Dynamic omniphobic surfaces for stable dropwise condensation of synthetic refrigerants

Abstract

Coated substrate including coatings including a first layer that includes a conformal coating, an intermediary layer that includes an adhesion promoter formed on the first layer, and an outer omniphobic layer that includes a fluoroalkyl group formed on the intermediary layer, are provided herein. Methods of condensing liquids having surface tensions of from about 10 mN / m to about 72 mN / m on the coated substrate are further provided. Methods of forming coated substrates are further provided.

Description

Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597DYNAMIC OMNIPHOBIC SURFACES FOR STABLE DROPWISE CONDENSATION OF SYNTHETIC REFRIGERANTSSTATEMENT REGARDED FEDERALLY FUNDED RESEARCH

[0001] This invention was made with government support under N00014- 16- 1-2625 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention.TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure relates to coatings for surfaces.BACKGROUND

[0003] The recent increase in fossil fuel consumption due to growth in energy demand has led to increased necessity for more energy efficient industrial processes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions with detrimental effects on global climate change. Condensation enhancement is important to increasing industrial process efficiency. Coating-based advancements have been achieved for steam condensation, but the methods remain elusive for liquids with low surface tensions, and especially for refrigerants.

[0004] There is a need for surfaces or coatings that can provide enhanced dropwise condensation of low global warming potential (“GWP”) refrigerants and refrigerants with low surface tension.SUMMARY

[0005] In an example, the present disclosure provides a coated substrate, including: a substrate including a metal or alloy; and a coating, including: a first layer formed on the substrate, the first layer including a conformal coating; an intermediary layer formed on the first layer, the intermediary layer including an adhesion promoter; and an outer omniphobic layer formed on the intermediary layer.

[0006] In another example, the present disclosure provides a method of condensing a liquid on the coated substrate, including: channeling a vapor to the coated substrate; condensing the vapor into liquid drops on the coated substrate; and collecting the liquid dropwise; and wherein the liquid has a surface tension of from about 10 mN / m to about 72 mN / m.

[0007] In yet another example, the present disclosure provides a method of forming a coating on a substrate, the method including: forming a first layer including a conformal coating on the substrate to provide a coated substrate; applying an intermediary layer on the coatedAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 substrate to provide an activated coated substrate, the intermediary layer including an adhesion promoter; and depositing an outer omniphobic layer on the intermediary layer.

[0008] Further areas of applicability will become apparent from the description provided herein. It should be understood that the description and specific examples are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0009] In order that the present disclosure may be well understood, there will now be described various forms thereof, given by way of example, reference being made to the accompanying drawings. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale.

[0010] FIG. 1 illustrates deposition of an example of a conformal coating from vapor phase onto an example of a coated substrate using the Parylene Deposition System followed by addition of an example of an adhesion promoter, and deposition of an outer omniphobic layer, according to the principles of the present disclosure;

[0011] FIG. 2 illustrates atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of each stage of an example of the fabrication process, including images of the (I) conformal coating; (II) addition of adhesion promoter; and (III) deposition of outer omniphobic layer, of the examples of the coated substrates of the present disclosure;

[0012] FIGs. 3A, 3B, and 3C illustrates X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) images of examples of outer omniphobic layer deposited on an example of a conformal coating according to the principles of the present disclosure with (3B) and without (3A) an example of an intermediary layer added to the conformal coating prior to the deposition of the outer omniphobic layer, and (3C) an exploded view of an overlay of (3A) and (3B);

[0013] FIG. 4 illustrates time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy images of examples of outer omniphobic layer deposited on an example of a conformal coating according to the principles of the present disclosure (I) without and (II) with an example of an intermediary layer added to the conformal coating prior to the deposition of the outer omniphobic layer;

[0014] FIG. 5 illustrates surface energies of the outer surface of examples of various coatings according to the principles of the present disclosure;

[0015] FIG. 6 illustrates an example of an experimental apparatus for measuring the contact angle of diiodomethane, water, and R1233zd(E) refrigerant according to the principles of the present disclosure;Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0016] FIG. 7 illustrates results of a lossless liquid droplet rolling test on examples of substrates including uncoated substrate, stainless steel, and an example of a coated substrate according to the principles of the present disclosure;

[0017] FIG. 8 illustrates a schematic of an example of a test facility for imaging the condensate droplet distribution of liquids including water, ethanol, hexane, pentane, and refrigerants R1233zd(E) and R1336mzz(Z);

[0018] FIG. 9 illustrates a plot of distributions of droplet sizes of condensate of ethanol, hexane, and pentane on examples of coated surfaces according to the principles of the present disclosure;

[0019] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic of an example of a test that may be used to determine heat transfer coefficients of tubes of examples of heat exchangers according to the principles of the present disclosure; and

[0020] FIG. 11 illustrates an example of a customized vacuum chamber that may be used to determine long-term condensation durability of examples of coated substrates according to the principles of the present disclosure.

[0021] The drawings described herein are for illustration purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure in any way.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0022] The following description is merely exemplary in nature and is not intended to limit the present disclosure, application, or uses.

[0023] The uses of the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in the context of describing the present disclosure (especially in the context of the following claims) are to be construed to cover both the singular and the plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context. The use of the term “plurality of’ is defined by the Applicant in the broadest sense, superseding any other implied definitions or limitations hereinbefore or hereinafter unless expressly asserted by Applicant to the contrary, to mean a quantity of more than one. All methods described herein may be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein by context.

[0024] As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and all purposes, all ranges recited herein also encompass any and all possible sub-ranges and combinations of sub-ranges thereof, as well as the individual values making up the range, particularly integer values. It is therefore understood that each unit between two particular units is also disclosed. For example, if “10 to 15” is disclosed, then 11, 12, 13, and 14 are also disclosed, individually, and as partAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 of a range. A recited range (for example, weight percentages or carbon groups) includes each specific value, integer, decimal, or identity within the range. Any listed range may be easily recognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range being broken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, or tenths. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art, all language such as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” “more than,” “or more,” and the like, include the number recited and such terms refer to ranges that may be subsequently broken down into sub-ranges. In the same manner, all ratios recited herein also include all sub-ratios falling within the broader ratio. Accordingly, specific values recited for radicals, substituents, and ranges are for illustration only; the specific values do not exclude other defined values or other values within defined ranges for radicals and substituents. It will be further understood that the endpoints of each of the ranges are significant both in relation to the other endpoint, and independently of the other endpoint.

[0025] One skilled in the art will also readily recognize that where members are grouped together in a common manner, such as in a Markush, the invention encompasses not only the entire group listed as a whole, but each member of the group individually and all possible subgroups of the main group. Additionally, for all purposes, the invention encompasses not only the main group, but also the main group absent one or more of the group members. The invention therefore envisages the explicit exclusion of any one or more of members of a recited group. Accordingly, provisos may apply to any of the disclosed categories or examples whereby any one or more of the recited elements, species, or examples may be excluded from such categories or examples, for example, for use in an explicit negative limitation.

[0026] As used herein, the terms “comprise(s),” “include(s),” “having,” “has,” “may,” “contain(s),”and variants thereof, are intended to be open-ended transitional phrases, terms, or words that do not preclude the possibility of additional acts or structures. The present description also contemplates other examples “comprising,” “consisting of,” and “consisting essentially of,” the examples or elements presented herein, whether explicitly set forth or not.

[0027] In describing elements of the present disclosure, the terms “1st,” “2nd,” “first,” “second,” “A,” “B,” “(a),” “(b),” and the like may be used herein. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another element, but do not limit the corresponding elements irrespective of the nature or order of the corresponding elements.

[0028] Unless otherwise defined, all terms used herein, including technical or scientific terms, have the same meanings as those generally understood by those skilled in the art to which the present disclosure pertains. Such terms are those defined in a generally used dictionary are to be interpreted as having meanings equal to the contextual meanings in the relevant field of art.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0029] As used herein, the term “about,” when used in the context of a numerical value or range set forth means a variation of ±15%, or less, of the numerical value. For example, a value differing by ±15%, ±14%, ±10%, or ±5%, among others, would satisfy the definition of “about,” unless more narrowly defined in particular circumstances.

[0030] The term “alkyl,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to a straight, branched, or cyclic chain aliphatic hydrocarbon (“cycloalkyl”) monovalent radical having the number of carbon atoms designated (in other words, “C1-C20” means one to twenty carbons, and includes C2, C3, C4, C5, Ce, C7, Cs, C9, C10, Cn, C12, C13, C14, C15, Ci6, C17, Cis, and C19). Examples include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, tert-butyl, cyclobutyl, methylcyclopropyl, cyclopropylmethyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, and cyclohexyl.

[0031] The term “alkoxy,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, an alkyl group having the designated number of carbon atoms, as defined above, connected to the rest of a molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, methoxy, ethoxy, 1-propoxy, 2-propoxy (“isopropoxy”), and the higher homologs and isomers.

[0032] The term “aromatic” generally refers to a carbocycle having one or more polyunsaturated rings having aromatic character (in other words, having (4n±2) delocalized n (pi) electrons where n is an integer).

[0033] The term “aryl,” by itself or in combination with another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to a carbocyclic aromatic system substituent containing one or more rings (typically one, two, or three rings), wherein such rings may be attached together in a pendant manner, such as biphenyl, or may be fused, such as naphthalene. Examples may include phenyl, anthracyl, and naphthyl. Preferred are phenyl and naphthyl; most preferred is phenyl.

[0034] The term “arylalkyl,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to an aryl group connected to the rest of a molecule via an alkylene group, such as, for example, benzyl, 2-phenylethyl, and 3 -phenylpropyl.

[0035] The term “aryloxy,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to an aryl group connected to the rest of a molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, phenoxy.

[0036] The term “acyl,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to an alkyl or aryl group connected to the rest of a molecule via a carbon of a carbonoxygen double bond (“carbonyl”), such as, for example, acetyl.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0037] The term “acyloxy,” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers, unless otherwise stated, to an acyl group connected to the rest of a molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, acetoxy.

[0038] The term “fluoroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group containing either (1) both carbonhydrogen bonds and carbon-fluorine bonds; or (2) only carbon-carbon bonds and carbonfluorine bonds without any hydrogen atoms (“perfluoroalkyl group”).

[0039] The term “silyl” refers to a substituent, quaternary silicon atom connected to the rest of a molecule and bearing one or more substituent alkyl or aryl groups.

[0040] The term “conformal coating” refers to a protective, breathable polymeric film typically providing protection against moisture and other contaminants.

[0041] The term “omniphobic” refers to repellency towards all or most liquids regardless of surface tensions of the liquids. Omniphobic compounds repel water (“hydrophobic”) and oils (“oleophobic”). Omniphobic compounds may have critical surface tension values of less than about 30 mN / m, and preferably less than about 20 mN / m.

[0042] Herein is described a surface coating capable of demonstrating long-term condensation durability for a wide range of low- surface-tension (such as from 14.5 mN / m to 72 mN / m) liquids. The surface coating demonstrated 24 hours of dropwise condensation of R1336mzz(Z), having a surface tension of 15.5 mN / m at 25 °C, and 90 days of dropwise condensation of R1233zd(E), which has a surface tension of 14.58 mN / m at 25 °C, representing the longest reported exhibition of dropwise condensation for liquids having the lower surface tensions. The surface coating is sustainable for at least 170 days (>2000 hours) of continuous dropwise condensation without any coating degradation for low surface tension liquids. Further, the surface coating demonstrates stable dropwise condensation of commercial, synthetic refrigerants.

[0043] Herein is described a process for depositing a surface coating uniformly even on highly complex geometries, with relative ease and requiring fewer chemicals than spray coating or dip-coating.

[0044] In an example, the surface coatings of the present disclosure may demonstrate properties resulting from synergistic integration of consecutive facile surface treatments to lower surface contact angle hysteresis and surface energy. In certain examples, the surface coatings may achieve about 260% higher heat transfer coefficient for ethanol condensation when compared to filmwise condensation. Further, the surface coatings may achieve about 688% higher heat transfer coefficient for R1233zd(E) refrigerant condensation when compared to filmwise condensation. The surface coatings demonstrated durability to 110 days ofAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 sustained dropwise condensation of ethanol, 60 days of sustained dropwise condensation of steam, and 90 days of sustained dropwise condensation of R1233zd(E) without exhibiting any sign of degradation. The design of the surface coatings may open up the possibility for development of more efficient, compact condensers for systems that rely on low surface tension fluids such as chemical plants, natural gas production facilities, biomass combustion units, food processing, and building and naval transportation energy systems such as heat pumps and large commercial chillers.

