Acoustic wave assisted formation of energy devices

Abstract

In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for forming an energy device, the method comprising using at least one acoustic device to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

Description

ACOUSTIC WAVE ASSISTED FORMATION OF ENERGY DEVICESCROSS REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 559,621, filed February 29, 2024, which is entirely incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND

[0002] The surge in global demand for energy over the last decades has spurred a concurrent demand for high-capacity and long-lasting energy devices to meet present and future global energy demand.

[0003] The formation process of an energy device is important for delivering high-quality cells after electrolyte filling. During the formation process, the electrolyte can diffuse and wet pores of one or more electrodes. Moreover, solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) may form on the surface of anode and cathode materials respectively. This is the key to achieving stable cycling performance of an energy device, e.g., a lithium-ion battery (LIB), during the cycling life. However, the formation process may take several days or weeks, which may pose a bottleneck in the manufacturing line and increase the manufacturing cost, especially for large scale production of the energy device, e.g., LIBs.SUMMARY

[0004] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for forming an energy device, the method comprising: using at least one acoustic device to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

[0005] In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises accelerating the formation process. In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises optimizing the formation process. In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises simplifying the formation process or making the formation process more efficient. In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device is facilitated without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device. In some embodiments, the formation process of the energy device is facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions to form the homogeneous electrolyte and contact interphase (or interface) between electrolytes and electrode materials within the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions enable (1) uniform reaction on an electrode surface, (2) uniform reaction at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases, and / or(3) formation of a homogeneous, thin and robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device.

[0006] In some embodiments, the formation rate of the energy device is accelerated by at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0007] In some embodiments, an improvement in the formation of the energy device comprises a reduction in time needed to form homogenous or uniform stable interphase layers within the energy device, wherein the interphase layers comprise a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and a cathode electrolyte interphase. In some embodiments, the reduction in time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0008] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device enables the energy device to be fully formed within a duration ranging from 0.02 hours to 168 hours. In some embodiments, a reduction in formation time of the energy device is agnostic to an electrochemical cell chemistry and / or geometry of the energy device.

[0009] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device for accelerating the formation of the energy device further results in an improved performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in consumption of electrolyte during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in gassing during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in reversible capacities of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher output discharge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a lower charge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy efficiency as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy density delivered during discharge as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in bulk impedance of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0010] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, using at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a long-term cycling stability performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, a reduction in the rest time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0011] In some embodiments, the energy device comprises one or more electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise one or more different cell chemistries, and wherein the formation of the energy device is accelerated, observable or achievable for the one or more electrochemical cells having the one or more different cell chemistries. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a liquid electrolyte, polymer electrolyte, semi-solid state, or solid-state battery. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a lithium-ion battery, a lithium metal battery, and / or other alkaline ion / metal batteries. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, a magnesium metal battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery.

[0012] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves comprise at least one of the following: surface acoustic waves (SAW), Rayleigh wave, Lamb waves, Love waves, flexural waves, standing waves, mixed-mode waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves, shear mode vibrations, bulk acoustic waves (B AW), bulk wave vibrations, ultrasound waves, infrasound waves, or any combination(s) thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto an exterior and / or interior of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device. In some embodiments, the energy device has different form factors comprising coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, prismatic cells, or cells having one or more irregular shapes.

[0013] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is reusable for facilitating a formation process of a plurality of energy devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more different types of energy devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more energy devices that are of a same type.

[0014] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a system for forming an energy device, the system comprising: at least one acoustic device configured to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

[0015] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is configured to accelerate the formation process. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is configured to optimize the formation process. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is configured to simplify the formation process or make the formation process more efficient. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is configured to facilitate the formation process of the energy device without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device. In some embodiments, the formation process of the energy device is facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions within the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions enable (1) uniform reaction on an electrode surface, (2) uniform reaction at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases, and / or (3) formation of a robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device. In some embodiments, a formation rate of the energy device is accelerated by at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, an improvement in the formation of the energy device comprises a reduction in time needed to form homogenous or uniform stable interphase layers within the energy device, wherein the interphase layers comprise a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and a cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI). In some embodiments, the reduction in time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device enables the energy device to be fully formed within a duration ranging from 0.02 hours to 168 hours. In some embodiments, a reduction in formation time of the energy device is agnostic to an electrochemical cell chemistry and / or geometry of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device further results in an improved performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in consumption of electrolyte during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in gassing during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in reversible capacities of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher output discharge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device isnot used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a lower charge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy efficiency as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy density delivered during discharge as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in bulk impedance of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a long-term cycling stability performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, a reduction in the rest time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the energy device comprises one or more electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise one or more different cell chemistries, and wherein the formation of the energy device is accelerated, observable or achievable for the one or more electrochemical cells having the one or more different cell chemistries. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a liquid electrolyte, polymer electrolyte, semi-solid state, or solid- state battery. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a lithium- ion battery and / or a lithium metal battery. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, a magnesium metal battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves comprise at least one of the following: surface acoustic waves (SAW), Rayleigh wave, Lamb waves, Love waves, flexural waves, standing waves, mixed-mode waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves, shear mode vibrations, bulk acoustic waves (BAW), bulk wave vibrations, ultrasound waves, infrasound waves, or any combination(s) thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto an exterior and / or interior of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device. In some embodiments, the energy device has different form factors comprising coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, prismatic cells, or cells having one or more irregular shapes. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device is reusable for facilitating a formation process of a plurality of energy devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices comprises twoor more different types of energy devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more energy devices that are of a same type.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0016] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0017] The novel features of the disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the disclosure are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0018] FIG. 1 illustrates an acoustic device operably coupled to an energy device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0019] FIG. 2A illustrates an acoustic module operably coupled to an energy device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0020] FIG. 2B illustrates an acoustic device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0021] FIG. 2C illustrates an energy device comprises a plurality of electrodes, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0022] FIG. 2D illustrates an energy device (not coupled to an acoustic device) after fast charging or over many cycles of charge and discharge, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0023] FIG. 2E illustrates an energy device (coupled to an acoustic device) after fast charging or over many cycles of charge and discharge, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0024] FIGS. 3A-3L illustrate configurations of irregularly shaped cells, such as a cylindrically shaped cell, in communication with an acoustic module, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0025] FIG. 4A illustrates a setup for evaluating a formation process with surface acoustic wave (SAW) device placed underneath a pouch cell, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0026] FIG. 4B illustrates the discharge capacity of pouch cells formed with no rest time in the formation process with or without SAW device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0027] FIG. 4C illustrates the discharge capacity of pouch cells formed with 6 h rest time in the formation process with or without SAW device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0028] FIG. 4D illustrates the discharge capacity of pouch cells formed with 24 h rest time in the formation process with or without SAW device, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0029] FIG. 4E illustrates the capacity ratio of pouch cells formed with different formation process as normalized by the capacity of pouch cells without SAW and rest time, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0030] FIG. 4F illustrates the initial Coulombic efficiency of pouch cells formed with different formation process, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0031] FIG. 5A illustrates the 1stdischarge curves of pouch cells with different formation process at discharge rate of 0.1 C, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0032] FIG. 5B illustrates the 2ndcharge curves of pouch cells with different formation process, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0033] FIGS. 6A-6C illustrate the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results of cells with different formation process after the 1stcycle, the 2ndcycle, and the 3rdcycle, according to some embodiments of the disclosure;

[0034] FIG. 7 illustrates a computer system in communication with the acoustic devices, acoustic modules, and energy devices, according to some embodiments of the disclosure; and

[0035] FIG. 8A illustrates three different battery formation protocols, FIG. 8B illustrates the initial charge / discharge curves, FIG. 8C illustrates the long-term cycling performance of the three cells, and FIG. 8D illustrates the estimated cost for battery manufacturing with or without SAW, according to some embodiments of the disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0036] While various embodiments have been shown and described herein, such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur without departing from the present disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein may be employed.

[0037] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to which the present disclosure belongs. In case of conflict, the present application including the definitions will control. Also, unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall include pluralities and plural terms shall include the singular.

[0038] Provided herein are systems and methods that can improve the formation process, e.g., reduce formation time and improve coulombic efficiency and energy density of an energy device.

[0039] Energy device production may comprise electrode production, stack roll construction, cell assembly, and formation. In the formation process, electrolyte is added to the cell of the energy device and diffuses and wets the pores of the electrodes and / or the separator of the cell. In some cases, the traditional formation process can take several days or weeks, limiting the production capacity and increasing the production cost. In some cases, the traditional formation process may require elevated temperature. Electrolyte filling and / or wetting in an energy device, e.g., of porous electrodes and / or separator, is crucial for performance, such as charge and discharge qualities, as well as lifetime of the energy device. Insufficient electrolyte wetting of porous electrodes may lead to irregular reactions in the electrodes and unstable formation of the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer between the electrolyte and the electrodes. Insufficient electrolyte wetting may result in under-utilization of electrode capacity and increase electrode resistance. In addition, insufficient electrolyte wetting may lead to dendrite formation in the energy device, causing severe safety issues.

[0040] During the formation process, it is desirable to form stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) layers to enable stable cycling performance of the energy device. The reason for long formation process in the traditional process is due to the slow diffusion of electrolyte in electrode and slow formation of robust CEI and SEI layers. The formation process can account for a considerable portion of production plant capital expenses and can take up to 25% of the floor space.

