Tissue mimetic membranes for guiding fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration in rotator cuff repair
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2025/089215
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2024-04-24
- Filing Date
- 2025-04-16
- Publication Date
- 2025-10-30
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Figure CN2025089215_30102025_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
TISSUE MIMETIC MEMBRANES FOR GUIDING FIBROCARTILAGINOUS INTERFACE REGENERATION IN ROTATOR CUFF REPAIRCROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS
[0001] The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 638,284 filed April 24, 2024, the full disclosure of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.BACKGROUND
[0002] Rotator cuff tear is one of the most common musculoskeletal disorders, occurring at a high prevalence (~34%) and placing a large burden on both healthcare and socioeconomic systems. Rotator cuff tears often occur at the tendon–bone insertion (i.e., enthesis) site, resulting in substantial pain and impairment of daily activities. Surgical repair is usually required to restore shoulder function in clinics, such that more than 1.1 million / year rotator cuff tendon surgeries are performed globally. However, despite remarkable improvements in surgical techniques over the past decades, the rate of re-tears after surgical intervention continues to range between 20%and 94%. This high re-rupture rate closely relates to the undesired formation of highly disorganized fibrovascular scar tissue with inferior biomechanical performance at the tendon–bone interface, rather than the desired regeneration of a gradient fibrocartilaginous transition. Hence, there is an urgent clinical demand for tissue engineering strategies to reestablish tendon-to-bone attachment close to native level.
[0003] To this end, interface tissue engineering research into growth factors, stem cells and bio-scaffolds has increased in recent years, with bio-scaffold-mediated regenerative strategies in particular receiving immense attention. Surgical procedures for the treatment of large rotator cuff tears generally use bio-scaffolds having the form of a film interposed between tendon and bone (i.e., the enthesis site) , or a patch that bridges a massive defect to offer a structural support and a biomimicry microenvironment. The enthesis is a transitional region that exhibits gradients in structural, bio-functional, and mechanical properties to allow the appropriate dissipation of force from soft tissue (tendon) to hard tissue (bone) . Given the highly heterogeneous (multiphasic) nature of the tendon–bone insertion site, immense efforts have been made to construct a bio-scaffold that mimics the native microenvironment to support interfacial tissue regeneration. The developed biomimetic scaffolds involve a wide variety of biomaterials, including decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM) , and natural- / synthetic-based materials, some of which are supplemented with growth factors, stem cells, or other bioactive compounds.
[0004] Several types of bio-scaffolds used for the augmentation of rotator cuff reconstruction are commercially available, including those with a biological base (allogenic / xenogenic acellular ECM) , those with a synthetic base (degradable / nondegradable) , and those with a combination of the two. For instance, the collagen-rich xenogenic orthobiologic augmentation patch (DePuy Orthopaedics, USA) is derived from porcine small intestine submucosa and has been used for tendon reinforcement. Unfortunately, no significant difference could be found in patients with the augmentation and those without. Worse still, severe inflammation occurs in a large proportion of patients in whom the xenograft is used, resulting in worse recovery performance than in patients undergoing traditional surgical repairs, which is a common disadvantage of xenogenic-origin scaffolds. regenerative tissue matrix (LifeCell, Wright Medical Technology, USA) is a kind of allogenic ECM scaffold made from human dermis and shown to provide effective augmentation of rotator cuff repair, with healing outcomes comparable to those of autogenic tendon, a lower surgical failure rate (19%) , an elevated load-to-failure, and improved tendon-to-bone healing. However, the existence of residual DNA from the allogenic source means that inflammatory responses cannot be absolutely eliminated in allogenic materials, and their elasticity remains notably weaker than that of autologous tendon, which can induce adverse effects in the healing process.
[0005] To address these issues, more advanced biomaterials, ranging from natural (e.g., collagen, chitosan) to nondegradable synthetic (e.g., polyurethane, polyethylene terephthalate) to degradable synthetic (e.g., poly glycolic acid [PGA] , poly lactic acid [PLA] , polycaprolactone [PCL] ) polymeric materials, have been developed to augment tendon-to-bone repair. These biomaterials possess tailorable structures and functions and demonstrate a relatively low risk of provoking an inflammatory response. Commercially available synthetic augmentation patches, such as polyethylene terephthalate-based (Xiros plc, Neoligaments, UK) and poly (L-lactic acid) -based (Synthasome, USA) , have shown the capability to prompt an increase in patient-derived tendon cells and a tendon-like cellular phenotype. However, as with single-type biomaterials, many limitations remain. For instance, natural polymers do not possess favorable mechanical properties and are prone to uncontrollable enzymatic degradation, while synthetic polymers usually lack bioactivity, with some also generating harmful acidic breakdown by-products.
[0006] Due to their highly heterogeneous nature, dual-phase / multi-phase scaffolds show unparalleled superiority to single-phase scaffolds for use in interface regeneration. Each of the separate phases can be designed with different compositions and topographies to recapitulate the region-specific properties of the natural enthesis. Numerous nanomaterials and nanofabrication technologies have been investigated to achieve a highly precisive simulation of the interface tissues and further facilitate tendon–bone healing. For instance, bioceramics, like nano-sized hydroxyapatite (nHAp) , can be incorporated into a hierarchical scaffold to mimic the mineralized gradient from tendon to bone. Through electrospinning, the micro- / nano-structures of a scaffold can be tailored to reproduce the architecture of native tissue, as well as provide topographical cues to guide cellular behaviors and spur tissue formation. Nevertheless, though there is an increasing number of bio-scaffolds reported with elaborate structures and advanced biomimetic properties, their application in vivo remains limited. Moreover, few studies have simultaneously addressed the problem of stem cells differentiating into cartilage and bone lineages at the transitional defected area, which is a critical issue for treating chronic rotator cuff tears.
[0007] Thus, improved materials and methods are needed for addressing the shortcomings of existing interface tissue engineering techniques. The present disclosure addresses these and other needs by providing compositions and methods related to multiphasic tissue mimetic membranes having several beneficial advantages for use in simultaneously promoting soft and hard tissue healing in tendon–bone defects. BRIEF SUMMARY
[0008] The present disclosure generally relates to a formulation and fabrication strategy for constructing a tissue mimetic membrane for guiding fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration (e.g., regeneration in rotator cuff repair) and facilitating the restoration of normal interface function (e.g., normal shoulder function) . The provided hierarchically organized membrane can mimic the heterogeneous anatomy and properties of the natural enthesis and finely facilitate the reconstruction of tendon–bone interface.
[0009] In one aspect, the disclosure provides a multilayer membrane. The multilayer membrane includes a microporous layer comprising a nanogel. In some embodiments, the nanogel is conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent. The multilayer membrane further includes a fibrous layer comprising core-shell fibers. The core-shell fibers have a core that encapsulates an osteo-promotive agent.
[0010] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent. The nanogel includes a thermoresponsive polymer. The nanogel is also coated with a cationic polymer.
[0011] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of producing a multilayer membrane. The method includes forming a dispersion of a nanogel in a polymer solution. The polymer solution includes a pre-scaffold polymer dissolved in a mixture of a solvent and a non-solvent. The method further includes casting the dispersion to produce a wet layer having a target thickness. The method further includes evaporating the mixture of the solvent and the non-solvent to yield a microporous layer. The yielded microporous layer has a target concentration of the nanogel. The method further includes fabricating a fibrous layer on the microporous layer, thereby producing the multilayer membrane. The fibrous layer includes core-shell fibers generated on the microporous layer by co-axial electrospinning of a core solution and a shell solution.
[0012] In another aspect, the disclosure provides a method of repairing a defect at a tendon–bone interface of a subject. The method includes implanting a multilayer membrane as disclosed herein in the subject proximate to the defect.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0013] FIG. 1 presents a schematic illustration of the biphasic structure of the tissue mimetic membrane and its application in a rotator cuff tear model for augmenting fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration.
[0014] FIG. 2 presents TEM images of synthesized nGel-KGN particles.
[0015] FIG. 3 presents a graph plotting the size distribution of synthesized nGel-KGN particles at dry state.
[0016] FIG. 4 presents graphs plotting the hydrodynamic size distribution of synthesized nGel-KGN particles in 2.5 mM HEPES buffer solution at 25 ℃ and 37 ℃. Insets: video frames of the nGel-KGN particles in 2.5 mM HEPES buffer solution at 25 ℃ and 37 ℃ obtained from nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) measurements.
[0017] FIG. 5 presents graphs plotting the UV-vis spectra of KGN, nGel, and nGel-KGN dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) .
[0018] FIG. 6 presents a graph plotting the zeta potential of synthesized nGel-KGN particles in 2.5 mM HEPES buffer solution.
[0019] FIG. 7 presents a series of images showing surface morphologies of fabricated microporous and fibrous layers for five groups of membranes: 500 μm casting, 500 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN, 1000 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN, ES, and ES / 4%St.
[0020] FIG. 8 presents a high-angle annular dark-field image of St. nanowires.
[0021] FIG. 9 presents a series of EDS maps of the compositional elements (P, Mg, O, and N) corresponding to the image of FIG. 8.
[0022] FIG. 10 presents a high-angle annular dark-field image of a single PCL / St. -GelA core-shell fiber.
[0023] FIG. 11 presents a series of EDS maps of the compositional elements (P, Mg, O, and N) corresponding to the image of FIG. 10.
[0024] FIG. 12 presents a series of images showing cross-sectional morphologies of three groups of fabricated tissue mimetic membranes.
[0025] FIG. 13 presents a graph plotting the thickness of a 500-μm-casting microporous layer, a 1000-μm-casting microporous layer, and an ES layer (n = 5) .
[0026] FIG. 14 presents a graph plotting representative strain-stress curves with data obtained from tensile tests of three fabricated membranes at wet state. Insets: representative photographs of the Grp 2 membrane during tensile test.
[0027] FIG. 15 presents a graph plotting the Young’s modulus of different membranes at wet state, calculated from the strain-stress curves of FIG. 14 (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.
[0028] FIG. 16 presents a graph plotting the yield strength of different membranes at wet state, calculated from the strain-stress curves of FIG. 14 (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ±SD. *P < 0.05. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.
[0029] FIG. 17 presents a graph plotting the elongation rate of different membranes at wet state, calculated from the strain-stress curves of FIG. 14 (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.
[0030] FIG. 18 presents a graph plotting a 14-day release profile of nGel-KGN particles from Grp 2 and Grp 3 membranes in PBS solution (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ± SD.
[0031] FIG. 19 presents a graph plotting a 14-day release profile of Mg2+ from Grp 2 and Grp 3 membranes in PBS solution (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ± SD.
[0032] FIG. 20 presents a graph plotting the 56-day degradation profiles of three fabricated membrane groups in PBS solution (n = 3) . The data are presented as the mean ± SD.
[0033] FIG. 21 presents a series of images showing surface morphologies of the tissue mimetic membranes after 56-day degradation in PBS solution.
[0034] FIG. 22 presents representative 3D and 2D cross-sectional fluorescent images of MC3T3-E1 cells cultured on the fibrous layers of the tissue mimetic membranes for 3 days. The membrane surfaces were set at z = 0.
[0035] FIG. 23 presents representative SEM images of MC3T3-E1 cells cultured on the fibrous layers of the tissue mimetic membranes for 3 days. The pseudocolor was added to the cells using ImageJ software.
