Systems and methods for transcranial stimulation

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to systems and method, and electrode arrays for transcranial stimulation, such as transcranial vestibular stimulation. Systems and methods of the present disclosure include electrode arrays capable of independent vestibular stimulation, which generate movement sensations in a subject. Independent vestibular stimulation signals can be combined to create sensations of movement on all axes. Independent vestibular stimulation signals can be electrical signals or ultrasonic signals, and can be modulated to affect and control human physiological processes. Vestibular stimulation signals can be provided using individually addressable microelectrodes, which can be a plurality of ion-rich electrode cells.

Description

Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR TRANSCRANIAL STIMULATIONCROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 692,997, filed September 10, 2024, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 713,815, filed October 30, 2024, each of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.BACKGROUND

[0002] Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) is used to maintain balance and stimulate the vestibular system. Stimulating the vestibular system using electrical stimulation can affect human balance, equilibrium, movement, and reflexes. GVS can create movement sensation in a subject without the subject’s body or head moving. If GVS is used without the subject sensing corresponding movement of an image or themselves, the subject can fall victim to motion sickness.

[0003] GVS is not easily controlled. GVS devices and systems often do not allow for finely tuned control of the movement sensations they create in a subject. Additionally, GVS is often poorly matched to visuals a subject sees on, for example, a display like a television or computer screen. GVS often does not account for the subject’s reaction to the stimulation, and does not allow for feedback changes to the amount of stimulation and type of stimulation to create controlled sensations. The lack of control and feedback adjustment in GVS often causes motion sickness. Due to these issues, GVS often cannot be used regularly or with success for creating movement sensations in subjects with no motion sickness effects.

[0004] Electrodes used during GVS electrodes generally tend to function as one large equipotential surface. In most cases, the current distribution from GVS electrodes through the skin can be dictated only by the distribution of the skin’s resistance creating contact areas of high current density and low current density. Applicant has recognized resistance in the epidermis can be variable, in some cases spanning an order of magnitude. Applicant has recognized that sweat glands, hair follicles, pores, and other areas of high ion concentration or high mobility can create “hotspots” of high current density. Due to these issues, high current density can cause more nerve excitation, which can cause in a subject feelings of sharp, local irritation on the epidermis as the site of electrode contact with the epidermis. Additionally, many parts of the epidermis or underlying tissue are sensitive to electrical stimulus due to their composition, function, or other attributes.

[0005] Due to these issues GVS often cannot be performed comfortably over time on the epidermis using electrodes.Attorney Docket No. 68445-701601SUMMARY

[0006] Disclosed herein, in one embodiments, is a vestibular stimulation system which can comprise: three or fewer sets of electrodes which can be configured to each independently generate one or more real-time sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface which can comprise a processor configured to independently control electrical signals generated by each set of electrodes of the three or fewer sets of electrodes, wherein the one or more real-time sensations can be generated by the electrical signals.

[0007] In some embodiments, the one or more real-time sensations of movement can comprise one or more real-time sensations of angular rotation. In some embodiments, the three or fewer sets of electrodes can comprise one set of electrodes at a left mastoid of a subject, one set of electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject, and one set of electrodes at an area of the subject’s upper body. In some embodiments, the control interface can be further configured to generate: a left side rotational vector which can comprise a left side standardized activation rotational vector, a left side standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both; and a right side rotational vector which can comprise a right side standardized activation rotational vector, or a right side standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both. In some embodiments, the control interface can be further configured to map together the left side rotational vector and the right side rotational vector using a combination function. In some embodiments, the left side rotational vector can be based on stimulation of the set of electrodes at the left mastoid of the subject, and the right side rotational vector can be based on stimulation of the set of electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject.

[0008] In some embodiments the controller can be further configured to generate fluid dynamic simulations of the inner ear in response to one or more simulated movements. In some embodiments, the one or more simulated movements can comprise one or more simulated rotations. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise PEDOT:PSS microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrodes can further comprise an ion-replenishing interface. In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface can comprise a salt bridge, an ion solution, or a hydrogel. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise hydrogel microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can comprise dissolved PEDOT, PEDOT fragments, silver nanoparticles, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can contain chloride ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be comprised of silver or silver alloy. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be coated, wherein the coating can comprise silver chloride.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0009] Additionally, disclosed herein in another embodiment is an ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system which can comprise: one or more ultrasonic transducers which can be configured to each independently generate one or more real-time sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface which can comprise a processor which can be configured to independently control acoustic wave signals generated by each ultrasonic transducer of the one or more ultrasonic transducers, wherein the one or more real-time sensations can be generated by the acoustic wave signals.

[0010] In some embodiments, the movement can comprise angular movement. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise an ultrasonic phased array. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave signals can be generated by the one or more ultrasonic transducers and can be configured to exert one or more forces on the otolith organs of a subject. In some embodiments, the system can comprise an imaging device configured to image the otolith organs of the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise the imaging device. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to simultaneously image the otolith organs of the subject and exert the one or more forces on the otolith organs of the subject. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave signals can further comprise one or more of harmonic ultrasonic frequencies, counter vibration frequencies, endolymph-focused ultrasonic wave signals, semicircular canal-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or transcranial-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or any combination thereof.

[0011] In some embodiments, the system can further comprise an impedance matching layer. In some embodiments, the impedance matching layer can comprise a hydrogel microneedle array, wherein the hydrogel microneedle array can comprise a metamaterial matching layer. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers. In some embodiments, the non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers can comprise PVDF material.

[0012] In some embodiments, the system can comprise both the electrical vestibular stimulation system and the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to generate one or more sensations of angular acceleration. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to utilize electrical noise to enhance magnitude of the sensations of the subject. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to generate vestibular inputs which do not correspond to any physical movement sensations. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to send differing signals depending on the current position and rotation of the head.

[0013] Additionally, disclosed herein in yet another embodiment is a method of vestibular stimulation which can comprise: generating two or more independent vestibular stimulationAttomey Docket No. 68445-701601 signal waves which can be configured to create one or more movement sensations to a subject using a vestibular stimulation device or system; and modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves using a controller, wherein the controller can be configured to form linear combinations of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.

[0014] In some embodiments, the method can further comprise forming the linear combinations of the waves in the yaw, pitch, and roll axes. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise modulating the waves for one or more of amplitude axes, frequency axes, creation of accompanying AM waves, or creation of accompanying FM waves, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the modulation can be triggered by one or more external devices.

[0015] In some embodiments, the method can further comprise providing closed-loop reactivity modulation using the controller. In some embodiments, providing closed-loop reactivity modulation can comprise triggering the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves intermittently. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise adjusting the modulation based on information received from one or more external devices. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise adjusting the modulation based on one or more physiological functions of a subject. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise controlling the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the one or more physiological functions of the subject by modulating the intensity, synchronization, and phase resets of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise triggering one or more physiological reflexes of the subject. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise controlling sleep of the subject by modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.