[0041] The regularly used formation procedure is to cycle the cells of the energy device with a very low charge / discharge current, such as 0.05 C, for several cycles to achieve uniform SEI and CEI layers after electrolyte filling. During the formation process, due to the formation of SEI layer, the mobile species, e.g., Li ions, can be consumed from the locations close to the electrodes and / or separator, resulting in low coulombic efficiency and energy density. In some cases, this process can take 3-7 days, which is far behind expectations. To enable a faster formation process, most of the strategies developed were associated with the change of electrochemical protocols for this formation process. For instance, a fast formation protocol in 1.5 Ah full graphite / LiNixMnyCoi-x-yCh (NMC) pouch cells was developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory with a combination of high rates during the first charge and shallow cycling within a window of about 300 mV near the full state of charge. A formation time of 14 hours was achieved. However, this faster formation process would lower the initial capacity delivered and the rate performance due to non-uniform SEI layer. Electrolyte additives, such asfluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), are also developed to reinforce the formation of SEI layer, however, low charge / discharge rate is needed for this formation process. Another strategy is to use the advanced coating layer on the surface of active materials or separators to speed up electrolyte wetting process during formation, however, this strategy would involve expensive equipment, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD), to create artificial coating layer. In some cases, elevated temperature is needed to facilitate SEI and CEI formation, however, the elevated temperature would increase the energy input and manufacturing cost.

[0042] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a method for forming an energy device, the method comprising: using at least one acoustic device to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

[0043] In some cases, battery formation may be limited by the slow formation of dense and uniform SEI and CEI layers, which rely on interfacial reactions between the electrodes and electrolyte. In some cases, uniform wetting may be more difficult with the introduction of electrolytes with increased viscosities. The methods and systems provided herein may improve electrolyte transport kinetics and accelerate the reactions between electrolytes and electrodes. In some embodiments, the acoustic device may generate high accelerations (e.g., 108— 1010m / s2). In some embodiments, the acoustic device may drive acoustic streaming flows at velocities up to 1 m / s. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves may apply acoustic forces to particles (e.g., ions of the electrolyte) within the electrolyte, from micro to nanoscale. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves may facilitate rapid and uniform formation of SEI and CEI layers.

[0044] In some embodiments, the method can accelerate the formation process without substantially any change of materials or chemistry inside the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can improve the diffusion of the electrolyte for a better wetting of electrodes and / or a separator. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can contribute to the electrolyte diffusion, e.g., Li+diffusion, with a lower overpotential by eliminating the concentration polarization. In some embodiments, the method can improve the efficiency of the formation process and reduce the time needed for the formation process. In some embodiments, the method can enhance the initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) and discharge / charge capacities by at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, or more, including increments therein, due to the favorable kinetics.

[0045] In some embodiments, the formation process of the energy device can be facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions within the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions can improve the formation of homogeneous electrolyte and contact interphase (or interface) between electrolytes and electrodematerials within the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions can improve uniformity of reaction, e.g., enable uniform reaction, on an electrode surface. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions can improve uniformity of reaction, e.g., enable uniform reaction, at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions can improve the formation of a robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device. In some embodiments, the interphase layer can be homogenous. In some embodiments, the interphase layer can be thinner compared to when no acoustic device is utilized.

[0046] In some embodiments, the acoustic device can enhance mobilization and movement of mobile species of the electrolyte, e.g., cations and / or anions. The enhanced mobilization and movement of mobile species can lead to better distribution of the mobile species within the energy device. In some embodiments, the mobile species can move to the vicinity of the electrodes and / or the separator more readily, to compensate or refill the consumed mobile species. In some embodiments, mobile species, e.g., cations and anions, can be evenly available throughout the cell. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave can modulate the ionic concentration gradient for a more uniform distribution of the mobile species and prevent concentration polarization. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave can ensure a more consistent flow of current through the cell, enhancing overall efficiency.

[0047] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves may be configured to set the electrolyte in motion. The electrolyte in motion may cause the electrolyte to fill or seep into pores or porous spaces within the one or more electrodes and / or separator in the energy device. In some cases, the electrolyte in motion may fill a portion of the pores or porous spaces within the one or more electrodes and / or separator. In some cases, the portion of pores or porous spaces filled by the electrolyte in motion may be at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or about 100% of the total pores or porous spaces. In some cases, the one or more electrodes and / or separator may comprise a porosity ((|>). In some cases, the porosity ((|>) is defined as the ratio between the volume of voids (pores or porous spaces) over the total volume. In some cases, the porosity of the one or more electrodes ((|>e) may be defined as the ratio of volume of voids (pores or porous spaces) in the one or more electrodes and the total volume of the one or more electrodes. In some cases, the porosity of the separator (c|)s) may be defined as the ratio of volume of voids (pores or porous spaces) in the separator and the total volume of the separator. The porosity may be determined via direct methods, optical methods,computed tomographic methods, imbibition methods, water evaporation methods, mercury intrusion porosimetry, or gas expansion methods.

[0048] In some embodiments, the improved filling and wetting of the electrolyte may facilitate formation of a homogenous or uniform stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer at an interface between the electrolyte and the one or more electrodes and / or separator. In some embodiments, the improved wetting of the electrolyte may facilitate formation of a homogenous or uniform stable cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI) layer at an interface between (i) the electrolyte and (ii) the cathode. In some cases, the one or more electrodes and / or separator may be characterized or analyzed by microscopy (e.g., scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or transmission electron microscopy (TEM)). In some cases, electrolyte wetting may refer to a process of introducing an electrolyte to a material, wherein the electrolyte wets the pores of the material. In some cases, the material may be one or more electrodes of an energy device. In some cases, the material may be a separator of an energy device. In some embodiments, electrolyte wetting may refer to a process of percolating an electrolyte throughout a material. In some cases, the material may comprise a two-dimensional (2D) material or a three-dimensional (3D) material.

[0049] In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be facilitated without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device. In some embodiments, acoustic wave assisted formation of the energy device does not substantially change the setup of the formation process. In some embodiments, acoustic wave assisted formation of the energy device does not significantly increase the energy input.Facilitating the Formation Process

[0050] In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device can comprise accelerating the formation process. In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be accelerated when at least one acoustic device is used during the formation process. In some embodiments, the formation (e.g., a rate of formation or a formation rate) of the energy device can be accelerated by at least about 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be accelerated by at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including incrementstherein, when the at least one acoustic device is used, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0051] In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device can comprise optimizing the formation process. In some embodiments, facilitating the formation process of the energy device can comprise simplifying the formation process or making the formation process more efficient.

[0052] In some embodiments, an improvement in the formation of the energy device can comprise a reduction in time needed to form homogenous or uniform stable interphase (or interface) layers within the energy device, wherein the interphase layers comprise a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and a cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI).

[0053] In some embodiments, the time needed for the formation of the energy device can be reduced when at least one acoustic device is used during the formation process. In some embodiments, the reduction in time can be at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the reduction in time can be at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, when the at least one acoustic device is used, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0054] In some embodiments, an energy device can be fully formed within a duration from about 0.02 hours (h) to about 168 h, when at least one acoustic device is used during the formation process. In some embodiments, the energy device can be fully formed within a duration from about 0.02 h to about 0.05 h, from about 0.02 h to about 0.1 h, from about 0.02 h to about 0.5 h, from about 0.02 h to about 1 h, from about 0.02 h to about 10 h, from about 0.02 h to about 24 h, from about 0.02 h to about 48 h, from about 0.02 h to about 72 h, from about 0.02 h to about 96 h, from about 0.02 h to about 100 h, from about 0.02 h to about 120 h, from about 0.02 h to about 144 h, from about 0.02 h to about 168 h, from about 0.05 h to about 0.1 h, from about 0.05 h to about 0.5 h, from about 0.05 h to about 1 h, from about 0.05 h to about 10 h, from about 0.05 h to about 24 h, from about 0.05 h to about 48 h, from about 0.05 h to about 72 h, from about 0.05 h to about 96 h, from about 0.05 h to about 100 h, from about 0.05 h to about 120 h, from about 0.05 h to about 144 h, from about 0.05 h to about 168 h, from about 0.1 h to about 0.5 h, from about 0.1 h to about 1 h, from about 0.1 h to about 10 h, from about 0.1 h to about 24 h, from about 0.1 h to about 48 h, from about 0.1 h to about 72 h, from about 0.1 h to about 96 h, from about 0.1 h to about 100 h, from about 0.1 h to about 120 h, from about 0.1 h to about 144 h, from about 0.1 h to about 168 h, from about 0.5 h to about 1 h, from about 0.5 h to about 10 h,from about 0.5 h to about 24 h, from about 0.5 h to about 48 h, from about 0.5 h to about 72 h, from about 0.5 h to about 96 h, from about 0.5 h to about 100 h, from about 0.5 h to about 120 h, from about 0.5 h to about 144 h, from about 0.5 h to about 168 h, from about 1 h to about 10 h, from about 1 h to about 24 h, from about 1 h to about 48 h, from about 1 h to about 72 h, from about 1 h to about 96 h, from about 1 h to about 100 h, from about 1 h to about 120 h, from about 1 h to about 144 h, from about 1 h to about 168 h, from about 10 h to about 24 h, from about 10 h to about 48 h, from about 10 h to about 72 h, from about 10 h to about 96 h, from about 10 h to about 100 h, from about 10 h to about 120 h, from about 10 h to about 144 h, from about 10 h to about 168 h, from about 24 h to about 48 h, from about 24 h to about 72 h, from about 24 h to about 96 h, from about 24 h to about 100 h, from about 24 h to about 120 h, from about 24 h to about 144 h, from about 24 h to about 168 h, from about 48 h to about 72 h, from about 48 h to about 96 h, from about 48 h to about 100 h, from about 48 h to about 120 h, from about 48 h to about 144 h, from about 48 h to about 168 h, from about 72 h to about 96 h, from about 72 h to about 100 h, from about 72 h to about 120 h, from about 72 h to about 144 h, from about 72 h to about 168 h, from about 96 h to about 100 h, from about 96 h to about 120 h, from about 96 h to about 144 h, from about 96 h to about 168 h, from about 100 h to about 120 h, from about 100 h to about 144 h, from about 100 h to about 168 h, from about 120 h to about 144 h, from about 120 h to about 168 h, or from about 144 h to about 168 h, including increments therein.

