Polymer microlattices for low-swelling, pressure-free lithium cells

Abstract

An electrode component, comprising: a current collector; a porous scaffold superposed over the current collector, the porous scaffold having a non-conductive surface that comprises (i) locations of comparatively higher affinity for lithium; and (ii) a plurality of fluorine-containing groups. A lithium power cell, comprising: an anode comprising an electrode component according to the present disclosure; an amount of lithium; a cathode; and optionally a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. A composition, comprising: a plurality of polymer chains, a polymer chain comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium and comprising pendant fluorine-containing groups.

Description

POLYMER MICROLATTICES FOR LOW-SWELLING, PRESSURE-FREE LITHIUM CELLSRELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] The present application claims priority to and the benefit of United States patent application no. 63 / 602,760, “Polymer Microlattices For Low-Swelling, Pressure- Free Lithium Cells,” filed November 27, 2023. All foregoing applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for any and all purposes.GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

[0002] This invention was made with government support under N00014-19-1- 2353 awarded by the United States Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention.TECHNICAL FIELD

[0003] The present disclosure relates to the field of lithium ion batteries.BACKGROUND

[0004] Automotive, consumer, and military applications require batteries that increase use time and range, reduce recharge time, and readily integrate into mass- manufactured battery packs. Cells with lithium (Li) metal anodes are an attractive battery design because they make efficient use of space and achieve -95% packaging efficiency, allow size and shape flexibility, and have high energy density (>500 Wh kg'1). Li metal anodes, however, have been difficult to incorporate into certain cell designs because the anodes suffer from dramatic thickness increases as they are cycled, which can lead to cell swelling of up to 220% by volume.

[0005] Although current Li metal cells incorporate alternative electrolytes, protective layers, and current collectors to prevent Li dendrite growth and stabilize the solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI), a high initial external pressure of 69 to 1,000 kPa is required to suppress cell swelling and maintain stable Li deposition. The cell swelling is reduced down to 39% but still far from commercial requirements (<10%). Swelling causes- 1 -4894-0062-6174.1serious safety issues, makes integration incompatible with most electric devices, and reduces the effective energy density and cycle life. Even low swelling (~5%) can lead to >1 MPa module pressures in automotive applications. Additionally, maintaining a high pressure is impractical in most applications, requires considerable extra mass and volume, and increases the complexity of cooling.

[0006] Porous Li deposition is intrinsically responsible for cell swelling (FIG.1 A). Li tends to nucleate randomly and grow granularly from seeds to particles during Li deposition. Plating Li through porous polymer, ceramic, and conductive scaffolds improves Li+flux homogeneity to prevent dendrites but fails to prevent mossy Li which requires control of the Li -electrolyte interfacial chemistry through the 3-D structure. The resulting electrodes need large amounts of excess Li and electrolyte to achieve good cycle performance, which is accompanied by a huge loss in volumetric capacity. Some have sought to use high pressures in scaffold-free anodes to prevent mossy Li and promote aligned Li growth, but voids in the electrode still form when Li particles merge, and those voids lead to non-uniform Li etching in subsequent Li dissolution and swelling during cycling. The issues are escalated in high-capacity and high-rate Li metal cells. New Li electrode approaches that provide control over interfacial chemistry while accommodating the extreme mechanics of Li plating and etching are required to break current technical bottlenecks for practical Li metal batteries.SUMMARY

[0007] Certain existing lithium (Li) metal cells require high external pressures of 69 to 1,000 kPa and have huge volume increases of 39 to 220% after cycling, which mitigate the benefits of lithium anodes. This disclosure provides swelling-free and pressure-free Li metal anodes by using polymer gyroid microlattices that enable 3D control of the molecular interaction between Li, polymer, and electrolyte. The polymer surface contains amine groups that accelerate Li-ion transport and preferentially seed Li at the polymer-Li-electrolyte interface, as well as sulfonyl fluoride groups that stabilize the Li surface by forming lithium fluoride. The chemical functionality and geometry combine to realize dense Li growth through complex 3D printed geometries and enable 100 pm of LiF movement across the Li surface. We discuss the mechanical, chemical, and geometric benefits of triply periodic minimal surface geometries. Unlike prior porous scaffolds that- 2 -4894-0062-6174.1promote homogenous Li+flux, this approach exploits heterogeneous electrochemistry to improve rate performance, regulate interfacial chemistry on a surface advancing through a 3D structure, and enable dense Li growth into complex 3D shapes.