[0036] FIG. 24 representative SEM images of the surfaces of the microporous and fibrous layer in each membrane after a 5-day culture of NIH3T3 cells on the microporous surfaces of the membranes.
[0037] FIG. 25 presents a graph plotting data quantifying spreading areas of the MC3T3-E1 cells cultured on the fibrous surfaces of the three membranes for 3 days (Grp 1: n = 10; Grp 2: n = 11; Grp 3: n = 12) . All data are presented as the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P <0.001. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.
[0038] FIG. 26 presents images showing Alcian blue staining of the samples after a 21-day induction.
[0039] FIG. 27 presents a graph plotting relative expression of Sox9 in rBMSCs after a 7-day induction (Grp 1: n = 3; Grp 2: n = 2; Grp 3: n = 2) . All data are presented as the mean ± SD. *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.
[0040] FIG. 28 presents images showing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining of the samples after a 7-day induction.
[0041] FIG. 29 presents images showing Alizarin Red S (ARS) staining of the samples after a 10-day induction.
[0042] FIG. 30 presents a series of photographs illustrating the RCT surgical procedure and membrane implantation in a rat model.
[0043] FIG. 31 presents a series of representative macroscopic images of the anatomical plane in the membrane implantation at week 8 post-RCT surgery. The red arrow indicates the membrane implantation site.
[0044] FIG. 32 presents a series of representative X-ray images of the humerus in rats at week 8 post-RCT surgery.
[0045] FIG. 33 presents a series of reconstructed 3D micro-CT images of cross-sections in the proximal humerus at week 8 post-RCT surgery. Scale bar: 1 mm.
[0046] FIG. 34 presents a series of representative SEM images of ingrowth cells and well-aligned collagen formation on the implanted membranes at week 8 post-RCT surgery. Scale bar: 10 μm.
[0047] FIG. 35 presents output from a catwalk gait analysis system showing automatic footprint and gaits capture measurements.
[0048] FIG. 36 presents a series of graphs plotting data from representative catwalk gait analysis across groups at week 8 post-RCT surgery using the system described in FIG. 35. n = 5 rats per group. LF: Left forelimb; RF: right forelimb; LH: left hindlimb; RH: right hindlimb. Max Contact Area: Maximal contact area; Max Contact AT: maximal contact AT; Max Intensity At: maximal intensity AT. All data are presented as mean ± SD. One-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used.DETAILED DESCRIPTIONI. INTRODUCTION
[0049] The present disclosure provides a tissue mimetic membrane particularly useful in generating an in-situ co-delivery of both osteo-and chondro-promotive cues for functional fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration. The formulation and fabrication strategies disclosed herein can be used, for example, to construct tissue mimetic membranes for guiding the fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration in rotator cuff repair and facilitating the restoration of normal shoulder function.
[0050] For example and as described herein, a non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) strategy followed by a co-axial electrospinning procedure can be used to construct a biphasic membranous matrix including a microporous layer and a mineralized core-shell nanofibrous layer, where the chondro-and osteo-promotive agents are incorporated in a region-specific manner. The microporous layer can be laden with a cationic kartogenin (KGN) -conjugated nanogel (nGel-KGN) for chondrogenic induction, while the osteoinductive struvite nanowires can be encapsulated into the core of core-shell fibers. During the in vivo repair, the nGel-KGN-functionalized microporous layer is adjacent to the tendon, thereby suppressing scar tissue formation at the lesion and simultaneously heightening chondrogenesis. Additionally, a struvite-containing fibrous layer can cover the tubercula minus to enhance stem cell aggregation and biomineralization. Such tissue-specific features and spatiotemporal release behaviors contribute to an effective guidance of specific defect-healing events at the transitional region, further leading to remarkably promoted fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration (FIG. 1) . The provided biomimetic membrane is thus a promising material for use in, for example, clinical rotator cuff repair, presenting new avenues for developing improved tendon–bone healing strategies. II. DEFINITIONS
[0051] Unless specifically indicated otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. In addition, any method or material similar or equivalent to a method or material described herein can be used in the practice of the present disclosure. For purposes of the present disclosure, the following terms are defined.
[0052] As used herein, the singular forms “a, ” “an, ” and “the” include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “apolymer” optionally includes a combination of two or more polymers, and the like.
[0053] As used herein, the terms “about” and “approximately, ” when used to modify an amount specified in a numeric value or range, indicate that the numeric value as well as reasonable deviations from the value known to the skilled person in the art, for example ± 20%, ± 10%, or ± 5%, are within the intended meaning of the recited value.
[0054] As used herein, the term “and / or” refers to and encompasses any and all possible combinations of one or more of the associated listed items, as well as the lack of combinations when interpreted in the alternative ( “or” ) .
[0055] As used herein, the terms “including, ” “comprising, ” “having, ” “containing, ” and variations thereof, are inclusive and open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps beyond those explicitly recited. As used herein, the phrase “consisting of” is closed and excludes any element, step, or ingredient not explicitly specified. As used herein, the phrase “consisting essentially of” limits the scope of the described feature to the specified materials or steps and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristics of the disclosed feature.
[0056] As used herein, the term “bioceramic” refers to a biocompatible inorganic and nonmetallic material. A “biocompatible” material is one that does not have toxic or injurious effects on biological systems. In some applications, a biocompatible material does not have toxic or injurious effects on a treated subject.
[0057] As used herein, the term “chondro-promotive agent” refers to a substance that induces or otherwise promotes the proliferation, growth, differentiation, orientation, production and / or other maturation of fibroblasts, chondrocytes, chondroprogenitor cells, and / or cartilage tissue.
[0058] As used herein, the term “nanogel” refers to a three-dimensional hydrogel particle, or a population of such particles, where the average equivalent spherical diameter of the particles of the nanogel is less than 1 μm, i.e., between 1 and 999 nm. As used herein, the term “hydrogel” refers to a highly-interdependent, biphasic matrix comprising a solid component (usually a polymer, and more commonly a highly cross-linked polymer) that has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic character, and a liquid dispersion medium (e.g., water) that is retained in the matrix by intermolecular forces. The hydrophobic character provides the matrix with a degree of water insolubility while the hydrophilic character affords water permeability. One of skill in the art will appreciate that several different types of polymers may be used in combination to form hydrogels useful in the methods of the present invention. Being polymer networks that have high water-absorbing capacity, hydrogels often closely mimic native extracellular matrices. Hydrogels also tend to possess a degree of flexibility very similar to natural tissues, due to the relatively high water content. In some cases, hydrogels may contain well over 90%water.
[0059] As used herein, the term “osteo-promotive agent” refers to a substance that induces or otherwise promotes the proliferation, growth, differentiation, orientation, production and / or other maturation of osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, lining cells, and / or bone tissue.
[0060] As used herein, the term “subject” refers to a vertebrate, and preferably to a mammal. Mammalian subjects for which the provided composition is suitable include, but are not limited to, mice, rats, simians, humans, farm animals, sport animals, and pets. In some embodiments, the subject is human. In some embodiments, the subject is male. In some embodiments, the subject is female. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In some embodiments, the subject is an adolescent. In some embodiments, the subject is a child. In some embodiments, the subject is above 10 years of age, e.g., above 20 years of age, above 30 years of age, above 40 years of age, above 50 years of age, above 60 years of age, above 70 years of age, or above 80 years of age. In some embodiments, the subject is less than 80 years of age, e.g., less than 70 years of age, less than 60 years of age, less than 50 years of age, less than 40 years of age, less than 30 years of age, less than 20 years of age, or less than 10 years of age. III. NANOGELS
[0061] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides various nanogels that are advantageously effective in delivering a chondro-promotive agent to stimulate repair of soft tissue, e.g., cartilage and / or tendon, at a site of an injured tendon–bone interface (e.g., tear) within a subject. The particular composition and configuration of the nanogel provides the material with several beneficial properties, including high biocompatibility and favorable stability (e.g., low shrinkage) under physiological conditions such as average body temperatures and pH levels.
[0062] Generally, the provided nanogel is conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent. Chondro-promotive agents suitable for use with the provided nanogel include, for example, small-molecule drugs, such as kartogenin, that mimic natural ligands involved in cell differentiation; growth factors such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) , bone morphogenetic proteins (e.g., BMP-2 or BMP-7) , or insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) ; anti-inflammatory agents such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., ibuprofen or diclofenac) or corticosteroids; cartilage extracellular matrix components such as collagen type II or glycosaminoglycans (GAG) ; nutritional supplements such as glucosamine, chondroitin, or omega-3 fatty acids; and derivatives and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the chondro-promotive agent conjugated with the provided nanogel includes or consists of kartogenin.
[0063] In some examples, the polymer forming the provided nanogel includes or consists of a thermoresponsive polymer. The use of a thermoresponsive polymer in the nanogel can provide the nanogel with several beneficial characteristics including an enhanced ability to release bioactive substances in a controlled and / or sustained manner, an improved ease of fabrication, and favorable mechanical properties and biocompatibility appropriate for in vivo applications. Thermoresponsive polymers suitable for use with the provided nanogel include, for example, poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) , poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) , poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) , poly (N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL) , poly (caprolactone) (PCL) , poly (propylene fumarate) (PPF) , poly (vinyl methyl ether) (PVME) , and derivatives and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the thermoresponsive polymer of the provided nanogel includes or consists of PNIPMAM.
[0064] The polymer forming the provided nanogel can typically be crosslinked with any suitable crosslinker. In some examples, the crosslinker is selected based on the chemistry of the nanogel polymer and / or chondro-promotive agent, and to provide the nanogel with its advantageous mechanical, hydrophilic, and drug-releasing properties. For example, when the nanogel polymer includes or consists of a polymer (e.g., PNIPMAM) composed of acrylate monomers or derivatives thereof, the crosslinker can include or consist of N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) .
[0065] In some embodiments, the provided nanogel is coated with a cationic polymer, giving the nanogel a net positive charge. The positive charge of the nanogel can advantageously assist the ability of the nanogel to introduce its chondro-promotive agent payload to cells. For example, the nanogel can have a positive zeta potential that is between about 1 mV and about 10 mV, e.g., between about 1 mV and about 6.4 mV, between about 1.9 mV and about 7.3 mV, between about 2.8 mV and about 8.2 mV, between about 3.7 mV and about 9.1 mV, or between about 4.6 mV and about 10 mV. In terms of upper limits, the positive zeta potential of the nanogel can be, for example, no more than about 10 mV, no more than about 9.1 mV, no more than about 8.2 mV, no more than about 7.3 mV, no more than about 6.4 mV, no more than about 5.5 mV, no more than about 4.6 mV, no more than about 3.7 mV, no more than about 2.8 mV, or no more than about 1.9 mV. In terms of lower limits, the positive zeta potential of the nanogel can be, for example, no less than about 1 mV, e.g., no less than about 1.9 mV, no less than about 2.8 mV, no less than about 3.7 mV, no less than about 4.6 mV, no less than about 5.5 mV, no less than about 6.4 mV, no less than about 7.3 mV, or no less than about 8.2 mV. Cationic polymers suitable for use in coating the provided nanogels include, for example, poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) , poly-L-lysine (PLL) , poly (allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) , chitosan, poly (dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) , Poly (vinylamine) (PVAM) , cationically modified poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) , and derivatives and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the cationic polymer coating of the provided nanogel includes or consists of PEI. IV. MEMBRANES
[0066] The present disclosure further provides various membranes, e.g., multilayer membranes (such as bilayer membranes) or multiphasic membranes (such as biphasic membranes) . The membranes generally include or consist of two distinct layers: a microporous layer that is particularly configured for the efficient delivery of a chondro-promotive agent to a soft tissue (e.g., cartilage or tendon) adjacent or proximate to the tendon, and a fibrous layer that is particularly configured for the efficient delivery of an osteo-promotive agent to a hard tissue (e.g., bone) adjacent or proximate to the bone. In this way, the microporous layer can beneficially stimulate the unmineralized interfacial region at a location (e.g., a location of a tendon–bone defect) where the membrane is implanted. Simultaneously, the fibrous layer can beneficially stimulate the mineralized region at this implantation location. These region-specific cues can be particularly advantageous for augmenting fibrocartilaginous tissue regeneration, while also avoiding undesired side effects or limitations associated with alternative existing defect repair techniques.
