Compositions and methods related to activated carbon derived from a metal-organic salt

Abstract

The present disclosure generally relates to compositions comprising activated carbon derived from a metal-organic salt, and related methods and devices. According to some embodiments, the activated carbon is derived from a metal-organic salt precursor formed from a reaction between an organic acid and a metal-containing inorganic base. The metal-organic salt precursor may be purified by crystallization such that it contains a substantially low amount (or no amount) of impurities. Advantageously, in some embodiments, the controlled nature of the crystalline metal-organic salt precursor results in an activated carbon product without electrochemically active non-carbon contaminants (e.g., ash and / or transition metals) that are conventionally associated with activated carbon derived from biological feedstocks (e.g., biomass materials). The methods described herein, in certain embodiments, therefore provide a purer activated carbon composition that can be used in electrochemical devices (e.g., capacitors), affording longer cycling lifetimes, as compared to, for example, devices that include activated carbon derived from biological feedstocks.

Description

[0001] COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS RELATED TO ACTIVATED CARBON DERIVED

[0002] FROM A METAL-ORGANIC SALT

[0003] RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0004] This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 655,508, filed June 3, 2024, and entitled “Compositions and Methods Related to Activated Carbon Derived from a Metal-Organic Salt,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0005] FIELD

[0006] The present disclosure generally relates to compositions comprising activated carbon derived from a metal-organic salt, and related methods and devices.

[0007] BACKGROUND

[0008] Activated carbon (AC) as produced today for application into the electrodes of Electric Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs), also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors, is predominantly manufactured in four sequential stages which are both energy and resource intensive. In the first stage, biomass (most commonly waste coconut shells) is charred at high temperatures in anaerobic conditions to concentrate ordered carbon content via removal of oxygen, hydrogen, and weakly ordered carbons. In the second stage, this char is physically activated using high-temperature water vapor to further increase electrostatically active surface area (which for char is very low) and increase the durability, conductivity, and order of the carbon matrix. In the final two stages, AC undergoes comminution to achieve a certain particle size distribution (PSD) for optimal packing of AC into electrodes, as well as significant acid washing of the AC to remove electrochemically active contaminants present endogenously within the biomass feedstock. This multi-stage process not only requires significant resources and energy to carry out, but also invites unnecessary fugitive losses of active material along its critical path because of its complexity.

[0009] Improvements to this process which reduce resource requirements to the greatest extent are essential for expanding the reach and potential impact of EDLCs as a technology. EDLCs have already shown exceptional and unique performance characteristics that leverage their high power density to stabilize and bring resilience to electrified infrastructure powered by increasingly decarbonized generation. SUMMARY

[0010] The present disclosure generally relates to compositions comprising activated carbon derived from a metal-organic salt, and related methods and devices. In some embodiments, the present disclosure describes a one-pot method for activating a plurality of highly pure metalorganic salt crystals having a particle size distribution and shape which when transformed through activation embodies an optimal particle size and achievable electrode packing density, thus obviating the energy and resources needed to: (i) carry out more than one high-temperature activation; and (ii) process the activated carbon by comminution. The subject matter of the present disclosure involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and / or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and / or articles.

[0011] According to certain embodiments, a composition is described, the composition comprising activated carbon comprising a plurality of particles. In certain embodiment, the plurality of particles has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution with: (i) at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers; and (ii) a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon has a surface area greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 3000 m2 / g.

[0012] In some embodiments, a method of producing activated carbon is described. In certain embodiments, the method comprises pyrolyzing a crystalline salt of: (i) a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid; and (ii) an alkali metal, thereby producing the activated carbon.

[0013] According to certain embodiments, a method of producing activated carbon comprises pyrolyzing a crystalline potassium aromatic carboxylate salt, thereby producing the activated carbon.

[0014] In certain embodiments, a method of producing activated carbon comprises: exposing a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid to an alkali metal hydroxide to produce a crystalline alkali metal-organic salt; and pyrolyzing the crystalline alkali metalorganic salt at a temperature between greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1 ,200 °C, thereby producing the activated carbon. According to some embodiments, a method is described, the method comprising: exposing a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid to an alkali metal hydroxide to produce a mixture; and precipitating a crystalline alkali metal-organic salt from the mixture, wherein the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt comprises a plurality of crystalline particles having a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of a maximum particle size is less than or equal to 10 micrometers.

[0015] According to certain embodiments, a device is described, the device comprising an electronic component comprising activated carbon comprising a plurality of particles. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution with: (i) at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers; and (ii) a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4. In some embodiments, the activated carbon has a surface area between greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 3000 m2 / g.

[0016] Other advantages and novel features of the present disclosure will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the disclosure when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures.

[0017] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0018] Non-limiting embodiments of the present disclosure will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the disclosure shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the disclosure. In the figures:

[0019] FIG. 1A shows, according to certain embodiments, a schematic diagram of a device.

[0020] FIG. IB shows, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram of the device of FIG. 1 A.

[0021] FIG. 1C shows, according to certain embodiments, an expanded view schematic diagram of the cross-section of the device shown in FIG. IB. FIG. 2A shows, according to certain embodiments, a schematic diagram of a device comprising an electrolyte.

[0022] FIG. 2B shows, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram of the device of FIG. 2A.

[0023] FIG. 2C shows, according to certain embodiments, an expanded view schematic diagram of the cross-section of the device shown in FIG. 2B.

[0024] FIG. 3 shows, according to certain embodiments, the pore size distribution of a first activated carbon product after pyrolysis of potassium terephthalate.

[0025] FIG. 4 shows, according to certain embodiments the pore size distribution of a second activated carbon product after pyrolysis of potassium terephthalate.

[0026] DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0027] The present disclosure generally relates to compositions comprising activated carbon derived from a metal-organic salt, and related methods and devices. According to some embodiments, the activated carbon is derived from a metal-organic salt precursor formed from a reaction between an organic acid and a metal-containing inorganic base. The metal-organic salt precursor may be purified by crystallization such that it contains a substantially low amount (or no amount) of impurities. Advantageously, in some embodiments, the controlled nature and purity of the crystalline metal-organic salt precursor results in an activated carbon product without electrochemically active non-carbon contaminants (e.g., ash and / or transition metals) that are conventionally associated with activated carbon derived from biological feedstocks (e.g., biomass materials). The methods described herein, in certain embodiments, therefore provide a purer activated carbon composition that can be used in electrochemical devices (e.g., capacitors), affording longer cycling lifetimes, as compared to, for example, devices that include activated carbon derived from biological feedstocks.

[0028] The organic acid and the metal-containing inorganic base starting materials used to produce the metal-organic salt precursor may be available year-round from high-volume sources, therefore advantageously bypassing issues associated with biomass materials that have a specific growing season, are not always available, and / or deteriorate during storage. Any of a variety of suitable organic acids and / or metal-containing inorganic bases may be utilized, as described herein in greater detail. In certain embodiments, for example, relatively inexpensive aromatic hydrocarbons substituted with phenol groups and / or carboxylic acid groups (e.g., phenols, aromatic carboxylic acids, and / or phenol-carboxylic acids) may be reacted with an alkali metalcontaining inorganic base (e.g., a potassium-containing inorganic base, such as potassium hydroxide) to provide an alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., a potassium organic salt). Certain alkali metal-organic salts are advantageously non-volatile such that they decompose when pyrolyzed, rather than vaporizing.

[0029] Prior to pyrolysis, in accordance with certain embodiments, the metal-organic salt precursor can be crystallized to provide a plurality of crystalline particles with desirable sphericities (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.8) and / or particle size distributions (e.g., a particle size distribution with a D99 less than or equal to 20 micrometers as measured against the particles’ maximum characteristic dimension, and / or a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of less than 4). The crystalline particles of the metal-organic salt precursor may be pyrolyzed at a temperature greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1 ,200 °C to produce the activated carbon (or at other temperatures such as those described herein). Advantageously, during the pyrolysis process, the sphericity and the particle size of the metal-organic salt precursor may be maintained or decrease by a substantially small and predictable amount, therefore resulting in activated carbon comprising a plurality of particles having a desirable sphericity, particle size, and particle size distribution. For example, in some embodiments, a plurality of particles of activated carbon with a sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8, a particle size distribution with a D99 less than or equal to 20 micrometers, and / or a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of less than or equal to 4 is produced by pyrolyzing the crystalline metal-organic salt precursor. The particle size of the metal-organic salt precursor may, in some cases, depend on the composition of the organic acid used to produce the metal-organic salt precursor and / or the crystallization conditions. The wide variety of obtainable metal-organic salt precursor particle sizes advantageously allows for customization of the particle size of the resulting activated carbon particles, which can be optimized depending on the particular application, including addition of particles with two particle size distributions to each other for the creation of bimodal or trimodal particle size distributions. Furthermore, the compositions and methods described herein may advantageously eliminate comminution production steps that are typically associated with conventional activated carbon production processes to provide a desired particle size distribution, substantially reducing costs, material attrition, and / or contamination, etc. In certain embodiments where the alkali metal-organic salt precursor comprises potassium, the potassium may react with carbon during the pyrolysis process to form potassium metal in some cases. Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the potassium metal may intercalate into a mass of the carbon, thereby producing activated carbon with nanometer-scale pores. The resulting activated carbon compositions described herein advantageously may have desirable properties, including, for example, high sphericities, narrow particle size distributions, large micropore volume percentages, large surface areas, high bulk densities, high capacitance values (e.g., gravimetric specific capacitances and / or volumetric specific capacitances), etc. Accordingly, the activated carbon may be suitable for use in electrochemical devices, including in electric double layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors or ultracapacitors.