[0008] In meeting the long-felt needs in the art, the present disclosure provides an electrode component, comprising: a current collector; a porous scaffold superposed over the current collector, the porous scaffold having a non -conductive surface that comprises (i) locations of comparatively higher affinity for lithium; and (ii) a plurality of fluorine-containing groups (which groups can be fluorine-donating groups).

[0009] Also provided is a lithium power cell, comprising: an anode comprising an electrode component according to the present disclosure (e.g., according to any one of Aspects 1-12); an amount of lithium; a cathode; and optionally a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. The lithium power cell can be essentially free of externally-applied mechanical pressure.

[0010] Further provided is a method, comprising charging a lithium power cell according to the present disclosure (e.g., according to Aspect 13).

[0011] Also disclosed is a method, comprising discharging a lithium power cell according to the present disclosure (e.g., according to Aspect 13).

[0012] Further disclosed is a composition, comprising: a plurality of polymer chains, a polymer chain comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium and comprising pendant fluorine-containing groups.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0013] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0014] In the drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, like numerals may describe similar components in different views. Like numerals having different letter suffixes may represent different instances of similar components. The drawings illustrate generally, by way of example, but not by way of limitation, various aspects discussed in the present document. In the drawings:

[0015] FIGs. 1A, IB, and 1C illustrate polymer-guided Li deposition flow in an example 3D printed gyroid lattice. (FIG. 1 A) During Li deposition, the growth and- 3 -4894-0062-6174.1merging of Li particles generate voids even under a pressure of 69-1,000 kPa, causing cell swelling of 39-220%. (FIG. IB) Dense and passivated Li deposition flow in polymer gyroid lattices. The polymer can include not only amine groups to accelerate Li+transport at the polymer-Li-electrolyte interface but sulfonyl fluoride to passivate Li surface in the gyroid microchannels. This geometric and chemical control enables stable and swelling- free Li deposition. (FIG. 1C) Scheme of 3D printing polymer gyroid. A synthetic liquid resin was used and -SOF2 groups were modified on the surface of polymer gyroid after stereolithography appearance.

[0016] FIG. 2 provides a geometric comparison of gyroid, hexagonal, and Kelvin cell microlattices with 75% porosity. The gyroid geometry has a comparatively high Li volume fraction, and a comparatively high Li -polymer contact area.

[0017] FIGs. 3A - 3C provide an example synthetic route of the functional polymer. (FIG. 3 A), Synthetic scheme of liquid resin molecules. (FIG. 3B) The UV- induced polymerization process of stereolithography lattice printing. (FIG. 3C) Scheme of surface modification of the polymer gyroid with -SO2F groups.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

[0018] The present disclosure may be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of desired embodiments and the examples included therein.

[0019] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. In case of conflict, the present document, including definitions, will control. Preferred methods and materials are described below, although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in practice or testing. All publications, patent applications, patents and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. The materials, methods, and examples disclosed herein are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

[0020] The singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0021] As used in the specification and in the claims, the term "comprising" can include the embodiments "consisting of' and "consisting essentially of.” The terms- 4 -4894-0062-6174.1“comprise(s),” “include(s),” “having,” “has,” “can,” “contain(s),” and variants thereof, as used herein, are intended to be open-ended transitional phrases, terms, or words that require the presence of the named ingredients / steps and permit the presence of other ingredients / steps. However, such description should be construed as also describing compositions or processes as "consisting of' and "consisting essentially of the enumerated ingredients / steps, which allows the presence of only the named ingredients / steps, along with any impurities that might result therefrom, and excludes other ingredients / steps.