[0045] In an example, the surface coatings of the present disclosure may be scalable for large- scale condenser metal heat exchangers and tubes to achieve dropwise condensation of low surface tension liquids. Further, the surface coatings of the present disclosure have omniphobic properties, which, along with low contact angle hysteresis, demonstrate potential for prevention of surface fouling or scaling, which negatively impact industries including naval transportation, water desalination and management, petrochemical processes, and building energy. The surface coatings of the present disclosure may fulfill mitigation requirements of surface scaling or fouling, which require low surface energy, low contact angle hysteresis, and low surface roughness to limit scale nucleation. Unlike previously reported antifouling coatings, the surface coatings of the present disclosure are not limited to application on silicon wafers, do not require any acid catalyst or additional sol-gel SiCh coating to be applied on a base substrate, and are readily applicable to commonly used metal substrates.

[0046] In an example, a coated substrate of the present disclosure includes a substrate including a metal or alloy that has at least one surface and a coating. In certain examples, the coating includes a first layer formed on the substrate or a surface thereof. In certain examples, the first layer includes a conformal coating. In certain examples, the coating includes an intermediary layer formed on the first layer. In certain examples, the intermediary layer includes an adhesion promoter. In certain examples, the coating includes an outer omniphobic layer formed on the intermediary layer.

[0047] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a compound of formula (I):R1R2-Si-R4(I);R3wherein R1is selected from hydrogen, unsubstituted or substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, fluoroalkyl, or fluoroalkyloxy; R2and R3are each independently selected from R1, chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, substituted alkoxy, dialkylamino, or trialkylsilazane; R4is selected from chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, dialkylamino,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 trialkylsilazane,and substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, substituted aryl, and substituted alkoxy are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0048] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a fluoroalkyl group.

[0049] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes one or more compounds selected from methyltrichlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, dimethyldimethoxysilane, trimethylmethoxysilane, methyltriethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, trimethylethoxysilane, mcthyltri-n- propoxysilane, trimethyl-n-propoxysilane, methyltris(methoxyethoxy)silane, methoxypropoxytrimethylsilane, methyltriacetoxysilane, dimethyldiacetoxysilane, acetoxytrimethylsilane, tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane, bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane, dimethylaminotrimethylsilane, tris(cyclohexylamino)methylsilane, bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane, diethylaminotrimethylsilane, hexamethyldisilazane, ethyltrichlorosilane, ethylmethyldichlorosilane, ethyldimethylchlorosilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, ethyltriethoxysilane, ethyltriacetoxysilane, propyltrichlorosilane, propylmethyldichlorosilane, propyldimethylchlorosilane, propyltrimethoxysilane, propylmethyldimethoxysilane, propyldimethylmethoxysilane, propyltriethoxysilane, dipropyltetr amethyldisilazane, 77-butyltrichlorosilanc, n-butyldimethylchlorosilane, n- butyltrimethoxysilane, n-butyltricthoxysilanc, n-butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, pentyltrichlorosilane, pentyltriethoxysilane, hexyltrichlorosilane, hexylmethyldichlorosilane, hexyltrimethoxysilane, hexyltriethoxysilane, heptyltrichlorosilane, heptylmethyldichlorosilane, octyltrichlorosilane, octylmethyldichlorosilane, octyldimethylchlorosilane, octyltrimethoxysilane, octyldimethylmethoxysilane, octyltriethoxysilane, octylmethyldiethoxysilane, octyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, dioctyltetramethyldisilazane, , decyltrichlorosilane, decylmethyldichlorosilane, decyldimethylchlorosilane decyltriethoxysilane, undecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltrichlorosilane, dodecylmethyldichlorosilane, dodecyldimethylchlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, dodecylmethyldiethoxysilane, tetradecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, octadecylmethyldichlorosilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldimethoxysilane, octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldiethoxysilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 octadecyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, eicosyltrichlorosilane, isopropylmethyldichlorosilane, isopropyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrichlorosilane, t- butyltrichlorosilane, t-butylmethyldichlorosilane, isobutyldimethylchlorosilane, t- butyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrimethoxysilane, isobutylmethyldimethoxysilane, isobutyltriethoxysilane, cyclopentyltrichlorosilane, cyclopentyltrimethoxysilane, (3,3- dimethylbutyl)trichlorosilane, n-hexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexylmethyldichlorosilane, (3,3-dimethylbuyl)dimethylchlorosilane, n- hexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyltrimethoxysilane, cyclohexylmethyldimethoxysilane, bicycloheptyltrichlorosilane,(cyclohexylmethyl)trichlorosilane, bicycloheptyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrichlorosilane, cyclooctyltrichlorosilane, isooctyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrimethoxysilane, isooctyltriethoxy silane, adamantylethyltrichlorosilane, 7-(trichlorosilylmethyl)pentadecane, (di-n-octylmethylsilyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, (di-n-octyl methyl silyl )ethyldimethylchlorosilane, 1 l-(chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)tricosane, 13-(trichlorosilylmethyl)heptacosane, 13- (chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)heptacosane, phenyltrichlorosilane, phenylmethyldichlorosilane, phenyldimethylchlorosilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, phenylmethyldimethoxysilane, phenyltriethoxysilane, phenylmethyldiethoxysilane, phenyldimethylethoxysilane, phenyltriacetoxy silane, phenylmethylbis(dimethylamino)silane, benzyltrichlorosilane, 1- phenyl- 1 -trichlorosilylbutane, 1 -phenyl- 1 -methyldichlorosilylbutane, benzyldimethylchlorosilane, benzyltrietho xysilane, phenethyltrichlorosilane, phenethylmethyldichlorosilane, (2-methyl-2-phenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, phenethyltrimethoxysilane, phenethyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (3-phenylpropyl)trichlorosilane, (3- phenylpropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3-phenylpropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyltrichlorosilane, 4-phenylbutylmethyldichlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxypropyltrichlorosilane, phenoxypropylmethyldichlorosilane, phenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, phenylhexyltrichlorosilane, (6- phenylhexyl)dimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrichlorosilane, p-tolylmethyldichlorosilane, p- tolyldimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrimethoxysilane, (p-methylphenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, ethylphenethyltrimethoxysilane, p-(t-butyl)phenethyltrichlorosilane, p-(t- butyl)phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)propyltrichlorosilane, 3-(p- methoxyphenyl)propylmethyldichlorosilane, 1 -naphthyltrimethoxy silane, ( 1 - naphthylmethyl)trichlorosilane, m-phenoxyphenyldimethylchlorosilane, p-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 nonylphenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)trichlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)trimethoxysilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)methyldimethoxysilane, bis(trifluoropropyl)tetramethyldisilazane, nonafluorohexyltrichlorosilane, nonafluorohexylmethyldichlorosilane, nonafluorohexyldimethylchlorosilane, nonafluorohexyltrimetho xysilane, nonafluorohexyltriethoxysilane, nonafluorohexyltris(dimethylamino)silane, nonafluorohexyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)methyldichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)trimethoxy silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrooctyl)triethoxy silane,(heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichloro silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)methyldichlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)trimethoxy silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)triethoxy silane, heneicocyl- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropoxytrimethoxysilane, tridecafluoro-2-(tridecafluorohexyl)decyltrichlorosilane, diethyldichlorosilane, diethyldiethoxysilane, diisopropyldichlorosilane, diisopropyldimethoxysilane, di-n-butyldichlorosilane, di-n- butyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldiethoxysilane, isobutylisopropyldimethoxysilane, dicyclopentyldichlorosilane, dicyclopropyldichlorosilane, dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane, di-n-hexyldichlorosilane, dicyclohexyldichlorosilane, di-n- octyldichlorosilane, di-n-octyldimethoxysilane, (perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, heptadecafluorotetr ahydrodecyltrimethoxysilane,

[0050] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a compound of formula (II):R5— SH (ii); wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and wherein substituted (Ci-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0051] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a compound of formula (III):(HI);wherein R6is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and wherein substituted (Ci- C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0052] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a compound of formula (IV):ORV (IV);OH wherein R7is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and wherein substituted (Ci- C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0053] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer includes a compound of formula (V):OR8— S-OH (V); wherein R8is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and wherein substituted (Ci- C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0054] In a particular example of a compound of formula (I), (II), (III), (IV), or (V), (Ci- C4o)alkyl of R1, R2. R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, or R8may not be Ci, and / or may not be C2, and / or may not be C3, and / or may not be C4, and / or may not be C5, and / or may not be Ce, and / or may not be C7, and / or may not be Cs, and / or may not be C9, and / or may not be C10, and / or may not be Cn, and / or may not be C12, and / or may not be C13, and / or may not be C14, and / or may not beC15, and / or may not be Ci6, and / or may not be C17, and / or may not be Cis, and / or may not beC19, and / or may not be C20, and / or may not be C21, and / or may not be C22, and / or may not beC23, and / or may not be C24, and / or may not be C25, and / or may not be C26, and / or may not beC27, and / or may not be C28, and / or may not be C29, and / or may not be C30, and / or may not beC31, and / or may not be C32, and / or may not be C33, and / or may not be C34, and / or may not beAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597C35, and / or may not be C36, and / or may not be C37, and / or may not be C38, and / or may not be C39, and / or may not be C40.

[0055] In an example, the conformal coating of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure may include a parylene. In certain examples, the conformal coating may include a chlorinated parylene. In other examples, the conformal coating may include Parylene-C.

[0056] In an example, the adhesion promoter of the intermediary layer of the coating of the coated substrate may include any compound that includes a moiety that attracts or bonds with an organic polymer and a silyl moiety that attracts or bonds with an inorganic surface. Examples of adhesion promoters may include y-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (“MPTS”), 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, A-(2-aminoethyl)-3- aminopropy Itrimethoxy silane, 3 -gly cidoxypropy Itrimethoxy silane, 3 - aminopropyltriethoxysilane, and vinyltrimethoxysilane.

[0057] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure may include a compound with a critical surface tension of about 30.0 mN / m, or less than about 29.5 mN / m, or less than about 29.0 mN / m, or less than about 28.5 mN / m, or less than about 28.0 mN / m, or less than about 27.5 mN / m, or less than about 27.0 mN / m, or less than about 26.5 mN / m, or less than about 26.0 mN / m, or less than about 25.5 mN / m, or less than about 25.0 mN / m, or less than about 24.5 mN / m, or less than about 24.0 mN / m, or less than about 23.5 mN / m, or less than about 23.0 mN / m, or less than about 22.5 mN / m, or less than about 22.0 mN / m, or less than about 21.5 mN / m, or less than about 21.0 mN / m, or less than about 20.5 mN / m, or less than about 20.0 mN / m, or less than about 19.5 mN / , or less than about 19.0 mN / m, or less than about 18.5 mN / m, or less than about 18.0 mN / m, or less than about 17.5 mN / m, or less than about 17.0 mN / m, or less than about 16.5 mN / m, or less than about 16.0 mN / m, or less than about 15.5 mN / m, or less than about 15.0 mN / m, or less than about 14.5 mN / m, or less than about 14.0 mN / m, or less than about 13.5 mN / m, or less than about 13.0 mN / m, or less than about 12.5 mN / m, or less than about 12.0 mN / m, or less than about 11.5 mN / m, or less than about 11.0 mN / m, or less than about 10.5 mN / m, or less than about 10 mN / m.

[0058] In an example, the metal or alloy is selected from aluminum, copper, stainless steel, titanium, or nickel superalloy.

[0059] In an example, the substrate of the present disclosure is part or all of a heat exchanger.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0060] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure includes an outer surface having a root mean square roughness (Rrms) of about 6 nanometers or less.

[0061] In an example, the intermediary layer of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure has a thickness in a range from about 9.0 nanometers to about 15.0 nanometers. In other examples, the intermediary layer may have a thickness in a range including from about 9.5 nanometers, or from about 10.0 nanometers, or from about 10.5 nanometers, or from about 11.0 nanometers, or from about 11.5 nanometers, or from about 12.0 nanometers, or from about 12.5 nanometers, or from about 13.0 nanometers, or from about13.5 nanometers or from about 14.0 nanometers, or from about 14.5 nanometers; or to about9.5 nanometers, or to about 10.0 nanometers, or to about 10.5 nanometers, or to about 11.0 nanometers, or to about 11.5 nanometers, or to about 12.0 nanometers, or to about 12.5 nanometers, or to about 13.0 nanometers, or to about 13.5 nanometers, or to about 14.0 nanometers, or to about 14.5 nanometers; or a range made up of any of the above two thicknesses, including any subranges therebetween.