[0016] Additionally, disclosed herein in yet another embodiment is a system for stimulating the epidermis of a subject, the system comprising: (a) one or more electrode arrays, wherein the electrode array comprises a plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits, wherein each of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits comprises: (i) a first electrode configured to output electrical signals, and (ii) a second electrode configured to receive electrical signals from the first electrode or the epidermis of the subject, or both; and (b) a processor communicatively coupled to the one or more electrode arrays.

[0017] In some embodiments, the processor is configured to predict faradaic reactions of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits based on at least in part the electrical signals received by the second electrode. In some embodiments, the processor comprises a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to adjust the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the controllerAttorney Docket No. 68445-701601 is further configured to reduce the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor is configured to detect current flowing through one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to the ground. In some embodiments, wherein the processor is further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to each other. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value based on the detected voltage, the detected current, the predicted faradaic reactions, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the maximum value of current density is 1mA over an area. In some embodiments, the area comprises an area of each individual electrode cell of the plurality of individual electrode cell subunits.

[0018] In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to determine resistance of the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is above or below a dynamic or predetermined threshold. In some embodiments, the indication comprises a notification. In some embodiments, the notification comprises a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits are not properly contacting the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the notification comprises a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits has been degraded or damaged. In some embodiments, the notification comprises a notification that an area of the epidermis of the subject is susceptible to irritation. In some embodiments, the notification comprises a notification that the system is not properly functioning or should be adjusted, or both. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to prevent activation of one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to prevent activation of the one or more electrode arrays. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to receive and store information from the epidermis in a database. In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to receive and store information from the epidermis in a database for use in analysis of effects of voltages, currents, and locations on the body of the subject.

[0019] In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to distribute electrical current to a subset of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.Attomey Docket No. 68445-701601

[0020] Additionally, disclosed herein in yet another embodiment is a method for performing galvanic vestibular stimulation on a subject, the method comprising: (a) applying three or fewer electrode arrays to the epidermis of the subject, wherein each electrode array comprises a plurality of individually addressable electrode cells; (b) processing feedback data received from the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells; (c) mapping resistance of each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells; and (d) controlling the current output by each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells based at least in part on the mapped resistance.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0021] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0022] The novel features of the disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the disclosure are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0023] FIG. 1 illustrates a non-limiting example of an electrical vestibular stimulation system including electrodes on a user.

[0024] FIG. 2 depicts a non-limiting example of a vestibular modulation system, where contralateral semicircular canals are separately stimulated.

[0025] FIG. 3 illustrates a non-limiting example of a process flow chart for a vestibular modulation process capable of simulating an inner ear's fluid dynamics.

[0026] FIG. 4A illustrates a non-limiting example of a microneedle electrode array with a salt bridge.

[0027] FIG. 4B illustrates a non-limiting example of a microneedle electrode array with an ion solution.

[0028] FIG. 4C illustrates a non-limiting example of a microneedle electrode array with a hydrogel.

[0029] FIG. 5 illustrates a non-limiting example of a microneedle electrode array with a PEDOT:PSS infused hydrogel.Attorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0030] FIG. 6 illustrates a non-limiting example of a microneedle electrode array with chloride ions and a high surface area coil of silver.

[0031] FIG. 7 illustrates a non-limiting example of an ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system.

[0032] FIG. 8 illustrates a non-limiting example of a system for using deflections of acoustic waves.

[0033] FIG. 9 illustrates a non-limiting example of ultrasonic stimulation of semicircular canals of the vestibular system.

[0034] FIG. 10A illustrates a non-limiting example of a front view of the creation of sensations of angular acceleration.

[0035] FIG. 10B illustrates a non-limiting example of a top view of the creation of sensations of angular acceleration.

[0036] FIG. 11 illustrates a non-limiting example of a hydrogel microneedle array as an impedance matching layer.

[0037] FIG. 12 illustrates a non-limiting example of a combined electrical vestibular stimulation system and ultrasound vestibular system.

[0038] FIG. 13 illustrates a non-limiting example of a modulation mode utilizing both entrainment and phase reset.

[0039] FIG. 14A illustrates a non-limiting example of noise shape waves.

[0040] FIG. 14B illustrates a non-limiting example of breath shape waves.

[0041] FIG. 15 illustrates a non-limiting example of a computing device; in this case, a device with one or more processors, memory, storage, and a network interface, per one or more embodiments herein.

[0042] FIG. 16A illustrates a non-limiting example of an electrode cell array that is not current- controlled.

[0043] FIG. 16B illustrates a non-limiting example of a current-controlled electrode cell array.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0044] While preferable embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention.Terms and Definitions

[0045] Unless otherwise defined, all technical terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs.Attorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0046] As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Any reference to “or” herein is intended to encompass “and / or” unless otherwise stated.

[0047] As used herein, the term “about” in some cases refers to an amount that is approximately the stated amount, in some cases near the stated amount by 10%, 5%, or 1%, including increments therein, and in some cases, in reference to a percentage, refers to an amount that is greater or less the stated percentage by 10%, 5%, or 1%, including increments therein.

[0048] As used herein, the phrases “at least one,” “one or more,” and “and / or” are open-ended expressions that are both conjunctive and disjunctive in operation. For example, each of the expressions “at least one of A, B and C,” “at least one of A, B, or C,” “one or more of A, B, and C”, “one or more of A, B, or C” and “A, B, and / or C” means A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A, B and C together. As used herein, the phrase “at most three” can mean less than one, one, two, or three.

[0049] Reference throughout this specification to “some embodiments,” “further embodiments,” or “a particular embodiment,” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, the appearances of the phrase “in some embodiments,” or “in further embodiments,” or “in a particular embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

[0050] The terms "subject," "individual," and "patient" may be used interchangeably and refer to humans, as well as non-human mammals (e.g., non-human primates, canines, equines, felines, porcines, bovines, ungulates, lagomorphs, rodents, and the like). In various embodiments, the subject can be a human (e.g., adult male, adult female, adolescent male, adolescent female, male child, female child) under the care of a physician or other health worker in a hospital, as an outpatient, or other clinical context. In certain embodiments, the subject may not be under the care or prescription of a physician or other health worker. In some embodiments, the subject may be under the care of a dental professional.