[0067] The microporous layer of the provided membrane generally includes a nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent. The nanogel can be, for example, any of the nanogels described in Section III. For instance, in some embodiments, the nanogel within the microporous layer is conjugated with kartogenin. In some embodiments, the nanogel includes a thermoresponsive polymer, e.g., poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) . In some embodiments, the polymer of the nanogel is crosslinked with N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) . In some embodiments, the nanogel within the microporous layer is coated with a cationic polymer, e.g., poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) .
[0068] The concentration of the nanogel in the microporous layer of the provided membrane can be selected to provide the membrane with desired advantageous properties. For example, increased nanogel concentrations can correlate with an increased ability of the membrane to promote chondrogenic differentiation at a membrane implantation site (e.g., a site of an injured tendon–bone interface) . Excessive nanogel concentrations can, however, impair the stem cell differentiation, proliferation, and / or aggregation that otherwise assists the intended desired tissue repair process. The nanogel concentration in the microporous layer can be, for example, between about 1.5 wt%and about 15 wt%, e.g., between about 1.5 wt%and about 6 wt%, between about 1.9 wt%and about 7.5 wt%, between about 2.4 wt%and about 9.5 wt%, between about 3 wt%and about 12 wt%, or between about 3.8 wt%and about 15 wt%. In terms of upper limits, the nanogel concentration in the microporous layer can be, for example, no more than about 15 wt%, e.g., no more than about 12 wt%, no more than about 9.5 wt%, no more than about 7.5 wt%, no more than about 6 wt%, no more than about 4.7 wt%, no more than about 3.8 wt%, no more than about 3 wt%, no more than about 2.4 wt%, or no more than about 1.9 wt%. In terms of lower limits, the nanogel concentration in the microporous layer can be, for example, no less than about 1.5 wt%, e.g., no less than about 1.9 wt%, no less than about 2.4 wt%, no less than about 3 wt%, no less than about 3.8 wt%, no less than about 4.7 wt%, no less than about 6 wt%, no less than about 7.5 wt%, no less than about 9.5 wt%, or no less than about 12 wt%. Higher nanogel concentrations, e.g., greater than about 15 wt%, and lower nanogel concentrations, e.g., less than about 1.5 wt%, are also contemplated.
[0069] In some examples, the microporous layer of the provided membrane includes a polymer scaffold, such that the nanogel is dispersed, e.g., substantially homogenously dispersed, within the polymer scaffold. The polymer scaffold can be formed from, for example, a polyester (i.e., a scaffold polyester) and a gelatin (i.e., a scaffold gelatin) . The identities of the scaffold polyester and the scaffold gelatin can be selected to provide the microporous layer with its beneficial properties, such as a porosity that is advantageous for the controlled and / or sustained release of the nanogel, and a balance of mechanical strength and flexibility that is advantageous for in vivo membrane implantation procedures. In some embodiments, the scaffold polyester includes or consists of poly (caprolactone) (PCL) . In some embodiments, the scaffold gelatin includes or consists of gelatin A (GelA) . In some embodiments, the polymer scaffold includes both PCL and GelA.
[0070] The amounts, e.g., relative amounts, of a scaffold polyester and a scaffold gelatin in the microporous layer of the provided membrane can also be selected or configured to provide the microporous layer with its desired nanogel-release and mechanical properties. The weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer scaffold can be, for example, between about 0.2: 1 and about 5: 1, e.g., between about 0.2: 1 and about 1.4: 1, between about 0.28: 1 and about 1.9: 1, between about 0.38: 1 and about 2.6: 1, between about 0.53: 1 and about 3.6: 1, or between about 0.72: 1 and about 5: 1. In terms of upper limits, the weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer scaffold can be, for example, no more than about 5: 1, e.g., no more than about 3.6: 1, no more than about 2.6: 1, no more than about 1.9: 1, no more than about 1.4: 1, no more than about 1: 1, no more than about 0.72: 1, no more than about 0.53: 1, no more than about 0.38: 1, or no more than about 0.28: 1. In terms of lower limits, the weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer scaffold can be, for example, no less than about 0.2: 1, e.g., no less than about 0.28: 1, no less than about 0.38: 1, no less than about 0.53: 1, no less than about 0.72: 1, no less than about 1: 1, no less than about 1.3: 1, no less than about 1.9: 1, no less than about 1.9: 1, no less than about 2.6: 1, or no less than about 3.6: 1. Higher weight ratios, e.g., greater than about 5: 1, and lower weight ratios, e.g., less than about 0.2: 1, are also contemplated.
[0071] In some examples, the microporous layer is configured to have a thickness that provides the membrane with desired mechanical and cargo delivery properties. For example, microporous layers that are thicker are capable of being loaded with additional chondro-promotive agents for transfer to a subject. However, microporous layers thicknesses beyond a certain point can negatively impact the mechanical properties of the membrane, for example by reducing the yield strength and / or Young’s modulus of the membrane. The thickness of the microporous layer can be, for example between about 100 μm and about 200 μm, e.g., between about 100 μm and about 160 μm, between about 110 μm and about 170 μm, between about 120 μm and about 180 μm, between about 130 μm and about 190 μm, between about 140 μm and about 200 μm. In terms of upper limits, the microporous layer thickness can be, for example, no more than about 200 μm, e.g., no more than about 190 μm, no more than about 180 μm, no more than about 170 μm, no more than about 160 μm, no more than about 150 μm, no more than about 140 μm, no more than about 130 μm, no more than about 120 μm, or no more than about 110 μm. In terms of lower limits, the microporous layer thickness can be, for example, no less than about 100 μm, e.g., no less than about 110 μm, no less than about 120 μm, no less than about 130 μm, no less than about 140 μm, no less than about 150 μm, no less than about 160 μm, no less than about 170 μm, no less than about 180 μm, or no less than about 190 μm. Larger microporous layer thicknesses, e.g., greater than about 200 μm, and smaller microporous layer thicknesses, e.g., less than about 100 μm, are also contemplated.
[0072] The fibrous layer of the provided membrane generally includes core-shell fibers, where the cores of the fibers encapsulate an osteo-promotive agent. Osteo-promotive agents suitable for use with the provided membrane include, for example, bioceramic materials (e.g., calcium-and / or magnesium-containing materials) , bone morphogenetic proteins (e.g., BMP-2 or BMP-7) , platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) , transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) , insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) , drugs such as bisphosphonates or strontium ranelate, parathyroid hormone (PTH) , and derivatives and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the osteo-promotive agent encapsulated in the fibrous layer includes or consists of a magnesium-containing bioceramic material. In some embodiments, the osteo-promotive agent includes or consists of struvite, e.g., struvite nanowires.
[0073] In addition to the identity of the osteo-promotive agent encapsulated in the provided membrane, the amount of the osteo-promotive agent can also be selected or configured to provide the membrane with advantageous properties. The concentration of the osteo-promotive agent in the fibrous layer can be, for example, between about 1 wt%and about 10 wt%, e.g., between about 1 wt%and about 6.4 wt%, between about 1.9 wt%and about 7.3 wt%, between about 2.8 wt%and about 8.2 wt%, between about 3.7 wt%and about 9.1 wt%, or between about 4.6 wt%and about 10 wt%. In terms of upper limits, the osteo-promotive agent concentration in the fibrous layer can be, for example, no more than about 10 wt%, e.g., no more than about 9.1 wt%, no more than about 8.2 wt%, no more than about 7.3 wt%, no more than about 6.4 wt%, no more than about 5.5 wt%, no more than about 4.6 wt%, no more than about 3.7wt%, no more than about 2.8 wt%, or no more than about 1.9 wt%. In terms of lower limits, the osteo-promotive agent concentration in the fibrous layer can be, for example, no less than about 1 wt%, e.g., no less than about 1.9 wt%, no less than about 2.8 wt%, no less than about 3.7 wt%, no less than about 4.6 wt%, no less than about 5.5 wt%, no less than about 6.4 wt%, no less than about 7.3 wt%, no less than about 8.2 wt%, or no less than about 9.1 wt%. Higher osteo-promotive agent concentrations, e.g., greater than about 10 wt%, and lower osteo-promotive agent concentrations, e.g., less than about 1 wt%, are also contemplated.
[0074] In some examples, the core of the core-shell fibers in the fibrous layer of the provided membrane includes a polymer, i.e., a core polymer. The core polymer of the fibers can include or consist of, for example, a polyester, i.e., a core polyester. In some embodiments, the core polyester includes or consists of poly (caprolactone) (PCL) . In some examples, the shell of the core-shell fibers in the fibrous layer of the provided membrane includes or consist of a gelatin, i.e., a shell gelatin. In some embodiments, the shell gelatin includes or consists of gelatin A (GelA) .
[0075] The composition and configuration of the provided membrane can be designed or selected as described herein to provide the membrane with advantageous mechanical properties including a high yield strength. The yield strength of the membrane can influence the load-bearing capacity, stability, and durability of the membrane, each of which can be particularly important properties when the membrane is implanted in an area (e.g., proximate to a rotator cuff) subject to significant stresses. The membrane can exhibit a yield strength that is, for example, between about 1.75 MPa and about 2.75 MPa, e.g., between about 1.75 MPa and about 2.35 MPa, between about 1.85 MPa and about 2.45 MPa, between about 1.95 MPa and about 2.55 MPa, between about 2.05 MPa and about 2.65 MPa, or between about 2.15 MPa and about 2.75 MPa. In terms of upper limits, the membrane yield strength can be, for example, no more than about 2.75 MPa, e.g., no more than about 2.65 MPa, no more than about 2.55 MPa, no more than about 2.45 MPa, no more than about 2.35 MPa, no more than about 2.25 MPa, no more than about 2.15 MPa, no more than about 2.05 MPa, no more than about 1.95 MPa, or no more than about 1.85 MPa. In terms of lower limits, the membrane yield strength can be, for example, no less than about 1.75 MPa, e.g., no less than about 1.85 MPa, no less than about 1.95 MPa, no less than about 2.05 MPa, no less than about 2.15 MPa, no less than about 2.25 MPa, no less than about 2.35 MPa, no less than about 2.45 MPa, no less than about 2.55 MPa, or no less than about 2.65 MPa. Higher membrane yield strengths, e.g., greater than about 2.75 MPa, and lower membrane yield strengths, e.g., less than about 1.75 MPa, are also contemplated.