[0062] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure has a thickness in a range from about 1.0 nanometer to about 10.0 nanometers, including from about 1.5 nanometers, or from about 2.0 nanometers, or from about2.5 nanometers, or from about 3.0 nanometers, or from about 3.5 nanometers, or from about4.0 nanometers, or from about 4.5 nanometers, or from about 5.0 nanometers, or from about5.5 nanometers, or from about 6.0 nanometers, or from about 6.5 nanometers, or from about7.0 nanometers, or from about 7.5 nanometers, or from about 8.0 nanometers, or from about8.5 nanometers, or from about 9.0 nanometers, or from about 9.5 nanometers; or to about 1.5 nanometers, or to about 2.0 nanometers, or to about 2.5 nanometers, or to about 3.0 nanometers, or to about 3.5 nanometers, or to about 4.0 nanometers, or to about 4.5 nanometers, or to about 5.0 nanometers, or to about 5.5 nanometers, or to about 6.0 nanometers, or to about 6.5 nanometers, or to about 7.0 nanometers, or to about 7.5 nanometers, or to about 8.0 nanometers, or to about 8.5 nanometers, or to about 9.0 nanometers, or to about 9.5 nanometers; or a range made up of any two of the above thicknesses, including any subranges therebetween

[0063] In an example, the outer omniphobic layer of the coating of the coated substrates of the present disclosure includes an outer surface having a surface energy of about 15 mJ / m2or less, including surface energy of about 14.5 mJ / m2or less, or about 14.0 mJ / m2or less, or about13.5 mJ / m2or less, or about 13.0 mJ / m2or less, or about 12.5 mJ / m2or less, or about 12.0Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 mJ / m2or less, or about 11.5 mJ / m2or less, or about 11.0 mJ / m2, or about 10.5 mJ / m2, or about 10.0 mJ / m2.

[0064] In an example, a method of condensing a liquid on the coated substrates of the present disclosure includes: channeling a vapor to the coated substrate; condensing the vapor into liquid drops on the coated substrate; and collecting the liquid dropwise; and wherein the liquid has a surface tension of from about 10 mN / m to about 72 mN / m. In certain examples, the method is performed continuously for at least 24 hours without degradation of the coating. In other examples, the method is performed continuously for at least 90 days without degradation of the coating. In other examples, the method is performed continuously for at least 100 days without degradation of the coating. In other examples, the method increases a heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 250% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid. In other examples, the method increases the heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 650% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid.

[0065] In an example, a method of forming a coating on a substrate, including: forming a first layer including a conformal coating on the substrate to provide a coated substrate; applying an intermediary layer on the coated substrate to provide an activated coated substrate, the intermediary layer including an adhesion promoter; and depositing an outer omniphobic layer on the intermediary layer. In certain examples, the forming may include depositing the conformal coating from a vapor phase. In other examples, the applying may include dipping the coated substrate in a solution of the adhesion promoter. In other examples, the depositing may include chemical vapor depositing of the outer omniphobic layer on the activated coated substrate.

[0066] The compositions and methods described above may be better understood in connection with the following Examples. In addition, the following non-limiting examples are an illustration. The illustrated methods are applicable to other examples without limitation. The procedures described as general methods describe what is believed will be typically effective to prepare the compositions indicated. However, the person skilled in the art will appreciate that it may be necessary to vary the procedures for any given example of the present disclosure, for example, vary the order or steps and / or the chemical reagents used.EXAMPLES

[0067] L Surface Fabrication.

[0068] A. Sample Preparation:Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0069] Flat polished copper (Cu, grade 110, McMaster), aluminum (Al, grade 6061, McMaster), and steel (SS, grade SS304, McMaster) plates, with dimensions 25 x 25 x 2 mm3were prepared for contact angle measurement and condensation experiments. Silicon wafers were prepared for surface coating characterizations using atomic force microscopy (“AFM”) and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (“XPS”). A large-scale commercial Al heat exchanger (Serpentine heat exchanger Model Eco7, Brazeway, USA) with dimensions 18 x 25 x 5 inch3was also prepared to demonstrate the superior scalability and substrate independence of P- HFDS coating.

[0070] For the condensation heat transfer and condensation durability experiments, circular polished metal (Cu, Al, SS304) tubes (McMaster) of length of 6 inches and 12 inches having outer diameters of 0.375 inch, and 0.5 inch, respectively, were prepared. Circular tube shapes were selected, as commonly used for condensers (in other words, shell- and- tube heat exchangers).

[0071] Prior to the whole surface cleaning and coating process, the two ends of tubes were sealed with Swagelok end caps so that the internal surfaces of the tubes were not affected. Initially, the as-obtained flat surfaces and tubes were cleaned by sonicating them sequentially in acetone (Sigma-Aldrich, CAS No. 64-64-1), ethanol (Sigma-Aldrich, CAS No. 64-17-5), and isopropyl alcohol (Sigma-Aldrich, CAS No. 67-63-0) for 10 minutes at room temperature. After cleaning, the surfaces were thoroughly rinsed with deionized water (Sigma- Aldrich, CAS No. 7732-18-5) and dried with nitrogen.

[0072] B. Parylene-C Surface Preparation: Parylene-C was deposited from the vapor phase onto the substrate using Parylene Deposition System (PDS 2016, Specialty Coating Systems, USA) as illustrated in FIG. 1. For this purpose, solid Parylene-C dimer (di-chloro-di-para- xylylene) particles were placed in the Parylene Deposition System and sublimated under vacuum at 150 °C. The dimer molecules were pyrolized at 680 °C to form free radical monomers, which condensed and polymerized as a conformal Parylene-C coating inside the test structures. All settings during polymer deposition were those recommended by the manufacturer; vaporization occurred at 150 °C and 1 torr, pyrolysis at 650 °C and 0.5 torr, and deposition at 25 °C and 0.1 torr. The thickness of the coating was controlled through the quantity of dimer granules added to the system at the beginning of each process. Considering both longer term condensation durability and heat transfer performance tests, the thickness of Parylene-C coating was kept constant at approximately 1.5 pm.

[0073] C. MPTS Activated Surface Preparation: After coating the substrates with Parylene- C, the substrates were coated with MPTS as an adhesion promoter. Similarly, for fabricationAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 of P-HFDS surfaces, initially Parylene-C coated surfaces were activated with MPTS before coating with low-energy HFDS. The MPTS solution was prepared by mixing a 50:50: 1 volume ratio of deionized water (Sigma- Aldrich, CAS No. 7732-18-5), isopropyl alcohol (Sigma- Aldrich, CAS No. 67-63-0), and y-methacryloxypropyl-trimethoxysilane (MPTS, CAS No. 2530-85-0). The mixture solution was stirred and left for 2 hours before application. The samples to be coated were dipped into the mixture solution for 30 minutes, and then left in air for 30 minutes to dry. Finally, the samples were washed by agitating in a container filled with IPA for 30 seconds, and then dried with nitrogen stream. After MPTS activation, the prepared samples were coated within 24 hours. In this study, all of the activated samples were coated within 2 hours.

[0074] D. P-HFDS Surface Preparation: For fabrication of P-HFDS surfaces, initially surfaces were coated with Parylene-C and activated with MPTS following the above procedure. Subsequently, the MPTS-activated Parylene-C surfaces were functionalized by chemical vapor deposition of heneicosafluorododecyltrichlorosilane (HFDS, also known as (perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, CAS No. 102488-49-3) at atmosphere pressure. The functionalization was carried out by first placing the samples and the HFDS-toluene mixture (0.2 gram in 1 mL) in a sealed container. The container was then maintained at 120 °C inside a furnace for 12 hours resulting in the grafting of HFDS on the MPTS activated Parylene-C coated sample surfaces. The duration of the CVD process was selected to ensure high density grafting of the silane and was found to yield the best result through trial and error. The CVD of HFDS below 12 hours resulted in filmwise condensation of very low surface tension refrigerants.

[0075] After application of the MPTS adhesion promoter and grafting of the HFDS by CVD at atmospheric pressure, the surface energy is sufficiently low enough to render it non-wetting to low surface tension liquids.

[0076] Other low energy silanes, such as heptadecafluorotetrahydrodecyltrimethoxysilane (HTMS, Gelest, CAS No. 83048-65-1), may be potential alternatives to HFDS, as they may enable lower surface energy and may be tethered to MPTS-activated Parylene-C surface following a similar procedure.

[0077] MPTS acts as an adhesion promoter due to its intermediate character, serving as an electrostatic glue between the Parylene-C coating and silane interfaces. One end of the MPTS molecule forms an alkene bond with the Parylene-C surface, while the other end of the MPTS molecule forms a siloxane bond with the low energy silane. Consequently, other non-PFAS, non-fluorinated silanes of comparable surface energy may be used in place of HFDS.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0078] E. Silane Surface Preparation: For fabrication of silane-coated surfaces, the cleaned surfaces were functionalized by chemical vapor deposition of HFDS at atmospheric pressure. The functionalization was carried out by first placing the samples and the HFDS-toluene (0.2 grams in 1 mF) mixture in a sealed container. The container was then maintained at 120 °C inside a furnace for 12 hours, resulting in the formation of a HFDS silane layer on the sample surfaces.

[0079] II. Coating Thickness Measurement.

[0080] To measure the thickness of y-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTS) and heneicosafluorododecyltrichlorosilane (HFDS) layers, two Si wafer substrates were prepared as control substrates. One silicon wafer was coated with MPTS and the other silicon wafer was coated with HFDS. The thicknesses of MPTS and HFDS layer were measured on silicon substrate by spectroscopic ellipsometry on a J.A. Woollam VASE instrument. The thickness of the native oxide layer of the silicon was first measured on a bare silicon wafer using ellipsometry spectra collected from 300 to 100 nm wavelengths at intervals of 10 nm at 70°, 75°, and 80°.

[0081] The thickness of MPTS was measured on the MPTS / silicon sample, yielding 12.0 ± 1.0 nm. The thickness of HFDS is measured on HFDS / PDMSC / silicon sample, yielding 4.0 ± 2.0 nm. The uncertainty mostly resulted from the deviation between the measurements on different locations on the sample.

[0082] III. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).

[0083] An Asylum Research MFP-3D Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) was used to obtain the atomic force microscopy images at each step of the three-step fabrication process. Three control substrates were prepared: Parylene-C coated Si wafer, MPTS-activated Parylene-C coated Si wafer, and HFDS-grafted low energy Parylene-C (P-HFDS) coated Si wafer. Surfaces were probed in tapping mode using an AFM tip for acquiring the surface roughness and topography. AFM images were processed using Gyddion 2.58 software. The AFM images in FIG. 2 illustrate the negligible change in roughness of the Parylene-C surface during the three-step functionalization process. At the end of the process, the P-HFDS surface has a root mean square roughness (Rrms) of approximately 6 nanometers. The low surface roughness of the P-HFDS surface results in a low contact angle hysteresis for liquid droplets, facilitating dynamic omniphobicity.

[0084] IV. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS).

[0085] X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) data was obtained using a Kratos Analytical Axis Ultra with a monochromatic Al Ka X-ray source. The size of the source beam was 2 mmAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 x 2 mm, and the size of the analyzed region was 0.3 mm x 0.7 mm. The instrument was maintained at a pressure of 10'7PA during the experiments. The spectra were post-processed with Casa XPS software (Casa Software Ltd.).

[0086] XPS scans illustrated in FIG. 3 demonstrate that HFDS grafting is effective only when the Parylene-C surface is activated with MPTS. HFDS grafting on the MPTS activation of the Parylene-C surface helps to tether fluoroalkyl chains to the surface (FIs peak), which reduces the surface energy and increases the condensate droplet contact angle. High resolution Cis spectra comparison of HFDS-treated Parylene-C surface with and without MPTS activation illustrate the presence of -CF3 (approximately 294.0 eV) and -CF2 (approximately 292.0 eV) bonds only on the MPTS activated Parylene-C surface due to the successful tethering of HFDS fluoroalkylsilanes to the MPTS anchors.

[0087] V. Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (“ToF-SIMS”).

[0088] Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy was performed using a PHI TRIFT III system (PHI, United States) for positive ion detection. The suppressor voltage and emission current were 10 kV and 10-30 nA, respectively. The scanning area was 250 pm x 250 pm. The data were analyzed using WinCadence software (PHI, United States).