[0051] As used herein, “treatment” or “treating” refers to an approach for obtaining beneficial or desired results with respect to a disease, disorder, or medical condition including, but not limited to, a therapeutic benefit and / or a prophylactic benefit. In certain embodiments, treatment or treating involves administering a therapeutic to a subject. A therapeutic benefit may include the eradication or amelioration of the underlying disorder being treated. Also, a therapeutic benefit may be achieved with the eradication or amelioration of one or more of the physiologicalAttomey Docket No. 68445-701601 symptoms associated with the underlying disorder, such as observing an improvement in the subject, notwithstanding that the subject may still be afflicted with the underlying disorder.Examples of Machine Learning Techniques

[0052] As disclosed throughout, in some cases, the systems, the methods, the computer-readable media, and the techniques disclosed herein may implement one or more machine learning techniques. In some cases, ML may generally involve identifying and recognizing patterns in existing data in order to facilitate making predictions for subsequent data. ML may include a ML model (which may include, for example, a ML algorithm). Machine learning, whether analytical or statistical in nature, may provide deductive or abductive inference based on real or simulated data. The ML model may be a trained model. ML techniques may comprise one or more supervised, semi-supervised, self-supervised, or unsupervised ML techniques. For example, an ML model (e.g., the machine learning model described herein) may be a trained model that is trained through supervised learning (e.g., various parameters are determined as weights or scaling factors). ML may comprise one or more of regression analysis, regularization, classification, dimensionality reduction, ensemble learning, meta learning, association rule learning, cluster analysis, anomaly detection, deep learning, or ultra-deep learning. ML may comprise: k-means, k-means clustering, k-nearest neighbors, learning vector quantization, linear regression, non-linear regression, least squares regression, partial least squares regression, logistic regression, stepwise regression, multivariate adaptive regression splines, ridge regression, principal component regression, least absolute shrinkage and selection operation (LASSO), least angle regression, canonical correlation analysis, factor analysis, independent component analysis, linear discriminant analysis, multidimensional scaling, non-negative matrix factorization, principal components analysis, principal coordinates analysis, projection pursuit, Sammon mapping, t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding, AdaBoosting, boosting, gradient boosting, bootstrap aggregation, ensemble averaging, decision trees, conditional decision trees, boosted decision trees, gradient boosted decision trees, random forests, stacked generalization, Bayesian networks, Bayesian belief networks, naive Bayes, Gaussian naive Bayes, multinomial naive Bayes, hidden Markov models, hierarchical hidden Markov models, support vector machines, encoders, decoders, auto-encoders, stacked auto-encoders, perceptrons, multi-layer perceptrons, artificial neural networks, feedforward neural networks, convolutional neural networks, recurrent neural networks, residual neural networks, physics-informed neural networks, long short-term memory, deep belief networks, deep Boltzmann machines, deep convolutional neural networks, deep recurrent neural networks, large language models, transformer models, vision transformers, or generative adversarial networks.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601Examples of Decision Trees and Random Forests

[0053] As described above, the machine learning model may implement a decision tree. A decision tree may be a supervised ML algorithm that can be applied to both regression and classification problems. For example, a decision tree may grow from a root (base condition), and when it meets a condition (internal node / feature), it may split into multiple branches. The end of the branch that does not split anymore may be an outcome (leaf). A decision tree can be generated using a training dataset set according to the following operations: (A) starting from a root node (the entire dataset), the algorithm may split the dataset in two branches using a decision rule or branching criterion; (B) each of these two branches may generate a new child node; (C) for each new child node, the branching process may be repeated until the dataset cannot be split any further; (D) each branching criterion may be chosen to maximize information gain (e.g., a quantification of how much a branching criterion reduces a quantification of how mixed the labels are in the children nodes). The labels may be the data or the classification that is predicted by the decision tree.

[0054] A random forest regression is an extension of the decision tree model that tends to yield more robust predictions by stretching the use of the training dataset partition. Whereas a decision tree may make a single pass through the data, a random forest regression may bootstrap 50% of the data (e.g., with replacement) and build many trees. Rather than using all explanatory variables as candidates for splitting, a random subset of candidate variables may be used for splitting, which may enable trees that have different data and different variables (hence the term random). The predictions from the trees, which may be collectively referred to as the “forest,” may then be averaged to produce a final prediction. Many trees (e.g., ten trees, fifty trees, one hundred trees, one thousand trees, etc.) may be included in a random forest model, with a number (e.g., 3, 6, 10, etc.) of terms sampled per split, a minimum of number (e.g., 1, 2, 4, 10, etc.) of splits per tree, and a minimum split size (e.g., 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, etc.). Random forests may be trained in a similar way as decision trees. Specifically, training a random forest may include the following operations: (A) randomly select k features from the total number of features; (B) create a decision tree from these k features using the same operations as for generating a decision tree; and (C) repeat the previous two operations until a target number of trees is created.

[0055] As disclosed, a random forest classifier, which may comprise a plurality of decision trees where the output prediction may be the mode of the predicted classifications of the individual trees, can be helpful in reducing overfitting to training dataset. In some cases, an ensemble of decision trees can be constructed using a random subset of features at each split or decision node. The Gini criterion may be employed, in some cases, to choose the best partition, where decisionAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 nodes having the lowest calculated Gini impurity index are selected. The Gini impurity can be used, in some cases, as a criterion to find informative features based on which the splits in each decision tree may be constructed.

[0056] In some cases, each decision tree of a random forest may comprise one or more decision nodes, where each decision node specifies a predicate condition. For example, decision node may predicate the condition that, for a given dataset, the outcome to a question is a specific outcome. At each decision node, a decision tree can be split based on whether the predicate condition attached to the decision node holds true, leading to various prediction nodes. Each prediction node can comprise output values that represent “votes” for one or more of the classifications or conditions being evaluated by the assessment model. At prediction time, a “vote” can be taken over all of the decision trees, and the majority vote (or mode of the predicted classifications) can be output as the predicted classification.

[0057] In some cases, when the dataset being queried in the assessment model reaches a “leaf’, or a final prediction node with no further downstream splits, the output values of the leaf can be output as the votes for the particular decision tree. Since a random forest model comprises a plurality of decision trees, the final votes across all trees in the forest can be summed to yield the final votes and the corresponding classification of the subject. A large number of decision trees can help reduce overfitting of the assessment model to the training dataset, by reducing the variance of each individual decision tree. For example, an assessment model can comprise, for example, at least about 3 decision trees, at least about 5 decision trees, at least about 10 decision trees, at least about 20 decision trees, at least about 50 decision trees, at least about 100 decision trees, etc.Vestibular Stimulation System and Method

[0058] Described herein, in some embodiments, are systems for stimulating the vestibular system of a subject.

[0059] In some embodiments, described herein is a vestibular stimulation system which can comprise: three or fewer sets of electrodes which can be configured to each independently generate one or more real-time sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface which can comprise a processor configured to independently control electrical signals generated by each set of electrodes of the three or fewer sets of electrodes, wherein the one or more real-time sensations can be generated by the electrical signals.