[0076] The provided membrane can also be configured or designed as described herein to have a Young’s modulus that is advantageously high. The Young’s modulus is a measure of the elasticity of a material, and a membrane with a high Young’s modulus can better provide flexibility, tissue compatibility, and mechanical support when applied in vivo, e.g., for repairing a tendon–bone defect. The membrane can exhibit a Young’s modulus that is, for example, between about 8 MPa and about 18 MPa, e.g., between about 8 MPa and about 14 MPa, between about 9 MPa and about 15 MPa, between about 10 MPa and about 16 MPa, between about 11 MPa and about 17 MPa, or between about 12 MPa and about 18 MPa. In terms of upper limits, the membrane Young’s modulus can be, for example, no more than about 18 MPa, e.g., no more than about 17 MPa, no more than about 16 MPa, no more than about 15 MPa, no more than about 14 MPa, no more than about 13 MPa, no more than about 12 MPa, no more than about 11 MPa, no more than about 10 MPa, or no more than about 9 MPa. In terms of lower limits, the membrane Young’s modulus can be, for example, no less than about 8 MPa, e.g., no less than about 9 MPa, no less than about 10 MPa, no less than about 11 MPa, no less than about 12 MPa, no less than about 13 MPa, no less than about 14 MPa, no less than about 15 MPa, no less than about 16 MPa, or no less than about 17 MPa. Higher membrane Young’s modulus values, e.g., greater than about 18 MPa, and lower membrane Young’s modulus values, e.g., less than about 8 MPa, are also contemplated.
[0077] The composition and configuration of the membrane can also be configured or designed as disclosed herein to provide the membrane with a beneficial elongation rate. A high elongation rate for the membrane is indicative of good deformability, which can positively influence the ease with which the membrane can be implanted in a subject, for example during a surgical procedure. The membrane can exhibit an elongation rate that is, for example, between about 40%and about 140%, e.g., between about 40%and about 100%, between about 50%and about 110%, between about 60%and about 120%, between about 70%and about 130%, or between about 80%and about 140%. In terms of upper limits, the membrane elongation rate can be, for example, no more than about 140%, e.g., no more than about 130%, no more than about 120%, no more than about 110%, no more than about 100%, no more than about 90%, no more than about 80%, no more than about 70%, no more than about 60%, or no more than about 50%. In terms of lower limits, the membrane elongation rate can be, for example, no less than about 40%, e.g., no less than about 50%, no less than about 60%, no less than about 70%, no less than about 80%, no less than about 90%, no less than about 100%, no less than about 110%, no less than about 120%, or no less than about 130%. Higher membrane elongation rates, e.g., greater than about 140%, and lower membrane elongation rates, e.g., less than about 40%, are also contemplated. V. METHODS FOR PRODUCING MEMBRANES
[0078] The present disclosure also provides methods for producing a membrane, e.g., any of the membranes described in Section IV. The particular combinations of steps of the methods have been shown to impart the membranes with the advantageous features described in Sections I and IV, including an improved ability to simultaneously provide both osteo-and chondro-promotive cues for functional fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration. In general, the provided methods benefit from a surprisingly effective combination of a non-solvent induced phase separation process used to generate a chondro-promotive microporous layer of the membrane, and a co-axial electrospinning process used to generate an osteo-promotive fibrous layer of the membrane.
[0079] The provided method generally includes a step of forming a dispersion of a nanogel in a polymer solution. The nanogel can be, for example, any of the nanogels described in Section III. For instance, in some embodiments, the nanogel is conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent, e.g., kartogenin. In some embodiments, the nanogel includes a thermoresponsive polymer, e.g., poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) . In some embodiments, the polymer of the nanogel is crosslinked with N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) . In some embodiments, the nanogel within the microporous layer is coated with a cationic polymer, e.g., poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) .
[0080] The polymer solution in which the nanogel is dispersed includes a polymer, i.e., a pre-scaffold polymer. The pre-scaffold polymer can, for example, have the composition of any of the scaffold polymers described in Section IV, For instance, the pre-scaffold polymer can include a scaffold polyester (e.g., poly (caprolactone) (PCL) ) and a scaffold gelatin (e.g., gelatin A (GelA) ) . The weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer solution can be, for example, between about 0.2: 1 and about 5: 1, or any of the related weight ratios described in Section IV.
[0081] The pre-scaffold polymer is dissolved in a mixture of a solvent and a non-solvent. The solvent and non-solvent can be selected for their compatibility with the particular pre-scaffold polymer components, and for their suitability in a non-solvent induced phase separation process. For example, the solvent can be an alcoholic organic solvent that dissolves the pre-scaffold polymer, and the non-solvent can be a non-alcoholic solvent that does not dissolve the pre-scaffold polymer. In some embodiments, the solvent includes or consists of 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3-hexafluoro-2-propanal (HFIP) . In some embodiments, the non-solvent includes or consists of dimethylformamide (DMF) . In some embodiments, the mixture includes both HFIP and DMF.
[0082] The volume ratio of the solvent to the non-solvent in the mixture can be, for example, between about 5: 1 and about 100: 1, e.g., between about 5: 1 and about 30: 1, between about 6.7: 1 and about 41: 1, between about 9.1: 1 and about 55: 1, between about 12: 1 and about 74: 1, or between about 17: 1 and about 100: 1. In terms of upper limits, the volume ratio of the solvent to the non-solvent in the mixture can be, for example, no more than about 100: 1, e.g., no more than about 74: 1, no more than about 55: 1, no more than about 41: 1, no more than about 30: 1, no more than about 22: 1, no more than about 17: 1, no more than about 12: 1, no more than about 9.1: 1, or no more than about 6.7: 1. In terms of lower limits, the volume ratio of the solvent to the non-solvent in the mixture can be, for example, no less than about 5: 1, e.g., no less than about 6.7: 1, no less than about 9.1: 1, no less than about 12: 1, no less than about 17: 1, no less than about 22: 1, no less than about 30: 1, no less than about 41: 1, no less than about 55: 1, or no less than about 74: 1. Higher volume ratios, e.g., greater than about 100: 1, and lower volume ratios, e.g., less than about 5: 1, are also contemplated.
[0083] The concentration of the pre-scaffold polymer in the polymer solution can be, for example, between about 5 wt%and about 25 wt%, e.g., between about 5 wt%and about 17 wt%, between about 7 wt%and about 19 wt%, between about 9 wt%and about 21 wt%, between about 11 wt%and about 23 wt%, or between about 13 wt%and about 25 wt%. In terms of upper limits, the pre-scaffold polymer concentration in the polymer solution can be, for example, no more than about 25 wt%, e.g., no more than about 23 wt%, no more than about 21 wt%, no more than about 19 wt%, no more than about 17 wt%, no more than about 15 wt%, no more than about 13 wt%, no more than about 11 wt%, no more than about 9 wt%, or no more than about 7 wt%. In terms of lower limits, the pre-scaffold polymer concentration in the polymer solution can be, for example, no less than about 5 wt%, e.g., no less than about 7 wt%, no less than about 9 wt%, no less than about 11 wt%, no less than about 13 wt%, no less than about 15 wt%, no less than about 17 wt%, no less than about 19 wt%, no less than about 21 wt%, or no less than about 23 wt%. Higher pre-scaffold polymer concentrations, e.g., greater than about 2550 wt%, and lower pre-scaffold polymer concentrations, e.g., less than about 5 wt%, are also contemplated.
[0084] The provided method generally further includes a step of casting the dispersion to produce a wet layer having a target thickness. The target thickness can be pre-determined, and can be selected to yield a microporous layer having the desired thickness-associated properties described in Section IV. For example, the target thickness of the wet layer can be between about 150 μm and about 850 μm, e.g., between about 150 μm and about 570 μm, between about 220 μm and about 640 μm, between about 290 μm and about 710 μm, between about 360 μm and about 780 μm, or between about 430 μm and about 850 μm. In terms of upper limits, the wet layer thickness can be, for example, no more than about 850 μm, e.g., no more than about 780 μm, no more than about 710 μm, no more than about 640 μm, no more than about 570 μm, no more than about 500 μm, no more than about 430 μm, no more than about 360 μm, no more than about 290 μm, or no more than about 220 μm. In terms of lower limits, the wet layer thickness can be, for example, no less than about 150 μm, e.g., no less than about 220 μm, no less than about 290 μm, no less than about 360 μm, no less than about 430 μm, no less than about 570 μm, no less than about 640 μm, no less than about 710 μm, or no less than about 780 μm. Larger wet layer thicknesses, e.g., greater than about 850 μm, and smaller wet layer thicknesses, e.g., less than about 150 μm, are also contemplated.
[0085] The provided method generally further includes a step of evaporating the mixture of the solvent and the non-solvent to yield a microporous layer. Following the evaporation step, the microporous layer can have the desired nanogel concentration-associated properties described in Section IV. The concentration of the nanogel in the microporous layer following the evaporation step can be, for example, between about 1.5 wt%and about 15 wt%, or any of the other nanogel concentrations described in Section IV.
[0086] The provided method generally further includes a step of fabricating a fibrous layer on (e.g., directly on) the microporous layer to produce the membrane (i.e., the multilayer membrane) . To fabricate the fibrous layer, co-axial electrospinning of a core solution and a shell solution is used to generate core-shell fibers. The core solution and the shell solution can be configured such that the core-shell fibers generated by the co-axial electrospinning are, for example, any of the core-shell fibers described in Section IV. For example, in some embodiments, the core solution includes an osteo-protective agent, e.g., a magnesium-containing bioceramic material such as struvite (e.g., struvite nanowires) . The concentration of the osteo-promotive agent in the fibrous layer generated by the co-axial electrospinning can be, for example, between about 1 wt%and about 15 wt%., or any of the other osteo-promotive agent concentrations described in Section IV. In some embodiments, the core solution includes a polyester (i.e., a core polyester) , e.g., poly (caprolactone) (PCL) . In some embodiments, the shell solution includes a gelatin (i.e., a shell gelatin) , e.g., gelatin A (GelA) .
[0087] In some examples, the provided method further includes one or more additional steps including, for example, drying the membrane, crosslinking the membrane, and / or administering the membrane to a subject as described in Section VI. VI. METHODS FOR ENTHESIS REPAIR
[0088] Another aspect of the present disclosure relates to methods for repairing a defect at a tendon–bone interface (i.e., at an enthesis) in a subject. The particular features of the methods have been shown to provide a subject with treatments benefiting from the enhanced characteristics of the membranes disclosed herein. The methods generally include implanting a membrane in a subject. The membrane can be, for example, any of those described in Sections IV or V. The membrane can be implanted in the subject at a location proximate to an interfacial defect of the subject, e.g., at the site of the tendon–bone interface.
[0089] Generally, the membrane is implanted in a subject in an orientation that maximizes the different benefits of the separate chondro-and osteo-promotive layers of the membrane. For example, the membrane can be implanted with the microporous layer of the membrane adjacent to soft tissue (e.g., tendon and / or cartilage) of the subject proximate to the defect site, and with the fibrous layer of the membrane adjacent to hard tissue (e.g., bone) of the subject proximate to the defect site.