[0030] According to some embodiments, the composition comprises activated carbon. As used herein, the term “activated carbon” is given its ordinary meaning in the art. It may refer to a form of carbon that is processed (e.g., activated) to comprise a plurality of small-diameter pores that increase the surface area of the carbon to hundreds of meters squared per gram. Suitable carbon activation methods, activated carbon porosities, and activated carbon surface areas are described herein in greater detail.

[0031] According to certain embodiments, the activated carbon comprises a plurality of particles. In some embodiments, the activated carbon comprises a plurality of microparticles. The term “microparticle” is used herein in a manner consistent with its ordinary meaning in the art. Microparticles are particles having a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter) from 1 micrometer to 1000 micrometers, e.g., a dimension typically measured in micrometers. The maximum characteristic dimension of a particle refers to the longest dimension of the particle as measured from a first surface of the particle to a second surface of the particle that is substantially opposite the first surface.

[0032] The plurality of particles of the activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable sphericities. As used herein, the term “sphericity” is given its ordinary meaning in the art. Sphericity may refer to a measurement of how closely each particle of the plurality of particles resembles that of a perfect sphere. The sphericity of a particle may be determined according to Equation 1 (Eq. 1): wherein i is the sphericity, Vpis the volume of the particle, and Apis the surface area of the particle. The average sphericity of a plurality of particles may refer to the sum of particle sphericities according to Eq. 1 divided by the number of particles.

[0033] The plurality of particles of the activated carbon may each have any of a variety of suitable sphericities. According to certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8, greater than or equal to 0.82, greater than or equal to 0.84, greater than or equal to 0.86, greater than or equal to 0.88, greater than or equal to 0.9, greater than or equal to 0.92, greater than or equal to 0.94, greater than or equal to 0.96, greater than or equal to 0.98, or greater than or equal to 0.99. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has an average sphericity less than or equal to 1, less than or equal to 0.99, less than or equal to 0.98, less than or equal to 0.96, less than or equal to 0.94, less than or equal to 0.92, less than or equal to 0.9, less than or equal to 0.88, less than or equal to 0.86, less than or equal to 0.84, or less than or equal to 0.82. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8 and less than or equal to 1, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.9 and less than or equal to 0.92, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0034] According to some embodiments, at least 80% of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon (e.g., at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99% of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon) have an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8 and less than or equal to 0.9.

[0035] The plurality of particles of the activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable maximum particle sizes (i.e., maximum characteristic dimensions) and / or particle size distributions. In certain embodiments, the particle size distribution is expressed herein in terms of a Dxvalue wherein the value of x indicates the percentage of particles in the plurality of particles having a maximum particle size (i.e., a maximum characteristic dimension) less than or equal to the stated value. As an illustrative example, a D90 of less than or equal to 20 micrometers means that 90% of the plurality of particles have a maximum particle size less than or equal to 20 micrometers and 10% of the plurality of particles have a maximum particle size greater than 20 micrometers. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 (e.g., at least a D99.2, at least a D99.5, at least a D99.8, etc.) of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer, greater than or equal to 5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 10 micrometers, or greater than or equal to 15 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 (e.g., at least a D99.2, at least a D99.5, at least a D99.8, etc.) of less than or equal to 20 micrometers, less than or equal to 15 micrometers, less than or equal to 10 micrometers, or less than or equal to 5 micrometers. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 10 micrometers and less than or equal to 15 micrometers, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0036] In some embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99.7 (e.g., at least a D99.8, at least a D99.9, a D100) of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer, greater than or equal to 5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 10 micrometers, or greater than or equal to 15 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99.7 (e.g., at least a D99.8, at least a D99.9, a D100) of less than or equal to 20 micrometers, less than or equal to 15 micrometers, less than or equal to 10 micrometers, or less than or equal to 5 micrometers. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99.7 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with at least a D99.7 of greater than or equal to 10 micrometers and less than or equal to 15 micrometers, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0037] According to some embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a D100 less than or equal to 20 micrometers and greater than or equal to 1 micrometer. In certain embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter) less than or equal to 20 micrometers and greater than or equal to 1 micrometer.

[0038] According to certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon may have a particle size distribution such that a ratio of a D90 to a Dio is any of a variety of suitable values. According to some embodiments, the ratio of the D90 to the Dio is advantageously close to 1 (e.g., within 10-50% of 1, within 10-20% of 1, within 10% of 1), indicating that the particle size distribution is narrow. In some embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1, greater than or equal to 1.2, greater than or equal to 1.3, greater than or equal to 1.4, greater than or equal to 1.5, greater than or equal to 2, greater than or equal to 2.5, greater than or equal to 3, or greater than or equal to 3.5. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with a ratio of a D90 to Dio of less than or equal to 4, less than or equal to 3.5, less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2.5, less than or equal to 2, less than or equal to 1.5, less than or equal to 1.4, less than or equal to 1.3, or less than or equal to 1.2. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4, the plurality of particles of the activated carbon has a particle size distribution with a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.5 and less than or equal to 2). Other ranges are also possible.

[0039] According to certain embodiments, the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon is determined by optical microscopy combined with computer vision analysis and / or electron microscopy techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with computer vision analysis. In some embodiments, the maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., the maximum diameter) of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon is determined using a laser-diffraction liquid suspension particle sizing device.

[0040] In some embodiments, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of the maximum particle size (i.e., the maximum characteristic dimension) is any of a variety of suitable values. In certain embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of the maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., the maximum diameter) is greater than or equal to 0.1 micrometers, greater than or equal to 0.5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 1 micrometer, greater than or equal to 1.5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 2 micrometers, greater than or equal to 2.5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 3 micrometers, greater than or equal to 3.5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 4 micrometers, or greater than or equal to 4.5 micrometers. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of the maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., the maximum diameter) is less than or equal to 5 micrometers, less than or equal to 4.5 micrometers, less than or equal to 4 micrometers, less than or equal to 3.5 micrometers, less than or equal to 3 micrometers, less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers, less than or equal to 2 micrometers, less than or equal to 1.5 micrometers, less than or equal to 1 micrometer, or less than or equal to 0.5 micrometers. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of the maximum characteristic dimension is greater than or equal to 0.1 micrometers and less than or equal to 5 micrometers, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution such that a standard deviation of the maximum characteristic dimension is greater than or equal to 2 micrometers and less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0041] According to certain embodiments, the standard deviation of the maximum characteristic dimension of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon is determined by optical microscopy techniques and / or by electron microscopy techniques, such as SEM.

[0042] According to certain embodiments, the activated carbon is at least partially porous. For example, in some embodiments, the activated carbon comprises a plurality of pores. In some embodiments, the activated carbon is at least partially microporous. As used herein, the term “microporous” is given its ordinary meaning in the art. For example, a microporous material may be a material containing pores having a pore size, such as a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter), less than 2 nanometers. The maximum characteristic dimension of a pore refers to the longest dimension of the pore from a first surface of the pore to a second surface of the pore that is substantially opposite the first surface. In some embodiments, a “micropore” is a pore with a width (e.g., a maximum characteristic dimension) not exceeding 2 nanometers. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon is at least partially mesoporous. As used herein, the term “mesoporous” is given its ordinary meaning in the art, and can include a material containing pores having a pore size such as a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter), greater than or equal to 2 nanometers and less than or equal to 50 nanometers. In certain embodiments, a “mesopore” is a pore with an intermediate width (e.g., a maximum characteristic dimension). According to some embodiments, the activated carbon is not macroporous. As used herein, the term “macroporous” is given its ordinary meaning in the art. Typically, a macroporous material contains pores having a pore size, such as a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter), greater than 50 nanometers. In some embodiments, a “macropore” is a pore with a width (e.g., a maximum characteristic dimension) exceeding 50 nanometers.