[0089] The results illustrated in FIG. 4 demonstrate that without MPTS activation, the HFDS ACVD treated Parylene-C surface is mainly composed of hydrocarbons for positive ions. As the HFDS cannot bond with Parylene-C without MPTS activation, the surface does not show any presence of fluorocarbons. However, presence of fluorocarbons in the ToF-SIMS results of the positive ion counts on the MPTS-activated Parylene-C surface confirms the effective fluoroalkylsilane grafting enabled by the MPTS activation of the Parylene-C surface.

[0090] VI. Contact Angle Measurement.

[0091] The surface wettability of the samples was characterized immediately after the coating procedure. Contact angle measurement of approximately 5 pL droplets of probe liquids (water, diiodomethane, ethanol, hexane, pentane, and refrigerant R1233zd(E)) on all surfaces was performed using a Rame-hart droplet dispenser. The surface energies of HFDS-grafted Parylene-C (P-HFDS), Parylene-C (“P-C”), Parylene-HT (“P-HT,” Octafluoroparacyclophane, CAS No. 3345-29-7), and PMDS-silane coated surface were compared as illustrated in FIG. 5. The dispensing heat was set 5-10 millimeters above the sample surface, and the dispenser dispensed 5 pL droplets on the surface. Images of droplets were taken with a Canon 6D camera.

[0092] Contact angle measurement of diiodomethane, water, and R1233zd(E) at room temperature were done inside a custom-built experimental chamber illustrated in FIG. 6. The chamber was initially vacuumed through a vacuum line by opening the vacuuming valve. OnceAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 vacuumed, the vacuum valve was closed, and the chamber was charged with the refrigerant vapor through a bottom vapor line to reach the saturation pressure at room temperature. Once the pressure was reached, the vapor charging line was closed, and liquid refrigerant was charged through the top liquid refrigerant line and a small refrigerant droplet was allowed to fall onto the surface through a needle valve, and contact angles were measured. Images of the droplet were taken with a Phantom high-speed camera.

[0093] All contact angle data were analyzed using image processing software (Image- J) to measure the apparent contact angle (6*a). At least three measurements were performed on spatially varied locations of each sample surface.

[0094] The measured surface energy of the P-HFDS coated surface was lower than Parylene- C, Parylene-HT, and previously reported PDMS-silane surfaces, due to the high-density grafting of fluoroalkylsilane on the MPTS-activated, highly conformal, and pin-hole-free Parylene-C base layer. The P-HFDS surface has lower surface energy compared to a liquid- impregnated surface (“LIS”), which may be infused with Krytox 1525, and has a surface energy equivalent to the lubricant itself (19 mJ / m2).

[0095] VII. Surface Energy Measurement.

[0096] The surface energies of a flat surface may be measured by the contact angle approached based on the Fowkes model. The model assumes that the surface energy has two components: one is dispersive surface energy (ys,d); and another is polar component (ys,p). The two components of surface energy may be determined by measuring the intrinsic advancing contact angle of water (©water) and diiodomethane (©diiodomethane).

[0097] All apparent contact angles were measured on at least 3 spatially distinct spots on the surface. The maximum base radius of the sessile droplets was controlled such that the base radius was smaller than the capillary length (about 3 millimeters) of both water and diiasaodomethane to ensure that the contact angle was not affected by gravity. The dispersive surface energy was measured using diiodomethane (Sigma-Aldrich, ReagentPlus 99%) as the probing liquid. De-ionized water was used to obtain the polar part of the surface energy. Contact angle measurements were performed on at least three different spots on each surface, and the uncertainties of contact angle A^diiodomethane and Atwater are defined as the standard deviations of the different contact angle measurements.

[0098] If a metal surface is coated with only low-energy HFDS, the surface may not demonstrate dropwise condensation of low-surface-tension liquids, due to the high contact angle hysteresis. Direct coating of a HFDS on a metal substrate results in a non-conformal grafting of fluoroalkyl chains due to the numerous surface imperfections, which may result inAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 inefficient shedding of condensate droplets. By comparison, implementing a Parylene-C base layer on a metal substrate imparts low contact angle hysteresis to the surface, due to the conformal and low roughness nature of the Parylene-C coating. Parylene-C has a relative high surface energy, higher than the required energy to repel low- surface-tension liquids, which results in complete wetting by low-surface-tension droplets (such as ethanol, hexane, pentane). The synergistic combination of the Parylene-C with HFDS fluoroalkylsilane enabled by MPTS activation results in a hybrid coating that may display the combined advantages of low surface energy and low contact angle hysteresis, thereby making the coating promising for achieving dropwise condensation of low-surface-tension liquids.

[0099] Parylene-C coating may provide a conformal, inert, corrosion-resistant, defect-free, and pinhole-free base layer compared to PDMS. Therefore, Parylene-C enables a substrateindependent, high-density silane grafting, resulting in a lower energy surface compared to PDMS-silane. Further, the conformal, pinhole-free, base layer, along with high-density grafting of low-energy fluoroalkylsilane, prevents the formation of filmwise condensation and coating degradation due to condensate penetration through any coating imperfections. The dense fluoroalkylsilane layer tethered to the MPTS-activated Parylene-C surface forms a multilayer impenetrable structure that is more conformal and free from imperfections, more durable, and enables long-term sustainable dropwise condensation of low-surface-tension liquids, compared to PDMS-silane coating.

[0100] VIII. Contact Angle Hysteresis and Lossless Transport of Low Surface Tension Liquids.

[0101] Contact angle hysteresis (“CAH”) measurements of approximately 100 nL droplets were performed for all samples using a micro-droplet dispenser (Microdrop Technologies) for different probe liquids (such as water, diiodomethane, ethanol, hexane, and pentane) on the dynamically Omniphobic P-HFDS surface. The P-HFDS-coated metal substrates have lower contact angle hysteresis than PDMS-silane, due to high-density grafting of HFDS fluoroalkyl silane to the Parylene-C coated substrate. The conformal, pin-hole-free, and low-roughness coating of Parylene-C, when applied as the base coating, demonstrated reduced surface contact angle hysteresis. The tethered HFDS fluoroalkylsilane on top of the Parylene-C enabled by MPTS may increase the apparent contact angle by lowering the surface energy and further reducing the contact angle hysteresis. Due to the lower contact angle hysteresis and low surface energy of the P-HFDS surface, low-surface-tension liquid droplets may easily roll off the surface, exhibiting complete repellency and lossless transport. The complete repellency andAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 lossless transport have great potential in a wide range of applications, such as water collection, microfluidics, and heat transfer systems.

[0102] The dispenser was set 5-10 millimeters above the sample surface and the dispenser dispensed microscale droplets on the surface, allowing droplets to accumulate into a larger droplet, to measure apparent advancing contact angle (0a). To measure apparent receding contact angle (0r), the dispenser was turned off, allowing the water droplet to evaporate. At least three measurements were performed on spatially varied locations of each sample surface, and at each location, an average of 5 sampling points were obtained from which the contact angle hysteresis (the difference between the advancing and receding contact angles) was measured using Image-J software.

[0103] To demonstrate the effect of low CAH on the low surface tension droplet repellency, a lossless ethanol (y = 21.96 mN / m at 25 °C) and n-decane (y = 23.40 mN / m at 25 °C) liquid droplet rolling test was conducted on the uncoated, P-HFDS coated glass, and SS304 surfaces. As illustrated in FIG. 7, compared to the uncoated surfaces, the ethanol and n-decane droplets completely easily rolled off the low CAH and low- surface-energy P-HFDS surfaces. Further, complete repellency of Polyol Ester Synthetic Refrigeration Oil droplets (y is approximately 29 mN / m at 25 °C), which is widely used in the refrigerant industry, on P-HFDS-coated Al surface was demonstrated. Polyol Ester Synthetic Refrigeration Oil droplets completely wet and contaminated the uncoated, Parylene-C coated, and Parylene-HT coated surfaces. However, the Polyol Ester Synthetic Refrigeration Oil droplets completely rolled off the P- HFDS surface and did not leave a stain visible to the unaided eye, demonstrating lossless transportation. The result of the Polyol Ester Synthetic Refrigeration Oil droplets on the P- HFDS surface is of great significance, because in compression refrigeration systems, oil inevitably merges into the refrigerant, resulting in oil contamination of the condenser surface, which adds thermal resistance deteriorating the system performance. All the surfaces were tilted at approximately 15° for the tests. The droplets were dyed for visualization.

[0104] IX. Droplet Size Distribution Measurement Procedure.

[0105] The thermal performance of a surface exhibiting dropwise condensation may be highly dependent on the droplet distribution size in the coalescence regime. For an accurate prediction of the heat transfer coefficient, and to characterize the enhancement performance, the droplet distribution sizes and droplet growth dynamics of condensed low-surface-tension liquids on the substrate were measured by combining ambient pressure condensation experiments with high-resolution optical imaging. The condensate droplet growth and departure dynamics wereAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 captured and the microscopic condensate droplet mobility was quantified. The properties of the fluids considered in this experiment are provided below in Table 1.TABLE 1Physical properties of the fluids (at 25 °C) that have been considered for condensation tests in this study.

[0106] A schematic of a test facility employed for imaging the condensate droplet distribution is illustrated in FIG. 8. A rectangular Cu cold plate of 50 x 50 x 8 mm was installed vertically and connected to a chiller (Poly science, 6160 series), which supplied water at a constant temperature of 25 °C. A cold plate temperature of 25 °C was chosen to ensure that the temperature of the sample surface was above the dew-point of the laboratory air, and to prevent any chance of water vapor condensation. The substrate was adhered onto the surface of the cold plate using a Cu foil tape (3M, 3313 Copper Foil Tape). To generate ethanol, hexane, or pentane vapor, a closed container containing the fluid was placed on a temperature -regulated hot plate (Thermo-Scientific, Cimarec+), and the temperature of the hot plate was set above the boiling point of the corresponding fluid. A tube was then used to channel the vapor towards the substrate. A digital single-lens reflex (“DSLR”) camera (Canon 6D) mounted with objective lenses (Nikon, Plan Fluor) of lOx and 50x magnification was employed. The objective lenses were used to acquire high resolution images of droplet sizes ranging from 10 pm to 700 pm. The camera and lens were placed on a fine linear translation stage (Newport, XYZ Linear stage, DS65-XYZ), which allowed for fine focusing through adjustments of lens working distance. The entire test setup was housed inside a fume hood (Fisher Hamilton Inc.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597Series 54L, Face Velocity 110 LFPM) to ensure the tests were conducted in a controlled and safe environment by removal of the excess vapor.

[0107] Because droplet size may be independent of the presence of non-condensable gases (“NCGs”) such as air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, argon, and oxygen, the droplet size distribution measurement experiments were conducted under ambient conditions. For each experiment, a video of at least 10 minutes in duration was taken to ensure all stages of droplet sweeping were captured, and images were extracted from the video for the analysis. The images were postprocessed and analyzed using the Image-J software, and the droplet sizes, obtained in terms of pixels, were converted into millimeter scale.

[0108] A comparison of the measured droplet distribution size against the predicted values for ethanol, hexane, and pentane is illustrated in FIG. 9. The predicted values may be different for different working fluids, as their advancing contact angles (0a) are not the same, and a lower 9aincreases the droplet distribution size. The measured experimental values of droplet size distribution measurements agree well with the predicted values.

[0109] A 263% enhancement in heat transfer coefficient of ethanol was observed by promoting the dropwise condensation on P-HFDS compared to filmwise condensation. A 340% enhancement in heat transfer coefficient of hexane was observed by promoting the dropwise condensation on P-HFDS. A 627% enhancement in heat transfer coefficient of pentane was observed by promoting the dropwise concentration on P-HFDS. Therefore, by implementing the P-HFDS coating, condensation heat transfer coefficient comparable to PDMS-silane may be achieved.

[0110] The P-HFDS surface has additional advantages over PDMS-silane. The P-HFDS surface may withstand a wide range of liquids because the Parylene-C base layer is chemically inert, durable, conformal, and substrate independent, and enables the high-density grafting of fluoroalkylsilane. The dropwise condensation of ethanol, hexane, and pentane on P-HFDS coated large-scale commercial heat exchangers demonstrates the superior scalability and substrate independence of P-HFDS compared to previously reported surfaces.

[0111] X. Pure Vapor Condensation Experiment.

