPEX estimates for a full-scale mobile unit capable of treating 75,000 gal per day is under $125,000 with an annual OPEX of $55,000.Materials and Methods

[0099] Reactors - Two pilot scale reactors were used in the study. The Generation 1 pilot included 6, 5 ft tall 12 inch diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tanks (reactors) placed in a series. An illustrative example of the Generation 1 system is depicted in FIG. 6. Influent water was fed via a peristaltic pump to the first PVC reactor where nano media slurry was added also using a peristaltic pump to deliver the precise number of nano metals to effect desalination. Feed water was subsequently transferred to the other reactors via short (5 inch) stretches of polypropylene tubing. Water entering the reactor was forced down to the bottom of the reactor via a 1 -inch PVC pipe where it mixed with air delivered at the bottom of the reactor from a manifold driven by a small air pump. The air delivery rate to each reactor was set at 2L / Min continuously. Only the first reactor in the series was dosed with the slurry. Reactor 5 was used to settle the salt metal mixture and reactor 6 contained activated carbon to remove color and excess metal slurry.

[0100] The Generation 2 reactors were similar but configured slightly differently. Each reactor was made from a refurbished aluminum tank that was sandblasted and then coated with epoxy paint. Dividers were welded in place to serve as the individual reactors. As with Generation 1 , the first reactor was fed the media slurry with a peristaltic pump, and air bubbled through the bottom of the tank at the same rate as Generation 1 . The primary difference was capacity. Generation 1 has a total capacity of 300 gallons and generation 2 had a capacity of 600 gallons.

[0101] Nano Metal Slurry - The media driving the desalination reaction is made from natural tea extraction and metal salts, similar to techniques generally described in US Patent No. 10,919,784, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. For the different salt contents (Na and Cl primarily) the media was made to yield approximately 10 g, 20g, and 40g of total metal / 100 L. The metals included iron (Fe), as well as aluminum (Al) and smaller amounts of copper (Cu). The slurry was made in 50 L batches and was shown to be stable for up to 1.5 months at room temperature. It was stored in 20 L polyethylene carboys before connection to the pilot plant.

[0102] Influent Water - To mimic large volumes of both irrigation type water and produced water derived from natural gas extraction, synthetic saline water was constructed in 1 ,500 gal (about 5,678 L) batches using halite, magnesium sulfate, potassium bicarbonate, calcium chloride and calcium sulfate. The seawater was also constructed from the same chemical mixtures and used in the pilot runs until seawater was obtained from Puget Sound, Seattle WA in November of 2023. The mixtures used to produce the various waters are shown in Table 1 .Table 1. Composition of Different Waters Used in the Study* mg / L; ** Standard units; *** mS / cm; **** ppm

[0103] Instrumentation, Data Collection and Analysis - During operation of the pilot runs, continuous (1 Hz sampling frequency) measurement of pH, Cl, EC, air flow, and water flow occurred on the influent side of the pilot (feed tank)and the discharge side of the pilot after water passed through the activated carbon. In addition, during select times (each 8-12 hours) the same analytes were determined in each reactor tank to observe chemical changes from tank to tank through time. All measurements were captured by the programmable logic controller (PLC) located on the influent side of the pilot systems. The PLC controlled the flow and air meters and the various probes collecting chemical information. pH and EC (and temperature) probes were purchased from Seametrics Corporation (Model CT2X conductivity cell) and (Model TempHion pH, ORP / ISE smart sensor and data logger (pH, EC, ORP and Cl). Calibration of each instrument was done using Oakton calibration standards. Calibration was repeated daily for pH and EC while Cl calibration was repeated every 4 to 8 hours.

[0104] Pilot Operation - Both pilot systems were operated similarly. Feed water rates were set via the diaphragm pumps (Generation 2) or peristaltic pump (Generation 1) and fed directly in to the first reaction chamber. Flows only varied between 0.5 and 1 gallons per minute (gpm) in both pilots. At the first reaction chamber, the media feed pumps delivered the nano slurry at a rate consistent with feed water flow and the desired amount of nano metal for each type of water. The air pumps fed 1 ,5L air / min to each reaction chamber at the bottom of the cell. The feed water entering each cell was directed to the bottom of the cell near the air flow stream using internal piping which allowed good contact between the nano media and the air flow and forced the feed water up through the reactor. The water in cell 1 was transferred to the next reactor via continued feed water flow and again directed to the bottom of that reactor. The first four reactors in each pilot had similar air delivery but nano media was only fed to the first reactor in the series. The fifth reactor in the series contained no air flow and allowed solids settling while sixth reactor contained 25kg of granular activated carbon for polishing the treated water.