[0043] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable micropore volume percentages. According to some embodiments, for example, greater than or equal to 50%, greater than or equal to 60%, greater than or equal to 70%, greater than or equal to 80%, greater than or equal to 90%, or greater than or equal to 95%, etc., of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores, i.e., pores having a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter) less than 2 nanometers. In certain embodiments, less than or equal to 100%, less than or equal to 95%, less than or equal to 90%, less than or equal to 80%, less than or equal to 70%, or less than or equal to 60%, etc., of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 80% and less than or equal to 100% of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores, greater than or equal to 80% and less than or equal to 90% of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores, etc.).

[0044] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable mesopore volume percentages. In certain embodiments, for example, less than or equal to 50%, less than or equal to 40%, less than or equal to 30%, less than or equal to 20%, less than or equal to 10%, or less than or equal to 5%, etc., of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores, i.e., pores having a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter) greater than or equal to 2 nanometers and less than or equal to 50 nanometers. In certain embodiments, greater than or equal to 1%, greater than or equal to 5%, greater than or equal to 10%, greater than or equal to 20%, greater than or equal to 30%, or greater than or equal to 40%, etc., of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., less than or equal to 20% and greater than or equal to 1% of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores, less than or equal to 10% and greater than or equal to 5% of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores, etc.).

[0045] Combinations of the above recited ranges of the micropore volume percentages and mesopore volume percentages in the preceding paragraphs are also possible. In certain nonlimiting embodiments, for example, greater than or equal to 70% (e.g., greater than or equal to 80%, greater than or equal to 90%, greater than or equal to 95%, etc.) of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores, and less than or equal to 30% (e.g., less than or equal to 20%, less than or equal to 10%, less than or equal to 5%, etc.) of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores. Other ranges are also possible.

[0046] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable surface areas. In certain embodiments, the surface area is advantageously high. In some embodiments, for example, the activated carbon has a surface area greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 750 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 1 ,000 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 1 ,250 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 1,500 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 1,750 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 2,000 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 2,250 m2 / g, greater than or equal to 2,500 m2 / g, or greater than or equal to 2,750 m2 / g. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon has a surface area less than or equal to 3,000 m2 / g, less than or equal to 2,750 m2 / g, less than or equal to 2,500 m2 / g, less than or equal to 2,250 m2 / g, less than or equal to 2,000 m2 / g, less than or equal to 1,750 m2 / g, less than or equal to 1,500 m2 / g, less than or equal to 1,250 m2 / g, less than or equal to 1,000 m2 / g, or less than or equal to 750 m2 / g. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the activated carbon has a surface area greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 3,000 m2 / g, the activated carbon has a surface area greater than or equal to 1,500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 2,000 m2 / g, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0047] According to certain embodiments, the surface area of the activated carbon is determined by adsorption and desorption of diatomic nitrogen, as analyzed using BET theory.

[0048] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable bulk densities. As used herein, the term “bulk density” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and refers to the mass of the activated carbon per unit volume, including the volume of pores within particles of the activated carbon (e.g., the intra-particle pores) and the volume of voids between particles of the activated carbon (e.g., the inter-particle voids).

[0049] According to some embodiments, the bulk density of the activated carbon is advantageously high. In certain embodiments, for example, the activated carbon has a bulk density greater than or equal to 0.3 g / cm3, greater than or equal to 0.35 g / cm3, greater than or equal to 0.4 g / cm3, greater than or equal to 0.45 g / cm3, greater than or equal to 0.5 g / cm3, or greater than or equal to 0.55 g / cm3, etc. In some embodiments, the activated carbon has a bulk density less than or equal to 0.6 g / cm3, less than or equal to 0.55 g / cm3, less than or equal to 0.5 g / cm3, less than or equal to 0.45 g / cm3, less than or equal to 0.4 g / cm3, or less than or equal to 0.35 g / cm3, etc. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the activated carbon has a bulk density greater than or equal to 0.3 g / cm3and less than or equal to 0.6 g / cm3, the activated carbon has a bulk density greater than or equal to 0.4 g / cm3and less than or equal to 0.6 g / cm3, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0050] According to some embodiments, the bulk density of the activated carbon is determined by a tapped density method.

[0051] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable gravimetric specific capacitances. As used herein, the term “gravimetric specific capacitance” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and may refer to the capacitance of a material per a unit of mass of the material.

[0052] According to some embodiments, the gravimetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon is advantageously high. In some embodiments, for example, the activated carbon has a gravimetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 25 F / g, greater than or equal to 30 F / g, greater than or equal to 35 F / g, greater than or equal to 40 F / g, greater than or equal to 45 F / g, greater than or equal to 50 F / g, greater than or equal to 55 F / g, greater than or equal to 60 F / g, greater than or equal to 65 F / g, greater than or equal to 70 F / g, greater than or equal to 75 F / g, greater than or equal to 80 F / g, greater than or equal to 85 F / g, greater than or equal to 90 F / g, or greater than or equal to 95 F / g, etc. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon has a gravimetric specific capacitance less than or equal to 100 F / g, less than or equal to 95 F / g, less than or equal to 90 F / g, less than or equal to 85 F / g, less than or equal to 80 F / g, less than or equal to 75 F / g, less than or equal to 70 F / g, less than or equal to 65 F / g, less than or equal to 60 F / g, less than or equal to 55 F / g, less than or equal to 50 F / g, less than or equal to 45 F / g, less than or equal to 40 F / g, less than or equal to 35 F / g, or less than or equal to 30 F / g. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the activated carbon has a gravimetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 25 F / g and less than or equal to 100 F / g, the activated carbon has a gravimetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 60 F / g and less than or equal to 65 F / g, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0053] According to some embodiments, the gravimetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon is determined using a two-electrode system containing an electrolyte of 1 M tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate (TEABF4) in acetonitrile, cycled at a minimum 10 A / g current density using a constant-current charge-discharge profile.

[0054] The activated carbon may have any of a variety of suitable volumetric specific capacitances. As used herein, the term “volumetric specific capacitance” is given its ordinary meaning in the art and may refer to the capacitance of a material per a unit of volume of the material as measured in a two-electrode electric double layer capacitor cell.

[0055] According to certain embodiments, the volumetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon is advantageously high. In some embodiments, for example, the activated carbon has a volumetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 15 F / cm3, greater than or equal to 20 F / cm3, greater than or equal to 25 F / cm3, greater than or equal to 30 F / cm3, or greater than or equal to 35 F / cm3, etc. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon has a volumetric specific capacitance less than or equal to 40 F / cm3, less than or equal to 35 F / cm3, less than or equal to 30 F / cm3, less than or equal to 25 F / cm3, or less than or equal to 20 F / cm3, etc. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the activated carbon has a volumetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 15 F / cm3and less than or equal to 40 F / cm3, the activated carbon has a volumetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 25 F / cm3and less than or equal to 30 F / cm3, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0056] According to certain embodiments, the volumetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon is determined by multiplying the bulk density of the activated carbon by the gravimetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon. In some embodiments, the volumetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon is determined by multiplying the electrode packed density of the activated carbon by the gravimetric specific capacitance of the activated carbon, where the electrode packed density of the activated carbon is defined as the packed density of activated carbon as applied in a dried and calendered electrode of approximately 7 mg / cm2mass loading, divided by the active material dry weight percent of the electrode.

[0057] In some embodiments, the activated carbon has an advantageously low non-carbon contaminant content. Non-carbon contaminants may include inorganic, non-carbon-containing compounds. According to some embodiments, the non-carbon contaminant comprises ash. The “ash” may be a solid, inorganic residue that remains after combustion of a material. Examples of ash include, but are not limited to, minerals and / or metal salts (e.g., oxides) of inorganic elements present in the original material prior to combustion. In certain embodiments, the non- carbon contaminant comprises a transition metal (e.g., scandium (Sc), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), yttrium (Y), zirconium (Zr), niobium (Nb), molybdenum (Mo), technetium (Tc), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), and the like) and / or an oxide thereof. In certain embodiments, the transition metal may be a neutral metal or an oxidized (i.e., cationic) transition metal.

[0058] According to some embodiments, the activated carbon comprises an advantageously low amount of non-carbon contaminants. In certain embodiments, for example, the activated carbon comprises non-carbon contaminants in an amount less than or equal to 0.1 weight percent (wt.%), less than or equal to 0.09 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.08 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.07 wt.%, or less than or equal to 0.06 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.05 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.04 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.03 wt.%, less than or equal to 0.02 wt.%, or less than or equal to 0.01 wt.%, etc., versus a total weight of the activated carbon. In some embodiments, the activated carbon comprises non-carbon contaminants in an amount greater than or equal to greater than or equal to 0.005 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.01 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.02 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.03 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.04 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.05 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.06 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.07 wt.%, greater than or equal to 0.08 wt.%, or greater than or equal to 0.09 wt.%, etc., versus a total weight of the activated carbon. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the activated carbon comprises non-carbon contaminants in an amount less than or equal to 0.1 wt.% and greater than or equal to 0.005 wt.% versus a total weight of the activated carbon, the activated carbon comprises non-carbon contaminants in an amount less than or equal to 0.06 wt.% and greater than or equal to 0.04 wt.% versus a total weight of the activated carbon, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0059] In certain embodiments, the amount of non-carbon contaminants in the activated carbon is determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry or proton-induced X-ray emission spectroscopy.