[0055] In some embodiments, a reduction in formation time of the energy device can be agnostic to an energy device chemistry and / or geometry of the energy device.

[0056] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device for accelerating the formation of the energy device can further result in a reduction of manufacturing cost of the energy device. In some embodiments, the reduction in manufacturing cost can be at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the reduction in manufacturing cost can be at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, when the at least one acoustic device is used, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the reduction in manufacturing cost of a plurality of energy device (e.g., a pack, a block, or a module of energy device) can be further reduced when the manufacturing throughput is increased.Performance Metrics

[0057] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device for accelerating the formation of the energy device can result in an improved performance of the energy device.

[0058] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise an improvement in initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the ICE can be improved by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0059] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a reduction in consumption of electrolyte during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the consumption of electrolyte can be reduced by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0060] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a reduction in gassing during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the gassing can be reduced by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0061] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise an improvement in reversible capacities as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the reversible capacities can be improved by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0062] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a higher output discharge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the output discharge voltage can be at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, atleast about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, higher as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0063] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a lower charge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the charge voltage can be at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, lower as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0064] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a higher energy efficiency as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the output energy efficiency can be at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, higher as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0065] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a higher energy density delivered during discharge as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the energy density delivered during discharge can be at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, higher as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0066] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise a reduction in bulk impedance as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the bulk impedance can be reduced by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0067] In some embodiments, the formation process can comprise resting (or aging) the energy device for a period of time (rest time). In some embodiments, resting can improve the wetting and / or filling of electrolyte in the electrodes and / or separator. In some embodiments, the resttime can range from about 1 hour to about 72 hours. In some embodiments, the rest time can range from about 6 hours to about 24 hours. In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device can permit a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device. In some embodiments, the rest time can be reduced by at least about 1%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0068] In some embodiments, the improved performance of the energy device can comprise an improvement in long term cycling stability as compared to when the acoustic device is not used. In some embodiments, the long term cycling stability can be improved by at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

[0069] In some embodiments, using the at least one acoustic device can permit a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a long-term cycling stability performance of the energy device.Acoustic Device

[0070] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides at least one acoustic device configured to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

[0071] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a system for forming an energy device, the system comprising at least one acoustic device configured to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

[0072] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be configured to accelerate the formation process. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be configured to optimize the formation process. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be configured to simplify the formation process. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be configured to make the formation process more efficient.

[0073] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be configured to facilitate the formation process of the energy device without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device. The acoustic device may be coupled to the energy device and apply acoustic waves that may penetrate the electrolyte to increase the kinetics of the interaction between the electrolyteand the electrodes. In some embodiments, the formation process of the energy device may be facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions within the energy device.

[0074] In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions may enable uniform reaction on an electrode surface. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions may enable uniform reaction at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions may enable formation of a robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device. In some embodiments, the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions may improve the formation rate of the interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device.

[0075] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may further result in an improved performance of the energy device, as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may permit a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device, as disclosed herein.

[0076] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may permit a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a long-term cycling stability performance of the energy device.

[0077] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be integrated onto an exterior and / or interior of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device may be integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device.

[0078] FIG. 1 illustrates an acoustic device 105 operably coupled to an energy device, in accordance with some embodiments. An acoustic device as described herein can refer to any apparatus, device, or system that is designed, configured, or used for transmitting acoustic waves into a device, e.g., an energy device 102.

[0079] In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be external to the energy device. The acoustic device 105 can be in communication with the energy device 102, as illustrated in FIG. 2A. In some embodiments, a plurality of acoustic devices may be in communication with the energy device. In some embodiments, an acoustic module (e.g., 104) can comprise an acoustic device 105 and a controller 106. The controller can be in electronic communication with the acoustic device. The controller can modulate or control the output of the acoustic device, such as generated acoustic waves. The controller can manipulate a generated frequency, power, attenuation length, and / or other parameters of the acoustic waves. The controller can simultaneously control the outputs of multiple acoustic devices within the acoustic module.

[0080] In some embodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 2B, a housing 120 of the acoustic device 105 can enclose an acoustic wave generator 110. In some embodiments, the housing can be made of a material that allows acoustic waves from the acoustic wave generator to transmit through. In some embodiments, the housing can enable safe storage of the acoustic wave generator, which, in turn, makes the acoustic device portable. In some embodiments, the housing can provide separation between the acoustic wave generator and the controller. In some embodiments, the housing can propagate the generated waves from the acoustic wave generator outward from the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the housing can interface with the energy device via an external surface of the energy device. In some embodiments, the housing can be open at one end. In some embodiments, the open end may be coupled to the energy device. In some embodiments, when the open end is coupled to the energy device, the acoustic waves, e.g., surface acoustic waves, may directly propagate into the energy device. In some embodiments, the housing can be closed at the one end such that the housing wholly encloses the acoustic device.

[0081] In some embodiments, the acoustic wave generator can comprise a piezoelectric material. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric material can include lithium niobate (LiNbCh), lithium titanate (Li2TiOs), barium titanate (BaTiCh), lead zirconate titanate (Pb(ZrxTii-x)O3 wherein (0<x<l)), quartz, aluminum nitride (AIN), langasite, lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead-free potassium sodium niobate (Ko.sNao.sNbCh or KNN), a doped derivative of lead-free potassium sodium niobate, and / or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).

[0082] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device can be integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic device may be coupled to an energy device having any form factor. In some embodiments, the energy device can have a form factor of cylindrical, prismatic, or pouch. In some embodiments, the energy device may be configured to adapt to the shape, contours, and / or surface features of its surroundings. The orientation, location, number, and / or operation frequency of the acoustic device may be adjusted accordingly relative to the energy device in order to effectively agitate electrolyte over the energy device and / or electrodes, regardless of the form factor of the energy device. The acoustic device may be integrated into various types of energy devices in a variety of different manner. For example, for a pouch cell, the acoustic device may be attached onto any surface of the pouch cell. For a cylindrical cell, the acoustic device may be positioned at the bottom and / or top flat surfaces, or along the edges of the cylinder rolls. For a coin cell, the acoustic device may be positioned onto the flat surfaces or the edge of the round shape of the coin cell. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be assembled, mounted, or integrated adjacent to the energy device in a number of configurations. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be mounted relative to a center (e.g., centered or offset from the center) of the energydevice. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be mounted adjacent to an edge of the energy device, such that the acoustic device is offset from the center of the energy device.

[0083] In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be coupled to an interior or internal surface of the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be disposed at various locations at the interior of the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can be positioned relative to an electrode gap or direction of cation flow within the energy device. For example, the acoustic device can be placed with respect to a central axis or plane of the energy device. The axes or planes can correspond to a direction of flow of the mobile species (e.g., cations or ions) of the energy device. The acoustic waves can be streamed in a direction substantially parallel, antiparallel, orthogonal, or a combination thereof, to the electrode gap or the direction of flow of the mobile species.

[0084] In some embodiments, multiple acoustic devices can be integrated into an acoustic module. In some embodiments, multiple acoustic devices can be coupled to (e.g., mounted to) an energy device. In some embodiments, each of the multiple acoustic devices can be mounted onto an external surface of the energy device. In some embodiments, each of the multiple acoustic devices may be mounted onto one external surface of the energy device. In some embodiments, the multiple acoustic devices can be mounted onto the external surface such that the multiple acoustic devices can interface with at least two external surfaces of the energy device. In some embodiments, the at least two external surfaces can be parallel to each other. In some embodiments, the at least two external surfaces can be opposite to one another. In some embodiments, the at least two external surfaces can be orthogonal to one another.

[0085] In some embodiments, the external surface can be planar or non-planar. In some embodiments, the energy device can be a cylindrical device and the acoustic device can be mounted over the rounded surface. In some embodiments, the external surface can be the largest surface of the energy device. In some embodiments, the external surface can be the smallest surface of the energy device.

[0086] In some embodiments, the acoustic device disposed at, mounted to, or coupled to an external surface of the energy device has more flexibility in the design of the acoustic device in terms of the size, shape, contours, and / or surface features.

[0087] In some embodiments, the acoustic device configured for use externally to an energy device can enable the acoustic device to be easily integrated with and / or decoupled from the energy device. This may also enable repeated use of the acoustic device for multiple cells during the formation process. During the production or formation process of the energy device, an acoustic device can be coupled to the energy device to transmit acoustic waves to the energydevice. The acoustic waves can facilitate the filling and wetting of electrolyte to the electrodes and / or separator of the energy device.

[0088] In some embodiments, the at least one acoustic device can be reusable for facilitating a formation process of a plurality of energy devices. After the formation process is complete, the acoustic device can be de-coupled from the energy device and couple to another energy device for the subsequent filling and wetting of electrolyte to the electrodes and / or separator. This process can be repeated for a plurality of energy devices.

[0089] In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices can comprise two or more different types of energy devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy devices can comprise two or more energy devices that are of a same or different type.

[0090] In some embodiments, the acoustic device may not be de-coupled from the energy device so it can continue provide acoustic waves to the energy device during the usage of the energy device. The acoustic device as described herein can extend energy device life and improve the performance in several ways. First, the acoustic device can suppress Li ion concentration gradient (i) in a bulk electrolyte and / or (ii) in pores of at least one electrode of the energy device. The acoustic device, via generated acoustic waves, can suppress counter anion concentration gradient (i) in a bulk electrolyte and / or (ii) in pores of at least one electrode of the energy device. Furthermore, the acoustic device can facilitate (i) Li ion diffusivity in a bulk electrolyte, (ii) at an electrolyte and electrode interphase, and / or (iii) in an electrode of the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can suppress dendritic Li formation and promote dense large Li particle formation in the energy device (e.g., LMBs) via the generated acoustic waves. In some embodiments, the acoustic device can also promote Li transport into an anode material of the energy device (e.g., LIBs). In some embodiments, the acoustic device can mitigate volume swelling or expansion of a cell in the energy device as the energy device undergoes multiple charge cycles.