[0105] The reactors were run continuously for 14 days for treatment of saline irrigation water, 23 days for treatment of synthetic seawater and 9 days for treatment of synthetic produced water. Water was stored either in two 3,000 gallon poly tanks or 1 ,500 gallon above ground, collapsible swimming pools. Puget Sound seawater was conveyed via 5,000 gallon water truck after pumping from the Sound at a depth of 10 feet (about 3 meters) below the surface.Results and Discussion

[0106] Dosing - Prior to performing the extended runs, dosing experiments were carried out to determine the amount of nano metal to remove between 70 and 80% of the salt from influent to each system. This percentage was chosen since 80% removal would remove typical seawater to a level (10 mS / cm) conducive for RO processing at an efficiency that would produce very little brine as RO concentrate. To determine the dose for each influent formulation, about 500 gal (about 1 ,892 L) of each was prepared and run through the pilot in a single pass. During the shortened run, the delivery rate of the nano slurry was adjusted to achieve the desired amount of removed salt. The concentration of nano metal in the slurry was constant, but the feed rate was altered. . Dosing began at 5g of nano metal per 100L (0.05g / L) of feed water and increased slowly (every 2 hours) until the desired removal was achieved. Replicate runs at each dose produced removal efficiencies of 73-78% for saline irrigation water, 75 to 81 % for seawater, and 69 to 87% for produced water. The ultimate dosing selected for each water and the relation to salt content is shown in FIG. 7.

[0107] Extended Desalination Runs - The results of the extended runs are summarized in Tables 2A and 2B below. The first three rows in each of Table 2A and 2B demonstrate the dosing changes and their effect on salt removal. Tables 2A and 2B represent different characteristics of the same extended runs.

[0108] In Table 2A, column 1 of is the start date for each run, followed by dose (g / L) of nZVM used, followed by reactor type (generation 1 (G1) or generation 2 (G2)). Next is the water type (saline irrigation, seawater, or produced water, followed by the media mixture (usually tea extract and metal salts). The last columns show the initial EC (mS / cm) and estimated duration (hours).Table 2A. Summary of Pilot Test Results Run Date* Tea / Nano refers to tea extract as reductant for iron and aluminum salts. Ch / Nano refers to wet n-ZVI purchased from Huang Ind. China** G1 / G2 = Generation 1 or Generation 2

[0109] In Table 2B, column 1 is the start date for each run, followed by the initial amounts of Cl and Na (mg / L), the Cl and Na removed (mg / L) and the % removed for Cl and Na.Table 2B. Summary of Pilot Test Results (Continued)

[0110] The first four rows of each of T ables 2A and 2B show the effect of increasing dose nano slurry on salt removal from saline irrigation water. Increasing the dose from 5g / 100L to 10 increased desalination from about 50% to 77% at 10g / 100L Once the dose was set, this reactor continued to treat saline irrigation water for 336 hours or 14 days. The extended run with saline irrigation water (fifth row of each of Table 2A and 2B) showed that addition of 10g of nano metal could desalinate the water by 77% over the two-week runtime. The sixth row of each of Table 2A and 2Brepresents a replicate run at 10g / 100L to ensure this dose could achieve similar results. As noted it desalinated similarly or achieved a 78% reduction compared to 77% reduction of the previous run. The seventh row represents the extended run for the synthetic produced water and at a dose rate of 40g / 100L; 80% salt reduction was achieved over the entire nine-day runtime. The eighth row of each of Table 2A and 2B shows the results for the synthetic seawater and that a dose of 20g / 100L could desalinate more than 75% of the entrained salt.