[0112] Heat transfer coefficients of the tubes may be determined using the test facility illustrated in FIG. 10. The test facility includes an environmental chamber, a vapor line, and a coolant line. The environmental chamber, in which the tube sample to be tested is housed, may have an internal diameter of 0.305 m and a length of 0.559 m. Both ends of the chamber may be sealed with flanges. Cold plates may be connected and mounted inside the chamber as well, for testing flat surfaces. The chamber may be installed with six viewports (5.08 cm diameterAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 ports from MPF Products, and 6.35 cm diameter ports from MDC Vacuum), each with a diameter of about 6 cm, for visual access. Several feedthrough fittings may be mounted on the parameters of the chamber so that thermocouples and resistance temperature detectors (“RTDs”) may be installed within the chamber to obtain the vapor and coolant temperatures. To monitor the chamber pressure, two pressure transducers (Baratron 728A and 925 MicroPirani from MKS Instruments) have been used, with one transducer installed at each end of the chamber.

[0113] The vapor line consists of a vapor generator (8” O.D. Standard CF Tee, Kurt J. Lesker), filled with the liquid to be condensed (water or ethanol), and a stainless- steel tubing (1 / 2” O.D. from Swagelok) system connects a pressure vessel to the environmental chamber. To heat up the liquid, three rope heaters (Part #AWH-101-040DP, ETS Equipment), each of 624 W, are installed on the outer surface of the vapor generator. The rope heaters are connected to a variable power transfer (Model PM-1220BE, ETS Equipment), which allows the heaters’ heat rate to be controlled. A T-type thermocouple (Part #SCPSS-032, Omega) is inserted into the vapor generator to monitor the working fluid’s temperature. For refrigeration condensation tests, the vapor generator was disconnected from the chamber, and the refrigerant was charged directly from the pressurized refrigerant container by connecting it to the vapor line.

[0114] The coolant line is a closed loop system consisting of a chiller (Part #327005091602, System III TU7 Pump, Thermo Fisher Scientific) with an in-build water pump. Cold water is supplied from the chiller through the tube sample located in the environmental chamber and the water flow rate is measured using an electromagnetic flow meter (Part #FMG93, Omega). The cold-water inlet / outlet temperatures are measured using two RTDs (Part #AT-PX1123Y- LR4S1T2T, ReoTemp) installed at the two ends of the tube sample.

[0115] Prior to the beginning of the experiments, the internal walls of the condensation chamber may be wiped clean with acetone and isopropyl alcohol, to remove any contaminant. The vacuum pump (Model Alcatel 2005) connected to the condensation chamber is turned on to remove any traces of NCGs from the system while all the valves are closed. A liquid nitrogen cold trap (Model #TLR4X1100QF), installed just before the vacuum pump, allows moisture extraction from the chamber and assists in improving the chamber vacuum condition. During the vacuum pump down process, the tape heaters are concurrently turned on to heat up the DI water or ethanol in the vapor generator, with the valves (Model #6L-LD8-BBXX, Swagelok) installed on the tube connecting the vapor generator and condensation chamber kept closed. The liquid is degassed by heating the to 100 °C for water, or 70 °C for ethanol, for more than 30 minutes. When the chamber pressure is below 10 Pa, the chiller is turned on toAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 allow cold water to circulate through the internal channel of the sample tube. The inlet cold water temperature (Tw,in) is maintained at approximately 7 °C, and the flow rate may range between 20 ± 0.2 and 30 ± 0.2 L / min.

[0116] When the chamber pressure is below 6 + 2 Pa, the experiments are commenced. The valve installed on the connecting tubes between the vacuum pump and condensation chamber (Model #6L-LD8-BBXX, Swagelok) is closed and the vacuum pump is switched off. The valve on the vent port of the vapor generator is closed to isolate the vapor generator from ambient pressure. Finally, the valve connecting the pressure vessel and condensation chamber (Model #6L-LD8-BBXX, Swagelox) is gradually opened to achieve the required vapor pressure (Pv). Pv is varied between 3.2 kPa and 9 kPa, with the condensation heat transfer coefficients determined at different Pvvalues, corresponding to different supers aturation (.S’).

[0117] The heat transfer coefficient is obtained by determining the condensation heat transfer rate of each tube sample from the heat rate gained by the cold water. Using the thermal conductivity value of the tube material, the inner and outer tube diameters and total length of a tube, the thermal resistance across the tube wall may be determined.

[0118] The heat transfer coefficient for steam dropwise condensation on the P-HFDS-coated tubes demonstrate a 275% enhancement, compared to filmwise condensation, which is comparable to heat transfer coefficients on PDMS-silane-coated round tubes.

[0119] Condensation of ethanol on P-HFDS-coated metal surfaces (Cu and SS304) exhibited steady dropwise condensation. The low contact angle hysteresis Parylene-C coating combined with the low-surface-energy HFDS fluoroalkylsilane of the P-HFDS coating results in higher apparent advancing contact angle, lower contact angle hysteresis, and rapid droplet removal, and ultimately enabling sustainable droplet condensation of low surface tension ethanol even at higher saturation pressures. The heat transfer performance during dropwise condensation of ethanol on the P-HFDS-cated metal tubes demonstrated / idropwise of approximately 7.72 + 0.9 kW / (m2K), substantially exceeding the measured filmwise condensation performance and amounting to an approximate 260% enhancement.

[0120] The very low surface energy and low hysteresis of P-HFDS coating may enable the dropwise condensation of low-surface-tension refrigerants. To qualify the refrigerant condensation performance enhancement, both dropwise and filmwise condensation heat transfer coefficients of R1233zd(E), a low GWP HCFO refrigerant, were determined for P- HFDS-coated Al metal tube. The heat transfer performance during dropwise condensation of R1233zd(E) refrigerant on the P-HFDS-coated Al tubes is Adropwise, which is approximately 25.45 + 1.3 kW / (m2K), substantially exceeding the measured filmwise condensationAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 performance ( / zfiimwise), which is approximately 3.7 ± 1.8 kW / (m2K), and amounting to an approximate 688% enhancement. R1233zd(E) was chosen for the condensation test because R1233zd(E) is environmentally friendly, non-toxic, non-flammable, and classified Al for safety by ASHRAE Standard 34, has a low global warming potential (“GWP”), and has a relatively high surface tension compared to high-GWP HFC predecessors R134a (surface tension of approximately 8 mN / m at 25 °C), and R245fa (surface tension of approximately 13.6 mN / m at 25 °C).

[0121] XL Condensation Durability Experiment.

[0122] Long-term condensation durability of the P-HFDS-coated tubes is determined using a customized vacuum chamber illustrated in FIG. 11. The main environmental cylindrical chamber (16.5” diameter and 26” long) consists of top glass windows for top view, and four apertures around the side walls for various connections. The top opening is sealed with a rubber gasket and a custom-made stainless- steel view port (Kurt J. Lesker), which contains the glass windows (2 are 6” and other is 4.5” in diameter). Among the four apertures, two are used as feedthrough, connected to the chiller inlet and outlet, one is connected to the pumping line, and the remaining one is connected to a tee-joint for sensors and venting. Cu tube in a form of water jacket is brazed around the whole body of the chamber, through which water at 65 °C is supplied from a hot water bath (1C1551256, PolyScience). The hot water jacket helps to maintain the overall chamber wall temperature at approximately 55 °C throughout the experiment, which helps to reduce the amount of condensate inside the chamber wall and the view ports.

[0123] A heater (3631K44, McMaster-Carr) with an adjustable temperature controller, is wrapped around the outer wall of the chamber, to provide additional heat towards the area occupied by the working fluid inside of the vessel. An additional tape heater (AWH- 171-020, HTS / Amptek) controlled with a variable voltage controller is taped at the outer-bottom surface of the chamber. These two heaters are calibrated and adjusted at voltages to maintain the constant boiling of the working fluid inside the chamber. The water jacket and all the heaters are insulated to prevent heat loss to the ambient environment. Cooling water is supplied to the chamber from a capacity chiller (N0772046, PolyScience via KF fluid feedthroughs (Kurt J. Lesker). To monitor water flow rates, an electromagnetic flow meter (FMG93-PVDF, Omega) with an accuracy of ±1% of reading is integrated along the coolant inflow line. A Swagelok skeleton is built within the chamber for connecting the chiller to the tube samples.

[0124] To remove NCGs prior to experiments, a bellows valve (Ideal Vacuum) is used to connect the environmental chamber with a rotary vane vacuum pump (KJLC-RV212, Kurt J.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597Lesker). To monitor the pressure within the chamber, a vacuum pressure transducer (925 Micro Pirani, MKS) is installed. As the working fluid is placed inside the main chamber, complete removal of NCGs is not possible partial vacuum conditions (P of approximately 4 kPa) is achievable. To monitor temperatures within the system, K-type thermocouple bundles are connected to the chamber via thermocouple feedthroughs (Kurt J. Lesker). Two thermocouples monitor the inlet and outlet temperature of the coolant. Additional thermocouples were placed inside the chamber, to monitor the temperature of the side walls, vapor, and condensate throughout the experiment.

[0125] The thermocouples, flow meter, and pressure transducer are electrically connected to a data acquisition (DAQ) system (cDAQ-9174, National Instruments), and data was continuously recorded and monitored throughout the experiment with Lab VIEW. A DSLR Camera (Pentax) was placed outside the top view port of the chamber for visual record of coating degradation.

[0126] Prior to the experiments, the interior chamber is thoroughly cleaned with isopropyl alcohol (“IP A”) to remove any contaminants. Then the chamber is filled with approximately 15 liters of working fluid (ethanol or water). Hot water bath and heaters are turned on to heat up the chamber walls for drying out the inside of the chamber prior to pump down and prevent condensation during the experiments. The test samples are fixed using Swagelok connection to the customized sample holder, which is then connected to the chiller coolant loop via inlet and outlet feedthrough. After sealing the opening, all the valves of the chamber are closed to initiate the pump down process. In the middle of the pump down process, the chiller is turned on, and the water temperature is set to 5 °C. The inflow rate of the coolant is monitored using the electromagnetic flowmeter and is maintained at 10 LPM. The pump down process takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve the partial vacuum conditions (pressure of approximately 4 kPa). However, the partial vacuum conditions are maintained in the chamber, which reduces the amount of heat required to boil the working fluids. When the pressure is steady, the valve connecting the environmental chamber and the pump is turned off.

[0127] Continuous condensation of ethanol on the tube surfaces was performed for 100 days. Ethanol was selected because ethanol is a widely used low-surface-tension fluid and is expected to induce hydrolysis reaction, which represents the least durable scenario to be evaluated compared to using other non-polar liquids. Continuous condensation of steam on the P-HFS tube surfaces was performed for 60 days to demonstrate durability compared to CuO-LIS, which demonstrated degradation after 45 days of steam condensation in a previous study. The studies demonstrated that a P-HFDS-coated surface may sustain continuous dropwiseAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 condensation of ethanol for at least 100 days, followed by 60 days of steam condensation without any sign of degradation.

[0128] After 160 days of consecutive ethanol and steam condensation, an additional 10 days of ethanol condensation was conducted on the same surface. The surface continued to exhibit dropwise condensation of ethanol, proving strong adhesion and durability of the grafted low energy fluoroalkylsilane.

[0129] To demonstrate refrigeration condensation durability of the P-HFDS surfaces, continuous dropwise condensation of R1233zd(E) pure vapor on the tube surface was performed for 90 days with a Pvof approximately 129 kPa. Continuous dropwise condensation of a second commercial HFO refrigerant, R1336mzz(Z) was performed on the same tube surfaces for 24 hours with a Pvof approximately 73 kPa. R1336mzz(Z) was selected as an additional refrigerant for condensation durability testing because R1336mzz(Z) is environmentally friendly, non-toxic, non-flammable, and classified Al for safety by ASHRAE, has a low GWP, and has relatively higher surface tension than high-GWP HFC predecessors R134a (surface tension of approximately 8 mN / m at 25 °C) and R245fa (surface tension of approximately 13.6 mN / m at 25 °C).

[0130] To demonstrate substrate independence of the P-HFDS coating, dropwise condensation of HCFO R1233zd(E) was demonstrated at a Pvof approximately 129 kPa on two other metal substrates (stainless steel and additively manufactured AlSilOMg).

[0131] Given a long period of a durability test (approximately 100 days for ethanol and 60 days for steam), a leak test is performed to ensure there is no leak before each experimental trial. For the leak test, the chamber is left in vacuum state for >24 hours, and the chamber pressure is monitored with the pressure transducer. Steady state conditions are typically reached after approximately 30 - 40 minutes of full operation. Data (temperatures, pressure, and flow rate) is collected throughout the leak rate experiment, and the images of each sample are recorded using a DSLR camera.