[0060] According to some embodiments, various methods of producing activated carbon are described. In certain embodiments, for example, the method comprises exposing an organic acid to a metal-containing inorganic base. The organic acid may include any of a variety of suitable organic acids. In some embodiments, for example, the organic acid is a phenol. A phenol may refer to a molecule comprising at least one hydroxyl (-OH) group directly bound to at least one phenyl (-CeHs) group.

[0061] According to certain embodiments, the phenol comprises the structure shown below in (I). wherein R1comprises a -OH group, a -C1-C10OH alkyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkenyl group, a - C3-C10OH alkynyl group, a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, and / or a -C3-C10COOH alkynyl group. In certain embodiments, one or more open positions of the aromatic ring in (I) are optionally substituted. For example, one or more hydrogen atoms bound to one or more aromatic carbons may be optionally substituted with a - C1-C10 alkyl group, a -C2-C10 alkenyl group, a -C2-C10 alkynyl group, a -OH group, a -Ci- C10OH alkyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkynyl group, a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkynyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, and / or a halogen. In some embodiments, the phenol comprises a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon having multiple aromatic rings (e.g., two aromatic rings, three aromatic rings, etc.), wherein at least one aromatic ring has the structure shown above in (I).

[0062] The phenol may comprise any of a variety of suitable phenols. In certain embodiments, for example, the phenol comprises phenol (CeHsOH), hydroquinone, catechol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, hydroxy quinol, phloroglucinol, and / or combinations thereof. Other phenols are also possible.

[0063] According to some embodiments, the organic acid is an aromatic carboxylic acid. An aromatic carboxylic acid may refer to a molecule comprising at least one carboxyl (-COOH) group directly or indirectly bound to at least one phenyl (-CeHs) group.

[0064] According to certain embodiments, the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises the structure shown below in (II). wherein R2comprises a -COOH group, a -Ci-CioCOOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, and / or a -C2-C10COOH alkynyl group. In certain embodiments, one or more open positions of the aromatic ring in (II) are optionally substituted. For example, one or more hydrogen atoms bound to one or more aromatic carbons may be optionally substituted with a - C1-C10 alkyl group, a -C2-C10 alkenyl group, a -C3-C10 alkynyl group, a -OH group, a -Ci- C10OH alkyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkynyl group, a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkynyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, and / or a halogen. In some embodiments, the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon having multiple aromatic rings (e.g., two aromatic rings, three aromatic rings, etc.), wherein at least one aromatic ring has the structure shown above in (II).

[0065] The aromatic carboxylic acid may comprise any of a variety of suitable aromatic carboxylic acids. In some embodiments, for example, the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises benzoic acid, phenylacetic acid, phthalic acid, isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, trimesic acid, hemimellitic acid, trimellitic acid, 1 -naphthoic acid, 2-naphthoic acid, 2,6- naphthalenedicarboxlic acid, and / or combinations thereof. Other aromatic carboxylic acids are also possible.

[0066] In certain embodiments, the organic acid is a phenol-carboxylic acid. A phenolcarboxylic acid may refer to a molecule comprising at least one hydroxyl (-OH) group and at least one carboxyl (-COOH) group directly or indirectly bound to at least one phenyl (-C6H5) group.

[0067] According to certain embodiments, the phenol-carboxylic acid comprises the structure shown below in (III). wherein R3comprises a -OH group, a -C1-C10OH alkyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkenyl group, a - C3-C10OH alkynyl group, a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, and / or a -C3-C10COOH alkynyl group, and wherein R4comprises a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkenyl group, and / or a -C2-C10COOH alkynyl group. In certain embodiments, one or more open positions of the aromatic ring in (III) are optionally substituted. For example, one or more hydrogen atoms bound to one or more aromatic carbons may be optionally substituted with a -C1-C10 alkyl group, a -C2-C10 alkenyl group, a -C2-C10 alkynyl group, a -OH group, a -C1-C10OH alkyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10OH alkynyl group, a -COOH group, a -C1-C10COOH alkyl group, a -C2- C10COOH alkenyl group, a -C2-C10COOH alkynyl group, an optionally substituted aryl group, and / or a halogen. In some embodiments, the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon having multiple aromatic rings (e.g., two aromatic rings, three aromatic rings, etc.), wherein at least one aromatic ring has the structure shown above in (III).

[0068] The phenol-carboxylic acid may comprise any of a variety of suitable phenol-carboxylic acids. In certain embodiments, for example, the phenol-carboxylic acid comprises a hydroxybenzoic acid, a dihydroxybenzoic acid, a trihydroxybenzoic acid, and / or combinations thereof. Other phenol-carboxylic acids are also possible.

[0069] The metal-containing inorganic base may include any of a variety of suitable metalcontaining inorganic bases. In some embodiments, the metal-containing inorganic base is an alkali metal-containing inorganic base. In certain embodiments, the alkali metal-containing inorganic base is an alkali metal hydroxide, an alkali metal carbonate, and / or an alkali metal bicarbonate. In some embodiments, for example, the alkali metal-containing inorganic base is potassium hydroxide (KOH), potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and / or potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3). Other metal-containing inorganic bases, including other alkali metal hydroxides, carbonates, and / or bicarbonates (e.g., lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), lithium bicarbonate (LiHCCh), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCCh), etc.), are also possible.

[0070] According to certain embodiments, the method comprises exposing the organic acid (e.g., the phenol, aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or phenol-carboxylic acid) to the metal-containing inorganic base (e.g., the alkali metal hydroxide) such that the organic acid and the metalcontaining inorganic base produce a mixture (e.g., a reaction mixture). In certain non-limiting embodiments, for example, the organic acid and the metal-containing inorganic base are dissolved in solution and stirred. In some embodiments, the organic acid and the metalcontaining inorganic base react in the mixture (e.g., in solution) to produce a product. In certain embodiments, the product is an alkali metal-organic salt. Suitable alkali metal-organic salts are described herein in greater detail.

[0071] In some embodiments, the method comprises precipitating the alkali metal-organic salt from the mixture. In accordance with certain embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt is precipitated as a crystalline solid. The crystalline solid can refer to a solid material whose constituents (e.g., atoms, molecules, and / or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that generally extends in all directions. According to certain embodiments, the crystalline solid of the alkali metal-organic salt may be crystallized to provide a higher quality crystalline solid containing less impurities and / or contaminants. The alkali metal-organic salt may be crystallized according to any of a variety of suitable methods, including, but not limited to, single-solvent recrystallization, multi-solvent recrystallization, hot filtration recrystallization, and / or seeding.

[0072] According to some embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) may comprise a plurality of particles (e.g., a plurality of crystalline particles). In some embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt comprises a plurality of microparticles (e.g., a plurality of crystalline microparticles). According to some embodiments, the plurality of particles may have any of a variety of suitable shapes (e.g., spherical or substantially spherical particles, rods, cubes, dodecahedrons, icosahedrons, cylinders, and the like).

[0073] The plurality of particles (e.g., the plurality of crystalline particles) of the alkali metalorganic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) may have any of a variety of suitable sphericities. According to certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the alkali metalorganic salt has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8, greater than or equal to 0.82, greater than or equal to 0.84, greater than or equal to 0.86, greater than or equal to 0.88, greater than or equal to 0.9, greater than or equal to 0.92, greater than or equal to 0.94, greater than or equal to 0.96, greater than or equal to 0.98, or greater than or equal to 0.99. In some embodiments, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has an average sphericity less than or equal to 1, less than or equal to 0.99, less than or equal to 0.98, less than or equal to 0.96, less than or equal to 0.94, less than or equal to 0.92, less than or equal to 0.9, less than or equal to 0.88, less than or equal to 0.86, less than or equal to 0.84, or less than or equal to 0.82. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8 and less than or equal to 1 , the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.9 and less than or equal to 0.92, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0074] According to some embodiments, at least 80% of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99% of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt) have an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8 and less than or equal to 0.9.

[0075] According to certain embodiments, the average sphericity of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt may be determined according to Eq. 1.