[0022] As used herein, the terms “about” and “at or about” mean that the amount or value in question can be the value designated some other value approximately or about the same. It is generally understood, as used herein, that it is the nominal value indicated ±10% variation unless otherwise indicated or inferred. The term is intended to convey that similar values promote equivalent results or effects recited in the claims. That is, it is understood that amounts, sizes, formulations, parameters, and other quantities and characteristics are not and need not be exact, but can be approximate and / or larger or smaller, as desired, reflecting tolerances, conversion factors, rounding off, measurement error and the like, and other factors known to those of skill in the art. In general, an amount, size, formulation, parameter or other quantity or characteristic is “about” or “approximate” whether or not expressly stated to be such. It is understood that where “about” is used before a quantitative value, the parameter

[0023] Unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical values should be understood to include numerical values which are the same when reduced to the same number of significant figures and numerical values which differ from the stated value by less than the experimental error of conventional measurement technique of the type described in the present application to determine the value.

[0024] All ranges disclosed herein are inclusive of the recited endpoint and independently of the endpoints. The endpoints of the ranges and any values disclosed herein are not limited to the precise range or value; they are sufficiently imprecise to include values approximating these ranges and / or values.

[0025] As used herein, approximating language can be applied to modify any quantitative representation that can vary without resulting in a change in the basic function to which it is related. Accordingly, a value modified by a term or terms, such as “about”- 5 -4894-0062-6174.1and “substantially,” may not be limited to the precise value specified, in some cases. In at least some instances, the approximating language can correspond to the precision of an instrument for measuring the value. The modifier “about” should also be considered as disclosing the range defined by the absolute values of the two endpoints. For example, the expression “from about 2 to about 4” also discloses the range “from 2 to 4.” The term “about” can refer to plus or minus 10% of the indicated number. For example, “about 10%” can indicate a range of 9% to 11%, and “about 1” can mean from 0.9-1.1. Other meanings of “about” can be apparent from the context, such as rounding off, so, for example “about 1” can also mean from 0.5 to 1.4. Further, the term “comprising” should be understood as having its open-ended meaning of “including,” but the term also includes the closed meaning of the term “consisting.” For example, a composition that comprises components A and B can be a composition that includes A, B, and other components, but can also be a composition made of A and B only. Any documents cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for any and all purposes.

[0026] Exemplary, Non-Limiting Polymer-guided Li deposition

[0027] In an example, non-limiting demonstration of the disclosed technology, polymer gyroids were printed as scaffolds for Li deposition and cycling (FIG. 1C). We synthesized glycidyl methacrylate-modified polyethylenimine as a liquid resin and then 3D printed the gyroid structure on Cu foil. A liquid-solid reaction then chemically attached the -SO2F groups to the surface of the printed gyroids.

[0028] Liquid resin for 3D printing was synthesized by stirring 12.5 g of polyethylenimine (branch, Mw-25000) with 10.0 g of glycidyl methacrylate in anhydrous ethanol for 6 h. The solution (87.67 wt%) was then mixed with Irgacure 2959 initiator (4.0 wt%) and light absorbers including Sudan I dye (0.08 wt%) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (8.25 wt%), followed up with vigorous stirring for 1 h. This resin blend was dispensed into the resin vat of the 3D printer and used as prepared. 3D printed samples were fabricated using a digital light processing (DLP) 3D printer (microSLA Inc.) with a 15 pm pixel size and a 700W 365 nm UV LED light source. The blend can include, e.g., carbon nanotubes, photoinitators, and the like. All lattice geometries were modeled in the nTopology software package. We attached Cu foil to the build plate of the printer so that the polymer gyroids can be directly 3D printed on the current collector. To modify the - SO2F groups on the lattice surface, we immersed the printed lattice in the ethanol solution- 6 -4894-0062-6174.1of 4-(fluorosulfonyl)benzoyl chloride with stirring for 2 h. The lattice was rinsed with ethanol 3 times and dried under vacuum for use. The ratio of -NH2 and -SO2F groups on the surface was determined by XPS.

[0029] As explained, a scaffold can be deposited via 3D printing, which printing can involve a light-based approach. A scaffold can also be deposited via a sacrificial approach, e.g., an approach in which the resin is mixed with a sacrificial material (e.g., degradable microspheres), which sacrificial material is removed after deposition (e.g., via solvent application, via heat application), leaving behind voids, channels, or other shapes that were formerly occupied by the sacrificial material. This approach can be applied to leave behind a porous material.

[0030] To investigate how the polymer influenced Li deposition, we deposited Li next to a vertical polymer wall on Cu foil and studied the resulting Li morphology and interface chemistry. Interestingly, deposited Li was dense and void-free within 100 pm of the polymer wall, while Li far from the wall was porous.