[0111] FIGS. 8 and 9 depict additional detail of the 23-day seawater run. FIG. 8 shows the Na and Cl removal calculated from data collected at 12-hour intervals. As noted, the desalination was very consistent with only a 5 to 10% deviation from the mean removal efficiency (76%). Between hours 372 and 396 hours, the media feed pump became clogged resulting in no slurry feed for approximately 2 to 3 hours. Once the feed line was cleared, the desalination proceeded as before the clog occurred. FIG. 9 shows the Cl remaining in solution during the same seawater run and demonstrates how Cl is reduced from 15,000 mg / L to under 4000 mg / L with the 20g / 100L dose and four-hour retention time within the system.

[0112] Another way in which the desalination was analyzed was to inspect the chemistry data of the influent with the effluent to determine the effect the media may have on other major cations and anions in the feed water. This data is shown in Table 3. Table 3 shows that only marginal removal of potassium (K) occurred during desalination ranging from about 40% removal in saline irrigation water and 8% in produced water. This may be due to the much higher concentrations of both Na and Cl when compared to other solutes in these waters. The calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfate (SO4) concentrations stayed the same or showed slight increases. This was because the pH of the feed water was typically raised to pH 8 or 8.5 using Ca or Mg hydroxide (additions of 0.3 to 0.7 g / L). As noted, in these experiments, the pH of the effluent was lower than the influent pH due to the fact that the slurry made with tea extract has a pH of about 3. Therefore, the desalination of poorly buffered waters (such as these synthetic waters) may be enhanced by adding additional sources of hydroxide or bicarbonate to the system along with the slurry.Table 3. Effect of n-ZVM media on removal of other chemical constituents.*su = standard units

[0113] Implementations of the Experimental Example are also described in Walker, Desalination of Seawater, Synthetic Saline Irrigation Water and Produced Water Using Nano Zero Valent Metals: Results from a Pilot-Scale Desalination System, Water 16(7) 931 (2024), which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.EXAMPLE CLAUSES