[0091] As illustrated in FIG. 2C, an energy device can comprise a plurality of electrodes, such as a cathode and an anode, and an electrode gap comprising electrolytes interspaced between the plurality of electrodes. During a charging event, ions, e.g., Li ions are mobilized and travel from one electrode (e.g., the cathode) to the other electrode (e.g., the anode). As illustrated in FIG. 2D, under fast charging or over many cycles of charge and discharge, an inhomogeneous ion, e.g., Li ion concentration can develop across the electrode gap. Overtime, as illustrated in FIG. 2D, deposited ions, e.g., lithium ions form dendrites across the electrode gap, resulting in a porous anode (i.e., Li ions can be redistributed from the electrodes into the bulk as protrusions, e.g., dendrimers). In some cases, the deposited lithium dendrites may establish a channel between the plurality of electrodes, resulting in a short-circuit event. Additionally, over multiplecycles of charge and discharge, a thick solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) may form over the anode, preventing efficient Li ion transport across the electrodes.

[0092] By contrast, integrating the acoustic modules as described herein (e.g., in FIG. 2E), may eliminate, reduce or modulate the formation of lithium deposits, e.g., dendrites, throughout the electrode gap. For example, the surface acoustic waves (SAWs) from the acoustic module, e.g., 211, induce a fluid flow across the electrode gap, resulting in a homogeneous lithium-ion concentration throughout the electrode gap. By comparison, under fast charging or over many cycles of charge and discharge, the energy device with the acoustic module, as in FIG. 2E, exhibits little to no lithium dendrite formation and maintains a thin, dense, and robust SEI over the anode.

[0093] In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be substantially continuous. In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be substantially non- continuous. In some embodiments, a network of acoustic devices can be coupled to a plurality of energy devices for mass production of the energy devices.

[0094] In some embodiments, a plurality of acoustic devices can be used to generate acoustic waves in a plurality of directions (e.g., substantially parallel and / or substantially orthogonal to the direction of Li ion migration).

[0095] In some embodiments, one or more coupling agents can be used to secure the acoustic device to the energy device. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can establish a connection between the housing of the acoustic device and the energy device. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can be a chemical agent. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can comprise a liquid, a gel or a paste. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can be moderately viscous and nontoxic. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can comprise silicone grease. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave may be coupled through an ultrasound gel into the energy device, generating acoustic streaming inside the energy device. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can be a physical mechanism, e.g., magnetic coupling or mechanical coupling, e.g., by compression. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can partially or entirely fill a gap between the energy device and the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the coupling agent can be aligned with the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the coupling agent may not be aligned to the acoustic device.

[0096] In some embodiments, each of the energy device, acoustic device, and coupling agent (when present) can comprise a plurality of dimensions, such as a length, a width (e.g., a thickness), and a height. In some embodiments, each of the dimensions of the energy device, acoustic device, and coupling agent (when present) can be the same. In some cases, the dimensions of at least two of the energy device, acoustic device, and coupling agent can bedifferent. In some cases, each of the dimensions of the energy device, acoustic device, and coupling agent can be different.

[0097] In some embodiments, the acoustic device can comprise a transducer configured to isolate the acoustic waves to a surface of the energy device, increase maximum vibrational amplitude for a given voltage signal, and / or generate a large vibrational amplitude at a relatively low frequency. In some embodiments, the transducer is configured to occupy minimal lateral space on the electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the transducer comprises a conductive material. In some embodiments, the transducer comprises a metal selected from the group consisting of titanium, aluminum, copper, chromium, gold, nickel, and / or tin. In some embodiments, the transducer is patterned onto a substrate to form an acoustic device for various applications. In some embodiments, the transducer is selected from the group consisting of interdigital transducer, thickness mode transducer, and lamb wave transducer. In some embodiments, the interdigital transducer comprises a straight finger interdigital transducer (SIDT) or a focused interdigital transducer (FIDT). In some embodiments, the transducer can be deposited on the substrate.Acoustic Waves

[0098] The acoustic device, disclosed herein, can emit tunable acoustic waves (e.g., specifically tuned acoustic waves) which can create microscale or nanoscale acoustofluidics in a mobile species of the energy device (e.g., micro-stirring effect). The acoustic waves can have a direct influence on the performance of energy devices. The micro-stirring effect by the acoustic waves can enhance the mobility and movement of the mobile species. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can lead to an even distribution of the mobile species, optimize the concentration gradient, and improve electrode surface potential. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can enhance electrochemical reaction kinetics, ensuring that the reactions occur at the most optimal rate. The acoustic device can be tuned to emit acoustic waves of specific frequencies, amplitudes, and durations, making it adaptable to different energy device types and sizes.

[0099] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can propagate (e.g., stream) in a plurality of directions. Within an energy device, the acoustic waves may propagate along one axis, two axes, or three axes of the energy device. For example, if the energy device comprises a pair of electrodes configured to charge or discharge, the acoustic waves may be propagated coaxially, parallel, antiparallel, orthogonal, or a combination thereof, to the direction of cation (e.g., Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Zn2+) flow. Cations can flow along a length (e.g., a y-axis) of the energy device, such as along an electrode gap in the energy device. The direction of cation flow may be parallel to or orthogonal to the direction of the acoustic waves.

[0100] In some embodiments, the energy of the acoustic waves may induce acoustic streaming in the energy device. In some embodiments, acoustic streaming may be a non-laminar and / or turbulent fluid flow, which may maximize the agitation of the electrolyte and / or the homogenization of the distribution of the cations in the electrolyte. In some embodiments, acoustic streaming may result from interplay between variations in a density of the electrolyte and variations in a velocity of the electrolyte. In some embodiments, a frequency of the acoustic waves, an amplitude of the acoustic waves, and / or the viscosity of the electrolyte may determine whether the acoustic waves are able to induce acoustic streaming in the electrolyte. In some embodiments, acoustic streaming may be achieved at lower frequencies of the acoustic waves, for example, when the viscosity of the electrolyte is between a certain range. For example, acoustic streaming may be induced in water, which may have a viscosity of 0.890 centipoise at 25 °C, when the frequency of the acoustic waves exceeds 1 megahertz (1 MHz).

[0101] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves generated by the acoustic device can reduce a bulk impedance of the energy device by promoting mobility, availability or uniformity in distribution of mobile species within the energy device. In some embodiments, the bulk impedance of the energy device can be reduced by at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, or more compared to another energy device that is operated without the acoustic waves.

[0102] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can facilitate or increase mass transport of the mobile species within the energy device. In some embodiments, the mass transport rate of mobile species in the energy device can be increased by at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, compared to another energy device that is operated without the acoustic waves.

[0103] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can enhance a kinetic rate of reactions within the energy device. In some embodiments, the kinetic rate of reactions within the energy device can be increased by at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 100%, or more, including increments therein, compared to another energy device that is operated without the acoustic waves.

[0104] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves generated by the acoustic device can comprise at least one of the following: at least one of the following: surface acoustic waves (SAW),Rayleigh wave, Lamb waves, Love waves, flexural waves, standing waves, mixed-mode waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves, shear mode vibrations, thickness mode vibrations, bulk acoustic waves (B AW), bulk wave vibrations, ultrasound waves, infrasound waves, or any combination(s) thereof. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can have one or more waveforms selected from the group consisting of continuous sine wave, square wave, and triangular wave.

[0105] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves generated by the acoustic device may propagate through an electrolyte filling the interior of the energy device. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves may agitate the electrolyte, thereby homogenizing the distribution of mobile species, e.g., cations or anions, in the electrolyte during the charging of the energy device. Homogenizing the distribution of the mobile species in the electrolyte may decrease the concentration gradient of the mobile species in the electrolyte such that the mobile species are distributed more evenly throughout the electrolyte. The homogenization of the distribution of the mobile species may increase the uniformity of the deposits of the mobile species on at least one of the electrodes.

[0106] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can be customized or tuned based at least in part on a type, capacity, function, shape, size, form factor and / or operating conditions of the energy device.

[0107] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can have a frequency ranging from 10 hertz (Hz) to 500 megahertz (MHz). In some embodiments, the frequency of the acoustic waves can range from about 10 Hz to about 100 Hz, from about 10 Hz to about 1 kilohertz (kHz), from about 10 Hz to about 10 kHz, from about 10 Hz to about 100 kHz, from about 10 Hz to about 1 MHz, from about 10 Hz to about 100 MHz, from about 10 Hz to about 500 MHz, from about 100 Hz to about 1 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 10 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 100 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 1 MHz, from about 100 Hz to about 100 MHz, from about 100 Hz to about 500 MHz, from about 1 kHz to about 10 kHz, from about 1 kHz to about 100 kHz, from about 1 kHz to about 1 MHz, from about 1 kHz to about 100 MHz, from about 1 kHz to about 500 MHz, from about 10 kHz to about 100 kHz, from about 10 kHz to about 1 MHz, from about 10 kHz to about 100 MHz, from about 10 kHz to about 500 MHz, from about 100 kHz to about 1 MHz, from about 100 kHz to about 100 MHz, from about 100 kHz to about 500 MHz, from about 1 MHz to about 100 MHz, from about 1 MHz to about 500 MHz, or from about 100 MHz to about 500 MHz, including increments therein. The frequency (fs) of the generated acoustic waves may be selected based on a desired length of the acoustic waves, as determined by the equation:wherein cscorresponds to the speed of light traveling through the medium (e.g., an electrode or an electrolyte of the energy device, or other components of the present disclosure) and XAW corresponds to a wavelength of the acoustic waves.