[0076] In some embodiments, as described herein in greater detail, the sphericity of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt may be maintained during pyrolysis and / or activation, such that the resulting activated carbon comprises a plurality of particles having a substantially similar average sphericity or an average sphericity that has decreased by a substantially small amount. For example, in certain embodiments the average sphericity of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon may vary by less than or equal to 20%, by less than or equal to 10%, by less than or equal to 5%, or by less than or equal to 1%, relative to the average sphericity of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt.

[0077] The plurality of particles (e.g., the plurality of crystalline particles) of the alkali metalorganic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) may have any of a variety of suitable maximum particle sizes (i.e., maximum characteristic dimensions) and / or particle size distributions. In some embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles of the alkali metalorganic salt has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 (e.g., at least a D99.7, at least a D99.8, at least a D99.9, a D100) of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer, greater than or equal to 5 micrometers, greater than or equal to 10 micrometers, or greater than or equal to 15 micrometers. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 (e.g., at least a D99.7, at least a D99.8, at least a D99.9, a D100) of less than or equal to 20 micrometers, less than or equal to 15 micrometers, less than or equal to 10 micrometers, or less than or equal to 5 micrometers. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 10 micrometers and less than or equal to 15 micrometers, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0078] According to some embodiments, the plurality of particles (e.g., the plurality of crystalline particles) of the alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) has a D100 less than or equal to 20 micrometers and greater than or equal to 1 micrometer. In certain embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., a maximum diameter) less than or equal to 20 micrometers and greater than or equal to 1 micrometer.

[0079] The plurality of particles (e.g., the plurality of crystalline particles) of the alkali metalorganic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) may have a particle size distribution such that a ratio of a D90 to a Dio is any of a variety of suitable values. In certain embodiments, for example, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1, greater than or equal to 1.2, greater than or equal to 1.3, greater than or equal to 1.4, greater than or equal to 1.5, greater than or equal to 2, greater than or equal to 2.5, greater than or equal to 3, or greater than or equal to 3.5. In certain embodiments, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with ratio of a D90 to a Dio of less than or equal to 4, less than or equal to 3.5, less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2.5, less than or equal to 2, less than or equal to 1.5, less than or equal to 1.4, less than or equal to 1.3, or less than or equal to 1.2. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4.0, the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt has a particle size distribution with ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.5 and less than or equal to 2). Other ranges are also possible.

[0080] According to certain embodiments, the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt is determined by optical microscopy techniques and / or by electron microscopy techniques such as SEM.

[0081] In some embodiments, as described herein in greater detail, the maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., the maximum diameter) and / or the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt may be maintained during pyrolysis and / or activation, such that the resulting activated carbon comprises a plurality of particles having a substantially similar maximum characteristic dimension and / or particle size distribution or a maximum characteristic dimension and / or a particle size distribution that has decreased by a substantially small amount. For example, in certain embodiments the maximum characteristic dimension and / or the particle distribution of the plurality of particles of the activated carbon may be different by less than or equal to 20%, less than or equal to 10%, less than or equal to 5%, or less than or equal to 1 % of the maximum characteristic dimension and / or particle size distribution of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt.

[0082] The alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) may include any of a variety of suitable alkali metal-organic salts. In certain embodiments, the organic acid comprises a phenol and the alkali metal-organic salt comprises a phenolate salt (e.g., an alkali metal phenolate salt, such as a potassium phenolate salt), which may also be referred to as a phenoxide salt. According to some embodiments, the phenolate salt (e.g., the alkali metal phenolate salt, such as the potassium phenolate salt) comprises a conjugate base of the structure shown above in (I), ionically bonded to one or more metal cations.

[0083] In certain embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt comprises an alkali metal phenolate salt, an alkali metal hydroquinolate salt, an alkali metal catecholate salt, an alkali metal resorcinolate salt, an alkali metal pyrogallolate salt, an alkali metal hydroxyquinolate salt, an alkali metal phloroglucinolate salt, and / or combinations thereof. Other phenolate salts are also possible.

[0084] In some embodiments, the organic acid comprises an aromatic carboxylic acid and the alkali metal-organic salt comprises an aromatic carboxylate salt (e.g., an alkali metal aromatic carboxylate salt, such as a potassium aromatic carboxylate salt). According to some embodiments, the aromatic carboxylate salt (e.g., the alkali metal aromatic carboxylate salt, such as the potassium aromatic carboxylate salt) comprises a conjugate base of the structure shown in

[0085] (II), ionically bonded to one or more metal cations.

[0086] In certain embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt comprises an alkali metal benzoate salt, an alkali metal phenylacetate salt, an alkali metal phthalate salt, an alkali metal isophthalate salt, an alkali metal terephthalate salt, an alkali metal benzene- 1, 3, 5-tricarboxylate salt, an alkali metal benzene- 1, 2, 3-tricarboxylate salt, an alkali metal benzene- 1, 2, 4-tricarboxylate salt, an alkali metal 1 -naphthoate salt, an alkali metal 2-naphthoate salt, an alkali metal 2,6- napthalenedicarboxylate salt, and / or combinations thereof. Other aromatic carboxylate salts are also possible.

[0087] In certain embodiments, the organic acid comprises a phenol-carboxylic acid and the alkali metal-organic salt comprises a phenolate-carboxylic acid salt (e.g., an alkali metal phenolate-carboxylic acid salt, such as a potassium phenolate-carboxylic acid salt), a phenolcarboxylate salt (e.g., an alkali metal phenol-carboxylate salt, such as a potassium phenolcarboxylate salt), and / or an alkali metal phenolate-carboxylate salt (e.g., an alkali metal phenolate-carboxylate salt, such as a potassium phenolate-carboxylate salt). According to some embodiments, the phenolate-carboxylic acid salt (e.g., the alkali metal phenolate-carboxylic acid salt, such as the potassium phenolate-carboxylic acid salt), the phenol-carboxylate salt (e.g., the alkali metal phenol-carboxylate salt, such as the potassium phenol-carboxylate salt), and / or the alkali metal phenolate-carboxylate salt (e.g., the alkali metal phenolate-carboxylate salt, such as the potassium phenolate-carboxylate salt) comprises a conjugate base of the structure shown in

[0088] (III), ionically bonded to one or more metal cations.

[0089] In some embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt comprises a hydroxybenzoate salt, a dihydroxybenzoate salt, and / or a trihydroxybenzoate salt.

[0090] In some embodiments, the method comprises pyrolyzing the alkali metal-organic salt (e.g., the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt) to produce the activated carbon.

[0091] According to some embodiments, pyrolyzing comprises heating the alkali metal-organic salt. The alkali metal-organic salt may be heated to any of a variety of suitable temperatures. In certain embodiments, for example, the alkali metal-organic salt is heated to a temperature of at least 400 °C, at least 450 °C, at least 500 °C, at least 550 °C, at least 600 °C, at least 650 °C, at least 700 °C, at least 750 °C, at least 800 °C, at least 850 °C, at least 900 °C, at least 950 °C, at least 1,000 °C, at least 1,050 °C, at least 1,100 °C, at least 1,150 °C, or at least 1,200 °C, etc. In certain embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt is heated to a temperature less than or equal to 1,250 °C , less than or equal to 1,200 °C , less than or equal to 1,150 °C, less than or equal to 1,100 °C , less than or equal to 1,050 °C , less than or equal to 1,000 °C, less than or equal to 950 °C, less than or equal to 900 °C, less than or equal to 850 °C, less than or equal to 800 °C, less than or equal to 750 °C, less than or equal to 700 °C, or less than or equal to 650 °C, less than or equal to 600 °C, less than or equal to 550 °C, less than or equal to 500 °C, or less than or equal to 450 °C, etc. Combinations of the above recited ranges are possible (e.g., the alkali metal-organic salt is heated to a temperature greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1,200 °C, the alkali metal-organic salt is heated to a temperature greater than or equal to 750 °C and less than or equal to 800 °C, etc.). Other ranges are also possible.

[0092] In some embodiments, the alkali metal-organic salt may be pyrolyzed in a reactor, such as a rotary kiln. Other reactors are also possible.

[0093] According to certain embodiments, one or more structural properties of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt may advantageously be maintained during the pyrolysis and / or activation process, such that the resulting activated carbon comprises a plurality of particles having substantially similar structural properties or structural properties that have decreased by a substantially small amount. In some embodiments, for example, the sphericity, the maximum characteristic dimension (e.g., the maximum diameter), and / or the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles of the alkali metal-organic salt may be maintained during the pyrolysis and / or activation process, such that the resulting activated carbon comprises a plurality of particles having a substantially similar sphericity, maximum characteristic dimension, and / or particle size distribution, or a sphericity, maximum characteristic dimension, and / or particle size distribution that has decreased by a substantially small amount (e.g., less than or equal to 20%, less than or equal to 10%, less than or equal to 5%, or less than or equal to 1%, etc.).