[0114] The following Clauses provide various examples of the present disclosure. However, implementations of the present disclosure are not limited to the Clauses listed herein.1 . A method, including: receiving an aqueous solution including at least one solute; generating a mixture of the aqueous solution with a desalination media including particles; capturing, by the particles, at least a portion of the at least one solute from the mixture; and generating treated water by removing the particles from the mixture, the treated water having a salinity of less than 25% of a salinity of the aqueous solution.2. The method of clause 1 , wherein the aqueous solution includes saline.3. The method of clause 2, wherein the saline includes seawater, brine, produced water, or flowback.4. The method of any of clauses 1 to 3, wherein the at least one solute includes sodium and / or chloride.5. The method of any of clauses 1 to 4, wherein the at least one solute includes at least one of halite, magnesium sulfate, potassium bicarbonate, calcium chloride, or calcium sulfate.6. The method of any of clauses 1 to 5, wherein the at least one solute includes at least one of magnesium, sulfate, potassium, carbonate, or calcium.7. The method of any of clauses 1 to 6, wherein the at least one solute includes magnesium.8. The method of any of clauses 1 to 7, wherein the aqueous solution has a pH in a range of about 7.5 to about 12.9. The method of any of clauses 1 to 8, wherein the aqueous solution has a total dissolved solids (TDS) in a range of about 10,000 ppm to about 100,000 ppm.10. The method of any of clauses 1 to 9, wherein the particles include nanoparticles.11 . The method of any of clauses 1 to 10, wherein the particles include at least one metal.12. The method of clause 11 , wherein the at least one metal includes at least one zero-valent metal (ZVM).13. The method of clause 11 or 12, wherein the at least one metal includes iron.14. The method of any of clauses 11 to 13, wherein the at least one metal includes at least one of aluminum or copper.15. The method of any of clauses 11 to 14, wherein the at least one metal includes zinc.16. The method of any of clauses 1 to 15, wherein the particles include at least one metal oxyhydroxide.17. The method of any of clauses 1 to 16, wherein the desalination media includes the particles in a range of about 1 gram per liter (g / L) to about 50 g / L.18. The method of any of clauses 1 to 17, wherein the desalination media includes the particles in a range of about 10 g / L to about 25 g / L.19. The method of any of clauses 1 to 18, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a volume of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.04 g / L to about 0.50 g / L.20. The method of any of clauses 1 to 19, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to the salinity of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.1 grams per milisiemens per centimeter (g / (mS / cm)) to about 0.5 g / (mS / cm) or a range of about 0.1 g / (mS / m) to about 0.5 g / (mS / m).21. The method of any of clauses 1 to 20, wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least the portion of the at least one solute from the mixture includes: retaining the mixture for a time period in a range of about 5 minutes to about one hour.22. The method of any of clauses 1 to 21 , wherein generating the mixture of the aqueous solution with the desalination media includes flowing the desalination media and the aqueous solution into a first reactor; and wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least portion of the at least one solute from the mixture includes flowing the mixture through one or more second reactors.23. The method of any of clauses 1 to 22, wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least portion of the at least one solute from the mixture includes: injecting an oxidizing gas into the mixture.24. The method of clause 23, wherein injecting the oxidizing gas into the mixture includes injecting, into the mixture, the oxidizing gas at a rate in a range of about 2.0 L / minute (min) to about 80.0 L / min at an atmospheric pressure.25. The method of clause 23 or 24, wherein the oxidizing gas includes at least one of air, oxygen, or ozone.26. The method of any of clauses 1 to 25, wherein the salinity of the treated water is less than 20% of the salinity of the aqueous solution.27. The method of any of clauses 1 to 26, wherein removing the particles from the mixture includes flowing the mixture through a filter.28. The method of clause 27, wherein the filter includes activated carbon.29. The method of any of clauses 1 to 28, further including: generating purified water removing, from the treated water, an additional portion of the at least one solute by performing reverse osmosis (RO) on the treated water.30. The method of clause 29, wherein a salinity of the purified water is less than about 1 % of the salinity of the aqueous solution.31. The method of clause 29 or 30, wherein performing RO on the treated water further includes generating concentrate including the additional portion of the at least one solute, and wherein the method further includes: capturing, by the particles, the additional portion of the at least one solute.32. The method of any of clauses 1 to 31 , further including: adding, to the mixture, a buffer solution including a hydroxide and / or bicarbonate.33. The method of clause 32, wherein the hydroxide includes calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide.34. The method of clause 32 or 33, wherein in response to adding the buffer solution, the mixture has a pH in a range of about 7.5 to about 12.0.35. The method of any of clauses 1 to 34, further including: generating the desalination media by mixing a reducing agent with at least one metal salt.36. The method of clause 35, wherein the reducing agent includes at least one of uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid.37. A system configured to perform the method of any of clauses 1 to 36.38. A system, including: a first reactor configured to: receive an aqueous solution including at least one solute dissolved in water; receive a desalination media including particles; and generate a mixture of the aqueous solution and the desalination media; at least one second reactor configured to: flow the mixture through the at least one secondreactor; a filter configured to: receive the mixture of the aqueous solution and the desalination media from the at least one second reactor; and remove, from the mixture, the particles bound to at least 75% of the at least one solute, thereby removing at least 75% of the at least one solute from the aqueous solution.39. The system of clause 38, wherein the particles include nanoparticles.40. The system of clause 38 or 39, wherein the particles include at least one ZVM and / or at least one metal oxyhydroxide.41 . The system of any of clauses 38 to 40, wherein the particles include iron.42. The system of any of clauses 38 to 41 , wherein the particles include at least one of aluminum or copper.43. The system of any of clauses 38 to 42, wherein the particles include zinc.44. The system of any of clauses 38 to 43, wherein the desalination media includes the particles in a range of about 1 g / L to about 50 g / L.45. The system of any of clauses 38 to 44, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a volume of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.04 g / L to about 0.5 g / L.46. The system of any of clauses 38 to 45, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a salinity of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.1 g / (mS / cm) to about 1 .0 g / (mS / cm).47. The system of any of clauses 38 to 46, wherein a retention time of the mixture in the first reactor and / or the at least one second reactor is in a range of about 5 minutes to about 1 hour.48. The system of any of clauses 38 to 47, wherein the filter is configured to remove, from the mixture, the particles bound to at least 80% of the at least one solute, thereby removing at least 80% of the at least one solute from the water.49. The system of any of clauses 38 to 48, the aqueous solution being a first aqueous solution, the system further including: a reverse osmosis device configured to: receive, from the filter, a second aqueous solution including the water without the particles bound to at least 75% of the at least one solute; generate a third aqueous solution by removing, from the second aqueous solution, about 1% to about 25% of the at least one solute; output, to the first reactor, a fourth solution including the about 1% to about 25% of the at least one solute.50. The system of any of clauses 38 to 49, further including: a gas source configured to: output an oxidizing gas to the first reactor; and / or output the oxidizing gas to each of the at least one second reactor.51. The system of clause 50, wherein the gas source is configured to: output, to each of: the first reactor; and each of the at least one second reactor, an amount of the oxidizing gas to the first reactor in a range of about 1 L / min to about 80.0 L / min.52. Desalination media including: water; and particles including: iron; and copper and / or aluminum.53. The desalination media of clause 52, wherein the particles include nanoparticles.54. The desalination media of clause 52 or 53, wherein the particles further include zinc.55. The desalination media of any of clauses 52 to 54, wherein the desalination media includes the particles in a range of about 1 g / L to about 50 g / L.56. The desalination media of any of clauses 52 to 55, wherein the desalination media includes the particles in a range of about 10 g / L to about 25 g / L.57. The desalination media of clause 56, wherein the desalination media is acidic.58. The desalination media of clause 57, wherein the desalination media has a pH in a range of about 2.5 to about 5.59. A kit including the desalination media of any of clauses 52 to 58.60. A method of generating a desalination media including generating a mixture of: water; at least one iron salt; at least one copper salt and / or at least one aluminum salt; and a reducing agent.61 . The method of clause 60, wherein the at least one iron salt includes at least one of iron chloride, iron nitrate, or iron sulfate.62. The method of clause 60 or 61 , wherein the at least one copper salt includes at least one of copper chloride, copper nitrate, or copper sulfate.63. The method of any of clauses 60 to 62, wherein the at least one aluminum salt includes at least one of aluminum chloride, aluminum nitrate, or aluminum sulfate.64. The method of any of clauses 60 to 63, wherein the reducing agent includes at least one of uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid.65. The method of any of clauses 60 to 64, wherein a pH of the mixture is in a range of about 2.5 to about 5.0.66. The method of any of clauses 60 to 65, wherein generating the mixture includes generating particles including: iron; and copper and / or aluminum.67. The method of clause 66, wherein the particles include nanoparticles.CONCLUSION