[0060] In some embodiments, the one or more real-time sensations of movement can comprise one or more real-time sensations of angular rotation. In some embodiments, the three or fewer sets of electrodes can comprise one set of electrodes at a left mastoid of a subject, one set ofAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject, and one set of electrodes at an area of the subject’s upper body.

[0061] In some embodiments, at least one set of electrodes can be configured to generate one or more signals for sensory stimulation in the subject. In some embodiments, a portion of the electrodes can be configured to generate the one or more signals for sensory stimulation in the subject. In some embodiments, each electrode of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to generate one or more signals for sensory stimulation in the subject. In some embodiments, each electrode of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to generate one signal, two signals, three signals, four signals, five signals, six signals, seven signals, eight signals, nine signals, ten signals, eleven signals, twelve signals, thirteen signals, fourteen signals, fifteen signals, sixteen signals, seventeen signals, eighteen signals, nineteen signals, twenty signals, or more than twenty signals for sensory stimulation in the subject. In some embodiments, the sensory stimulation may comprise Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS). In some embodiments, the one or more sets of electrodes can generate one or more electric currents. In some embodiments, the one or more electric currents can be applied to the skin. In some embodiments, the one or more small electric currents applied to the skin can stimulate the subject’s vestibular system.

[0062] In some embodiments, the system can comprise a motion tracking device. In some embodiments, the motion tracking device can comprise one or more of: at least one accelerometer, at least one gyroscope, at least one magnetometer, one or more motion capture systems, one or more cameras, one or more electromagnetic sensors, one or more acoustic detection systems, one or more echolocation systems, one or more radio frequency identification devices or systems, one or more ultra-wide band systems, one or more gait analysis systems, one or more pressure sensor devices, one or more wearable sensors, one or more smartwatches or fitness trackers, one or more electrooculography (EOG) systems, one or more eye-tracking systems, one or more radar-based motion detection systems, one or more lidar systems, one or more structured light systems, one or more photogrammetry systems, one or more depth-sensing systems, one or more 3D scanning systems, one or more heat-detection systems, one or more infrared systems, one or more laser detection systems, one or more near-infrared systems, one or more light tracking systems, one or more capacitive sensing systems, or any combination thereof.

[0063] In some embodiments, the motion tracking device can be configured to generate motion sensing data. In some embodiments, the motion sensing data generated can comprise one or more of: position data, orientation data, velocity data, acceleration data, angular velocity data, angular acceleration data, displacement data, distance data, gait data, gesture data, pressure data, joint orientation data, eye movement data, muscle activation data, body posture data, heart rateAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 data, respiratory rate data, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the motion tracking device of the vestibular stimulation system can be configured to generate the motion sensing data based at least in part on a detected eye movement. In some embodiments, the detected eye movement can comprise one or more of: a leftward movement of the eye, a rightward movement of the eye, an upward movement of the eye, a downward movement of the eye, a leftward movement of the pupil or cornea, a rightward movement of the pupil or cornea, an upward movement of the pupil or cornea, a downward movement of the pupil or cornea, saccades movements, fixation of the eye, pupil, or cornea, smooth pursuit movements, vestibuloocular reflex movements (VOR), optokinetic reflex movements, vergence movements, blinking, eye closure, nystagmus movements, microsaccades movements, accommodation movements, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the eye movement can be detected by laser eye tracking, infrared reflectance (IR) eye tracking, bright pupil tracking, dark pupil tracking, differential eye tracking, binocular eye tracking, corneal reflection tracking, limbus reflection tracking, video oculography (VOG), infrared oculography (IROG), electrooculography (EOG), or any combination thereof.

[0064] In some embodiments, the motion tracking device of the vestibular stimulation system can be configured to generate the motion sensing data based at least in part on a posture of the subject. In some embodiments, the posture can comprise the position of the torso of the subject. In some embodiments, the posture can comprise the position of the head, limbs, extremities, or any combination thereof of the subject. In some embodiments, the posture can comprise the position of the eyes of the subject, the spine of the subject, the shoulders of the subject, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the motion tracking device of the vestibular stimulation system can be configured to generate the motion sensing data based at least in part on both the eye motion and the posture of the subject.

[0065] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can comprise a controller. In some embodiments, the controller can comprise one or more of: a microcontroller, a digital signal processor, a programmable logic controller, a field-programmable gate array, a biosignal amplifier, an analog-to-digital converter, a sensor interface, a real-time control system, a data acquisition system, one or more central processing units (CPUs), one or more graphics processing units (GPUs), one or more neural networks, one or more power management integrated circuits (PMICs), or any combination thereof.

[0066] In some embodiments, the control interface can be further configured to generate: a left side rotational vector which can comprise a left side standardized activation rotational vector, a left side standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both; and a right side rotational vector which can comprise a right side standardized activation rotational vector, or a right sideAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both. In some embodiments, the control interface can be further configured to map together the left side rotational vector and the right side rotational vector using a combination function. In some embodiments, the left side rotational vector can be based on stimulation of the set of electrodes at the left mastoid of the subject, and the right side rotational vector can be based on stimulation of the set of electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject.

[0067] In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to modulate activation of the one or more signals of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to modulate activation of the one or more signals of at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to independently modulate activation of the one or more signals of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to independently modulate activation of the one or more signals of at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to modulate activation of one signal, two signals, three signals, four signals, five signals, six signals, seven signals, eight signals, nine signals, ten signals, eleven signals, twelve signals, thirteen signals, fourteen signals, fifteen signals, sixteen signals, seventeen signals, eighteen signals, nineteen signals, twenty signals, or more than twenty signals of at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to modulate activation of one set of electrodes, two electrodes, three electrodes, four electrodes, five electrodes, six electrodes, seven electrodes, eight electrodes, nine electrodes, about ten electrodes, about fifteen electrodes, about twenty electrodes, about twenty- five electrodes, about thirty electrodes, about thirty -five electrodes, about forty electrodes, about fifty electrodes, about sixty electrodes, about seventy electrodes, about eighty electrodes, about ninety electrodes, about one hundred electrodes, or more than about one hundred electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to independently modulate activation of the one or more signals of at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes can modulate the activation based at least in part on the motion sensing data. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to independently modulate the activation based at least in part on motion sensing data which can comprise one or more of position data, orientation data, velocity data, acceleration data, angular velocity data, angular acceleration data, displacement data, distance data, gait data, gesture data, pressure data, joint orientation data, eye movement data, muscle activation data, body posture data, heart rate data, respiratory rate data, or any combination thereof.