[0094] In certain embodiments, the method comprises washing the activated carbon. In accordance with some embodiments, washing the activated carbon after the pyrolysis process advantageously removes one or more products and / or contaminants resulting from the alkali metal-organic salt during the pyrolysis process. In certain embodiments, the activated carbon is washed with water. According to certain embodiments, the activated carbon formed by the method described herein is suitable for use as an electrode active material, for example, in an energy storage device (e.g., an electric double layer capacitor), as described herein in greater detail.

[0095] According to certain embodiments, a device is described. As described in further detail herein, a device may, in some embodiments, comprise an electronic component (e.g., an electrode) comprising activated carbon. As a non-limiting example, FIG. 1A shows, according to certain embodiments, a schematic diagram of device 102a. FIG. IB shows, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram of device 102a, wherein the crosssection is taken along line IB in FIG. 1A. FIG. 1C shows, according to certain embodiments, an expanded view schematic diagram of the cross-section of device 102a shown in FIG. IB.

[0096] In some embodiments, the device comprises a first electrode and a second electrode. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 1B-1C, device 102a comprises first electrode 104 and second electrode 106.

[0097] The first electrode may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. In some embodiments, for example, the first electrode comprises a composition comprising activated carbon, e.g., as described herein in greater detail. In certain embodiments, the first electrode comprises one or more binders and / or one or more conductive additives. Examples of suitable binders include, but are not limited to, sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinylidine fluoride (PVDF), Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR), and / or combinations thereof. Other binders are also possible. Examples of suitable conductive additives include, but are not limited to, carbon black and / or carbon nanostructures (e.g., carbon nanotubes). Other conductive additives are also possible.

[0098] The second electrode may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. For example, in certain embodiments, the second electrode comprises a composition comprising activated carbon, e.g., as described herein in greater detail. In some embodiments, the second electrode comprises one or more binders and / or one or more conductive additives (e.g., any of the binders and / or conductive additives described herein with respect to the first electrode).

[0099] According to some embodiments, the device comprises a first current collector. For example, referring to FIGS. 1B-1C, device 102a comprises first current collector 108. In certain embodiments, the first current collector is in contact with the first electrode such that the first current collector is in electrical communication with the first electrode. In certain embodiments, for example, a surface of the first current collector is in contact with a surface of the first electrode. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 1B-1C, surface 114a of first current collector 108 is in contact with surface 114b of first electrode 104.

[0100] In certain embodiments wherein the first electrode comprises a composition comprising the activated carbon, the composition may be positioned on a surface of the first current collector such that the composition coats at least a portion of the surface of the first current collector. Referring, for example, to FIG. 1C, first electrode 104 may comprise a composition comprising the activated carbon, and the composition may be positioned on surface 114a of first current collector 108 such that the composition coats at least a portion of surface 114a of first current collector 108. The composition may be positioned on the surface of the first current collector via any of a variety of suitable processes. In certain embodiments, for example, the composition is positioned on the surface of the first current collector using roll-to-roll processing. In some embodiments, the composition is positioned on the surface of the first current collector by slotdie coating and / or gravure coating. Other processes of positioning the composition on the surface of the first current collector are also possible.

[0101] The first current collector may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. In some embodiments, the first current collector comprises a conductive material, such as, for example, a metal. In some embodiments, the first current collector comprises copper, stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, and / or combinations thereof. Other materials are also possible for the first current collector.

[0102] According to certain embodiments, the first current collector comprises one or more coatings. The one or more coatings may, in some embodiments, facilitate adhesion of a composition comprising an active material (e.g., activated carbon) when the composition is positioned on a coated surface of the first current collector. In some embodiments, for example, the one or more coatings comprise one or more conductive and / or adhesive coatings.

[0103] In certain embodiments, the device comprises a second current collector. As shown, for example, in FIGS. 1B-1C, device 102a comprises second current collector 110. In some embodiments, the second current collector is in contact with the second electrode such that the second current collector is in electrical communication with the second electrode. According to certain embodiments, for example, a surface of the second current collector is in contact with a surface of the second electrode. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 1B-1C, surface 114c of second current collector 110 is in contact with surface 114d of second electrode 106.

[0104] In certain embodiments wherein the second electrode comprises a composition comprising the activated carbon, the composition may be positioned on a surface of the second current collector such that the composition coats at least a portion of the surface of the second current collector. Referring, for example, to FIG. 1C, second electrode 106 may comprise a composition comprising the activated carbon, and the composition may be positioned on surface 114c of second current collector 110 such that the composition coats at least a portion of surface 114c of second current collector 110. The composition may be positioned on the surface of the second current collector via any of a variety of suitable processes. In certain embodiments, for example, the composition is positioned on the surface of the second current collector using roll- to-roll processing. In some embodiments, the composition is positioned on the surface of the second current collector by slot-die coating and / or gravure coating. Other processes of positioning the composition on the surface of the second current collector are also possible.

[0105] The second current collector may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. In some embodiments, the second current collector comprises a conductive material, such as, for example, a metal. In some embodiments, the second current collector comprises copper, stainless steel, aluminum, titanium, and / or combinations thereof. Other materials are also possible for the second current collector.

[0106] According to certain embodiments, the second current collector comprises one or more coatings. The one or more coatings may, in some embodiments, facilitate adhesion of a composition comprising an active material (e.g., activated carbon) when the composition is positioned on a coated surface of the first current collector. In some embodiments, for example, the one or more coatings comprise one or more conductive and / or adhesive coatings.

[0107] In accordance with certain embodiments, the device comprises a separator. For example, referring to FIGS. 1B-1C, device 102a comprises separator 112. In some embodiments, the separator is positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. As shown, for example, in FIGS. 1B-1C, separator 112 is positioned between first electrode 104 and second electrode 106. In certain embodiments, the separator is in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, in some embodiments, a surface of the first electrode and a surface of the second electrode are in contact with the separator. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 1B-1C, surface 114b’ of first electrode 104 is in contact with surface 114e of separator 112 and surface 114d’ of second electrode 106 is in contact with surface 114e’ of separator 112.

[0108] The separator may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. In some embodiments, for example, the separator comprises a polymer. In certain embodiments, the separator comprises polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyvinyl chloride, fiberglass, cellulose, cellophane, and / or combinations thereof. Other materials are also possible for the separator.

[0109] According to certain embodiments, the device comprises an electrolyte. FIG. 2A shows, according to certain embodiments, a schematic diagram of a device comprising an electrolyte. FIG. 2B shows, according to certain embodiments, a cross-sectional schematic diagram of the device of FIG. 2A. FIG. 2C shows, according to certain embodiments, an expanded view schematic diagram of the cross-section of the device shown in FIG. 2B. As shown in FIGS. 2B- 2C, device 102b comprises electrolyte 116 (e.g., 116a and 116b). According to some embodiments, the electrolyte is positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, referring to FIGs. 2B-2C, electrolyte 116 is positioned between first electrode 104 and second electrode 106. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode such that the electrolyte is in electrical communication with the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, in certain embodiments, a surface of the first electrode and a surface of the second electrode are in contact with the electrolyte. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 2B-2C, surface 114b’ of first electrode 104 is in contact with surface 114f of electrolyte 116 (e.g., 116a) and surface 114d’ of second electrode 106 is in contact with surface 114f ’ of electrolyte 116 (e.g., 116b).

[0110] According to certain embodiments, the separator may be positioned in the electrolyte. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 2B-2C, separator 112 is positioned in electrolyte 116 (e.g., 116a and 116b).

[0111] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a liquid electrolyte. The liquid electrolyte may comprise any of a variety of suitable materials. In some embodiments, for example, the liquid electrolyte comprises an aqueous and / or a non-aqueous solution comprising an ionic salt. In certain embodiments, the ionic salt is dissolved in an aqueous and / or a nonaqueous solvent. Any of a variety of suitable ionic salts are possible, including, for example, a hydroxide salt (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, etc.), a halide (e.g., chloride, bromide, iodide, etc.) salt (e.g., sodium chloride, potassium chloride, potassium iodide, tetraethylammonium iodide, tetraethylammonium bromide, etc.), a sulfate salt (e.g., sodium sulfate, potassium sulfate, etc.), a hexafluorophosphate salt (e.g., lithium hexafluorophosphate, etc.), a tetrafluoroborate salt (e.g. tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, tetramethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, tetramethylethylammonium tetrafluoroborate, etc.), and / or combinations thereof. Other ionic salts are also possible.

[0112] According to some embodiments, the device is an energy storage device. For example, in accordance with certain embodiments, the device is an electric double layer capacitor. Referring, for example, to FIGS. 1A and 2A, device 102 (e.g., 102a and 102b) is an electric double layer capacitor.