[0115] The features disclosed in the foregoing description, or the following claims, or the accompanying drawings, expressed in their specific forms or in terms of a means for performing the disclosed function, or a method or process for attaining the disclosed result, as appropriate, may, separately, or in any combination of such features, be used for realizing implementations of the disclosure in diverse forms thereof.

[0116] As will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, each implementation disclosed herein can comprise, consist essentially of or consist of its particular stated element, step, or component. Thus, the terms "include” or "including” should be interpreted to recite: "comprise, consist of, or consist essentially of.” The transition term "comprise” or "comprises” means has, but is not limited to, and allows for the inclusion of unspecified elements, steps, ingredients, or components, even in major amounts. The transitional phrase "consisting of' excludes any element, step, ingredient or component not specified. The transition phrase "consisting essentially of' limits the scope of the implementation to the specified elements, steps, ingredients or components and to those that do not materially affect the implementation. As used herein, the term "based on” is equivalent to "based at least partly on,” unless otherwise specified.

[0117] Unless otherwise indicated, all numbers expressing quantities, properties, conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term "about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present disclosure. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. When further clarity is required, the term "about” has the meaning reasonablyascribed to it by a person skilled in the art when used in conjunction with a stated numerical value or range, i.e. denoting somewhat more or somewhat less than the stated value or range, to within a range of ±20% of the stated value; ±19% of the stated value; ±18% of the stated value; ±17% of the stated value; ±16% of the stated value; ±15% of the stated value; ±14% of the stated value; ±13% of the stated value; ±12% of the stated value; ±11% of the stated value; ±10% of the stated value; ±9% of the stated value; ±8% of the stated value; ±7% of the stated value; ±6% of the stated value; ±5% of the stated value; ±4% of the stated value; ±3% of the stated value; ±2% of the stated value; or ±1 % of the stated value.

[0118] Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the disclosure are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

[0119] The terms "a,” "an,” "the” and similar referents used in the context of describing implementations (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. Recitation of ranges of values herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within the range. Unless otherwise indicated herein, each individual value is incorporated into the specification as if it were individually recited herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., "such as”) provided herein is intended merely to better illuminate implementations of the disclosure and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the disclosure. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element essential to the practice of implementations of the disclosure.