[0068] In some embodiments, the independently modulated activation of the one or more signals of the at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes by the controller of theAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 vestibular stimulation system can generate one or more movement sensations. In some embodiments, the independently modulated activation of the one or more signals of the at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes by the controller of the vestibular stimulation system can modify one or more movement sensations. In some embodiments, the independently modulated activation of the one or more signals of the at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes by the controller of the vestibular stimulation system can generate and modify one or more movement sensations. In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can comprise one or more of: roll, pitch, yaw, acceleration, deceleration, ascending, descending, leaning, swinging, swaying, spinning, whirling, lurching, jumping, rocking, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can be perceived by the subject.

[0069] In some embodiments, the system can modulate sleep, breathing, heart rate, muscle contractions, pain perception, mood (e.g., anxiety, depression), neural activity (e.g., brainwaves), blood pressure, gastric motility, seizure control, body temperature, hearing, variability, stability, movability, vision, immune system response, hormone release, memory enhancement or suppression, motor control, bladder control, sexual function, salivation and swallowing functions, tremor, speech, blood factors, appetite, pain or fatigue.

[0070] In some embodiments the controller can be further configured to generate fluid dynamic simulations of the inner ear in response to one or more simulated movements. In some embodiments, the one or more simulated movements can comprise one or more simulated rotations.

[0071] In some embodiments, the system can comprise one or more transducers. In some embodiments, the system can comprise one transducer, two transducers, three transducers, four transducers, five transducers, six transducers, seven transducers, eight transducers, nine transducers, ten transducers, eleven transducers, twelve transducers, thirteen transducers, fourteen transducers, fifteen transducers, sixteen transducers, seventeen transducers, eighteen transducers, nineteen transducers, twenty transducers, twenty-one transducers, twenty -two transducers, twenty -three transducers, twenty -four transducers, twenty-five transducers, twenty- six transducers, twenty-seven transducers, twenty-eight transducers, twenty -nine transducers, thirty transducers, thirty-one transducers, thirty -two transducers, thirty -three transducers, thirty- four transducers, thirty-five transducers, thirty-six transducers, thirty-seven transducers, thirtyeight transducers, thirty-nine transducers, forty transducers, forty-one transducers, forty -two transducers, forty -three transducers, forty-four transducers, forty-five transducers, forty-six transducers, forty-seven transducers, forty-eight transducers, forty -nine transducers, fifty transducers, or more than fifty transducers.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0072] In some embodiments, the transducers can be configured to receive input from the motion tracking device. In some embodiments, the transducers can be configured to receive input from the controller. In some embodiments, the transducers can be configured to receive input from both the motion tracking device and the controller.

[0073] In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can be coupled to one or more sets of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes. In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can be coupled to one electrode, two electrodes, two electrodes, three electrodes, four electrodes, five electrodes, six electrodes, seven electrodes, eight electrodes, nine electrodes, ten electrodes, eleven electrodes, twelve electrodes, thirteen electrodes, fourteen electrodes, fifteen electrodes, sixteen electrodes, seventeen electrodes, eighteen electrodes, nineteen electrodes, twenty electrodes, twenty-one electrodes, twenty-two electrodes, twenty-three electrodes, twenty-four electrodes, twenty-five electrodes, twenty-six electrodes, twenty-seven electrodes, twenty-eight electrodes, twenty-nine electrodes, thirty electrodes, thirty-one electrodes, thirty-two electrodes, thirty-three electrodes, thirty-four electrodes, thirty-five electrodes, thirty-six electrodes, thirtyseven electrodes, thirty-eight electrodes, thirty-nine electrodes, forty electrodes, forty-one electrodes, forty-two electrodes, forty-three electrodes, forty-four electrodes, forty-five electrodes, forty-six electrodes, forty-seven electrodes, forty-eight electrodes, forty-nine electrodes, fifty electrodes, or more than fifty electrodes.

[0074] In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can convert data from the motion tracking device to electric current. In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can convert data from the controller to electric current. In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can convert data from the motion tracking device and the controller to electric current. In some embodiments, the one or more transducers can convert data from the controller, from the motion tracking device, or from both the controller and motion tracking device to electric current in one or more of the plurality of electrodes.

[0075] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can comprise a first electrode configured to contact a neck of the subject, and two or more other electrodes configured to contact different sides of the head of the subject. In some embodiments, the first electrode can be configured to independently send a signal to each of the two or more other electrodes. In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can comprise a first electrode configured to contact a head of the subject, and two or more other electrodes configured to contact the neck of the subject. In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can comprise two or more electrodes configured to contact a head of the subject, and two or more other electrodes configured to contact the neck of the subject.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0076] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can comprise an array of microneedles. In some embodiments, the plurality of electrodes can comprise one or more microneedles in the array of microneedles. In some embodiments, each electrode in the plurality of electrodes can comprise one or more microneedles. In some embodiments, each electrode in the plurality of electrodes can comprise an array of microneedles. In some embodiments, each electrode in the plurality of electrodes can comprise one microneedle, two microneedles, three microneedles, four microneedles, five microneedles, six microneedles, seven microneedles, eight microneedles, nine microneedles, ten microneedles, eleven microneedles, twelve microneedles, thirteen microneedles, fourteen microneedles, fifteen microneedles, sixteen microneedles, seventeen microneedles, eighteen microneedles, nineteen microneedles, twenty microneedles, twenty-one microneedles, twenty -two microneedles, twenty -three microneedles, twenty -four microneedles, twenty-five microneedles, twenty-six microneedles, twenty-seven microneedles, twenty-eight microneedles, twenty-nine microneedles, thirty microneedles, thirty-one microneedles, thirty-two microneedles, thirty-three microneedles, thirty-four microneedles, thirty-five microneedles, thirty-six microneedles, thirty-seven microneedles, thirty-eight microneedles, thirty-nine microneedles, forty microneedles, forty-one microneedles, forty -two microneedles, forty -three microneedles, forty-four microneedles, forty-five microneedles, forty-six microneedles, fortyseven microneedles, forty-eight microneedles, forty-nine microneedles, fifty microneedles, about sixty microneedles, about seventy microneedles, about eighty microneedles, about ninety microneedles, about one hundred microneedles, about one hundred fifty microneedles, about two hundred microneedles, about two hundred fifty microneedles, about three hundred microneedles, or more than about three hundred microneedles.