[0113] U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 655,508, filed June 3, 2024, and entitled “Compositions and Methods Related to Activated Carbon Derived from a Metal-Organic Salt,” is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0114] The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present disclosure, but do not exemplify the full scope of the disclosure.

[0115] EXAMPLE 1

[0116] Potassium terephthalate (KTP) was synthesized according to the following procedure. First, 400 mL of deionized (DI) water was added to a 2 L beaker. Next, 56.615 g of 45% potassium hydroxide (KOH) (25.477 g, 0.4541 mol. (10% excess), molecular weight (MW) = 56.106) was added to the beaker. The mixture was heated to 50 °C and stirred using a 1.50” stir bar. Next, 34.290 g (0.2064 mol., MW = 166.132) of terephthalic acid was added to the beaker. The mixture was held at 50 °C with stirring for 12 hours, wherein the volume decreased from 500 mL to 450 mL by evaporation. Next, 1.2 L of ethanol was slowly added to the beaker using a squirt-bottle while stirring. The beaker was covered with titanium foil, which was depressed in the center to act as a condenser. A room-exhaust arm was arranged to remove stray ethanol vapors. The mixture was heated to 80 °C under a gentle reflux with a hotplate. The mixture was stirred under reflux for 12 hours, wherein the volume decreased from 1670 mL to 1470 mL by evaporation. The mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature (RT) with stirring. The stirring was stopped, and the precipitate was allowed to settle, followed by pouring off the clear liquid. The precipitate was resuspended by swirling, filtered, and the filter cake was rinsed three times with ethanol. The filter cake was dried under vacuum at room temperature to a constant weight (about 6 hours). The KTP product was weighed (45.537 g, 91.07% yield). The KTP product was examined under an optical microscope to be 2-6 micrometer cubes.

[0117] The KTP was pyrolyzed at up to 850 °C for 2 hours, washed, filtered, dried, and annealed. The resulting activated carbon exhibited a pore volume distribution wherein 100% of intraparticle porosity was contributed by pores of less than 5 nanometers in size, and 75% of intraparticle porosity was contributed by pores of less than 2 nanometers in size (see FIGS. 3-4), and 0.40 cm3 / g total porosity was observed. Using equilibrium data, the amounts of products as a function of temperature were estimated during pyrolysis. The melting point of the pyrolysis mixture was estimated to be 901 °C.

[0118] EXAMPLE 2

[0119] KTP was synthesized according to the following procedure. First, 200 mL of water, 56.615 g of 45% KOH, and 34.290 g of terephthalic acid were added to a 2 L beaker. The mixture was heated for 15 hours with stirring. Next, 700 mL of 100% ethanol was added to the beaker, resulting in the solution turning white with precipitated KTP. The mixture was heated and stirred for 23 hours, then allowed to cool to RT over 6 hours with stirring. The precipitate was swirled, filtered, and the filter cake was rinsed three times with ethanol. The filter cake was transferred to a large glass cup with two filter papers and dried under vacuum for 20 hours. The filter papers were removed, and the KTP product was weighed (46.773 g, 93.55% yield). The KTP product was examined under an optical microscope to be 2-10 micrometer cubes.

[0120] The KTP was mixed with KOH in a 1: 1.3 molar ratio, pyrolyzed at 850 °C for 2 hours, washed, filtered, dried, and annealed. The resulting activated carbon has 60% ultramicropores and 0.90 cm3 / g total porosity. Using equilibrium data, the amounts of products as a function of temperature were estimated during the pyrolysis process. The melting point of the pyrolysis mixture was estimated to be 828 °C.

[0121] EXAMPLE 3

[0122] Potassium trimesate (KTM), the potassium salt of benzene- 1,3, 5 -tricarboxylic acid, was synthesized according to the following procedure. First, 0.074 g (2.00 mmol) of ammonium fluoride (NH4F), 1.051g (5.00 mmol) of benzene- 1,3, 5-tricarboxylic acid, 0.632 g (6.25 mmol) of potassium nitrate (KNO3), and 15 mL of dimethylformamide (DMF) were combined. The mixture was stirred for 4 hours at room temperature, then transferred to a Teflon-lined stainless- steel autoclave. The autoclave was subsequently sealed and heated to 180 °C for 3 days. The autoclave was cooled to RT at a rate of 6 °C / hour. The KTM product was recovered by filtration and washed with ethanol. Colorless rod crystals were recovered in 90% yield based on potassium. The crystals were 2-20 micrometers in size.

[0123] In a first activation process, the KTM was mixed with KOH in a 1: 1.3 molar ratio, pyrolyzed at 850 °C for 2 hours, washed, filtered, dried, and annealed. Using equilibrium data, the amounts of products as a function of temperature were estimated during the pyrolysis process. The melting point of the pyrolysis mixture was estimated to be 827 °C.

[0124] In a second activation process, the KTM was mixed with K2CO3 and sodium carbonate (Na2COs) in a 1:0.7133: 1.0940 molar ratio, pyrolyzed at 850 °C for 2 hours, washed, filtered, dried, and annealed. Using equilibrium data, the amounts of products as a function of temperature were estimated during the pyrolysis process. The melting point of the pyrolysis mixture was estimated to be 711-713 °C.

[0125] EXAMPLE 4

[0126] Potassium phloroglucinolate (KPHL) was synthesized by adding phloroglucinol to a stoichiometric amount of KOH in water, followed by annealing with ultrasonication while evaporating the water.

[0127] The KPHL was pyrolyzed at 850 °C for 2 hours, washed, filtered, dried, and annealed. Using equilibrium data, the amounts of products as a function of temperature were estimated during the pyrolysis process. The melting point of the pyrolysis mixture was estimated to be 828 °C.

[0128] While several embodiments of the present disclosure have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and / or structures for performing the functions and / or obtaining the results and / or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and / or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present disclosure. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and / or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present disclosure is / are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the disclosure described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the disclosure may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present disclosure is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and / or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and / or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and / or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0129] In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and / or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control. If two or more documents incorporated by reference include conflicting and / or inconsistent disclosure with respect to each other, then the document having the later effective date shall control.

[0130] All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood to control over dictionary definitions, definitions in documents incorporated by reference, and / or ordinary meanings of the defined terms.

[0131] The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

[0132] The phrase “and / or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and / or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and / or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and / or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

[0133] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and / or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and / or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of’ or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.”

[0134] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and / or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

[0135] When the word “about” is used herein in reference to a number, it should be understood that still another embodiment of the disclosure includes that number not modified by the presence of the word “about.”

[0136] It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited.

[0137] In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of’ and “consisting essentially of’ shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A composition, comprising: activated carbon comprising a plurality of particles, wherein: the plurality of particles has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution with: (i) at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers; and (ii) a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4, and the activated carbon has a surface area greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 3000 m2 / g.

2. The composition of claim 1 , wherein the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles has at least a D99.7 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers.

3. The composition of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the particle size distribution of the plurality of particles has a least a D99.7 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 15 micrometers.

4. The composition of any one of claims 1-3, wherein a standard deviation of a maximum particle size of the plurality of particles is less than or equal to 4 micrometers.

5. The composition of claim 4, wherein the standard deviation of the maximum particle size of the plurality of particles is less than or equal to 3 micrometers.

6. The composition of any one of claims 4-5, wherein the standard deviation of the maximum particle size of the plurality of particles less than or equal to 2 micrometers.

7. The composition of any one of claims 4-6, wherein the standard deviation of the maximum particle size of the plurality of particles is less than or equal to 1 micrometer.

8. The composition of any one of claims 1-7, wherein the activated carbon comprises a plurality of pores.

9. The composition of any one of claims 1-8, wherein greater than or equal to 80% of a total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises micropores.

10. The composition of claim 9, wherein less than or equal to 20% of the total pore volume of the activated carbon comprises mesopores.

11. The composition of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the activated carbon has a bulk density greater than or equal to 0.3 g / cm3and less than or equal to 0.6 g / cm3.

12. The composition of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the activated carbon has a noncarbon contaminant content of less than 0.1 weight percent (wt.%) versus a total weight of the activated carbon.

13. The composition of claim 12, wherein the non-carbon contaminant content of the activated carbon is less than 0.05 wt.% versus the total weight of the activated carbon.

14. The composition of any one of claims 12-13, wherein the non-carbon contaminant content of the activated carbon is less than 0.01 wt.% versus the total weight of the activated carbon.

15. The composition of any one of claims 12-14, wherein the non-carbon contaminant comprises ash.

16. The composition of any one of claims 12-15, wherein the non-carbon contaminant comprises a transition metal.

17. The composition of any one of claims 1-16, wherein the activated carbon has a gravimetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 25 F / g and less than or equal to 100 F / g.

18. The composition of any one of claims 1-17, wherein the activated carbon has a volumetric specific capacitance greater than or equal to 15 F / cm3and less than or equal to 40 F / cm3.