[0090] The defect of the subject can be the result of, for example, a trauma, an injury, overuse, a degenerative disease, aging, or a genetic disorder. Accordingly, the provided membrane can be implemented in treatments related to, for example, sports injuries or elder care. In some embodiments, the defect site includes a rotator cuff tear. Defects that can be repaired with the provided graft material include defects involving the supraspinatus tendon. Exemplary defects include a diseased, degenerated, or damaged, e.g., torn, enthesis.
[0091] In some embodiments, the method further includes evaluating the subject to determine the nature of the defect that requires repair, and the characteristics of the membrane appropriate to treat the subject. The evaluating of the subject can include medical imaging, such as X-ray imaging, MRI scans, or CT scans, which can provide dimensions of the defect site, and can be utilized for determining the desired configuration, such as size and / or shape, of the membrane to be implanted. VII. EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS
[0092] The following embodiments are contemplated. All combinations of features and embodiments are contemplated.
[0093] Embodiment 1: A multilayer membrane comprising: a microporous layer comprising a nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent; and a fibrous layer comprising core-shell fibers having a core that encapsulates an osteo-promotive agent.
[0094] Embodiment 2: An embodiment of embodiment 1, wherein the chondro-promotive agent comprises kartogenin.
[0095] Embodiment 3: An embodiment of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the nanogel comprises a thermoresponsive polymer.
[0096] Embodiment 4: An embodiment of embodiment 3, wherein the thermoresponsive polymer comprises poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) .
[0097] Embodiment 5: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-4, wherein the nanogel is crosslinked with N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) .
[0098] Embodiment 6: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-5, wherein the nanogel is coated with a cationic polymer.
[0099] Embodiment 7: An embodiment of embodiment 6, wherein the cationic polymer comprises poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) .
[0100] Embodiment 8: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-7, wherein the nanogel has a concentration in the microporous layer about 1.5 wt%and 15 wt%.
[0101] Embodiment 9: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-8, wherein the microporous layer comprises a polymer scaffold, and wherein the nanogel is dispersed in the polymer scaffold.
[0102] Embodiment 10: An embodiment of embodiment 9, wherein the polymer scaffold comprises a scaffold polyester and a scaffold gelatin.
[0103] Embodiment 11: An embodiment of embodiment 10, wherein the scaffold polyester comprises poly (caprolactone) (PCL) .
[0104] Embodiment 12: An embodiment of embodiment 10 or 11, wherein the scaffold gelatin comprises gelatin A.
[0105] Embodiment 13: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 10-12, wherein the weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer scaffold is between about 0.2: 1 and 5: 1.
[0106] Embodiment 14: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-13, wherein the osteo-promotive agent comprises a magnesium-containing bioceramic material.
[0107] Embodiment 15: An embodiment of embodiment 14, wherein the magnesium-containing bioceramic material comprises struvite.
[0108] Embodiment 16: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-15, wherein the osteo-promotive agent has a concentration in the fibrous layer between about 1 wt%and about 10 wt%.
[0109] Embodiment 17: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-16, wherein the core of the core-shell fibers comprises a core polyester.
[0110] Embodiment 18: An embodiment of embodiment 17, wherein the core polyester comprises poly (caprolactone) (PCL) .
[0111] Embodiment 19: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-18, wherein the core-shell fibers have a shell comprising a shell gelatin.
[0112] Embodiment 20: An embodiment of embodiment 19, wherein the shell gelatin comprises gelatin A (GelA) .
[0113] Embodiment 21: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-20, wherein the microporous layer has a thickness between about 100 μm and about 200 μm.
[0114] Embodiment 22: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-21, wherein the multilayer membrane exhibits a yield strength between about 1.75 MPa and about 2.75 MPa.
[0115] Embodiment 23: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-22, wherein the multilayer membrane exhibits a Young’s modulus between about 8 MPa and about 18 MPa.
[0116] Embodiment 24: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 1-23, wherein the multilayer membrane exhibits an elongation rate between about 40%and about 140%.
[0117] Embodiment 25: A nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent, wherein the nanogel comprises a thermoresponsive polymer and is coated with a cationic polymer.
[0118] Embodiment 26: An embodiment of embodiment 25, wherein the chondro-promotive agent comprises kartogenin.
[0119] Embodiment 27: An embodiment of embodiment 25 or 26, wherein the thermoresponsive polymer comprises poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) .
[0120] Embodiment 28: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 25-27, wherein the nanogel is crosslinked with N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) .
[0121] Embodiment 29: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 25-28, wherein the cationic polymer comprises poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) .
[0122] Embodiment 30: An embodiment of any one of embodiments A method of producing a multilayer membrane, the method comprising forming a dispersion of a nanogel in a polymer solution, the polymer solution comprising a pre-scaffold polymer dissolved in a mixture of a solvent and a non-solvent; casting the dispersion to produce a wet layer having a target thickness; evaporating the mixture of the solvent and the non-solvent to yield a microporous layer, the microporous layer having a target concentration of the nanogel; and fabricating a fibrous layer on the microporous layer, thereby producing the multilayer membrane, wherein the fibrous layer comprises core-shell fibers generated on the microporous layer by co-axial electrospinning of a core solution and a shell solution.
[0123] Embodiment 31: An embodiment of embodiment 30, wherein the method further comprises: crosslinking the multilayer membrane.
[0124] Embodiment 32: An embodiment of embodiment 30 or 31, wherein the nanogel is conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent.
[0125] Embodiment 33: An embodiment of embodiment 32, wherein the chondro-promotive agent comprises kartogenin.
[0126] Embodiment 34: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-33, wherein the core solution comprises an osteo-promotive agent.
[0127] Embodiment 35: An embodiment of embodiment 34, wherein the osteo-promotive agent comprises a magnesium-containing bioceramic material.
[0128] Embodiment 36: An embodiment of embodiment 35, wherein the magnesium-containing bioceramic material comprises struvite.
[0129] Embodiment 37: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 34-36, wherein the osteo-promotive agent has a concentration in the fibrous layer between about 1 wt%and about 10 wt%.
[0130] Embodiment 38: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-37, wherein the target thickness of the wet layer is between about 150 μm and about 850 μm.
[0131] Embodiment 39: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-38, wherein the target concentration of the nanogel is between about 1.5 wt%and 15 wt%.
[0132] Embodiment 40: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-39, wherein the pre-scaffold polymer has a concentration in the polymer solution that is between about 5 wt%and about 25 wt%.
[0133] Embodiment 41: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-40, wherein the volume ratio of the solvent to the non-solvent in the mixture is between about 5: 1 and about 100: 1.
[0134] Embodiment 42: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-41, wherein the solvent comprises an alcoholic organic solvent, and the non-solvent comprises a non-alcoholic organic solvent.
[0135] Embodiment 43: An embodiment of embodiment 42, wherein the alcoholic organic solvent comprises 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3-hexafluoro-2-propanal (HFIP) .
[0136] Embodiment 44: An embodiment of embodiment 42 or 43, wherein the non-alcoholic organic solvent comprises dimethylformamide (DMF) .
[0137] Embodiment 45: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-44, wherein the nanogel comprises a thermoresponsive polymer.
[0138] Embodiment 46: An embodiment of embodiment 45, wherein the thermoresponsive polymer comprises poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) .
[0139] Embodiment 47: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-46, wherein the nanogel is crosslinked with N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) .
[0140] Embodiment 48: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-47, wherein the nanogel is coated with a cationic polymer.
[0141] Embodiment 49: An embodiment of embodiment 48, wherein the cationic polymer comprises poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) .
[0142] Embodiment 50: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-49, wherein the pre-scaffold polymer comprises a scaffold polyester and a scaffold gelatin.
[0143] Embodiment 51: An embodiment of embodiment 50, wherein the weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the mixture is between about 0.2: 1 and 5: 1.
[0144] Embodiment 52: An embodiment of embodiment 50, wherein the scaffold polyester comprises poly (caprolactone) (PCL) .
[0145] Embodiment 53: An embodiment of embodiment 50 or 52, wherein the scaffold gelatin comprises gelatin A.
[0146] Embodiment 54: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-53, wherein the core solution comprises a core polyester.
[0147] Embodiment 55: An embodiment of embodiment 54, wherein the core polyester comprises poly (caprolactone) (PCL) .
[0148] Embodiment 56: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-55, wherein the shell solution comprises a shell gelatin.
[0149] Embodiment 57: An embodiment of embodiment 56, wherein the shell gelatin comprises gelatin A (GelA) .
[0150] Embodiment 58: An embodiment of any one of embodiments 30-57, wherein the microporous layer has a thickness between about 100 μm and about 200 μm.
[0151] Embodiment 59: A method of repairing a defect at a tendon–bone interface of a subject, the method comprising implanting the multilayer membrane of any one of claims 1-24 in the subject proximate to the defect.
[0152] Embodiment 60: An embodiment of embodiment 59, wherein the implanting comprises positioning the microporous layer of the multilayer membrane adjacent to a tendon of the subject, and the fibrous layer of the multilayer membrane adjacent to a bone of the subject.
[0153] Embodiment 61: An embodiment of embodiment 59 or 60, wherein the defect comprises a rotator cuff tear. EXAMPLES
[0154] The present disclosure will be better understood in view of the following non-limiting examples. The following examples are intended for illustrative purposes only and do not limit in any way the scope of the present invention.
[0155] In the following examples of the materials and methods disclosed herein, kartogenin (KGN) -conjugated poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) nanogel (nGel) particles with weak positive surface charge were synthesized for use as chondro-inductive factors showing enhanced solubility and biocompatibility compared to single KGN molecules. In addition, the magnesium (Mg) -containing bioceramic, struvite, was recruited as the osteo-promotive agent to accelerate interface tissue repair. Further, a biphasic tissue mimetic membrane was fabricated through a casting procedure involving non-solvent induced phase separation (casting-NIPS) followed by co-axial electrospinning. The biphasic tissue mimetic membrane included a nGel-KGN-laden polycaprolactone (PCL) -gelatin A (GelA) microporous layer and a mineralized PCL-GelA core-shell nanofibrous layer with struvite encapsulated in the PCL core. The fabricated membrane was implanted between tendon and bone in a rat rotator cuff tear model, where the upper nGel-KGN-laden microporous layer simulated the interfacial unmineralized region while the lower struvite-containing fibrous layer mimicked the mineralized region (FIG. 1) . As an in-situ vehicle tuning spatiotemporal release of nGel-KGN and struvite to construct an inductive microenvironment, this tissue mimetic membrane provided region-specific compositional (i.e., mineralized gradient) and topographical cues to guide the healing process. In vitro and in vivo observations revealed the promotive effect of this tissue mimetic membrane and the beneficial role of the co-release of nGel-KGN / struvite on augmenting fibrocartilaginous tissue regeneration, indicating promising clinical curative efficacy in interface tissue repair.Example 1. Synthesis of positively charged nGel-KGN particles
[0156] Fluorescent amino-functionalized poly (N-isopropylmethacrylamide) (PNIPMAM) nGel particles were synthesized via a free-radical precipitation polymerization followed by a seeded precipitation polymerization. In a typical reaction, 137.2 mM N-isopropylmethacrylamide (NIPMAM) , 2.8 mM N, N′-methylenebis (acrylamide) (BIS) , and 8 mM sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) were first dissolved in 100 mL deionized water (D. I. H2O) to obtain a homogenous solution. The solution was then heated to 70 ℃ under a N2 atmosphere in a reaction flask. Subsequently, 0.1 mM fluorescein O-acrylate was dissolved to obtain a solution in light green color. After the temperature was stable at 70 ℃ for a further 30 min under a N2 atmosphere, 1 mL of 0.8 M ammonium persulfate (APS) solution was injected to initiate the polymerization reaction. After 4 h, the polymerization was terminated, and the product was purified using a 0.22 μm syringe filter.