[0031] The LiF signals were high within the densely packed Li region near the polymer and attenuated as the distance from the wall increased and the Li became less dense. The width of the LiF signal increased as the plated capacity increased, and the LiF distances did not change with time or temperature, indicating (without being bound to any particular theory) that the transport mechanism is not diffusive. We further confirmed this finding by conducting XPS tests on the Li surface. For a spot within a certain distance of the polymer, we recorded a certain LiF content , while less LiF was recorded beyond that distance. Li deposited near a non-functional polymer could not achieve the dense packing of the functional samples. Without being bound to any particular theory, these results show that polymer-derived LiF can be transported by a distance and still form a high- quality SEI. We next examined Li deposition in straight polymer channels, and the Li deposited in a dense morphology and formed a curved interface due to the amine groups, which accelerate Li+ transport near the polymer surface via electrokinetic effects and enhance Li deposition at the polymer-Li-electrolyte interface. A 0.1 mV overpotential is sufficient to induce a 0.75 MPa hydrostatic stress, which will cause Li creep and distribute the flowing metal throughout the channel at -0.3% strain per second, resulting in void-free Li growth and a LiF-passivated Li-electrolyte interface.

[0032] Lattice stability and interface chemistry- 7 -4894-0062-6174.1

[0033] It can be desirable for a practical 3D lattice for Li deposition to exhibit any one or more of a high Li volume fraction, high Li -polymer contact area, mechanical stability, and manufacturability. The large surface area of the disclosed technology provides sufficient Li-polymer interaction to facilitate Li+ transport and SEI formation, as well as ensures that most of the Li surface is protected by the polymer, and is not in contact with the electrolyte, during cycling. The gyroid channel can be wide enough that LiF from the polymer can reach the entire Li surface. In contrast, a Kelvin cell with comparable porosity and whose structural elements are near the fabrication limit, such that a section of the Li not protected from LiF generated at the polymer. In addition, the gyroid can achieve a desirable porosity while maintaining a near-constant (and suitable) channel width and wall thickness, which is a tractable manufacturing resolution.

[0034] To study the composition of polymer-regulated SEI, we determined that LiF was the dominant Li salt. In contrast, the SEI layer of the Li electrode without the functional polymer had a low LiF content, with a different Li salt being the primary Li salt.

[0035] We conclude that 3D control of the molecular interaction between Li, polymer, and electrolyte through functionalized polymer gyroid structures realizes void- free Li growth in the lattice, as well as swelling-free, pressure-free Li cycling. This in turn reduces or even prevents swelling and avoiding external pressure in Li metal batteries.

[0036] Aspects

[0037] The following Aspects are illustrative only and do not limit the scope of the present disclosure or the appended claims. Any part or parts of any one or more Aspects can be combined with any part or parts of any one or more other Aspects.

[0038] Aspect 1. An electrode component, comprising: a current collector (e.g., copper); a porous scaffold superposed over the current collector, the porous scaffold having a polymer surface that comprises (i) functional groups that establish a net charge on the polymer surface; and (ii) a plurality of fluorine-containing groups (which groups can be fluorine-donating groups).

[0039] In some embodiment, the polymer surface can - exclusive of functional groups - be non-conductive. As described herein, the functional groups (which can be amines, for example) can establish a net charge on the polymer surface. In a cell that- 8 -4894-0062-6174.1includes a Li-containing electrolyte, this can in turn lead to preferential Li growth near the polymer surface.

[0040] As an illustration of the disclosed technology (and without being bound to any particular theory or embodiment), an electrode component according to the present disclosure can be used as an anode in a power cell that includes an electrolyte that comprises lithium and also a fluorine-containing group, e.g., PFe'. During operation, positive charges can accumulate by the surface of the polymer (e.g., from amine groups in the polymer) , with negative charges (e.g., anions from the electrolyte) then accumulating nearby to the positive charges. The free negative charges respond to electric fields in the power cell, which can give rise to a net increase in lithium ion concentration nearby to the polymer surface. The disclosed configuration can thus give rise to an electroosmotic flow, which can in turn encourage mixing within the pore of the scaffold. Also as explained herein, fluorine-donating groups of the polymer can encourage LiF formation (which can take place on or nearby to lithium metal that is plated), which LiF can (again without being bound to any particular theory or embodiment) act to reduce interactions between the lithium metal and the electrolyte, including undesirable interactions.