[0077] In some embodiments, each microneedle in the array of microneedles can be about OOSOO microns in length. In some embodiments, each microneedle in the array of microneedles may be about between about 200 microns and about 210 microns, between about 210 microns and about 220 microns, between about 220 microns and about 230 microns, between about 230 microns and about 240 microns, between about 240 microns and about 250 microns, between about 250 microns and about 260 microns, between about 260 microns and about 270 microns, between about 270 microns and about 280 microns, between about 280 microns and about 290 microns, or between about 290 microns and about 300 microns in length. In some embodiments, each microneedle in the array of microneedles can be less than 200 microns in length. In some embodiments, each microneedle in the array of microneedles can be about less than 10 microns, about 10 microns, about 15 microns, about 20 microns, about 25 microns, about 30 microns, about 35 microns, about 40 microns, about 45 microns, about 50 microns, about 55 microns, about 60 microns, about 65 microns, about 70 microns, about 75 microns, about 80 microns,Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601 about 85 microns, about 90 microns, about 95 microns, about 100 microns, about 105 microns, about 110 microns, about 115 microns, about 120 microns, about 125 microns, about 130 microns, about 135 microns, about 140 microns, about 145 microns, about 150 microns, about 155 microns, about 160 microns, about 165 microns, about 170 microns, about 175 microns, about 180 microns, about 185 microns, about 190 microns, or about 195 microns in length. In some embodiments, each microneedle in the array of microneedles can be more than 300 microns in length.

[0078] In some embodiments, each electrode of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to deliver an electric stimulation to the subject. In some embodiments, the electric stimulation can be delivered to the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to deliver an electric stimulation of no more than about 5 milliampere-seconds (mAs) to the subject. In some embodiments, at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to deliver an electric stimulation of less than ImAs, about ImAs, about 2mAs, about 3mAs, or about 4mAs to the subject. In some embodiments, at least one set of electrodes of the plurality of electrodes can be configured to deliver an electric stimulation of more than about 5 milliampere-seconds (mAs) to the subject.

[0079] In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise PEDOT:PSS microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrodes can further comprise an ion-replenishing interface. In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface can comprise a salt bridge, an ion solution, or a hydrogel. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise hydrogel microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can comprise dissolved PEDOT, PEDOT fragments, silver nanoparticles, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can contain chloride ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be comprised of silver or silver alloy. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be coated, wherein the coating can comprise silver chloride.

[0080] In some embodiments, the one or more visually perceived movement sensations can be based on the movement of one or more images. In some embodiments, the images can be virtual images. In some embodiments, the images can be computer-generated images. In some embodiments, the images can be 3D images. In some embodiments, the images can be 3D virtual images. In some embodiments, the movement of the one or more images can be visually perceived by the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more images can be displayed on a graphical display. In some embodiments, the graphical display can be a monitor, for example a computer monitor, a television screen, or a smartphone screen. In some embodiments, the graphical display can be a projector, an LED display, an LCD display, an OLED display, an e-Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601 ink display, a plasma display, a holographic display, a touch screen display, a quantum dot display, a heads-up display, a wearable display, a digital display, a retinal display, a TFT display, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the display can be a virtual reality display. In some embodiments, the display can be an augmented reality display.

[0081] In some embodiments, the one or more images can be projected images. In some embodiments, the projected images can be film projected images, overhead projected images, digitally projected images, 3D projected images, laser projected images, mapping projected images, rear projected images, augmented reality projected images, dome projected images, interactive projection images, gobo projection images, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the projected images can comprise virtual reality images. In some embodiments, the virtual reality images can comprise 3D virtual reality images, 360-degrees virtual reality images, stereoscopic virtual reality images, holographic virtual reality images, photorealistic virtual reality images, animated virtual reality images, virtual environment virtual reality images, virtual reality game images, virtual reality simulation images, virtual reality therapy images, augmented virtual reality images, mixed reality images, video virtual reality images, or any combination thereof.

[0082] In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can be not visually perceived by the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can be perceived independently of visual perception of the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can be perceived by the vestibular system of the subject independently of the subject’s visual perception. In some embodiments, the one or more movement sensations can be perceived by the vestibular system of the subject while the subject’s eyes are closed.

[0083] In some embodiments, the one or more transducers may be piezoelectric transducers. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic mechanical vestibular stimulation device or system can operate at a frequency of about between 20 kHz and 20000 kHz. In some embodiments, the ultrasound device or system may operate at a frequency of about between 20 kHz and 30 kHz, between about 30 kHz and 40 kHz, between about 40 kHz and 50 kHz, between about 50 kHz and 60 kHz, between about 60 kHz and 70 kHz, between about 70 kHz and 80 kHz, between about 80 kHz and 90 kHz, or between about 90 kHz and 100 kHz, between aboutlOO kHz and 200 kHz, between about 200 kHz and 300 kHz, between about 300 kHz and 400 kHz, between about 400 kHz and 500 kHz, between about 500 kHz and 600 kHz, between about 600 kHz and 700 kHz, between about 700 kHz and 800 kHz, between about 800 kHz and 900 kHz, or between about 900 kHz and 1,000 kHz, between aboutl,000 kHz and 2,000 kHz, between about 2,000 kHz and 3,000 kHz, between about 3,000 kHz and 4,000 kHz, between about 4,000 kHzAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 and 5,000 kHz, between about 5,000 kHz and 6,000 kHz, between about 6,000 kHz and 7,000 kHz, between about 7,000 kHz and 8,000 kHz, between about 8,000 kHz and 9,000 kHz, between about 9,000 kHz and 10,000 kHz, between 10,000 kHz and 11,000 kHz, between about 11,000 kHz and 12,000 kHz, between about 12,000 kHz and 13,000 kHz, between about 13,000 kHz and 14,000 kHz, between about 14,000 kHz and 15,000 kHz, between about 15,000 kHz and 16,000 kHz, between about 16,000 kHz and 17,000 kHz, between about 17,000 kHz and 18,000 kHz, between about 18,000 kHz and 19,000 kHz, or between about 19,000 kHz and 20,000 kHz.Dynamic electrical vestibular stimulation system

[0084] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can comprise an electrical vestibular stimulator. In some embodiments, the electrical vestibular stimulator can comprise at most three sets of electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrical vestibular stimulator can comprise at least one set of electrodes on left and / or right mastoid bones and another set of electrodes on any part of an upper body, hereafter indifferent electrodes, as depicted in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, the set of electrodes of the system 100 as shown in FIG. 1 can comprise one or more sets of electrodes. In some embodiments, mastoid electrodes 101 and indifferent electrodes 102 can communicate with a control system 103. In some embodiments, the control system can receive and send signals to the vestibular stimulation system. In some embodiments, the signals can comprise a plurality of characteristics such as a frequency, an amplitude, a duration, or a location. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can also be used for medical conditions, wellness or non-medical conditions such as virtual reality, gaming.