[0157] The synthesized nanogel core particles were then utilized as the seeds for the growth of an amino-functionalized polymer shell. Typically, 48.75 mM NIPMAM, 1 mM BIS, and 0.25 mM N- (3-aminopropyl) methacrylamide hydrochloride (AMPA) were dissolved in 39.5 mL D. I. H2O to obtain a monomer solution. and 0.0577 g SDS was dissolved in 10 mL nanogel core solution in a reaction flask. Then, the prepared monomer solution was transferred to the flask under vigorous stirring and heated to 70 ℃ under a N2 atmosphere. After the temperature was stable for 30 min, 1.5 mL of 0.05 M APS solution was added to initiate the polymerization reaction. After 4 h, the reaction was terminated via cooling. The product was dialyzed (MWCO: 12–14 kDa) in D. I. water for 3–5 days to remove any unreacted molecules and short-chain polymers. Following dialysis, the solution was lyophilized to obtain the dry fluorescent amino-functionalized nGel particles.
[0158] Next, KGN molecules were conjugated to the surface of nGel particles via EDC / NHS coupling reaction. Briefly, 88.3 mg nGel particles were dissolved in 35 mL N, N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) to prepare a homogeneous suspension. 1.4 mg KGN, 0.84 mg 1- (3-dimethylaminopropyl) -3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC·HCl) , and 0.51 mg N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) were dissolved in 3 mL DMF and shaken for 2 h at room temperature. Then, this solution was added to the nGel suspension and reacted at room temperature on a shaker overnight. After reaction, the product was dialyzed (MWCO: 12–14 kDa) in D. I. H2O for 3–5 days for purification. The purified solution was then lyophilized to obtain the dry nGel-KGN particles. Subsequently, the nanogel-KGN particles were coated with poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) polymer by simple mixing and sonication. Typically, 4 mg / mL nGel-KGN particles and 1 mg / mL PEI (branched, Mw. ~25,000) were mixed in D. I. H2O and sonicated for 5 min. Then, the mixture was dialyzed (MWCO: 50 kDa) in D. I. H2O to remove any free PEI polymers. After purification, the product was lyophilized to obtain the positive-charged nGel-KGN particles.Example 2. Synthesis of struvite (St. ) nanowires
[0159] Struvite nanowires were synthesized by a controlled crystallization method. Briefly, a solution A containing 1 mg / mL magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCl2·6H2O) and a solution B containing 2.3 mg / mL ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (NH4H2PO4) and 2.1 mg / mL ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) were prepared. Then, 10 mL solution B was added to 40 mL solution A under continuous stirring to obtain a homogeneous solution. After that, 1.75 g sodium chloride (NaCl) was dissolved into the as-prepared solution. Then, 10 M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used to adjust the pH value of the solution to around 11.0. White precipitation gradually appeared as the pH increase and the suspension was stirred for 24 h at room temperature. Then, the product was purified using absolute ethanol, and subsequently vacuum dried at room temperature for 3 days.Example 3. Fabrication of the dual-layer tissue mimetic membrane
[0160] A tissue mimetic membrane was fabricated using a non-solvent induced phase separation (NIPS) strategy followed by co-axial electrospinning (ES) . Firstly, a microporous layer was prepared using a polymer / nGel-KGN mixed solution. The 15%w / v polymer blend solution was prepared by dissolving polycaprolactone (PCL) and gelatin A (GelA) at a weight ratio of 1: 1 into a mixed solvent of 1, 1, 1, 3, 3, 3-hexafluoro-2-propanal (HFIP) and DMF at a 20: 1 volume ratio, in which nGel-KGN particles were homogeneously dispersed. The prepared solution was then casted onto a silicon paper with a casting blade, where the wet film thickness was set to 500 μm or 1000 μm. NIPS occurred during evaporation and eventually formed the microporous layers with particle concentrations of 0 wt%and 5 wt%. The obtained microporous layers were designated as 500 μm casting, 500 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN, and 1000 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN.
[0161] Subsequently, the mineralized core-shell fibrous layer composed of a PCL or PCL / St. core and a GelA shell was produced directly on the prepared microporous layer through co-axial electrospinning. The core solution was prepared by dissolving 10%w / v PCL into HFIP, in which the St. nanowires were homogeneously dispersed. The sheath solution was prepared by dissolving 10%w / v GelA in HFIP. The co-axial electrospinning was performed using a co-axial spinneret consisting of an inner needle (20 G) and an outer needle (14 G) . The core and sheath solutions were delivered to the inner and outer needles using two syringe pumps at the flow rate of 0.4 mL / h and 0.6 mL / h, respectively, and then electrospun for 10 h at a working distance of 12 cm and an applied voltage of 15–17 kV to produce core-shell fibrous layers with St. concentrations of 0 wt%and 4 wt%. The fabricated fibrous layers were designated as ES and ES / 4%St.
[0162] After absolutely drying, the fabricated dual-layer tissue mimetic membranes were crosslinked in EDC / NHS solution (25 mM EDC and 10 mM NHS in absolute ethanol) for 15–20 min. After crosslinking, the membranes were washed with absolute ethanol, and dried at room temperature. Eventually, three tissue mimetic membranes were prepared by tuning the composition. These were designated as Grp 1 (500 μm casting + ES) , Grp 2 (500 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN + ES / 4%St. ) , and Grp 3 (1000 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN + ES / 4%St. ) .Example 4. Characterization of the biphasic structures and mineral gradients of the tissue mimetic membranes
[0163] To characterize the nGel-KGN nanoparticles, nGel-KGN particle morphology was examined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) at the accelerated voltage of 120 kV. Further, the size (diameter) distribution of the dry nGel-KGN particles was analyzed based on TEM images using ImageJ software. The hydrodynamic size distribution of the nGel-KGN particles was determined via a dynamic light scattering analyzer at 25 ℃ and 37 ℃ to examine the phase stability in the physiological environment. Particle zeta potential was measured using the same instrument at 37 ℃. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) measurements of the nGel-KGN particles in 2.5 mM HEPES buffer at 1.25 mg / mL were performed with a NanoSight LM10 instrument at 25 ℃ and 37 ℃. The video frame of nGel-KGN particles was extracted via the ImageJ software. The ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrum of KGN, nGel, and nGel-KGN was measured using a UV-Vis spectrometer (UV-3600 Plus, Shimadzu, Japan) . The KGN, nGel, and nGel-KGN were dispersed in DMSO to prepare a transparent suspension. The UV-Vis spectrum was recorded from 450 nm to 220 nm at a scanning rate of 0.5 nm / s.
[0164] To characterize the struvite nanowires, their internal structure was examined by TEM at 120 kV. The spatial distribution of the elements in struvite nanowires was examined via scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) followed by energy X-ray dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) at 200 kV.
[0165] To characterize the prepared membranes, the surface morphologies of the fabricated membranes were examined by SEM at the accelerating voltage of 10 kV after being sputtered with gold (Au) nanoparticles. The cross-sectional surface of three tissue mimetic membranes was obtained by cutting the samples in liquid nitrogen after the samples were immersed for 5 min, and the cross-sectional morphology was then observed by SEM under the same operating conditions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis was conducted at 120 kV to examine the internal structure and the elemental composition of the struvite nanowires and polymer–ceramic composite fibers. For the preparation of TEM samples, the core-shell fibers were directly electrospun onto the carbon-coated copper grid and dried in the air. STEM (Tecnai F20 ST, FEI, USA) followed by EDS was conducted at 200 kV to examine the internal structure and the elemental composition of PCL / St. -GelA core-shell fibers. The thickness of different layers and three types of tissue mimetic membranes was measured using a thickness gauge with micrometer accuracy.
[0166] The produced nGel-KGN particles displayed a spherical shape with an average size of 44.9 ± 11.6 nm in the dry state (FIGS. 2 and 3) . A significant increase of the hydrodynamic size (73.1 ± 0.8 nm at 25 ℃) was observed for the nGel-KGN particles after being swollen by HEPES buffer (FIG. 4) . Considering that the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the thermoresponsive PNIPMAM polymer is ~44 ℃, the nGel-KGN particles remained highly swollen with negligible shrinkage (67.9 ± 0.1 nm) when the temperature was increased to 37 ℃, implying satisfactory phase stability in the body (FIG. 4) . Further, the valid conjugation of the KGN molecules onto the nGel surface was confirmed by observations of strong UV absorption at ~277 nm (FIG. 5) . Through physical adsorption driven by polymer chain entanglement, the neutral nGel-KGN particles were coated with a small amount of cationic PEI polymers and gained a weak positive charge (5.6 ± 0.5 mV) (FIG. 6) that can promote the introduction of drugs into cells. The synthesized cationic nGel-KGN was readily incorporated as chondro-inductive agents within a microporous polymer composite layer through a casting-NIPS method. The small portion of the non-solvent (i.e., DMF) drove the liquid-liquid phase separation, where the polymer-rich phase formed as the nuclei first and gradually grew into secondary particles. The subsequent coagulation of secondary particles contributed to a highly interconnected microporous structure in the resulting dry membrane. After crosslinking, the surface porosity decreased, leading to the formation of a targeting selective-permeable microporous layer with homogenously dispersed nGel-KGN particles (FIG. 7) , which can exclude the scar tissue interference and deliver chondro-inductive cues in vivo.
[0167] Struvite nanowires with nano-sized diameter and high phase purity were successfully synthesized through a controlled crystallization strategy (FIG. 8) . The major compositional elements of phosphorous (P) , magnesium (Mg) , oxygen (O) , and nitrogen (N) evenly distributed throughout the struvite nanowires as evidenced from EDS mapping (FIG. 9) . These nanowire-like particles were then encapsulated into the core-shell polymer fibers via co-axial electrospinning. The core-shell structures of the PCL / St. -GelA nanofibers were visualized by TEM imaging. The struvite nanowire was embedded within the PCL core along the fiber orientation (FIG. 10) , as further verified by the strong signal of the characteristic compositional elements, Mg and P, in EDS analysis (FIG. 11) .
[0168] Consequently, three kinds of tissue mimetic membranes with different structures, thickness, and compositions were fabricated: 500 μm casting + ES (Grp 1) , 500 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN + ES / 4%St (Grp 2) , and 1000 μm casting / 5%nGel-KGN + ES / 4%St (Grp 3) (FIGS. 7, 12, 13) . The cross-sectional morphological analysis revealed the good cohesion of the two layers in three groups, demonstrating the well-constructed biphasic structures (FIG. 12) .Example 5. Mechanical performance, controllable release behavior, and biodegradation tendency of the tissue mimetic membranes
[0169] To determine the mechanical performance of the prepared membranes, the mechanical properties of the membranes at wet state were examined with tensile tests using a material test system. The system used a 50 N load cell at a crosshead speed of 5 mm / min and was operated at ambient temperature. All samples were cut into rectangles with dimensions of 10 mm × 50 mm (n = 3) , and then immersed into D. I. H2O for 5 min to allow absolute wetting before testing. The thickness of each membrane was measured using a thickness gauge with micrometer accuracy. The elastic modulus, tensile strength, and elongation rate were then calculated from the strain-stress curves.