[0041] Aspect 2. The electrode component of Aspect 1, wherein a functional group optionally comprises an amine group. Functional groups can be, e.g., groups such as 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride 2,2'-azobis[2-(2-imidazolin-2-yl)propane] dihydrochloride; dicyandiamide; cyclohexyl tosylate; diphenyl(methyl)sulfonium tetrafluoroborate; benzyl(4-hydroxyphenyl)methylsulfonium hexafluoroantimonate; (4- hydroxyphenyl)methyl(2-methylbenzyl)sulfonium hexafluoroantimonate; pyridine and its analogs; piperidine and analogs; aromatic amine and analogs. Other suitable groups include, e.g., ammonium persulfate; benzoic acid and its analogs; benzenesulfonic acid and its analogs; and phenol and its analogs.

[0042] Aspect 3. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-2, wherein a fluorine-containing group comprises sulfonyl fluoride, fluorine-containing groups can include, e.g., sulfonyl fluoride and its analogs; lithium tetrafluoroborate and its analogs; lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide and its analogs; benzene sulfonyl fluoride and its analogs; and lithium difluorophosphate.

[0043] Aspect 4. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-3, wherein the porous scaffold comprises a polymer.- 9 -4894-0062-6174.1

[0044] Aspect 5. The electrode component of Aspect 4, wherein the polymer incorporates (i) the locations of comparatively higher affinity for lithium and (ii) the fluorine-containing groups.

[0045] Aspect 6. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-3, wherein porous scaffold comprises the non-conductive surface disposed on a porous frame.

[0046] Aspect 7. The electrode component of Aspect 6, wherein the porous scaffold comprises a ceramic, a metal, or both.

[0047] Aspect 8. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-7, further comprising an amount of lithium disposed in a pore of the porous scaffold.

[0048] Aspect 9. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-7, further comprising an amount of lithium fluoride on the surface of the porous scaffold.

[0049] Aspect 10. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-9, wherein the porous scaffold comprises therein pores having a diameter of less than about 200 micrometers.

[0050] Aspect 11. The electrode component of any one of Aspects 1-10, wherein the porous scaffold is characterized as any one or more of a gyroid, a diamond sheet, a primitive sheet, a triply periodic minimal surface, a body -centered-cubic, a face-centered- cubic, a Kagome lattice, an Octet-truss lattice, any strut-, sheet-, or skeletal- based opencell cellular solid, or a porous material with a 10-40% relative density.

[0051] Aspect 12. The electrode component of Aspect 11, wherein the porous scaffold is characterized as a gyroid.

[0052] Aspect 13. A lithium power cell, comprising: an anode comprising an electrode component according to any one of Aspects 1-12; an amount of lithium; a cathode; and optionally a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode. The lithium power cell can be essentially free of externally -applied mechanical pressure. Such a power call can include a lithium -containing electrolyte, e.g., LiPFe.

[0053] Aspect 14. A method, comprising charging a lithium power cell according to Aspect 13.

[0054] Aspect 15. A method, comprising discharging a lithium power cell according to Aspect 13.- 10 -4894-0062-6174.1

[0055] Aspect 16. A composition, comprising: a plurality of polymer chains, a polymer chain comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium and comprising pendant fluorine-containing groups.

[0056] The pendant groups having an affinity for lithium can be amine groups, but this is not a requirement, as the polymer chain can additionally or instead include groups such as 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloridel 2,2'-azobis[2-(2- imidazolin-2-yl)propane] dihydrochloride; dicyandiamide; cyclohexyl tosylate; diphenyl(methyl)sulfonium tetrafluoroborate; benzyl(4-hydroxyphenyl)methylsulfonium hexafluoroantimonate; (4-hydroxyphenyl)methyl(2-methylbenzyl)sulfonium hexafluoroantimonate; pyridine and its analogs; piperidine and its analogs; aromatic amine and its analogs. Other suitable groups include, e.g., ammonium persulfate; benzoic acid and its analogs; benzenesulfonic acid and its analogs; and phenol and its analogs.