19. The composition of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the activated carbon is produced by pyrolyzing a crystalline salt of: (i) a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenolcarboxylic acid; and (ii) an alkali metal.

20. The composition of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the activated carbon is produced by pyrolyzing: (i) a crystalline potassium phenolate salt; (ii) a crystalline potassium aromatic carboxylate salt; and / or (iii) a crystalline potassium phenolate-carboxylic acid salt, a crystalline potassium phenol-carboxylate salt, and / or a crystalline phenolate-carboxylate salt.

21. The composition of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the activated carbon is produced by: exposing a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid to an alkali metal hydroxide to produce a crystalline alkali metal-organic salt; and pyrolyzing the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt at a temperature between greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1,200 °C.

22. A method of producing activated carbon, comprising: pyrolyzing a crystalline salt of: (i) a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenolcarboxylic acid; and (ii) an alkali metal, thereby producing the activated carbon.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein the crystalline salt comprises a phenolate salt.

24. The method of any one of claims 22-23, wherein the phenol comprises phenol.

25. The method of any one of claims 22-24, wherein the phenol comprises hydroquinone.

26. The method of any one of claims 22-25, wherein the phenol comprises catechol.

27. The method of any one of claims 22-26, wherein the phenol comprises resorcinol.

28. The method of any one of claims 22-27, wherein the phenol comprises pyrogallol.

29. The method of any one of claims 22-28, wherein the phenol comprises hydroxyquinol.

30. The method of any one of claims 22-29, wherein the phenol comprises phloroglucinol.

31. The method of any one of claims 22-24, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal phenolate salt.

32. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 25, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal hydroquinolate salt.

33. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 26, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal catecholate salt.

34. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 27, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal resorcinolate salt.

35. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 28, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal pyrogallolate salt.

36. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 29, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal hydroxyquinolate salt.

37. The method of any one of claims 22-23 and 30, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal phloroglucinolate salt.

38. The method of claim 22, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an aromatic carboxylate salt.

39. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises benzoic acid.

40. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-39, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises phenylacetic acid.

41. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-40, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises phthalic acid.

42. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-41, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises isophthalic acid.

43. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-42, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises terephthalic acid.

44. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-43, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises trimesic acid.

45. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-44, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises hemimellitic acid.

46. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-45, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises trimellitic acid.

47. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-46, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises 1 -naphthoic acid.

48. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-47, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises 2-naphthoic acid.

49. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-48, wherein the aromatic carboxylic acid comprises 2,6-naphthalenedicarboxylic acid.

50. The method of any one of claims 22 and 38-39, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal benzoate salt.

51. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 40, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal phenylacetate salt.

52. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 41, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal phthalate salt.

53. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 42, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal isophthalate salt.

54. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 43, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal terephthalate salt.

55. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 44, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal benzene- 1,3, 5 -tricarboxy late salt.

56. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 45, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal benzene- 1, 2, 3 -tricarboxylate salt.

57. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 46, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal benzene- 1, 2, 4-tricarboxylate salt.

58. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 47, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal 1 -naphthoate salt.

59. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 48, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal 2-naphthoate salt.

60. The method of any one of claims 22, 38, and 49, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal 2,6-napthalenedicarboxylate salt.

61. The method of claim 22, wherein the crystalline salt comprises a phenolate-carboxylic acid salt, a phenol-carboxylate salt, and / or a phenolate-carboxylate salt.

62. The method of any one of claims 22 and 61, wherein the phenol-carboxylic acid comprises a hydroxybenzoic acid.

63. The method of any one of claims 22 and 61-62, wherein the phenol-carboxylic acid comprises a dihydroxybenzoic acid.

64. The method of any one of claims 22 and 61-63, wherein the phenol-carboxylic acid comprises a trihydroxybenzoic acid.

65. The method of any one of claims 22 and 61-62, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal hydroxybenzoate salt.

66. The method of any one of claims 22, 61, and 63, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal dihydroxybenzoate salt.

67. The method of any one of claims 22, 61, and 64, wherein the crystalline salt comprises an alkali metal trihydroxybenzoate salt.

68. The method of any one of claims 22-67, wherein the alkali metal is potassium.

69. A method of producing activated carbon, comprising: pyrolyzing a crystalline potassium aromatic carboxylate salt, thereby producing the activated carbon.

70. The method of any one of claims 22-69, wherein the pyrolyzing comprises pyrolyzing at a temperature between greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1 ,200 °C.

71. A method of producing activated carbon, comprising: exposing a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid to an alkali metal hydroxide to produce a crystalline alkali metal-organic salt; and pyrolyzing the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt at a temperature between greater than or equal to 400 °C and less than or equal to 1,200 °C, thereby producing the activated carbon.

72. The method of claim 71, wherein the exposing comprises exposing the phenol to the alkali metal hydroxide to produce an alkali metal phenolate salt.

73. The method of claim 71, wherein the exposing comprises exposing the aromatic carboxylic acid to the alkali metal hydroxide to produce an alkali metal aromatic carboxylate salt.

74. The method of claim 71, wherein the exposing comprises exposing the phenol-carboxylic acid to the alkali metal hydroxide to produce an alkali metal phenolate-carboxylic acid salt, an alkali metal phenol-carboxylate salt, and / or an alkali metal phenolate-carboxylate salt.

75. A method, comprising: exposing a phenol, an aromatic carboxylic acid, and / or a phenol-carboxylic acid to an alkali metal hydroxide to produce a mixture; and precipitating a crystalline alkali metal-organic salt from the mixture, wherein the crystalline alkali metal-organic salt comprises a plurality of crystalline particles having a particlesize distribution such that a standard deviation of a maximum particle size is less than or equal to 10 micrometers.

76. The method of claim 75, wherein the maximum particle size is less than or equal to 20 micrometers.

77. The method of any one of claims 71-76, wherein the alkali metal hydroxide is an aqueous alkali metal hydroxide.

78. The method of any one of claims 71-77, wherein the alkali metal hydroxide is potassium hydroxide.

79. A device, comprising: an electronic component comprising activated carbon comprising a plurality of particles, wherein: the plurality of particles has an average sphericity greater than or equal to 0.8, the plurality of particles has a particle size distribution with: (i) at least a D99 of greater than or equal to 1 micrometer and less than or equal to 20 micrometers; and (ii) a ratio of a D90 to a Dio of greater than or equal to 1.1 and less than or equal to 4, and the activated carbon has a surface area between greater than or equal to 500 m2 / g and less than or equal to 3000 m2 / g.

80. The device of claim 79, wherein the electronic component is an electrode.

81. The device of claim 80, wherein the electrode is a first electrode and the device further comprises a second electrode.

82. The device of claim 81 , wherein the device further comprises a current collector in electrical communication with the first electrode.

83. The device of claim 82, wherein the current collector is a first current collector and the device further comprises a second current collector in electrical communication with the second electrode.

84. The device of any one of claims 81-83, wherein the device further comprises a separator.

85. The device of claim 84, wherein the separator is positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode.

86. The device of any one of claims 84-85, wherein the separator comprises polypropylene.

87. The device of any one of claims 84-86, wherein the separator comprises polyester.

88. The device of any one of claims 84-87, wherein the separator comprises polyethylene.

89. The device of any one of claims 84-88, wherein the separator comprises polytetrafluoroethylene.

90. The device of any one of claims 84-89, wherein the separator comprises polyvinylidene fluoride.

91. The device of any one of claims 84-90, wherein the separator comprises polyvinyl chloride.

92. The device of any one of claims 84-91, wherein the separator comprises fiberglass.

93. The device of any one of claims 84-92, wherein the separator comprises cellulose.

94. The device of any one of claims 84-93, wherein the separator comprises cellophane.

95. The device of any one of claims 81-94, wherein the device further comprises an electrolyte.

96. The device of claim 95, wherein the electrolyte is positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode.

97. The device of any one of claims 95-96, wherein the electrolyte comprises a liquid electrolyte.

98. The device of claim 97, wherein the liquid electrolyte comprises an ionic salt.

99. The device of claim 98, wherein the ionic salt comprises a hydroxide salt.

100. The device of any one of claims 98-99, wherein the ionic salt comprises a chloride salt.

101. The device of any one of claims 98-100, wherein the ionic salt comprises a sulfate salt.

102. The device of any one of claims 98-101, wherein the ionic salt comprises a hexafluorophosphate salt.

103. The device of any one of claims 79-102, wherein the device is a capacitor.

104. The device of any one of claims 79-103, wherein the device is an electric double layer capacitor.

105. The device of any one of claims 79-103, wherein the device is a supercapacitor.

106. The device of any one of claims 79-103, wherein the device is an ultracapacitor.

Images