[0108] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can have a power ranging from 0.1 milliwatts (mW) to 500 megawatts (MW). In some embodiments, the power of the generated acoustic waves can range from about 0.1 mW to about 1 mW, from about 0.1 mW to about 1 W, from about 0.1 mW to about 10 W, from about 0.1 mW to about 100 W, from about 0.1 mW to about 1 kilowatt (kW), from about 0.1 mW to about 10 kW, from about 0.1 mW to about 100 kW, from about 0.1 mW to about 1 MW, from about 1 mW to about 1 W, from about 1 mW to about 10 W, from about 1 mW to about 100 W, from about 1 mW to about 1 kW, from about 1 mW to about 10 kW, from about 1 mW to about 100 kW, from about 1 mW to about 1 MW, from about 1 W to about 10 W, from about 1 W to about 100 W, from about 1 W to about 1 kW, from about 1 W to about 10 kW, from about 1 W to about 100 kW, from about 1 W to about 1 MW, from about 10 W to about 100 W, from about 10 W to about 1 kW, from about 10 W to about 10 kW, from about 10 W to about 100 kW, from about 10 W to about 1 MW, from about 100 W to about 1 kW, from about 100 W to about 10 kW, from about 100 W to about 100 kW, from about 100 W to about 1 MW, from about 1 kW to about 10 kW, from about 1 kW to about 100 kW, from about 1 kW to about 1 MW, from about 10 kW to about 100 kW, from about 10 kW to about 1 MW, or from about 100 kW to about 1 MW, including increments therein.

[0109] In some embodiments, the power of the generated acoustic waves can prevent the formation of metal deposits (e.g., Li deposits) without structurally perturbing the components within the energy device.

[0110] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves have one or more waveforms selected from the group consisting of a continuous sine wave, square wave, and triangular wave.[OHl] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves are generated with on / off pulsing ranging from 0% to 100%. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves are generated with on / off pulsing ranging from about 0% to about 10%, from about 0% to about 20%, from about 0% to about 30%, from about 0% to about 40%, from about 0% to about 50%, from about 0% to about 60%, from about 0% to about 70%, from about 0% to about 80%, from about 0% to about 90%, from about 0% to about 100%, from about 10% to about 20%, from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 40%, from about 10% to about 50%, from about 10% to about 60%, from about 10% to about 70%, from about 10% to about 80%, from about 10% to about 90%, from about 10% to about 100%, from about 20% to about 30%, from about 20% to about 40%, fromabout 20% to about 50%, from about 20% to about 60%, from about 20% to about 70%, from about 20% to about 80%, from about 20% to about 90%, from about 20% to about 100%, from about 30% to about 40%, from about 30% to about 50%, from about 30% to about 60%, from about 30% to about 70%, from about 30% to about 80%, from about 30% to about 90%, from about 30% to about 100%, from about 40% to about 50%, from about 40% to about 60%, from about 40% to about 70%, from about 40% to about 80%, from about 40% to about 90%, from about 40% to about 100%, from about 50% to about 60%, from about 50% to about 70%, from about 50% to about 80%, from about 50% to about 90%, from about 50% to about 100%, from about 60% to about 70%, from about 60% to about 80%, from about 60% to about 90%, from about 60% to about 100%, from about 70% to about 80%, from about 70% to about 90%, from about 70% to about 100%, from about 80% to about 90%, from about 80% to about 100%, or from about 90% to about 100%, including increments therein.

[0112] In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can be generated with a timescale period ranging from about 1 microsecond (ps) to about 1 millisecond (ms). In some embodiments, the timescale period can range from about 1 ps to about 10 ps, from about 1 ps to about 50 ps, from about 1 ps to about 100 ps, from about 1 ps to about 250 ps, from about 1 ps to about 500 ps, from about 1 ps to about 750 ps, from about 1 ps to about 1 ms, from about 10 ps to about 50 ps, from about 10 ps to about 100 ps, from about 10 ps to about 250 ps, from about 10 ps to about 500 ps, from about 10 ps to about 750 ps, from about 10 ps to about 1 ms, from about 50 ps to about 100 ps, from about 50 ps to about 250 ps, from about 50 ps to about 500 ps, from about 50 ps to about 750 ps, from about 50 ps to about 1 ms , from about 100 ps to about 250 ps, from about 100 ps to about 500 ps, from about 100 ps to about 750 ps, from about 100 ps to about 1 ms, from about 250 ps to about 500 ps, from about 250 ps to about 750 ps, from about 250 ps to about 1 ms, from about 500 ps to about 750 ps, from about 500 ps to about 1 ms, or from about 750 ps to about 1 ms. In some embodiments, the timescale period can be about 1 ps, about 10 ps, about 50 ps, about 100 ps, about 250 ps, about 500 ps, about 750 ps, or about 1 ms, including increments therein.Energy Device

[0113] In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise one or more electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells can comprise one or more different cell chemistries. In some embodiments, the formation of the energy device can be accelerated, observable or achievable for the one or more electrochemical cells having the one or more different cell chemistries.

[0114] In some embodiments, the energy device of the present disclosure can comprise a solid- state or semi-solid-state battery, a fuel cell, an electrolyzer, a capacitor, a supercapacitor, a flow battery, or a metal-air battery. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise at least one, at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least 20, at least 30, at least 40, at least 50, at least 60, at least 70, at least 80, at least 90, at least 100, including increments therein, or more electrochemical cells.

[0115] In some embodiments, the energy device can have form factors comprising coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, or prismatic cells. In some embodiments, the energy device can be regularly shaped. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise an irregular shape or a customed shape. In some embodiments, the irregularly shaped cells can comprise polygonal shaped cells (e.g., FIG. 3L), triangular shaped cells (e.g., FIG. 3K), rectangular cells (e.g., FIG. 3D and FIG. 3E), pentagonal cells, hexagonal cells (e.g., FIG. 31), and the like. Irregularly- shaped cells can include L-shaped cells (e.g., FIG. 3J), curved cells (e.g., FIG. 3F), round Lipo cells (e.g., FIG. 3C), or C-shaped cells (e.g., FIG. 3H). Other irregularly-shaped cells can include ultranarrow cells (e.g., FIG. 3G), ultrathin cells (e.g., FIG. 3E), D-shaped cells (e.g., FIG. 3B), and the like. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise a plurality of cells with different shapes (e.g., FIG. 3A).

[0116] In some embodiments, an energy device with the acoustic module or acoustic device of the present disclosure may comprise an energy density of at least about 50 Wh / kg, at least about 100 Wh / kg, at least about 150 Wh / kg, at least about 200 Wh / kg, at least about 250 Wh / kg, at least about 300 Wh / kg, at least about 350 Wh / kg, at least about 400 Wh / kg, at least about 450 Wh / kg, at least about 500 Wh / kg, at least about 550 Wh / kg, or at least about 600 Wh / kg. The energy device with the acoustic module or acoustic device of the present disclosure may comprise an energy density of at least about 50 Wh / kg to about 100 Wh / kg, about 150 Wh / kg to about 200 Wh / kg, about 250 Wh / kg to about 300 Wh / kg, about 350 Wh / kg to about 400 Wh / kg, about 450 Wh / kg to about 500 Wh / kg, or about 550 Wh / kg to about 600 Wh / kg, including increments therein. The energy device with the acoustic module or acoustic device of the present disclosure may store at least about 50 Wh / kg, at least about 100 Wh / kg, at least about 150 Wh / kg, at least about 200 Wh / kg, at least about 250 Wh / kg, or at least about 300 Wh / kg, including increments therein, more energy than an energy device without the acoustic module or acoustic device.

[0117] In some embodiments, an energy device can have a capacity ranging from 1 pWh to 1 MWh. In some embodiments, the energy device can have a capacity ranging from about 1 pWh to about 1 MWh, about 5 pWh to about 1 MWh, from about 10 pWh to about 500 kWh, from about 20 pWh to about 250 kWh, from about 50 pWh to about 100 kWh, from about 100 pWh toabout 75 kWh, from about 250 pWh to about 50 kWh, from about 500 pWh to about 25 kWh, from about 750 pWh to about 10 kWh, from about 1 mWh to about 1 kWh, from about 25 mWh to about 750 Wh, from about 50 mWh to about 500 Wh, from about 75 mWh to about 250 Wh, from about 100 mWh to about 100 Wh, about 200 mWh to about 75 Wh, from about 500 mWh to about 50 Wh, or from about 1000 mWh to about 25 Wh, or from about 5000 mWh to about 10 Wh, including increments therein. In some embodiments, the energy device can have a capacity of at least about 50 mWh, at least about 100 mWh, at least about 250 mWh, at least about 500 mWh, at least about 1000 mWh, at least about 2000 mWh, at least about 5000 mWh, at least about 7500 mWh, at least about 10 Wh, at least about 20 Wh, at least about 50 Wh, at least about 100 Wh, at least about 250 Wh, or at least about 500 Wh, including increments therein. In some embodiments, the energy device can have a capacity of at most about 1 MWh, at most about 500 kWh, at most about 250 kWh, at most about 100 kWh, at most about 75 kWh, at most about 50 kWh, at most about 25 kWh, at most about 10 kWh, at most about 1 kWh, at most about 500 Wh, at most about 250 Wh, at most about 100 Wh, at most about 50 Wh, at most about 25 Wh, at most about 10 Wh, at most about 5 Wh, or at most about 1 Wh, including increments therein.