[0085] In some embodiments, the at most three sets of electrodes can generate sensations of angular velocity around a plurality of rotation axes in real time. In some embodiments, the real time can refer to a level of responsiveness in nanoseconds, microseconds, milliseconds, seconds or minutes. In some embodiments, the plurality of rotation axes can comprise rotations around a first axis, hereafter x-axis, a second axis, hereafter y-axis, and a third axis, hereafter z-axis, wherein the x-y-z axes are perpendicular to each other and comprise a first direction along an axis, hereafter a positive direction, and a second opposite direction along the axis, hereafter a negative direction. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system 200 can comprise left x-y-z axes and / or right x-y-z axes as depicted in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, mastoid electrodes 101 can be placed on any location on the mastoid bone and indifferent electrodes 102 can be placed on any location on the upper body. In some embodiments, a magnitude of a stimulation can differ according to the locations of mastoid electrodes 101 or indifferent electrodes 102. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be configured toAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 keep a direction of a rotation sensation independent of the locations of mastoid electrodes 101 or indifferent electrodes 102. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprises cathodal and anodal stimulations. In some embodiments, different placements of electrodes on the mastoid and indifferent electrodes can produce a same direction of movement sensation. In some embodiments, cathodal stimulation can activate vestibular afferents and anodal stimulation can inhibit the vestibular afferents. Visual flow of virtual reality images or videos may be synchronized with congruent vestibular stimulation, reducing sensory conflict and cybersickness of the subject or user. This congruent vestibular stimulation may enhance immersion, reduce nausea, or create a more cohesive sense of presence in a virtual reality space, or any combination thereof.

[0086] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprise a standardized activation and inhibition rotational vector on the left side and anther standardized activation and inhibition rotational vector on the right side. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can generate a rotational vector for at least one side of the vestibular system. In some embodiments, the standardized activation and inhibition left side rotational vectors and right side rotational vectors can be independent. In some embodiments, semicircular canals on contralateral sides can be stimulated separately as depicted in FIG. 2. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system 200 can map the standardized activation and inhibition left side rotational vectors and right side rotational vectors using combination functions. In some embodiments, the combination functions can be linear vector addition or a more complex mapping. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can reduce an amount of calibration through a plurality of methods such as an eye tracking or a force plate data to standardize rotation sensations generated through calibrating the left side rotational vectors and the right side rotational vectors of the vestibular system separately through unilateral vestibular stimulation.

[0087] In some embodiments, the combination functions can be a first form such as linear addition through a subtraction of a left vector and a right vector, a second form such as machine learning models generated from large data sets; a third form such as combination functions modeled around efferent signals sent by a cortex upon vestibular afferent stimulation; or combinations of the first, second and third forms. Some examples of the combination functions can include:

[0088] An example of a linear addition function (Function 1):< 2x, 0,0 > = —Left — Right

[0089] An example of a machine learning model function (Function 2):ML: < 2X, Y, 1.5Z > = f(2x, y, 1.5Z) = a Left + b Right where a and b are defined by a combination function.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0090] An example of an efferent driven function (Function 3):< a, b, c > = |Right|P Left -1- |Left| P Right where a and b are defined by a combination function, and where P is the effect of efferent suppression of the contralateral side of the semicircular canals of the head.

[0091] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can simulate a fluid dynamic of the inner ear under a plurality of real-time conditions such as fast paced movements, as depicted in FIG. 3. FIG. 3 depicts a non-limiting example of a process flow chart for generating movement sensations using fluid dynamics. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can record and analyze previous sensations experienced. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can forecast what an inner ear would expect to experience based on the viscosity, inertia, and other factors of an endolymph and neural processing of the vestibular system. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can transmit different signals to create same sensations depending on signals previously sent. As depicted in FIG. 3, In some embodiments, a system or device 300 can generate desired movement sensations through a plurality of method such as a virtual reality, game or joystick. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can compute a plurality of characteristics such as a position, a velocity, an acceleration and a jerk. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can sends signals depending on previously sent signals.Electrical Skin Interfaces

[0092] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprise a plurality of electrode interfaces. In some embodiments, the electrode interfaces can deliver direct current (DC) at least about 1 milliamperes / cmA2 for an active period of time. In some embodiments, the DC can be about 1 mA / cmA2, about 2 mA / cmA2, about 3 mA / cmA2, about 4 mA / cmA2, about 5 mA / cmA2 or more. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 1 milliseconds (ms) to about 60 minutes (mins). In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 1 ms to 100 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 100 ms to about 200 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 200 ms to about 300 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 300 ms to about 400 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 400 ms to about 500 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 500 ms to about 600 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 600 ms to about 700 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 700 ms to about 800 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 800- 1 -Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601 ms to about 900 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 900 ms to about 1000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 1000 ms to about 6000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 6000 ms to about 11000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 11000 ms to about 16000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 16000 ms to about 21000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 21000 ms to about 26000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 26000 ms to about 31000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 31000 ms to about 36000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 36000 ms to about 41000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 41000 ms to about 46000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 46000 ms to about 51000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 51000 ms to about 56000 ms. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 56000 ms to about 60000 ms (1 min). In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 1 min to about 10 mins. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 10 mins to about 20 mins. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 20 mins to about 30 mins. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 30 mins to about 40 mins. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 40 mins to about 50 mins. In some embodiments, the active period of time can be between about 50 mins to about 60 mins.

[0093] PEDOTtPSS Microneedle Electrode Array with a Replenishing Interface

[0094] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprise a plurality of microneedles. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles comprise at least one microneedle. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles can penetrate in layers of an epidermis. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles can deliver high levels of DC current. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles can deliver high levels of DC current without producing adverse effects on the skin or body. In some embodiments, the adverse effects that can be avoided can comprise heat, irreversible faradaic reactions, ion buildup on the skin, acidification of the skin, or any other negative reactions of the skin or body in contact or near the microneedles. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles can reduce ohmic impedance and faradaic reactions. In some embodiments, the plurality of microneedles can provide a dry, painless low-impedance skin interface. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprise Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) microneedles. In some embodiments, the use of PEDOT:PSS can enhance chargeAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 storages, charge injection capabilities or delivery of currents. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system comprise an ion-replenishing interface. As depicted in FIG. 4, the ion-replenishing interface can be a salt bridge (FIG. 4A), ion solution (FIG. 4B), or hydrogel (FIG. 4C). In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface comprises PEDOT:PSS microneedles 401 and the salt bridge 402. In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface comprises PEDOT:PSS microneedles 401 and the ion solution 403. In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface comprises PEDOT:PSS microneedles 401 and the hydrogel 405 which is statured with ions.

[0095] PEDOT hydrogel microtieedle array electrode

[0096] In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise PEDOT:PSS microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, as depicted in FIG. 5, the vestibular stimulation system comprises PEDOT:PSS infused hydrogel microneedles 501. In some embodiments, the PEDOT:PSS infused hydrogel can contain ions. In some embodiments, the PEDOT:PSS can be dissolved 504 or can be embedded 503 in hydrogel 502.

[0097] High Surface Area AgCl Hydrogel Microneedle rray

[0098] In some embodiments, the electrodes can further comprise an ion-replenishing interface. In some embodiments, the ion-replenishing interface can comprise a salt bridge, an ion solution, or a hydrogel. In some embodiments, the electrodes can comprise hydrogel microneedle electrodes. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can comprise dissolved PEDOT, PEDOT fragments, silver nanoparticles, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can contain chloride ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be comprised of silver or silver alloy. In some embodiments, the hydrogel microneedle electrodes can be coated, wherein the coating can comprise silver chloride.