[0132] Although the present disclosure has been described with reference to examples and the accompanying drawings, the present disclosure is not limited thereto, but may be variously modified and altered by those skilled in the art to which the present disclosure pertains without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.

[0133] The subject-matter of the disclosure may also relate, among others, to the following aspects:

[0134] A first aspect relates to a coated surface, comprising: a surface; and a coating, comprising: a first layer formed on the surface, the first layer comprising a conformal coating;Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 an intermediary layer formed on the first layer, the intermediary layer comprising an adhesion promoter; and an outer omniphobic layer formed on the intermediary layer.

[0135] A second aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (I):R1R2— Si-R4(I);R3wherein R1is selected from hydrogen, unsubstituted or substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, fluoroalkyl, or fluoroalkyloxy; R2and R3are each independently selected from R1, chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, substituted alkoxy, dialkylamino, or trialkylsilazane; R4is selected from chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, dialkylamino, trialkylsilazane,substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, substituted aryl, and substituted alkoxy are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, or alkoxy groups.

[0136] A third aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1 or 2, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of methyltrichlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, dimethyldimethoxysilane, trimethylmethoxysilane, methyltriethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, trimethylethoxysilane, methyltri-n-propoxysilane, trimcthyl-n- propoxysilane, methyltris(methoxyethoxy)silane, methoxypropoxytrimethylsilane, methyltriacetoxysilane, dimethyldiacetoxysilane, acetoxytrimethylsilane, tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane, bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane, dimethylaminotrimethylsilane, tris(cyclohexylamino)methylsilane, bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane, diethylaminotrimethylsilane, hexamethyldisilazane, ethyltrichlorosilane, ethylmethyldichlorosilane, ethyldimethylchlorosilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, ethyltriethoxysilane, ethyltriacetoxysilane, propyltrichlorosilane, propylmethyldichlorosilane, propyldimethylchlorosilane, propyltrimethoxysilane, propylmethyldimethoxysilane, propyldimethylmethoxysilane, propyltriethoxysilane, dipropyltetr amethyldisilazane, 77-butyltrichlorosilanc, n-butyldimethylchlorosilane, n- butyltrimethoxysilane, n-butyltricthoxysilanc, n-butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, pentyltrichlorosilane, pentyltriethoxysilane, hexyltrichlorosilane, hexylmethyldichlorosilane, hexyltrimethoxysilane, hexyltriethoxysilane, heptyltrichlorosilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 heptylmethyldichlorosilane, octyltrichlorosilane, octylmethyldichlorosilane, octyldimethylchlorosilane, octyltrimethoxysilane, octyldimethylmethoxysilane, octyltriethoxysilane, octylmethyldiethoxysilane, octyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, dioctyltetramethyldisilazane, , decyltrichlorosilane, decylmethyldichlorosilane, decyldimethylchlorosilane, decyltriethoxysilane, undecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltrichlorosilane, dodecylmethyldichloro silane , dodecyldimethylchlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, dodecylmethyldiethoxysilane, tetradecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, octadecylmethyldichlorosilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldimethoxy silane, octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldiethoxysilane, octadecyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, eicosyltrichlorosilane, isopropylmethyldichlorosilane, isopropyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrichlorosilane, t- butyltrichlorosilane, t-butylmethyldichlorosilane, isobutyldimethylchlorosilane, t- butyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrimethoxysilane, isobutylmethyldimethoxysilane, isobutyltriethoxysilane, cyclopentyltrichlorosilane, cyclopentyltrimethoxysilane, (3,3- dimethylbutyl)trichlorosilane, n-hexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexylmethyldichlorosilane, (3,3-dimethylbutyl)dimethylchlorosilane, n- hexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyltrimethoxysilane, cyclohexylmethyldimethoxysilane, bicycloheptyltrichlorosilane,(cyclohexylmethyl)trichlorosilane, bicycloheptyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrichlorosilane, cyclooctyltrichlorosilane, isooctyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrimethoxysilane, isooctyltriethoxy silane, adamantylethyltrichlorosilane, 7-(trichlorosilylmethyl)pentadecane, (di-n-octylmethylsilyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, (di-n-octyl methyl silyl )ethyldimethylchlorosilane, 1 l-(chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)tricosane, 13-(trichlorosilylmethyl)heptacosane, 13- (chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)heptacosane, phenyltrichlorosilane, phenylmethyldichlorosilane, phenyldimethylchlorosilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, phenylmethyldimethoxysilane, phenyltriethoxysilane, phenylmethyldiethoxysilane, phenyldimethylethoxysilane, phenyltriacetoxy silane, phenylmethylbis(dimethylamino)silane, benzyltrichlorosilane, 1- phenyl- 1 -trichlorosilylbutane, 1 -phenyl- 1 -methyldichlorosilylbutane, benzyldimethylchlorosilane, benzyltrietho xysilane, phenethyltrichlorosilane, phenethylmethyldichlorosilane, (2-methyl-2-phenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, phenethyltrimethoxysilane, phenethyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (3-phenylpropyl)trichlorosilane, (3-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 phenylpropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3-phenylpropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyltrichlorosilane, 4-phenylbutylmethyldichlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxypropyltrichlorosilane, phenoxypropylmethyldichlorosilane, phenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, phenylhexyltrichlorosilane, (6- phenylhexyl)dimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrichlorosilane, p-tolylmethyldichlorosilane, p- tolyldimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrimethoxysilane, (p-methylphenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, ethylphenethyltrimethoxysilane, p-(t-butyl)phenethyltrichlorosilane, p-(t- butyl)phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)propyltrichlorosilane, 3-(p- methoxyphenyl)propylmethyldichlorosilane, 1 -naphthyltrimethoxy silane, ( 1 - naphthylmethyl)trichlorosilane, m-phenoxyphenyldimethylchlorosilane, p- nonylphenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)trichlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)trimethoxysilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)methyldimethoxysilane, bis(trifluoropropyl)tetramethyldisilazane, nonafluorohexyltrichlorosilane, nonafluorohexylmethyldichlorosilane, nonafluorohexyldimethylchlorosilane, nonafluorohexyltrimethoxysilane, nonafluorohexyltriethoxysilane, nonafluorohexyltris(dimethylamino)silane, nonafluorohexyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)methyldichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)trimethoxy silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrooctyl)triethoxy silane,(heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichloro silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)methyldichlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)trimethoxy silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)triethoxy silane, heneicocyl- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropoxytrimethoxysilane, tridecafluoro-2-(tridecafluorohexyl)decyltrichlorosilane, diethyldichlorosilane, diethyldiethoxysilane, diisopropyldichlorosilane, diisopropyldimethoxysilane, di-n-butyldichlorosilane, di-n- butyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldiethoxysilane, isobutylisopropyldimethoxysilane, dicyclopentyldichlorosilane, dicyclopropyldichlorosilane, dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane, di-n-hexyldichlorosilane, dicyclohexyldichlorosilane, di-n- octyldichlorosilane, di-n-octyldimethoxysilane, (perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597CH3 / H \ / CH3\ CH3H3C-Si-0 — rSi-On-rSHC-pSi-CHsCH3\CH3 / m\CH3 / nCH3heptadecafluorotetr ahydrodecyltrimethoxysilane,

[0137] A fourth aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (II):R5— SH (II); wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0138] A fifth aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (III):wherein R6is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0139] A sixth aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (IV):OR7A O; H <IV); wherein R7is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0140] A seventh aspect relates to the coated surface of aspect 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (V):OR8-S-OH (V);6 wherein R8is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0141] An eighth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a fluoroalkyl group.

[0142] A ninth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the conformal coating comprises a parylene.

[0143] A tenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the conformal coating comprises a chlorinated parylene.

[0144] An eleventh aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the conformal coating comprises Parylene-C.

[0145] A twelfth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the adhesion promoter comprises y-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (“MPTS”), 3- aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, A-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane, or any mixture thereof.

[0146] A thirteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound with a critical surface tension of about 30 mN / m or lower.

[0147] A fourteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the surface comprises a metal or alloy selected from aluminum, copper, stainless steel, titanium, or nickel superalloy.

[0148] A fifteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the surface is part or all of a heat exchanger.

[0149] A sixteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises an outer surface having a root mean square roughness (Rrms) of about 6 nanometers or less.

[0150] A seventeenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the intermediary layer has a thickness in a range from about 9.0 nanometers to about 15.0 nanometers.

[0151] An eighteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the outer omniphobic layer has a thickness in a range from about 1.0 nanometer to about 10.0 nanometers.

[0152] A nineteenth aspect relates to the coated surface of any preceding aspect, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises an outer surface having a surface energy of about 15 mJ / m2or less.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0153] A twentieth aspect relates to a method of condensing a liquid on the coated surface of any preceding aspect, comprising: channeling a vapor to the coated surface; condensing the vapor into liquid drops on the coated surface; and collecting the liquid dropwise; and wherein the liquid has a surface tension of from about 10 mN / m to about 72 mN / m.

[0154] A twenty-first aspect relates to the method of aspect 20, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 24 hours without degradation of the coating.

[0155] A twenty- second aspect relates to the method of aspect 20 or 21, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 90 days without degradation of the coating.

[0156] A twenty-third aspect relates to the method of aspects 20 to 22, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 100 days without degradation of the coating.

[0157] A twenty-fourth aspect relates to the method of aspects 20 to 23, wherein the method increases a heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 250% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid.

[0158] A twenty-fifth aspect relates to the method of aspects 20 to 24, wherein the method increases the heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 650% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid.

[0159] A twenty-sixth aspect relates to a method of forming a coating on a surface, the method comprising: forming a first layer comprising a conformal coating on the surface to provide a coated surface; applying an intermediary layer on the coated surface to provide an activated coated substrate, the intermediary layer comprising an adhesion promoter; and depositing an outer omniphobic layer on the intermediary layer.

[0160] A twenty- seventh aspect relates to the method of aspect 26, wherein the forming comprises depositing the conformal coating from a vapor phase.

[0161] A twenty-eighth aspect relates to the method of aspect 26 or 27, wherein the conformal coating comprises a parylene.

[0162] A twenty-ninth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 28, wherein the applying comprises dipping the coated surface in a solution of the adhesion promoter.

[0163] A thirtieth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 29, wherein the adhesion promoter comprises y-methacryloxypropytrimethoxysilane (MPTS), 3- aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, A-(2-aminoethyl)-3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, 3- glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane, or any mixture thereof.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597

[0164] A thirty-first aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 30, wherein the depositing comprises chemical vapor depositing of the outer omniphobic layer on the activated coated substrate.

[0165] A thirty-second aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 31, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound with a critical surface tension of about 30 mN / m or lower.

[0166] A thirty-third aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (I):R1R2- Si-R4(I);R3wherein R1is selected from hydrogen, unsubstituted or substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, fluoroalkyl, or fluoroalkyloxy; R2and R3are each independently selected from R1, chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, substituted alkoxy, dialkylamino, or trialkylsilazane; R4is selected from chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, dialkylamino, trialkylsilazane,wherein substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, substituted aryl, and substituted alkoxy are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, or alkoxy groups.