[0170] A release test was used to determine in vitro release and degradation behaviors of the membranes. In the release test, sterile Grp 2 and Grp 3 membranes were cut into rectangles having a size of 2 cm × 2 cm, accurately weighed, and then separately soaked in 5 mL sterile phosphate buffer saline (PBS, 1×, pH 7.40) in 15 mL centrifuge tubes (n = 3) . The testing was conducted on a shaker with an agitation rate of 100 rpm, in a 37 ℃ incubator, for 14 days. At predetermined time intervals, the soaking liquid was partially collected and replaced by an equal volume of fresh PBS. Concentrations of magnesium ions (Mg2+) were determined using an Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) . Concentrations of released nGel-KGN particle were determined using a fluorescence spectrometer (F-7000, Hitachi, Japan) . The cumulative released concentration of Mg2+ and nGel-KGN particles from a 2 cm × 2 cm membrane was plotted against the time point to obtain the release profile of each membrane. The concentration of Mg2+ and nGel-KGN particles released at an indicated time point was presented as the concentration of Mg2+ released from a 2 cm × 2 cm membrane in 5 mL PBS. This data was plotted against time to obtain the release level at each indicated time point for each membrane.
[0171] The degradation test was conducted in PBS solutions. Sterile membrane was cut into squares with the size of 2 cm × 2 cm, accurately weighed, and then separately immersed into 5 mL sterile soaking solutions in 15 mL centrifuge tubes (n = 3) . The testing was conducted on a shaker with an agitation rate of 100 rpm, in a 37 ℃ incubator, for 56 days. At predetermined time intervals, the membrane was taken out, washed 3 times by D. I. H2O, completely dried at 37 ℃, and then weighed. After weighing, the samples were re-soaked with 5 mL fresh solution to complete the degradation test. The weight loss ratio (wt%) at the indicated time point was calculated according to Equation 1, in which m0 represents the initial weight of the sample, and m1 denotes the sample weight after degradation for the prescribed period. The weight loss ratio was plotted against time point for each membrane to determine a degradation profile. The data is expressed as the mean ± SD. Weight loss ratio (wt. %) = [ (m0-m1) / m0] × 100% (Equation 1) After 56-day degradation in PBS, the surface morphologies of Grp 1, Grp 2, and Grp 3 membranes were examined by SEM (Quanta-400, FEI, USA) at an accelerating voltage of 10 kV after sputtering with Au nanoparticles.
[0172] In view of the humidity of the physiological microenvironment, tensile tests were performed to evaluate the mechanical performance of the prepared membranes at wet state to simulate an in vivo application scenario (FIGS. 14-17) . No significant difference was found in the yield strength (σ) and Young’s modulus (E) of Grp 1 (σ = 2.18 ± 0.26 MPa, E = 18.19 ± 1.05 MPa) as compared to those of Grp 2 (σ = 2.10 ± 0.22 MPa, E = 12.61 ± 3.37 MPa) , suggesting that the nGel-KGN / struvite incorporation had little influence on the mechanical properties of the dual-phase membrane at the applied loading amount. The increase of the thickness of nGel-KGN-laden microporous layer induced remarkably impaired mechanical behaviors in the Grp 3 membrane (σ = 1.47 ± 0.12 MPa, E = 9.86 ± 1.99 MPa) (FIGS. 15 and 16) . Satisfyingly, all three membranes showed comparable mechanical strength to the most reported electrospun films applied for rotator cuff repair. Additionally, the high elongation rate of the three membranes demonstrated good deformability to ease an implantation procedure.
[0173] Owing to their good hydrophilicity, the embedded nGel-KGN and struvite can easily be transferred from the membrane matrix to the surrounding microenvironment during implantation. The release tendency of nGel-KGN was similar in Grp 2 and Grp 3, where a quick release occurred in the first day, followed by a more controllable release rate thereafter (FIG. 18) . The increased thickness of the nGel-KGN-laden microporous layer contributed to a higher loading amount of nGel-KGN in Grp 3, so the cumulative concentration of nGel-KGN was significantly higher in Grp 3 (~3.29 mg / mL) than that in Grp 2 (~1.29 mg / mL) after the 14-day release. However, the difference between nGel-KGN concentration level released from the two membranes became smaller after the third day (FIG. 18) .
[0174] To further determine the release behaviors of struvite, the concentration of the major degradation products (i.e., Mg ions (Mg2+) ) were measured, where these degradation products also play a potentially key role in promoting osteogenesis. A rapid increase of Mg2+ level was observed in both groups (Grp 1: ~0.35 mM; Grp 2: ~0.46 mM) after 1 day of release, following which the release rate gradually slowed (FIG. 19) . The release levels of Mg2+ continued to be comparable in Grp 2 and Grp 3, where these comparable levels corresponded to the similarity of the configuration of the struvite-incorporated fibrous layer. Together, these results indicate that the tissue mimetic membranes disclosed herein can generate a sustained and long-term delivery of these two therapeutic agents at a defected interface to aid in vivo tendon–bone healing.
[0175] During a period of immersion in PBS buffer, an apparent biodegradation tendency along with the damaged membrane structures was observed in all the three membranes (FIGS. 20 and 21) . The membranes of Grp 3 exhibited a mass loss of over 35 wt%after 56 days, higher than those of Grp 1 (~23 wt%) and Grp 2 (~20 wt%) . This observation could be attributed to the increased GelA content (i.e., the increased thickness of the microporous layer) and the decreased mechanical stability of these membranes. Intriguingly, the surface porosity and pore size of microporous layer were significantly enhanced by corrosive fluid (FIG. 21) , which can be a useful property for allowing tendon fiber insertion during late stages of repair.Example 6. In vitro biocompatibility and biofunctionality of the tissue mimetic membranes
[0176] To perform cell infiltration and adhesion assays, membranes were cut into squares having a size of 15 mm × 15 mm and sterilized by being immersed in 75%ethanol for 30 min and being exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation for 2 h. The sterile samples were mounted onto CELLCROWNTM transwells and fixed into a 24-well plate. MC3T3-E1 cells were then seeded onto the membrane at a density of 10,000 cells / cm2. After a 3-day cultivation, the samples were rinsed and then fixed with 3.7%formaldehyde. To determine the infiltration depth of the cells, the samples were stained with Alexa Fluor 546 phalloidin and DAPI and then imaged with a Nikon Eclipse Ti inverted microscope at exciting wavelengths of 543 nm (red, actin) and 408 nm (blue, nucleus) under a Z-stack mode with a step size of 1 μm. The Z-scanning started when the cells on the membrane first appeared and ended when the cells disappeared within the frame. The sequence of images (512 pixel × 512 pixel) was then processed with ImageJ software.
[0177] The adhesion and attachment behaviors of the preosteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells were observed via SEM imaging based on established protocols. MC3T3-E1 cells were seeded on the fibrous surfaces of sterilized samples as described above, at a density of 10,000 cells / cm2. On day 3, samples were rinsed and then fixed with 2.5%glutaraldehyde overnight at 4 ℃. After fixation, the samples were washed with PBS (10×, pH 7.40) to remove the residual crosslinking agent, and then subjected to gradient dehydration with 30, 50, 70, 90, 95, and 100 vol%ethanol. Finally, the samples were dried in the air overnight. The samples were then imaged through SEM at 10 kV after being sputtered with Au nanoparticles. Pseudocolor was added to the cells in the SEM images using ImageJ software. Cell spreading areas were then measured based on the SEM images using ImageJ software. The measurements were performed on 10–12 random cells from each sample.
[0178] To determine the in vitro barrier performance of the membranes, the barrier function of membranes was evaluated using NIH3T3 fibroblasts. After sterilization, a membrane with a size of 15 mm × 15 mm was mounted on a CELLCROWNTM transwell and fixed in a 24-well culture plate. NIH3T3 cells were carefully seeded on the microporous surface of the membrane at a density of 10,000 cells / cm2. The cell culture medium was refreshed every 2 days. After culturing for 5 days, the two sides of the membrane were observed by SEM after fixation, following the same protocol described in the cell adhesion test.
[0179] Osteogenic differentiation of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (rBMSCs) on the prepared membranes was evaluated through alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and Alizarin Red S (ARS) assays. After sterilization, a membrane with a size of 15 mm × 15 mm was mounted on the CELLCROWNTM transwell and fixed into a 24-well culture plate. Cells at passage 2 were seeded on the membranes at the density of 75,000 cells per membrane and cultured for 2 days to allow for optimal attachment. The cell culture medium was then replaced by the osteogenic induction medium for further induction. The medium was refreshed every 2 days. ALP staining was performed after induction for 7 days according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and the stained samples were then imaged with a digital camera and an optical microscope. After induction for 10 days, ARS staining was performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and the stained samples were then imaged. In both ALP and ARS assays, three parallel samples were used for each type of membrane.
[0180] Chondrogenic differentiation of rBMSCs on the prepared membranes was evaluated through Alcian blue staining. After sterilization, a membrane with a size of 15 mm × 15 mm was mounted on a CELLCROWNTM transwell and fixed in a 24-well culture plate. Cells at passage 2 were seeded on the membranes at a density of 75,000 cells per membrane and cultured for 2 days to allow for optimal attachment. The cell culture medium was then replaced by the chondrogenic induction medium for further induction. The medium was refreshed every 2 days. After induction for 21 days, Alcian blue / nuclear fast red staining was performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, and the stained samples were then imaged.
[0181] For determining the in vitro expression of fibrocartilage markers, the chondrogenic differentiation of rBMSCs was assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) to detect the expression of fibrocartilage marker, SRY-box transcription factor 9 (Sox9) . After sterilization, a membrane with a size of 35 mm × 35 mm was mounted on a CELLCROWNTM transwell and fixed in a 6-well culture plate. rBMSCs at passage 2 were seeded on the membranes at a density of 150,000 cells per membrane and cultured for 2 days to allow for optimal attachment. The cell culture medium was replaced by the chondrogenic induction medium for further induction. The medium was refreshed every 2 days. After induction for 7 days, the total RNA was extracted from the cells using TRIzol reagent according to the established protocol. The extracted RNA was quantified using ND-2000 spectrophotometer. Equal quantities (800 ng) of total RNAs from each sample were reverse transcribed to cDNA using a cDNA kit. cDNA was amplified with TB Green qPCR SuperMix-UDG and specific primer sequences (Table 1) . The RT-qPCRs were performed using a QUANTSTUDIOTM 12K Flex Real-time PCR system. To determine the mRNA level, a 2-△△Ct method was used to calculate the relative expression of mRNA normalizing to the house-keeping gene (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, Gapdh) . Table 1. Primer sequences for RT-qPCR.
[0182] Clearly apparent cellular infiltration was observed after the 3-day incubation in all three groups, with cells growing on the struvite / nGel-KGN-incorporated membranes (i.e., Grp 2 and Grp 3) , and these membranes displaying a larger infiltration as depth compared to the pure polymer membrane (i.e., Grp 1) (FIG. 22) . Moreover, remarkably enlarged cell spreading area was also found on Grp 2 and Grp 3 membranes in comparison with Grp 1, demonstrating the promotive effect of the bioactive ingredients on cell–material integration (FIG. 23) .