[0118] In some embodiments, the energy device can be any type of battery including, for example, a lithium (Li) battery, a sodium (Na) battery, a potassium (K) battery, a copper (Cu) battery, a zinc (Zn) battery, a magnesium (Mg) battery. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise a lithium metal battery, a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, or a magnesium metal battery. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise a lithium ion battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery.

[0119] In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells can comprise a lithium metal battery, a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, or a magnesium metal battery. In some embodiments, the one or more electrochemical cells can comprise a lithium ion battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery.

[0120] In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise at least two electrodes. In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise an anode and a cathode. In some embodiments, the anode and the cathode can be separated by an ionically conductive bridge.

[0121] In some embodiments, the cathode can comprise Li. In some embodiments, the cathode can comprise a material selected from the group consisting of LiFePCh; LiFexMnyPO4, wherein x + y = 1; LiM Ch; LiNio.5Mm.5O4; LiNixCoyMnzO2, wherein x + y + z = 1; LiCoO?;LiNixCoyAlzO2, wherein x + y + z = 1; and aLiNixCoyMnzO2-(l-a)Li2MnO3, wherein a is from 0 to 1 and x + y + z = l. In some embodiments, the cathode is Li -free. In some embodiments, thecathode can comprise a material selected from the group consisting of oxides, fluorides, oxyfluorides, sulfur-based materials, and gases.

[0122] In some embodiments, the cathode can be lithium containing intercalation chemistrybased or intercalation type-layered (e.g., involving transition metal oxides, transition metal phosphate, vanadium oxides, molybdenum oxides) for Li ion battery or Li metal battery. In some embodiments, the cathode can be sodium containing intercalation chemistry-based or intercalation type-layered (e.g., involving transition metal oxides, transition metal phosphate, iron hexacyanoferrate (prussian blue, prussian white), vanadium oxides, molybdenum oxides) for Na ion battery or Na metal battery. In some embodiments, the cathode can be potassium containing intercalation chemistry-based or intercalation type-layered (e.g., involving transition metal oxides, transition metal phosphate, iron hexacyanoferrate (prussian blue, prussian white), vanadium oxides, molybdenum oxides) for K ion battery or K metal battery. In some embodiments, the cathode can comprise a layered lithium intercalated transition metal oxides, lithium intercalated transition metal oxides, lithium intercalated phosphate, pre-lithiated sulfur, pre-lithiated multivalent metal fluorides, pre-lithiated multivalent metal sulfides, or pre-lithiated multivalent metal oxides. In some embodiments, the cathode can comprise a layered sodium intercalated transition metal oxide, sodium intercalated transition metal oxide, sodium intercalated phosphate, sodium intercalated iron hexacyanoferrate (prussian blue, prussian white), pre-sodiated sulfur, pre-sodiated multivalent metal fluorides, pre-sodiated multivalent metal sulfides, or pre-sodiated multivalent metal oxides. In some embodiments, the cathode can comprise a layered potassium intercalated transition metal oxide, potassium intercalated transition metal oxide, potassium intercalated phosphate, potassium intercalated iron hexacyanoferrate (prussian blue, prussian white), pre-potassiated sulfur, pre-potassiated multivalent metal fluorides, pre-potassiated multivalent metal sulfides, or pre-potassiated multivalent metal oxides. In some cases, the cathode can be selected from the group consisting of: Li?S; Li2S / C composite; lithiated sulfurized polyacrylonitrile; LiF / Fe composite; LiF / Co composite; LiF / Cu composite; LiF / Ni composite; LiF / Li2O / Fe composite; LiF / Li2O / Fe / Co composite; lithiated FeS2; lithiated FeS4; and lithiated FeSe.

[0123] In some instances, the anode can be made of an anode material capable of catalyzing a chemical reaction. In some embodiments, the anode can comprise an anode material, such as graphite, graphene, Al, Cu, Si, Sn, SiOx, SnOx, P, lithium titanium oxide (LTO), hard carbon, or soft carbon, or a combination thereof.

[0124] In some embodiments, the anode can comprise metal electrodes, for example, Li, Mg, Na, K, Zn, Al, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the anode can be a Li-containing material. In some embodiments, the Li-containing material can be Li metal foil, Li metal on Cufoil, Li metal on carbon substrate, Li metal on porous metal substrate, or Li metal on porous carbon substrate. In some embodiments, the anode can comprise one or more of the following materials: graphite, Li4Ti50i2, Si, Sn, P, hard carbon, soft carbon, Al, or combinations thereof, for use in a Li-ion battery. In some embodiments, the anode can comprise one or more of the following materials: Sn, P, hard carbon, soft carbon, or combinations thereof, for use in a Na-ion battery. In some embodiments, the anode can comprise one or more of the following materials: graphite, Sn, P, hard carbon, soft carbon, or combinations thereof, for use in a K-ion battery.

[0125] In some embodiments, the energy device can comprise an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can be a nonaqueous electrolyte, an aqueous electrolyte (e.g., a water in salt electrolyte), a semi-solid electrolyte, a liquified gas electrolyte, or a polymer or polymer gel electrolyte. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can be made of a material that enables cation transport between the electrodes of the energy device. When the energy device is coupled with the acoustic device of the present disclosure, the electrolyte can be perturbed by the generated acoustic waves. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can be a nonaqueous electrolyte, aqueous electrolyte, semi-solid electrolyte, liquified gas electrolyte, or polymer gel electrolyte. In some embodiments, the electrolyte material can be a porous material, such that cations or charge carriers can diffuse through the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the electrolyte material can be a porous material with an average pore diameter suitable for Li ion diffusion. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise a salt. In some embodiments, the salt can comprise a lithium salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise lithium salt containing water, carbonate solvents, ether solvents, ionic liquids, sulfone-based solvents, or phosphate-based solvents. In some embodiments, the lithium salt can comprise lithium carbonate, lithium sulfate, lithium perchlorate, lithium phosphate, lithium fluorophosphate, lithium nitrate, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the lithium salt can comprise LiPFe, LiFSI, LiSCh, LiClCh, or LiNCh. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be present at a concentration of more than about 1 mM, more than about 5 mM, more than about 10 mM, more than about 20 mM, more than about 50 mM, more than about 100 mM, more than about 1 M, more than about 2 M, more than about 3 M, more than about 4 M, more than about 5 M, more than about 6 M, more than about 7 M, more than about 8 M, more than about 9 M, more than about 10 M, more than about 15 M, more than about 20 M, including increments therein, or more. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be present at a concentration of at most about 20 M, at most about 15 M, at most about 10 M, at most about 9 M, at most about 8 M, at most about 7 M, at most about 6 M, at most about 5 M, at most about 4 M, at most about 3 M, at most about 2 M, at most about 1 M, or at most about 100 mM.

[0126] In some embodiments, the electrolyte material can be an aqueous electrolyte, such as an ionic liquid. In some embodiments, the ionic liquid can be a quaternary amine, such as imidazolium, NH4+, pyrrolidinium, or piperidinium. In some embodiments, a nonaqueous electrolyte may be present. In some embodiments, the nonaqueous electrolyte may comprise a carbonate, an ether, a phosphate, a sulfone, an ionic liquid, an amide, a ketone, an ester, an alcohol, an aromatic, or the like. In some embodiments, the carbonate may comprise ethylene carbonate (EC), ethylmethyl carbonate (EMC), propylene carbonate (PC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), or the like. In some embodiments, the ether may comprise diethyl ether (DEE), tetrahydrofuran (THF), dioxolane (DIOX), or the like. In some instances, the phosphate may comprise trimethyl phosphate (TMP), triethyl phosphate (TEP), triphenyl phosphate (TPP), or the like. In some embodiments, the sulfone may comprise sulfolane, 1,3-propane sulfone, or the like. In some embodiments, the ionic liquid may comprise an imidazolium-based salt, pyridinium-based salt, or the like. In some embodiments, the amide may comprise N,N- dimethylformamide (DMF), N-methylacetamide (NMA), or the like. In some embodiments, the ketone may be acetone, 2,3-butanedione, or the like. In some embodiments, the ester may be ethyl acetate, butyl acetate, or the like. In some embodiments, the alcohol may be methanol, ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, butanol, or the like. In some embodiments, the nonaqueous electrolyte may comprise an aromatic solvent, such as toluene, xylene, or the like. In some embodiments, the electrolyte material can comprise an electrolyte composition comprising at least two electrolytes. In some embodiments, a first electrolyte and a second electrolyte of the at least two electrolytes may be present in a ratio. In some embodiments, the ratio can be about 1 : 100, about 1 :50, about 1 :25, about 1 :20, about 1 : 10, about 1 :9, about 1 :8, about 1 :7, about 1 :6, about 1 :5, about 1 :4, about 1 :3, about 1 :2, about 1 : 1, about 2:3, about 2:5, about 2:7, about 2:9, about 3:5, about 3:7, about 3:8, about 4:5, about 4:7, about 4:9, or about 5:7. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition can comprise ethylene carbonate (EC) and ethylmethyl carbonate (EMC). In some embodiments, the ratio of EC to EMC can be about 1 : 1, about 1 :2, about 1 :3, about 1 :4, about 1 :5, about 2:3, about 2:5, about 3:5 or about 3:7.

[0127] In some embodiments, the energy device having the integrated acoustic device may be coupled with a controller configured to determine, based at least on a feedback signal, a morphology of an interior of the energy device; and control, based at least on the morphology, an operation of the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the controller can modulate the operation of the acoustic device, i.e., frequency, power, and / or on / off pulsing.