[0120] Groupings of alternative elements or implementations disclosed herein are not to be construed as limitations. Each group member may be referred to and claimed individually or in any combination with other members of the group or other elements found herein. It is anticipated that one or more members of a group may be included in, or deleted from, a group for reasons of convenience and / or patentability. When any such inclusion or deletion occurs, the specification is deemed to contain the group as modified thus fulfilling the written description of all Markush groups used in the appended claims.

Claims

CLAIMSWHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method, comprising: receiving an aqueous solution comprising at least one solute; generating a mixture of the aqueous solution with a desalination media comprising particles; capturing, by the particles, at least a portion of the at least one solute from the mixture; and generating treated water by removing the particles from the mixture, the treated water having a salinity of less than 25% of a salinity of the aqueous solution.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the aqueous solution comprises saline.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the saline comprises seawater, brine, produced water, or flowback.

4. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one solute comprises sodium and / or chloride.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one solute comprises at least one of halite, magnesium sulfate, potassium bicarbonate, calcium chloride, or calcium sulfate.

6. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one solute comprises at least one of magnesium, sulfate, potassium, carbonate, or calcium.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the at least one solute comprises magnesium.

8. The method of claim 1 , wherein the aqueous solution has a pH in a range of about 7.5 to about 12.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the aqueous solution has a total dissolved solids (TDS) in a range of about10,000 parts-per-million (ppm) to about 100,000 ppm.

10. The method of claim 1 , wherein the particles comprise nanoparticles.11 . The method of claim 1 , wherein the particles comprise at least one metal.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one metal comprises at least one zero-valent metal (ZVM).

13. The method of claim 11 , wherein the at least one metal comprises iron.

14. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one metal comprises at least one of aluminum or copper.

15. The method of claim 11 , wherein the at least one metal comprises zinc.

16. The method of claim 1, wherein the particles comprise at least one metal oxyhydroxide.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein the desalination media comprises the particles in a range of about 1 gram per liter (g / L) to about 50 g / L.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the desalination media comprises the particles in a range of about 10 g / L to about 25 g / L.

19. The method of claim 1, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a volume of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.04 g / L to about 0.50 g / L.

20. The method of claim 1 , wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to the salinity of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.1 grams per milisiemens per centimeter (g / (mS / cm)) to about 0.5 g / (mS / cm).21 . The method of claim 1 , wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least the portion of the at least one solute from the mixture comprises: retaining the mixture for a time period in a range of about 5 minutes to about one hour.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein generating the mixture of the aqueous solution with the desalination media comprises flowing the desalination media and the aqueous solution into a first reactor; and wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least portion of the at least one solute from the mixture comprises flowing the mixture through one or more second reactors.

23. The method of claim 1 , wherein capturing, by the particles, the at least portion of the at least one solute from the mixture comprises: injecting an oxidizing gas into the mixture.

24. The method of claim 23, wherein injecting the oxidizing gas into the mixture comprises injecting, into the mixture, the oxidizing gas at a rate in a range of about 2.0 L / minute (min) to about 80.0 L / min at an atmospheric pressure.

25. The method of claim 23, wherein the oxidizing gas comprises at least one of air, oxygen, or ozone.

26. The method of claim 1 , wherein the salinity of the treated water is less than 20% of the salinity of the aqueous solution.

27. The method of claim 1 , wherein removing the particles from the mixture comprises flowing the mixture through a filter.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein the filter comprises activated carbon.

29. The method of claim 1 , further comprising: generating purified water removing, from the treated water, an additional portion of the at least one solute by performing reverse osmosis (RO) on the treated water.

30. The method of claim 29, wherein a salinity of the purified water is less than about 1 % of the salinity of the aqueous solution.31 . The method of claim 29, wherein performing RO on the treated water further comprises generating concentrate comprising the additional portion of the at least one solute, and wherein the method further comprises: capturing, by the particles, the additional portion of the at least one solute.

32. The method of claim 1 , further comprising: adding, to the mixture, a buffer solution comprising a hydroxide and / or bicarbonate.

33. The method of claim 32, wherein the hydroxide comprises calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide.

34. The method of claim 32, wherein in response to adding the buffer solution, the mixture has a pH in a range of about 7.5 to about 12.0.