[0183] In the provided designs, the microporous layer is put near the tendon during in vivo repair to exclude invasive fibrovascular scar tissue at early stage. After a 5-day culture, the NIH3T3 fibroblasts grew well on all the three microporous surfaces, while no cell was found on the opposite fibrous surfaces, demonstrating the robust barrier effect (FIG. 24) . Also encouragingly, the attached fibroblasts displayed flattened and spread morphologies with a cellular layer formation, especially in Grp 2 (FIG. 25) . Because normal tendon is populated by elongated fibroblasts interspersed within aligned collagen fibrils, the unmineralized microporous layer can guide tendon-to-membrane ingrowth at the late stage of implantation.
[0184] The failure of spontaneous enthesis regeneration after tendon–bone injury is closely related to limitations to the number of stem cells at the lesion site, and restraints to the ability of these cells to concurrently differentiate towards the lineages of the enthesis. Here, the chondrogenesis and osteogenesis of rBMSCs seeded on the provided membranes were evaluated to investigate the bi-lineage promotive effect of the materials. After a 21-day induction, Alcian blue-positive cells were found on all three types of membranes, with Grp 2 exhibiting the densest stain (FIG. 26) . In addition, expression of the representative fibrocartilage marker, Sox9, was remarkably upregulated in Grp 2 and Grp 3 compared to Grp 1 (FIG. 27) . Since Alcian blue selectively binds with the cartilaginous extracellular matrix, and Sox9 is an important transcription factor involved in cartilage formation, these observations confirm the promotive effect of the released nGel-KGN on chondrogenic differentiation.
[0185] Further increasing the dose of nGel-KGN may induce an adverse effect, as evidenced by observed suppressed expression of Sox9, and the lower cell density in Grp 3 as compared to Grp 2 (FIGS. 18, 26, and 27) . On the other hand, significantly enhanced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity of the rBMSCs in Grp 2 after the 7-day incubation was confirmed by the most intense purple stain in comparison with the other two groups (FIG. 28) . Further, Alizarin Red S (ARS) staining was applied to visualize ECM mineralization, a late-stage osteogenic biomarker, after a 10-day incubation. Corresponding with the ALP staining results, Grp 2 displayed the darkest red stain along with the most calcium nodule formation among the three groups, thereby demonstrating substantially optimized osteogenesis, which is likely attributed to the osteoinductive struvite (FIG. 29) . Similar to the chondrogenesis, suppressed osteogenesis also appeared in Grp 3 as compared to Grp 2. This may be due to a negative effect on the stem cell proliferation and aggregation from excessive nGel-KGN particles. Taken together, these results demonstrate that released nGel-KGN and struvite can contribute to a bio-inductive microenvironment and drive the bi-lineage differentiation of stem cells, in a manner that can be dependent on specific dosing of nGel-KGN.Example 7. Regenerative capacity of tissue mimetic membranes for the repair of tendon-bone interface in rotator cuff tear (RCT) rats
[0186] Twelve-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats were used to establish a rotator cuff tear (RCT) model for determining bio-properties of the provided tissue mimetic membranes. All rats were kept at the Experimental Animal Center at the Prince of Wales Hospital in Hong Kong under a 12-hour light / dark cycle, 17–24 ℃ ambient temperature, 70%humidity, while receiving food and water ad libitum.
[0187] Animal surgeries were approved by the Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee of the Chinese University of Hong Kong (Ref. No.: 22-214-GRF) . The rats were randomly allocated into four RCT groups: control group (Ctrl, without membrane implantation) , group 1 (echoing to Grp 1) , group 2 (echoing to Grp 2) , and group 3 (echoing to Grp 3) . The rats were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of 75 mg / kg ketamine and 10 mg / kg xylazine. Rats were placed on a warming operating table while respiration and heart rates were monitored. A deltoid splitting incision with the length of 1.5–2 cm was made. Then, the acromioclavicular joint was separated to visualize the rotator cuff. The supraspinatus tendon was cut off at the bone insertion of the greater tuberosity. All soft tissues and fibrocartilage at the tendon–bone interface were debrided. Two non-absorbable 5-0 sutures were passed through the supraspinatus tendon in Mason-Allen fashion and bone tunnels drilled using a 25-gauge needle into the greater tuberosity. The membrane (3 mm × 3 mm, width × length) was inserted between the supraspinatus tendon and bone, with the microporous layer facing the tendon. The wound was subsequently sutured. All procedures were performed under aseptic conditions. Rats were sacrificed by intraperitoneal injection of an overdose of sodium pentobarbital at weeks 4 and 8 post-surgeries.
[0188] Gait analysis was performed to evaluate gait abnormality using the Catwalk XT 9.0 system. Each rat was trained to be familiar with the glass walkway where the rat walked ad libitum for paw print picking. Paw prints were automatically recorded when the rat entered the region of interest (ROI) . Paw prints were set as left forelimb, right forelimb, left hindlimb, and right hindlimb by the built-in software. Successful records for each rat included three times of one crossing that allowed a maximum 60%speed variation without any interruption. The paw prints were manually checked in the system to maintain correctness of the classifications. Gait parameters measured at week 8 post-surgery included the stand, maximal contact area, maximal contact AT, maximal intensity AT, swing, stride length, single distance, and duty cycle.
[0189] The humeral joints were scanned by a vivaCT40 micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging system with a resolution of 19 μm per voxel size. The scanner was set at a voltage of 70 kVp and a current of 114 μA. Twenty slices of the humeral subchondral bone around the growth plate were used to reconstruct a 3D image using the built-in software.
[0190] The biocompatibility of the implanted membranes was evaluated by SEM observations. Briefly, paraffin sections (5 μm thick) were chronologically dewaxed for 10 min twice using absolute xylene, and then immersed in absolute ethanol for 5 min. After air drying, the sections were imaged with SEM at 10 kV after sputtering with Au nanoparticles.
[0191] Rats were euthanized at weeks 4 and 8 post-surgeries. The isolated humeral joints were fixed in 4%paraformaldehyde (PFA) for 48 hours. Then the joints were decalcified in 12.5%ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA, pH 7.4) for 21 days at room temperature. The EDTA solution was changed every four days. The joints were embedded in paraffin and sectioned to 5 μm thickness for histological analysis. Sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) to observe the healing progress of tendon–bone interface. Safranin O / Fast green and Picro-Sirius Red staining were respectively performed for evaluating the fibrocartilaginous interface regeneration according to the established protocols.
[0192] The regenerative efficacy of the tissue mimetic membranes for the repair of tendon–bone interface was investigated using a RCT model in rats. The membrane was implanted at the supraspinatus tendon–bone interface with the microporous layer facing the tendon (FIG. 30) . At week 8 post-implantation, macroscopic images revealed a successful integration of the membrane with surrounding tissues (FIG. 31) . In Grp 3, the presence of residual membrane correlated with chronic bone erosion and remodeling, suggesting that a 500 μm casting microporous layer (~46 μm) is advantageous for the tendon ingrowth, while an increase of the thickness to ~113 μm (1000 μm casting microporous layer) retarded this process. X-ray and micro-CT imaging of the humerus indicated enhanced bone regeneration along with superior tissue–material integration in Grp 2 as compared to the other groups, implying high efficiency in stimulating the tendon–bone reattachment (FIGS. 32 and 33) . Additionally, SEM analysis showed extensive fibrous and cellular proliferation within the membrane layers, with cells displaying adaptability across all membrane-treated groups, especially for those in Grp 2 (FIG. 34) . Despite similarities in certain Cat-walk apparatus parameters across groups, the significant differences in relative Stand, Max Contact Area, and Swing demonstrated substantially improved functional behaviors of the rats in Grp 2, in comparison with the control group (FIGS. 35 and 36) . Together, these results demonstrated that the Grp 2 membrane provided a particularly effective augmentation for restoring the normal function of the rotator cuff, by mimicking the heterogeneous compositional and structural features of the native enthesis.
[0193] Although the foregoing disclosure has been described in some detail by way of illustration and example for purpose of clarity of understanding, one of skill in the art will appreciate that certain changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the disclosure may be practiced, e.g., within the scope of the appended claims. It should also be understood that aspects of the disclosure and portions of various recited embodiments and features can be combined or interchanged either in whole or in part. In the foregoing descriptions of the various embodiments, those embodiments which refer to another embodiment may be appropriately combined with other embodiments as will be appreciated by one of skill in the art. Furthermore, those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the foregoing description is by way of example only and is not intended to limit the disclosure. In addition, each reference provided herein is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes to the same extent as if each reference was individually incorporated by reference.
Claims
1.A multilayer membrane comprising:a microporous layer comprising a nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent; anda fibrous layer comprising core-shell fibers having a core that encapsulates an osteo-promotive agent.2.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the chondro-promotive agent comprises kartogenin.3.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the nanogel comprises a thermoresponsive polymer.4.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the nanogel is coated with a cationic polymer.5.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the nanogel has a concentration in the microporous layer about 1.5 wt%and 15 wt%.6.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the microporous layer comprises a polymer scaffold, and wherein the nanogel is dispersed in the polymer scaffold.7.The multilayer membrane of claim 6, wherein the polymer scaffold comprises a scaffold polyester and a scaffold gelatin.8.The multilayer membrane of claim 7, wherein the weight ratio of the scaffold polyester to the scaffold gelatin in the polymer scaffold is between about 0.2: 1 and 5: 1.9.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the osteo-promotive agent comprises a magnesium-containing bioceramic material.10.The multilayer membrane of claim 9, wherein the magnesium-containing bioceramic material comprises struvite.11.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the osteo-promotive agent has a concentration in the fibrous layer between about 1 wt%and about 10 wt%.12.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the core of the core-shell fibers comprises a core polyester.13.The multilayer membrane of claim 1, wherein the core-shell fibers have a shell comprising a shell gelatin.14.A nanogel conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent, wherein the nanogel comprises a thermoresponsive polymer and is coated with a cationic polymer.15.A method of producing a multilayer membrane, the method comprisingforming a dispersion of a nanogel in a polymer solution, the polymer solution comprising a pre-scaffold polymer dissolved in a mixture of a solvent and a non-solvent;casting the dispersion to produce a wet layer having a target thickness;evaporating the mixture of the solvent and the non-solvent to yield a microporous layer, the microporous layer having a target concentration of the nanogel; andfabricating a fibrous layer on the microporous layer, thereby producing the multilayer membrane, wherein the fibrous layer comprises core-shell fibers generated on the microporous layer by co-axial electrospinning of a core solution and a shell solution.16.The method of claim 15, wherein the method further comprises:crosslinking the multilayer membrane.17.The method of claim 15, wherein the nanogel is conjugated with a chondro-promotive agent.18.The method of claim 15, wherein the core solution comprises an osteo-promotive agent.19.The method of any one of claims 15-18, wherein the solvent comprises an alcoholic organic solvent, and the non-solvent comprises a non-alcoholic organic solvent.20.A method of repairing a defect at a tendon–bone interface of a subject, the method comprising implanting the multilayer membrane of any one of claims 1-13 in the subject proximate to the defect.
Citation Information
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