[0057] Aspect 17. The composition of Aspect 16, wherein at least some of the plurality of polymer chains are crosslinked.

[0058] Aspect 18. The composition of any one of Aspects 16-17, wherein at least some of the pendant fluorine-containing groups comprise sulfonyl fluoride. Fluorine-containing groups can include, e.g., sulfonyl fluoride and its analogs; lithium tetrafluoroborate and its analogs; lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide and its analogs; benzene sulfonyl fluoride and its analogs; and lithium difluorophosphate.

[0059] Aspect 19. The composition of any one of Aspects 16-18, wherein a polymer chain comprises a polymerization product of polyethyleneamine and glydicyl methacrylate. A polymer chain can also (in addition or instead) include polyethylene oxide and / or a copolymer containing amine groups. Organic polymer backbones are considered suitable for the polymer chain design when amine and fluorine-containing groups are on the side chains of the polymer.

[0060] Aspect 20. The composition of any one of Aspects 16-19, wherein the comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium are pendant amine groups and wherein an elemental ratio of nitrogen in the pendant amine groups to the fluorine in the pendant fluorine-containing groups is from about 99.999:0.001 to about 30:70. Such ratios can be, for example, 99.999:0.001 to about 30:70, from about 99: 1 to about 32:68, from about 95:5 to about 35:65, from about 90: 10 to about 37:63, from about 85: 15 to- 11 -4894-0062-6174.1about 40:60, from about 80:20 to about 41:59, from about 70:30 to about 45:55, or from about 65:35 to about 50:50.- 12 -4894-0062-6174.1

Claims

What is Claimed:

1. An electrode component, comprising: a current collector; a porous scaffold superposed over the current collector, the porous scaffold having a polymer surface that comprises (i) functional groups that establish a net charge on the polymer surface; and (ii) a plurality of fluorine- containing groups.

2. The electrode component of claim 1, where a location of comparatively higher affinity for lithium optionally comprises an amine group.

3. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, wherein a fluorine-containing group comprises sulfonyl fluoride.

4. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the porous scaffold comprises a polymer.

5. The electrode component of claim 4, wherein the polymer incorporates (i) the locations of comparatively higher affinity for lithium and (ii) the fluorine- containing groups.

6. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, wherein porous scaffold comprises the non-conductive surface disposed on a porous frame.

7. The electrode component of claim 6, wherein the porous scaffold comprises a ceramic, a metal, or both.

8. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, further comprising an amount of lithium disposed in a pore of the porous scaffold.

9. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, further comprising an amount of lithium fluoride on the surface of the porous scaffold.- 13 -4894-0062-6174.

110. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the porous scaffold comprises therein pores having a diameter of less than about 200 micrometers.

11. The electrode component of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the porous scaffold is characterized as any one or more of a gyroid, a diamond sheet, a primitive sheet, a triply periodic minimal surface, a body-centered-cubic, a face-centered-cubic, a Kagome lattice, an Octet-truss lattice, any strut-, sheet-, or skeletal- based opencell cellular solid, or a porous material with al0-40% relative density.

12. The electrode component of claim 11, wherein the porous scaffold is characterized as a gyroid.

13. A lithium power cell, comprising: an anode comprising an electrode component according to any one of claims 1-2; an amount of lithium; a cathode; and optionally, a separator disposed between the anode and the cathode.

14. A method, comprising charging a lithium power cell according to claim 13.

15. A method, comprising discharging a lithium power cell according to claim 13.

16. A composition, comprising: a plurality of polymer chains, a polymer chain comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium and comprising pendant fluorine-containing groups.

17. The composition of claim 16, wherein at least some of the plurality of polymer chains are crosslinked.

18. The composition of any one of claims 16-17, wherein at least some of the pendant fluorine-containing groups comprise sulfonyl fluoride.- 14 -4894-0062-6174.

119. The composition of any one of claims 16-17, wherein a polymer chain comprises a polymerization product of polyethyleneamine and glydicyl methacrylate.

20. The composition of any one of claims 16-17, wherein the comprising pendant groups having an affinity for lithium are pendant amine groups and wherein an elemental ratio of nitrogen in the pendant amine groups to the fluorine in the pendant fluorine-containing groups is from about 99.999:0001 to about 30:70.- 15 -4894-0062-6174.1