[0167] A thirty-fourth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 33, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of methyltrichlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, dimethyldimethoxysilane, trimethylmethoxysilane, methyltriethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, trimethylethoxysilane, mcthyltri-n-propoxysilanc, trimcthyl-n- propoxysilane, methyltris(methoxyethoxy)silane, methoxypropoxytrimethylsilane, methyltriacetoxysilane, dimethyldiacetoxysilane, acetoxytrimethylsilane, tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane, bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane, dimethylaminotrimethylsilane, tris(cyclohexylamino)methylsilane, bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane, diethylaminotrimethylsilane, hexamethyldisilazane, ethyltrichlorosilane, ethylmethyldichlorosilane, ethyldimethylchlorosilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, ethyltriethoxysilane, ethyltriacetoxysilane, propyltrichlorosilane, propylmethyldichlorosilane, propyldimethylchlorosilane, propyltrimethoxysilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 propylmethyldimethoxysilane, propyldimethylmethoxysilane, propyltriethoxysilane, dipropyltetramethyldisilazane, n-butyltrichlorosilanc, n-butyldimethylchlorosilane, n- butyltrimethoxysilane, n-butyltricthoxysilanc, n-butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, pentyltrichlorosilane, pentyltriethoxysilane, hexyltrichlorosilane, hexylmethyldichlorosilane, hexyltrimethoxysilane, hexyltriethoxysilane, heptyltrichlorosilane, heptylmethyldichlorosilane, octyltrichlorosilane, octylmethyldichlorosilane, octyldimethylchlorosilane, octyltrimethoxysilane, octyldimethylmethoxysilane, octyltriethoxysilane, octylmethyldiethoxysilane, octyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, dioctyltetramethyldisilazane, , decyltrichlorosilane, decylmethyldichlorosilane, decyldimethylchlorosilane, decyltriethoxysilane, undecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltrichlorosilane, dodecylmethyldichloro silane , dodecyldimethylchlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, dodecylmethyldiethoxysilane, tetradecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, octadecylmethyldichlorosilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldimethoxysilane, octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldiethoxysilane, octadecyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, eicosyltrichlorosilane, isopropylmethyldichlorosilane, isopropyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrichlorosilane, t- butyltrichlorosilane, t-butylmethyldichlorosilane, isobutyldimethylchlorosilane, t- butyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrimethoxysilane, isobutylmethyldimethoxysilane, isobutyltriethoxysilane, cyclopentyltrichlorosilane, cyclopentyltrimethoxysilane, (3,3- dimethylbutyl)trichlorosilane, n-hexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexylmethyldichlorosilane, (3,3-dimethylbutyl)dimethylchlorosilane, n- hexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyltrimethoxysilane, cyclohexylmethyldimethoxysilane, bicycloheptyltrichlorosilane,(cyclohexylmethyl)trichlorosilane, bicycloheptyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrichlorosilane, cyclooctyltrichlorosilane, isooctyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrimethoxysilane, isooctyltriethoxy silane, adamantylethyltrichlorosilane, 7-(trichlorosilylmethyl)pentadecane, (di-n-octylmethylsilyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, (di-n-octyl methyl silyl )ethyldimethylchlorosilane, 1 l-(chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)tricosane, 13-(trichlorosilylmethyl)heptacosane, 13- (chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)heptacosane, phenyltrichlorosilane, phenylmethyldichlorosilane, phenyldimethylchlorosilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, phenylmethyldimethoxysilane, phenyltriethoxysilane, phenylmethyldiethoxysilane, phenyldimethylethoxysilane, phenyltriacetoxy silane, phenylmethylbis(dimethylamino)silane, benzyltrichlorosilane, 1-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 phenyl- 1 -trichlorosilylbutane, 1 -phenyl- 1 -methyldichlorosilylbutane, benzyldimethylchlorosilane, benzyltrietho xysilane, phenethyltrichlorosilane, phenethylmethyldichlorosilane, (2-methyl-2-phenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, phenethyltrimethoxysilane, phenethyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (3-phenylpropyl)trichlorosilane, (3- phenylpropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3-phenylpropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyltrichlorosilane, 4-phenylbutylmethyldichlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxypropyltrichlorosilane, phenoxypropylmethyldichlorosilane, phenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, phenylhexyltrichlorosilane, (6- phenylhexyl)dimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrichlorosilane, p-tolylmethyldichlorosilane, p- tolyldimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrimethoxysilane, (p-methylphenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, ethylphenethyltrimethoxysilane, p-(t-butyl)phenethyltrichlorosilane, p-(t- butyl)phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)propyltrichlorosilane, 3-(p- methoxyphenyl)propylmethyldichlorosilane, 1 -naphthyltrimethoxy silane, ( 1 - naphthylmethyl)trichlorosilane, m-phenoxyphenyldimethylchlorosilane, p- nonylphenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)trichlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)trimethoxysilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)methyldimethoxysilane, bis(trifluoropropyl)tetramethyldisilazane, nonafluorohexyltrichlorosilane, nonafluorohexylmethyldichlorosilane, nonafluorohexyldimethylchlorosilane, nonafluorohexyltrimetho xysilane, nonafluorohexyltriethoxysilane, nonafluorohexyltris(dimethylamino)silane, nonafluorohexyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)methyldichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)trimethoxy silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrooctyl)triethoxy silane,(heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichloro silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)methyldichlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)trimetho xysilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)triethoxy silane, heneicocyl- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropoxytrimethoxysilane, tridecafluoro-2-(tridecafluorohexyl)decyltrichlorosilane, diethyldichlorosilane, diethyldiethoxysilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 diisopropyldichlorosilane, diisopropyldimethoxysilane, di-n-butyldichlorosilane, di-n- butyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldiethoxysilane, isobutylisopropyldimethoxysilane, dicyclopentyldichlorosilane, dicyclopropyldichlorosilane, dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane, di-n-hexyldichlorosilane, dicyclohexyldichlorosilane, di-n- octyldichlorosilane, di-n-octyldimethoxysilane, (perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, CH3 / H \ / CH3\ CH3H3C-Si-0 — r-Si-On-rSi-O-pSi-CHs, , , ,, J J i* • .u *i CH3\CH3 / \CH heptadecatluorotetrahydrodecyltnmethoxy silane, 'o / m '3o / / CH n3°?

[0168] A thirty-fifth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (II):R5— SH (II); wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0169] A thirty-sixth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (III):wherein R6is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0170] A thirty- seventh aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (IV):OR7— (IV);OH wherein R7is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0171] A thirty-eighth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (V):Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597wherein R8is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (C1-C40) alkyl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

[0172] A thirty-ninth aspect relates to the method of aspects 26 to 38, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a fluoroalkyl group.

[0173] In addition to the features mentioned in each of the independent aspects enumerated above, some examples may show, alone or in combination, the optional features mentioned in the dependent aspects and / or as disclosed in the description above and shown in the figures.

Claims

Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A coated surface, comprising: a surface; and a coating, comprising: a first layer formed on the surface, the first layer comprising a conformal coating; an intermediary layer formed on the first layer, the intermediary layer comprising an adhesion promoter; and an outer omniphobic layer formed on the intermediary layer.

2. The coated surface of claim 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (I):R1R2-Si-R4(I);R3wherein R1is selected from hydrogen, unsubstituted or substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, fluoroalkyl, or fluoroalkyloxy;R2and R3are each independently selected from R1, chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, substituted alkoxy, dialkylamino, or trialkylsilazane;R4is selected from chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, dialkylamino, trialkylsilazane,substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, substituted aryl, and substituted alkoxy are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, or alkoxy groups.

3. The coated surface of claim 1 or 2, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of methyltrichlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, dimethyldimethoxysilane, trimethylmethoxysilane, methyltriethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, trimethylethoxysilane, methyltri-n-propoxysilane, trimcthyl-n-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 propoxysilane, methyltris(methoxyethoxy)silane, methoxypropoxytrimethylsilane, methyltriacetoxysilane, dimethyldiacetoxysilane, acetoxytrimethylsilane, tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane, bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane, dimethylaminotrimethylsilane, tris(cyclohexylamino)methylsilane, bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane, diethylaminotrimethylsilane, hexamethyldisilazane, ethyltrichlorosilane, ethylmethyldichlorosilane, ethyldimethylchlorosilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, ethyltriethoxysilane, ethyltriacetoxysilane, propyltrichlorosilane, propylmethyldichlorosilane, propyldimethylchlorosilane, propyltrimethoxysilane, propylmethyldimethoxysilane, propyldimethylmethoxysilane, propyltriethoxysilane, dipropyltetr amethyldisilazane, n-butyltrichlorosilane, n-butyldimethylchlorosilane, n- butyltrimethoxysilane, n-butyltriethoxysilane, n-butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, pentyltrichlorosilane, pentyltriethoxysilane, hexyltrichlorosilane, hexylmethyldichlorosilane, hexyltrimethoxysilane, hexyltriethoxysilane, heptyltrichlorosilane, heptylmethyldichlorosilane, octyltrichlorosilane, octylmethyldichlorosilane, octyldimethylchlorosilane, octyltrimethoxysilane, octyldimethylmethoxysilane, octyltriethoxysilane, octylmethyldiethoxysilane, octyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, dioctyltetramethyldisilazane. , decyltrichlorosilane, decylmethyldichlorosilane, decyldimethylchlorosilane, decyltriethoxysilane, undecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltrichlorosilane, dodecylmethyldichloro silane , dodecyldimethylchlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, dodecylmethyldiethoxysilane, tetradecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, octadecylmethyldichlorosilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldimethoxysilane, octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldiethoxysilane, octadecyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, eicosyltrichlorosilane, isopropylmethyldichlorosilane, isopropyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrichlorosilane, t- butyltrichlorosilane, t-butylmethyldichlorosilane, isobutyldimethylchlorosilane, t- butyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrimethoxysilane, isobutylmethyldimethoxysilane, isobutyltriethoxysilane, cyclopentyltrichlorosilane, cyclopentyltrimethoxysilane, (3,3- dimethylbutyl)trichlorosilane, n-hexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexylmethyldichlorosilane, (3,3-dimethylbutyl)dimethylchlorosilane, n- hexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyltrimethoxysilane, cyclohexylmethyldimethoxysilane, bicycloheptyltrichlorosilane,(cyclohexylmethyl)trichlorosilane, bicycloheptyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrichlorosilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 cyclooctyltrichlorosilane, isooctyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrimethoxysilane, isooctyltriethoxy silane, adamantylethyltrichlorosilane, 7-(trichlorosilylmethyl)pentadecane,(di-n-octylmethylsilyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, (di-n-octyl methyl silyl )ethyldimethylchlorosilane, 1 l-(chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)tricosane, 13-(trichlorosilylmethyl)heptacosane, 13- (chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)heptacosane, phenyltrichlorosilane, phenylmethyldichlorosilane, phenyldimethylchlorosilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, phenylmethyldimethoxysilane, phenyltriethoxysilane, phenylmethyldiethoxysilane, phenyldimethylethoxysilane, phenyltriacetoxy silane, phenylmethylbis(dimethylamino)silane, benzyltrichlorosilane, 1- phenyl- 1 -trichlorosilylbutane, 1 -phenyl- 1 -methyldichlorosilylbutane, benzyldimethylchlorosilane, benzyltrietho xysilane, phenethyltrichlorosilane, phenethylmethyldichlorosilane, (2-methyl-2-phenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, phenethyltrimethoxysilane, phenethyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (3-phenylpropyl)trichlorosilane, (3- phenylpropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3-phenylpropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyltrichlorosilane, 4-phenylbutylmethyldichlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxypropyltrichlorosilane, phenoxypropylmethyldichlorosilane, phenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, phenylhexyltrichlorosilane, (6- phenylhexyl)dimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrichlorosilane, p-tolylmethyldichlorosilane, p- tolyldimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrimethoxysilane, (p-methylphenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, ethylphenethyltrimethoxysilane, p-(t-butyl)phenethyltrichlorosilane, p-(t- butyl)phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)propyltrichlorosilane, 3-(p- methoxyphenyl)propylmethyldichlorosilane, 1 -naphthyltrimethoxy silane, ( 1 - naphthylmethyl)trichlorosilane, m-phenoxyphenyldimethylchlorosilane, p- nonylphenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)trichlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)trimethoxysilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)methyldimethoxysilane. bis(trifluoropropyl)tetramethyldisilazane, nonafluorohexyltrichlorosilane. nonafluorohexylmethyldichlorosilane, nonafluorohexyldimethylchlorosilane. nonafluorohexyltrimetho xysilane, nonafluorohexyltriethoxysilane. nonafluorohexyltris(dimethylamino)silane, nonafluorohexyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane.(tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)methyldichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 tetrahydrooctyl)trimethoxy silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrooctyl)triethoxy silane,(heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichloro silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)methyldichlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)trimethoxy silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)triethoxy silane, heneicocyl- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropoxytrimethoxysilane, tridecafluoro-2-(tridecafluorohexyl)decyltrichlorosilane, diethyldichlorosilane, diethyldiethoxysilane, diisopropyldichlorosilane, diisopropyldimethoxysilane, di-n-butyldichlorosilane, di-n- butyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldiethoxysilane, isobutylisopropyldimethoxysilane, dicyclopentyldichlorosilane, dicyclopropyldichlorosilane, dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane, di-n-hexyldichlorosilane, dicyclohexyldichlorosilane, di-n- octyldichlorosilane, di-n-octyldimethoxysilane, (perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, CH3 / H \ / CH3\ CH3H3C-Si-0 — kSi-O44-Si-O-j-Si-CH3, , , ,, J J i* • .u *i CH drodecyltnmethoxy silane,3\CH '3o / / \CH eptadecafluorotetrahy m '3 / CH h ° / n3°?4. The coated surface of claim 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (II):R5— SH (ii); wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

5. The coated surface of claim 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (III):wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; andAtty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

6. The coated surface of claim 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (IV):OR’T (IV);OH wherein R7is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

7. The coated surface of claim 1, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (V):OR8-S-OH (V);6 wherein R8is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

8. The coated surface of claims 1 to 7, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a fluoroalkyl group.

9. The coated surface of claims 1 to 8, wherein the conformal coating comprises a parylene.

10. The coated surface of claims 1 to 9, wherein the conformal coating comprises a chlorinated parylene.

11. The coated surface of claims 1 to 10, wherein the conformal coating comprises Parylene-C.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.500059712. The coated surface of claims 1 to 11, wherein the adhesion promoter comprises y-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (“MPTS”), 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, N-(2- aminoethy 1)- 3 -aminopropyltrimethoxy silane, 3 -gly cidoxypropy Itrimethoxy silane, 3 - aminopropyltriethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane, or any mixture thereof.