[0128] In some embodiments, provided herein is an energy system comprising the energy device and the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the energy system can comprise a sensor or detector to monitor one or more parameters of the energy device and a change of the one or moreparameters. In some embodiments, the one or more parameters may comprise a porosity of the electrode and / or capacitor, a capacity of the energy device, a bulk impedance of the energy device, an interface impedance of the energy device, or a thickness of interphase layers. In some embodiments, the sensor or detector can monitor the one or more parameters and / or a variance thereof of the energy device during and / or after a formation process. In some embodiments, the acoustic waves can interact with the energy device (e.g., electrodes) and generate a feedback signal. In some embodiments, the sensor or detector can generate a signal indicative of the one or more parameters of the energy device or the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the sensor or detector can send a signal to the acoustic device. In some embodiments, the feedback signal can be detected by a standalone sensor or detector. In some embodiments, based on the feedback signal, the acoustic device can modify one or more parameters of the acoustic waves (e.g., power, frequency, etc.) and / or operation parameters (e.g., temperature, duration, etc.).

[0129] Also provided herein are methods for assembling an energy system using the acoustic devices herein. A method can comprise providing at least one acoustic device. The at least one acoustic device can comprise an acoustic wave generator and a housing enclosing the acoustic wave generator. The method can involve operably coupling the at least one acoustic device to an energy device, thus forming or constructing the energy system. The housing of the at least one acoustic device can be attached to the external surface of the energy device. In some cases, the method can further comprise incorporating the energy system as described above into one or more products. In some cases, the method can comprise using at least one controller to control the acoustic wave generator. The controller enables control over the features of the acoustic waves to improve energy device performance for the one or more products.Computer Systems

[0130] The present disclosure provides computer systems that are programmed to implement methods of the disclosure. FIG. 7 shows a computer system 701 that is programmed or otherwise configured to control an output from a device, system, or apparatus according to the embodiments disclosed herein. For example, the computer system 701 may be configured to control an output from an acoustic device or an energy device as described herein. The computer system 701 can regulate various aspects of generating acoustic waves of the present disclosure, such as, for example, frequency, wavelength, amplitude or power, types of waveforms. The computer system 701 can be an electronic device of a user or a computer system that is remotely located with respect to the acoustic device or acoustic module according to the disclosure. The electronic device can be a mobile electronic device.

[0131] The computer system 701 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also “processor” and “computer processor” herein) 705, which can be a single core or multi core processor, or a plurality of processors for parallel processing. The computer system 701 also includes memory or memory location 710 (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit 715 (e.g., hard disk), communication interface 720 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 725, such as cache, other memory, data storage and / or electronic display adapters. The memory 710, storage unit 715, interface 720 and peripheral devices 725 are in communication with the CPU 705 through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 715 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer system 701 can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”) 730 with the aid of the communication interface 720. The network 730 can be the Internet, an internet and / or extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. The network 730 in some cases is a telecommunication and / or data network.

[0132] The network 730 can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network 730, in some cases with the aid of the computer system 701, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the computer system 701 to behave as a client or a server.

[0133] The CPU 705 can execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 710. The instructions can be directed to the CPU 705, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the CPU 705 to implement methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 705 can include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.

[0134] The CPU 705 can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the system 701 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0135] The storage unit 715 can store files, such as drivers, libraries and saved programs. The storage unit 715 can store user data, e.g., user preferences and user programs. The computer system 701 in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system 701, such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the computer system 701 through an intranet or the Internet.

[0136] The computer system 701 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network 730. For instance, the computer system 701 can communicate with a remote computer system of a user (e.g., personal health device, laptop, monitoring device, or anyother device commonly used by a health practitioner). Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC’s (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. The user can access the computer system 701 via the network 730.

[0137] Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system 701, such as, for example, on the memory 710 or electronic storage unit 715. The machine executable or machine-readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor 705. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit 715 and stored on the memory 710 for ready access by the processor 705. In some situations, the electronic storage unit 715 can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory 710.

[0138] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having a processer adapted to execute the code or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a pre-compiled or as- compiled fashion.

[0139] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as the computer system 701, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as “products” or “articles of manufacture” typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and / or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium.

[0140] Machine-executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such as memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. “Storage” type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like, also may be considered asmedia bearing the software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible “storage” media, terms such as computer or machine “readable medium” refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0141] Hence, a machine readable medium, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0142] The computer system 701 can include or be in communication with an electronic display 735 that comprises a user interface (UI) 740 for providing a display of operation parameters and measurements. Examples of UI’s include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface.

[0143] Methods and systems of the present disclosure can be implemented by way of one or more algorithms. An algorithm can be implemented by way of software upon execution by the central processing unit 705.EXAMPLESExample 1: Acoustic device assisted energy device formation

[0144] This example demonstrates the effects of acoustic devices in the formation process of an energy device.

[0145] A surface acoustic wave (SAW) device was placed underneath a 2 Ah pouch cell with Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide 532 (NCM532) cathode and graphite anode, as shownin FIG. 4A. The SAW device was configured to generate and transmit acoustic waves to the pouch cell. The electrochemical performance was measured.

[0146] The protocol for the cell formation is as following: 1) fill the electrolyte and rest for about 12 h; 2) charge to 3.0 V at 0.05 C; 3) charge to 3.9 V at 0.1 C; 4) rest for different time for formation; 5) charge to 4.2 V at 0.1 C; 6) discharge at 0.1 C to 2.5 V; 7) charge to 4.2 V at 0.1 C and then constant voltage charge until 0.05 C, then discharge at 0.1 C to 2.5 V; and 8) repeat with step 7) for following different cycles.

[0147] The same formation process but without a SAW device coupled to the pouch cell was also tested as a comparison (e.g., a control).

[0148] The formation process without step 4) was evaluated in the condition with SAW (“With SAW, no rest”) and without SAW (“No SAW, no rest”), respectively. The results are shown in FIG. 4B. The pouch cell formed with SAW (“With SAW, no rest”) exhibited a much higher capacity than the cell formed without SAW (“No SAW, no rest”), with about 11% increase during the initial 3 cycles.

[0149] The formation process with a 6 h rest time in step 4) was evaluated in the condition with SAW (“With SAW, rest 6 h”) and without SAW (“No SAW, rest 6 h”), respectively. The results are shown in FIG. 4C. The pouch cell formed with SAW (“With SAW, rest 6 h”) exhibited a much higher capacity than the cell formed without SAW (“No SAW, rest 6 h”), with about ~8% increase during the initial 3 cycles.

[0150] The formation process with a 24 h rest time in step 4) was evaluated in the condition with SAW (“With SAW, rest 24 h”) and without SAW (“No SAW, rest 24 h”), respectively. The results are shown in FIG. 4D. The pouch cell formed with SAW (“With SAW, rest 24 h”) exhibited a much higher capacity than the cell formed without SAW (“No SAW, rest 24 h”), with about ~8% increase during the initial 3 cycles.

[0151] FIG. 4E shows a summary of capacity ratio of pouch cells formed with different formation processes (e.g., FIGS. 4B-4D) as normalized by the capacity of pouch cells without SAW and with no rest time. For both conditions, i.e., with SAW and without SAW, the capacity of the cell increased when the rest time was increased. The increase of capacity of the pouch cell formed with SAW during the formation process is much higher than the capacity of the cell formed without SAW. The capacity of the cell formed without SAW but with 24 h rest was not as high as the capacity of the cell formed with SAW but no rest.

[0152] FIG. 4F shows the initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE) of the cells with different formation processes. High Coulombic efficiency is very important for the capacities delivered in the following cycles and cycling stability. As can be seen from FIG. 4F, the ICE exhibited an increase trend with SAW compared to the cells formed without SAW.

[0153] Those results show that acoustic waves accelerated the formation process of cells even without resting during the formation process.

[0154] FIG. 5A shows the 1stdischarge curves of pouch cells with different formation process at discharge rate of 0.1 C. The pouch cells formed with SAW (“With SAW no rest”, “With SAW rest 6 h”, and “With SAW rest 24 h”) exhibited more favorable kinetics due to the higher discharge voltage than pouch cells formed without SAW (“No SAW no rest”, “No SAW rest 6 h”, and “No SAW rest 24 h”), indicating lower overpotential and higher energy density of the pouch cells formed with SAW.

[0155] FIG. 5B shows the 2ndcharge curves of pouch cells with different formation process. The pouch cells formed with SAW (SAW no rest, SAW rest 6 h, and SAW rest 24 h) exhibited higher charge capacity and lower charge voltage than pouch cells formed without SAW (No SAW no rest, No SAW rest 6 h, and No SAW rest 24 h), indicating lower overpotential and higher energy efficiency of the pouch cells formed with SAW.

[0156] Further, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results of cells formed with different rest time, with or without SAW were measured. FIG. 6A represents the EIS after the 1stformation cycle, FIG. 6B represents the EIS after the 2ndformation cycle, and FIG. 6C represents the EIS after the 3rdformation cycle. The EIS curves had 2 semi-circuses; the first one located at lower Z’ was associated with resistance of SEI (Rsei), while the second one at higher Z’ region was related to resistance of charge transfer (Ret). After the 1stformation cycle (FIG. 6A), the 2ndformation cycle (FIG. 6B), and the 3rdformation cycle (FIG. 6C) of the formation process, the cell formed with SAW (“With SAW, rest 6 h”, and “With SAW, rest 24 h”) exhibited smaller Rsei and Ret compared to the cell formed without SAW (“No SAW, rest 6 h”, and “No SAW, rest 24 h”). During the same cycle, with the increase of rest time (e.g., from 6 h to 24 h), the Ret and Rsei did not change significantly in the cells formed with SAW. Those results indicate that acoustic waves can decrease the Rsei and improve the redox reaction kinetics.