35. The method of claim 1 , further comprising: generating the desalination media by mixing a reducing agent with at least one metal salt.

36. The method of claim 35, wherein the reducing agent comprises at least one of uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid.

37. A system configured to perform the method of claim 1 .

38. A system, comprising: a first reactor configured to: receive an aqueous solution comprising at least one solute dissolved in water;receive a desalination media comprising particles; and generate a mixture of the aqueous solution and the desalination media; at least one second reactor configured to: flow the mixture through the at least one second reactor; a filter configured to: receive the mixture of the aqueous solution and the desalination media from the at least one second reactor; and remove, from the mixture, the particles bound to at least 75% of the at least one solute, thereby removing at least 75% of the at least one solute from the aqueous solution.

39. The system of claim 38, wherein the particles comprise nanoparticles.

40. The system of claim 38, wherein the particles comprise at least one ZVM and / or at least one metal oxyhydroxide.41 . The system of claim 38, wherein the particles comprise iron.

42. The system of claim 38, wherein the particles comprise at least one of aluminum or copper.

43. The system of claim 38, wherein the particles comprise zinc.

44. The system of claim 38, wherein the desalination media comprises the particles in a range of about 1 g / L to about 50 g / L.

45. The system of claim 38, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a volume of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.04 g / L to about 0.5 g / L.

46. The system of claim 38, wherein a ratio of a mass of the particles to a salinity of the aqueous solution is in a range of about 0.1 g / (mS / cm) to about 1.0 g / (mS / cm).

47. The system of claim 38, wherein a retention time of the mixture in the first reactor and / or the at least one second reactor is in a range of about 5 minutes to about 1 hour.

48. The system of claim 38, wherein the filter is configured to remove, from the mixture, the particles bound to at least 80% of the at least one solute, thereby removing at least 80% of the at least one solute from the water.

49. The system of claim 38, the aqueous solution being a first aqueous solution, the system further comprising: a reverse osmosis device configured to: receive, from the filter, a second aqueous solution comprising the water without the particles bound to at least 75% of the at least one solute; generate a third aqueous solution by removing, from the second aqueous solution, about 1% to about 25% of the at least one solute; output, to the first reactor, a fourth solution comprising the about 1% to about 25% of the at least one solute.

50. The system of claim 38, further comprising: a gas source configured to: output an oxidizing gas to the first reactor; and / or output the oxidizing gas to each of the at least one second reactor.51 . The system of claim 50, wherein the gas source is configured to: output, to each of: the first reactor; and each of the at least one second reactor, an amount of the oxidizing gas to the first reactor in a range of about 1 L / min to about 80.0 L / min.

52. Desalination media comprising: water; and particles comprising: iron; and copper and / or aluminum.

53. The desalination media of claim 52, wherein the particles comprise nanoparticles.

54. The desalination media of claim 52, wherein the particles further comprise zinc.

55. The desalination media of claim 52, wherein the desalination media comprises the particles in a range of about 1 g / L to about 50 g / L.

56. The desalination media of claim 52, wherein the desalination media comprises the particles in a range of about 10 g / L to about 25 g / L.

57. The desalination media of claim 56, wherein the desalination media is acidic.

58. The desalination media of claim 57, wherein the desalination media has a pH in a range of about 2.5 to about 5.

59. A kit comprising the desalination media of claim 52.

60. A method of generating a desalination media comprising generating a mixture of: water; at least one iron salt; at least one copper salt and / or at least one aluminum salt; and a reducing agent.61 . The method of claim 60, wherein the at least one iron salt comprises at least one of iron chloride, iron nitrate, or iron sulfate.

62. The method of claim 60, wherein the at least one copper salt comprises at least one of copper chloride, copper nitrate, or copper sulfate.

63. The method of claim 60, wherein the at least one aluminum salt comprises at least one of aluminum chloride, aluminum nitrate, or aluminum sulfate.

64. The method of claim 60, wherein the reducing agent comprises at least one of uric acid, urea, tartaric acid, maleic acid, or tannic acid.

65. The method of claim 60, wherein a pH of the mixture is in a range of about 2.5 to about 5.0.

66. The method of claim 60, wherein generating the mixture comprises generating particles comprising: iron; and copper and / or aluminum.

67. The method of claim 66, wherein the particles comprise nanoparticles.

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