13. The coated surface of claims 1 to 12, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound with a critical surface tension of about 30 mN / m or lower.

14. The coated surface of claims 1 to 13, wherein the surface comprises a metal or alloy selected from aluminum, copper, stainless steel, titanium, or nickel superalloy.

15. The coated surface of claims 1 to 14, wherein the surface is part or all of a heat exchanger.

16. The coated surface of claims 1 to 15, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises an outer surface having a root mean square roughness (Rrms) of about 6 nanometers or less.

17. The coated surface of claims 1 to 16, wherein the intermediary layer has a thickness in a range from about 9.0 nanometers to about 15.0 nanometers.

18. The coated surface of claims 1 to 17, wherein the outer omniphobic layer has a thickness in a range from about 1.0 nanometer to about 10.0 nanometers.

19. The coated surface of claims 1 to 18, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises an outer surface having a surface energy of about 15 mJ / m2or less.

20. A method of condensing a liquid on the coated surface of claims 1 to 19, comprising: channeling a vapor to the coated surface; condensing the vapor into liquid drops on the coated surface; and collecting the liquid dropwise; and wherein the liquid has a surface tension of from about 10 mN / m to about 72 mN / m.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.500059721. The method of claim 20, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 24 hours without degradation of the coating.

22. The method of claim 20 or 21, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 90 days without degradation of the coating.

23. The method of claims 20 to 22, wherein the method is performed continuously for at least 100 days without degradation of the coating.

24. The method of claims 20 to 23, wherein the method increases a heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 250% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid.

25. The method of claims 20 to 24, wherein the method increases the heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation of the liquid by at least about 650% relative to filmwise condensation of the liquid.

26. A method of forming a coating on a surface, the method comprising: forming a first layer comprising a conformal coating on the surface to provide a coated surface; applying an intermediary layer on the coated surface to provide an activated coated substrate, the intermediary layer comprising an adhesion promoter; and depositing an outer omniphobic layer on the intermediary layer.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein the forming comprises depositing the conformal coating from a vapor phase.

28. The method of claim 26 or 27, wherein the conformal coating comprises a parylene.

29. The method of claims 26 to 28, wherein the applying comprises dipping the coated surface in a solution of the adhesion promoter.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.500059730. The method of claims 26 to 29, wherein the adhesion promoter comprises y- methacryloxpropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTS), 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, N-(2- aminoethy 1)- 3 -aminopropyltrimethoxy silane, 3 -gly cidoxypropy Itrimethoxy silane, 3 - aminopropyltriethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane, or any mixture thereof.

31. The method of claims 26 to 30, wherein the depositing comprises chemical vapor depositing of the outer omniphobic layer on the activated coated substrate.

32. The method of claims 26 to 31, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound with a critical surface tension of about 30 mN / m or lower.

33. The method of claims 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (I):wherein R1is selected from hydrogen, unsubstituted or substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, fluoroalkyl, or fluoroalkyloxy;R2and R3are each independently selected from R1, chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, substituted alkoxy, dialkylamino, or trialkylsilazane;R4is selected from chloro, hydroxy, acyloxy, alkoxy, dialkylamino, trialkylsilazane,wherein substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl, substituted aryl, and substituted alkoxy are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, or alkoxy groups.

34. The method of claims 26 to 33, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises one or more compounds selected from the group consisting of methyltrichlorosilane, dimethyldichlorosilane, trimethylchlorosilane, methyltrimethoxysilane, dimethyldimethoxysilane, trimethylmethoxysilane, methyltriethoxysilane, dimethyldiethoxysilane, trimethylethoxysilane, methyltri-n-propoxysilane, trimcthyl-n- propoxysilane, methyltris(methoxyethoxy)silane, methoxypropoxytrimethylsilane, methyltriacetoxysilane, dimethyldiacetoxysilane, acetoxytrimethylsilane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 tris(dimethylamino)methylsilane, bis(dimethylamino)dimethylsilane, dimethylaminotrimethylsilane, tris(cyclohexylamino)methylsilane, bis(diethylamino)dimethylsilane, diethylaminotrimethylsilane, hexamethyldisilazane, ethyltrichlorosilane, ethylmethyldichlorosilane, ethyldimethylchlorosilane, ethyltrimethoxysilane, ethyltriethoxysilane, ethyltriacetoxysilane, propyltrichlorosilane, propylmethyldichlorosilane, propyldimethylchlorosilane, propyltrimethoxysilane, propylmethyldimethoxysilane, propyldimethylmethoxysilane, propyltriethoxysilane, dipropyltetramethyldisilazane, n-butyltrichlorosilane, n-butyldimethylchlorosilane, n- butyltrimethoxysilane, n-butyltriethoxysilane, n-butyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, pentyltrichlorosilane, pentyltriethoxysilane, hexyltrichlorosilane, hexylmethyldichlorosilane, hexyltrimethoxysilane, hexyltriethoxysilane, heptyltrichlorosilane. heptylmethyldichlorosilane, octyltrichlorosilane, octylmethyldichlorosilane. octyldimethylchlorosilane, octyltrimethoxysilane, octyldimethylmethoxysilane. octyltriethoxysilane, octylmethyldiethoxysilane, octyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, dioctyltetramethyldisilazane, decyltrichlorosilane, decylmethyldichlorosilane, decyldimethylchlorosilane, decyltriethoxysilane, undecyltrichlorosilane, dodecyltrichlorosilane, dodecylmethyldichloro silane, dodecyldimethylchlorosilane, dodecyltriethoxysilane, dodecylmethyldiethoxysilane, tetradecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrichlorosilane, hexadecyltrimethoxysilane, hexadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecyltrichlorosilane, octadecylmethyldichlorosilane, octadecyldimethylchlorosilane, octadecyltrimethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldimethoxysilane, octadecyldimethylmethoxysilane, octadecyltriethoxysilane, octadecylmethyldiethoxysilane, octadecyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, eicosyltrichlorosilane, isopropylmethyldichlorosilane, isopropyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrichlorosilane, t- butyltrichlorosilane, t-butylmethyldichlorosilane, isobutyldimethylchlorosilane, t- butyldimethylchlorosilane, isobutyltrimethoxysilane, isobutylmethyldimethoxysilane, isobutyltriethoxysilane, cyclopentyltrichlorosilane, cyclopentyltrimethoxysilane, (3,3- dimethylbutyl)trichlorosilane, n-hexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexyltrichlorosilane, cyclohexylmethyldichlorosilane, (3,3-dimethylbutyl)dimethylchlorosilane, n- hexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyldimethylchlorosilane, cyclohexyltrimethoxysilane, cyclohexylmethyldimethoxysilane, bicycloheptyltrichlorosilane,(cyclohexylmethyl)trichlorosilane, bicycloheptyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrichlorosilane, cyclooctyltrichlorosilane, isooctyldimethylchlorosilane, isooctyltrimethoxysilane, isooctyltriethoxy silane, adamantylethyltrichlorosilane, 7-(trichlorosilylmethyl)pentadecane,Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597(di-n-octylmethylsilyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, (di-n-octyl methyl silyl )ethyldimethylchlorosilane, 1 l-(chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)tricosane, 13-(trichlorosilylmethyl)heptacosane, 13- (chlorodimethylsilylmethyl)heptacosane, phenyltrichlorosilane, phenylmethyldichlorosilane, phenyldimethylchlorosilane, phenyltrimethoxysilane, phenylmethyldimethoxysilane, phenyltriethoxysilane, phenylmethyldiethoxysilane, phenyldimethylethoxysilane, phenyltriacetoxy silane, phenylmethylbis(dimethylamino)silane, benzyltrichlorosilane, 1- phenyl- 1 -trichlorosilylbutane, 1 -phenyl- 1 -methyldichlorosilylbutane, benzyldimethylchlorosilane, benzyltrietho xysilane, phenethyltrichlorosilane, phenethylmethyldichlorosilane, (2-methyl-2-phenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, phenethyltrimethoxysilane, phenethyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (3-phenylpropyl)trichlorosilane, (3- phenylpropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3-phenylpropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyltrichlorosilane, 4-phenylbutylmethyldichlorosilane, 4- phenylbutyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxypropyltrichlorosilane, phenoxypropylmethyldichlorosilane, phenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, phenoxyundecyltrichlorosilane, phenylhexyltrichlorosilane, (6- phenylhexyl)dimethylchlorosilane, p-tolyltrichlorosilane, p-tolylmethyldichlorosilane, p- tolyldimethlchlorosilane, -tolyltrimcthoxysilanc, (p-methylphenethyl)methyldichlorosilane, ethylphenethyltrimethoxysilane, p-(t-butyl)phenethyltrichlorosilane, p-(t- butyl)phenethyldimethylchlorosilane, 3-(p-methoxyphenyl)propyltrichlorosilane, 3-(p- methoxyphenyl)propylmethyldichlorosilane, 1 -naphthyltrimethoxy silane, ( 1 - naphthylmethyl)trichlorosilane, m-phenoxyphenyldimethylchlorosilane, p- nonylphenoxypropyldimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)trichlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)methyldichlorosilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (3,3,3- trifluoropropyl)trimethoxysilane, (3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)methyldimethoxysilane, bis(trifluoropropyl)tetramethyldisilazane, nonafluorohexyltrichlorosilane, nonafluorohexylmethyldichlorosilane, nonafluorohexyldimethylchlorosilane, nonafluorohexyltrimetho xysilane, nonafluorohexyltriethoxy silane, nonafluorohexyltris(dimethylamino)silane, nonafluorohexyldimethyl(dimethylamino)silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrooctyl)trichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)methyldichlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrooctyl)trimethoxy silane, (tridecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrooctyl)triethoxy silane,(heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)trichloro silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2-Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.5000597 tetrahydrodecyl)methyldichlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)dimethylchlorosilane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 ,2,2- tetrahydrodecyl)trimethoxy silane, (heptadecafluoro- 1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrahydrodecyl)triethoxy silane, heneicocyl- 1 , 1 ,2,2-tetrahydrodecyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropyltrichlorosilane, heptafluoroisopropoxytrimethoxysilane, tridecafluoro-2-(tridecafluorohexyl)decyltrichlorosilane, diethyldichlorosilane, diethyldiethoxysilane, diisopropyldichlorosilane, diisopropyldimethoxysilane, di-n-butyldichlorosilane, di-n- butyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldimethoxysilane, diisobutyldiethoxysilane, isobutylisopropyldimethoxysilane, dicyclopentyldichlorosilane, dicyclopropyldichlorosilane, dicyclopentyldimethoxysilane, di-n-hexyldichlorosilane, dicyclohexyldichlorosilane, di-n-octyldichlorosilane, di-77-octyldimcthoxysilanc.(perfluorodecyl)ethyltrichlorosilane, heptadecafluorotetrahydrodecyltrimethoxysilane,35. The method of claims 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (II):R5— SH (ii); wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

36. The method of claims 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (III):wherein R5is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.Atty. Dkt. No. 510322.500059737. The method of claims 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (IV):OR7— (IV);OH wherein R7is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

38. The method of claims 26 to 32, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a compound of formula (V):OR8— S-OH (V);6 wherein R8is unsubstituted or substituted acyclic, branched, or cyclic (Ci-C4o)alkyl, unsubstituted or substituted aryl, arylalkyl, or fluoroalkyl; and the substituted (Ci-C4o)alkyl and substituted aryl are substituted with one or more alkyl, silyl, alkoxy, or aryloxy groups.

39. The method of claims 26 to 38, wherein the outer omniphobic layer comprises a fluoroalkyl group.

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