[0157] Overall, acoustic waves can accelerate the formation of energy device and make the energy device exhibit much higher capacity and ICEs.Example 2: Acoustic device assisted energy device formation

[0158] This example shows the formation tests on 2 Ah lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC)-graphite pouch cells. Three different formation protocols were tested and compared. FIG. 8A illustrates the three different formation protocols. Protocol 1 (“No SAW 216 h”) comprised about 24 h of wetting at 25 °C, about 24 h of formation at 50 °C, and about 168 h of aging (or rest) at 50 °C, and during no acoustic waves were applied to the cell. Protocol 2 (“NoSAW 28 h”) comprised about 4 h of wetting at 25 °C and 24 h of formation at 25 °C, and no acoustic waves were applied to the cell. Protocol 3 (“With SAW 28 h”) comprised about 4 h of wetting at 25 °C and 24 h of formation at 25 °C, and during the formation, acoustic waves were applied to the cell. FIG. 8B illustrates the initial charge / discharge curves at 1C CCCV charge (alternating between constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) charging) and 1C discharge, between 2.5V-4.1 V. After formation, during the initial charge / discharge cycle, the cell formed with SAW (“With SAW 28 h”) exhibits more favorable electrochemical kinetics, lower overpotential, and higher capacity than the cells formed without SAW (“No SAW 216 h” and “No SAW 28 h”). FIG. 8C illustrates the long-term cycling performance of the three cells at 1C CCCV charge and 1C discharge. The cell formed with SAW maintained above 80% capacity for up to about 880 cycles. The cell formed with the 216 h formation protocol without SAW maintained above 80% capacity for about 770 cycles. The cell formed with the 28 h formation protocol without SAW maintained above 80% capacity for about 350 cycles. The cycle life of the battery can be further enhanced with SAW formation in 28 hours compared to the 216 hours formation protocol without SAW, and 2.6 times higher than the control 28 h formation protocol without SAW.

[0159] This example has demonstrated that SAW formation techniques can reduce the formation time by at least about 87% (216 h to 28 h) with the formation of cell with comparable or superior cell performance. FIG. 8D illustrates the estimated cost for battery (e.g., lithium-ion battery or LIBs) manufacturing with or without SAW. The whole battery manufacturing cost can be reduced by at least about 31%, which can be further decreased when the manufacturing throughput is increased.

[0160] While preferred embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described herein, such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions can occur without departing from the disclosure. It can be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present disclosure may be employed in practicing the present disclosure. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present disclosure and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A method for forming an energy device, the method comprising: using at least one acoustic device to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises accelerating the formation process.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises optimizing the formation process.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein facilitating the formation process of the energy device comprises simplifying the formation process or making the formation process more efficient.

5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the formation of the energy device is facilitated without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the formation process of the energy device is facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions within the energy device.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions enable (1) uniform reaction on an electrode surface, (2) uniform reaction at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases, and / or (3) formation of a robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device.

8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein a formation rate of the energy device is accelerated by at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

9. The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein an improvement in the formation of the energy device comprises a reduction in time needed to form homogenous or uniform stable interphase layers within the energy device, wherein the interphase layers comprise a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and a cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI).

10. The method of claim 9, wherein the reduction in time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

11. The method of any one of claims 1-10, wherein using the at least one acoustic device enables the energy device to be fully formed within a duration ranging from 0.02 hours to 168 hours.

12. The method of any one of claims 1-11, wherein a reduction in formation time of the energy device is agnostic to an electrochemical cell chemistry and / or geometry of the energy device.

13. The method of any one of claims 1-12, wherein using the at least one acoustic device for accelerating the formation of the energy device further results in an improved performance of the energy device.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

15. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in consumption of electrolyte during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

16. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in gassing during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

17. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in reversible capacities of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

18. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher output discharge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

19. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a lower charge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

20. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy efficiency as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

21. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy density delivered during discharge as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

22. The method of claim 13, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in bulk impedance of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

23. The method of any one of claims 1-22, wherein using the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device.

24. The method of any one of claims 1-23, wherein using the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a longterm cycling stability performance of the energy device.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein a reduction in the rest time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

26. The method of any one of claims 1-25, wherein the energy device comprises one or more electrochemical cells.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise one or more different cell chemistries, and wherein the formation of the energy device is accelerated, observable or achievable for the one or more electrochemical cells having the one or more different cell chemistries.

28. The method of claim 26, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a liquid electrolyte, polymer electrolyte, semi-solid state, or solid-state battery.

29. The method of claim 26, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a lithium metal battery, a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, a magnesium metal battery, a lithium ion battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery.

30. The method of any one of claims 1-29, wherein the acoustic waves comprise at least one of the following: surface acoustic waves (SAW), Rayleigh wave, Lamb waves, Love waves, flexural waves, standing waves, mixed-mode waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves,shear mode vibrations, bulk acoustic waves (B AW), bulk wave vibrations, ultrasound waves, infrasound waves, or any combination(s) thereof.

31. The method of any one of claims 1-30, wherein the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto an exterior and / or interior of the energy device.

32. The method of any one of claims 1-30, wherein the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device.

33. The method of any one of claims 1-32, wherein the energy device has different form factors comprising coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, prismatic cells, or cells having one or more irregular shapes.

34. The method of any one of claims 1-33, wherein the at least one acoustic device is reusable for facilitating a formation process of a plurality of energy devices.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more different types of energy devices.

36. The method of claim 34, wherein the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more energy devices that are of a same type.

37. A system for forming an energy device, the system comprising: at least one acoustic device configured to generate acoustic waves for facilitating a formation process of the energy device.

38. The system of claim 37, wherein the at least one acoustic device is configured to accelerate the formation process.

39. The system of claim 37, wherein the at least one acoustic device is configured to optimize the formation process.

40. The system of claim 37, wherein the at least one acoustic device is configured to simplify the formation process or make the formation process more efficient.

41. The system of any one of claims 37-40, wherein the at least one acoustic device is configured to facilitate the formation process of the energy device without requiring a change in materials, chemistries, temperature, pressure, or electrochemical protocols used in the formation process of the energy device.

42. The system of any one of claims 37-41, wherein the formation process of the energy device is facilitated based on improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of an electrolyte and / or ions within the energy device.

43. The system of claim 42, wherein the improved diffusion, improved distribution and / or reduced gradient of the electrolyte and / or ions enable (1) uniform reaction on an electrode surface, (2) uniform reaction at one or more electrode / electrolyte interphases, and / or (3) formation of a robust interphase layer on electrodes within the energy device.

44. The system of any one of claims 37-43, wherein a formation rate of the energy device is accelerated by at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

45. The system of any one of claims 37-44, wherein an improvement in the formation of the energy device comprises a reduction in time needed to form homogenous or uniform stable interphase layers within the energy device, wherein the interphase layers comprise a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and a cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI).

46. The system of claim 45, wherein the reduction in time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

47. The system of any one of claims 37-46, wherein the at least one acoustic device enables the energy device to be fully formed within a duration ranging from 0.02 hours to 168 hours.

48. The system of any one of claims 37-47, wherein a reduction in formation time of the energy device is agnostic to an electrochemical cell chemistry and / or geometry of the energy device.

49. The system of any one of claims 37-48, wherein the at least one acoustic device further results in an improved performance of the energy device.

50. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

51. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in consumption of electrolyte during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

52. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in gassing during the formation process as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

53. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises an improvement in reversible capacities of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

54. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher output discharge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

55. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a lower charge voltage as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

56. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy efficiency as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

57. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a higher energy density delivered during discharge as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

58. The system of claim 49, wherein the improved performance of the energy device comprises a reduction in bulk impedance of at least 0.1% as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

59. The system of any one of claims 37-58, wherein the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced, without substantially affecting a performance of the energy device.

60. The system of any one of claims 37-59, wherein the at least one acoustic device permits a rest time during the formation of the energy device to be reduced while improving a longterm cycling stability performance of the energy device.

61. The system of claim 60, wherein a reduction in the rest time is at least 1% when the at least one acoustic device is used as compared to when the acoustic device is not used.

62. The system of any one of claims 37-61, wherein the energy device comprises one or more electrochemical cells.

63. The system of claim 62, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise one or more different cell chemistries, and wherein the formation of the energy device is accelerated, observable or achievable for the one or more electrochemical cells having the one or more different cell chemistries.

64. The system of claim 62, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a liquid electrolyte, polymer electrolyte, semi-solid state, or solid-state battery.

65. The system of claim 62, wherein the one or more electrochemical cells comprise a lithium metal battery, a sodium metal battery, a potassium metal battery, a copper metal battery, a zinc metal battery, a magnesium metal battery, a lithium ion battery, a sodium ion battery, a potassium ion battery, a copper ion battery, a zinc ion battery, or a magnesium ion battery.

66. The system of any one of claims 37-65, wherein the acoustic waves comprise at least one of the following: surface acoustic waves (SAW), Rayleigh wave, Lamb waves, Love waves, flexural waves, standing waves, mixed-mode waves, longitudinal waves, transverse waves, shear mode vibrations, bulk acoustic waves (B AW), bulk wave vibrations, ultrasound waves, infrasound waves, or any combination(s) thereof.

67. The system of any one of claims 37-66, wherein the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto an exterior and / or interior of the energy device.

68. The system of any one of claims 37-66, wherein the at least one acoustic device is integrated onto one or more suitable or predefined locations on the energy device.

69. The system of any one of claims 37-68, wherein the energy device has different form factors comprising coin cells, pouch cells, cylindrical cells, prismatic cells, or cells having one or more irregular shapes.

70. The system of any of claims 37-69, wherein the at least one acoustic device is reusable for facilitating a formation process of a plurality of energy devices.

71. The system of claim 70, wherein the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more different types of energy devices.

72. The system of claim 71, wherein the plurality of energy devices comprises two or more energy devices that are of a same type.

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