[0099] In some embodiments, as depicted in FIG. 6, the vestibular stimulation system 600 comprises AgCl electrodes 604. In some embodiments, AgCl electrodes can deliver current while staying under a voltage gate for irreversible redox reactions. In some embodiments, hydrogel 602 microneedles 601 electrodes can be filled with chloride ions and a high surface area coil 603 of silver. In some embodiments, the electrodes can be coated with AgCl. In some embodiments, a use of high surface area coil of silver can increase a total surface area of silver or availability of chloride ions facilitating large amounts of painless current delivery. In some embodiments, chemical etching can be used for increasing a surface area of the silver. In some embodiments, the silver can be supplied in a form of non-wire suspension such as silver nanoparticles.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601Ultrasound Vestibular Stimulation

[0100] I Jltrasonic Vestibular Stimulation System

[0101] Additionally, disclosed herein in another embodiment is an ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system which can comprise: one or more ultrasonic transducers which can be configured to each independently generate one or more real-time sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface which can comprise a processor which can be configured to independently control acoustic wave signals generated by each ultrasonic transducer of the one or more ultrasonic transducers, wherein the one or more real-time sensations can be generated by the acoustic wave signals. FIG. 7 illustrates an ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system 700. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use ultrasound to mechanically move calcium carbonate rocks within a human otolith in order to generate sensations of linear acceleration. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system comprises at least a single element ultrasonic transducer or with an ultrasonic phased array. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use deflections of acoustic waves inside a bony labyrinth 802 to generate acoustic radiation forces in directions different from a direction of origin of an original acoustic wave. In some embodiments, the acoustic radiation forces can be generated opposite to an origin of an original acoustic wave. In some embodiments, generating acoustic forces allows fully modulating a perception of an otolith organ. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use acoustic waves to simultaneously image and stimulate the otolith organ, allowing precise targeting and modulation of the vestibular system. In some embodiments, waves generated by the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can propagate through a skull to hit the otolith organ on a contralateral side. FIG. 8 illustrates details of the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system 800. As depicted in FIG. 8, an imaging system can be used to determine a position of a structure 803 located between a left side of a head and a right side of a head. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use ipsilateral stimulation 804 or contralateral stimulation 805. FIG. 8 also illustrates a zoomed -in view 806 of the bony labyrinth representing sound waves 807 and deflections 808.

[0102] In some embodiments, the movement can comprise angular movement. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise an ultrasonic phased array. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave signals can be generated by the one or more ultrasonic transducers and can be configured to exert one or more forces on the otolith organs of a subject. In some embodiments, the system can comprise an imaging device or system configured to image the otolith organs of the subject. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise the imaging device. In some embodiments, the system can beAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 configured to simultaneously image the otolith organs of the subject and exert the one or more forces on the otolith organs of the subject. In some embodiments, the acoustic wave signals can further comprise one or more of harmonic ultrasonic frequencies, counter vibration frequencies, endolymph-focused ultrasonic wave signals, semicircular canal-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or transcranial-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or any combination thereof.

[0103] In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use ultrasonic frequencies with harmonics both too high and too low for a human ear to hear resulting in a reduction or elimination of sound during ultrasonic stimulation produced from ultrasonic signals hiting an inner ear. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use counter-vibrate a bone through a mechanism such as bone conduction, resulting in no audible sound. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can stimulate semicircular canals of the vestibular system 900 as depicted in FIG. 9. In some embodiments, a first transducer 901 can generate a first acoustic radiation force 903 on endolymph fluid 906 within semicircular canals 905 and a second transducer 902 can generate a second acoustic radiation force 907 on hair cells 904 within the semicircular canals 905. In some embodiments, the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can use transcranial focused ultrasound to stimulate the semicircular canals. The bone conduction vibration can be performed on the mastoid bone of a subject or user. The ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system can comprise one or more bone conduction transducers or linear actuators, or both, to counter-vibrate a mastoid bone of the subject or user. There may be one or more linear actuators on the mastoid bone of the subject or user to perform vestibular stimulation by vibrating the mastoid bone.

[0104] FIG. 10 illustrates a schematic view of a method of creating sensations of angular acceleration with only otolithic organs. FIG. 10A and 10B illustrate a front and a top view of a system for creating sensations of angular acceleration using otolithic organs comprising otolithic organs 1002, linear up 1001, linear down 1004 and a perception of a roll 1003. In some embodiments, the system for creating sensations of angular acceleration with only otolithic organs can activate patterns of otolith organs on each side of a head in ways which would suggest a presence of angular movement in natural movements such as one side moving up while another side moves down.

[0105] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may comprise a vibrational stimulation and a galvanic vestibular stimulation. The vestibular stimulation system may comprise both a mechanical stimulation of the vestibular system of a subject or user and an electrical stimulation of the vestibular system of a subject or user. Combining the vibrational stimulation and GVS generates a more controllable and accurate neuromodulation effect than utilizing vibrational stimulation or GVS alone. The vibrational stimulation may generate aAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 proprioceptive sense of movement for a user, and GVS may modify firing of one or more vestibular nerves. Both of the GVS and vibrational stimulation may be applied together to a subject to enhance, amplify, or modulate the effects of the stimulation to the vestibular system of a subject or user in comparison to either the GVS or vibrational stimulation alone. The vestibular stimulation system may comprise multiple inputs comprising vibrational stimulation and electrical GVS. The dual-input GVS and vibrational vestibular stimulation system may stimulate a relaxation sensation of a user or subject, attention control of a user or subject, or experience of sensations corresponding to a virtual reality stimulus, or modification of a perception of sensory input by the subject or user, such as multisensory input. Effects of GVS may be enhanced by the addition of vibrational stimulation to the vestibular stimulation system. The vibration stimulation may be utilized to achieve entrainment of the subject, while GVS may be used in precise directional control of movement sensations in the subject. The intensity of the GVS or vibrational stimulation applied together may be higher than an intensity of either the GVS or vibrational stimulation alone.

[0106] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may comprise an audio stimulation and a galvanic vestibular stimulation. The vestibular stimulation system may comprise both an auditory stimulation of the vestibular system of a subject or user and an electrical stimulation of the vestibular system of a subject or user. Combining the auditory stimulation and GVS may generate a more controllable powerful neuromodulation effect than utilizing auditory stimulation or GVS alone. The auditory stimulation may comprise specific tones, binaural beats, or patterned soundscapes, or any combination thereof. The GVS may be synchronized with the auditory stimulation. Both of the GVS and auditory stimulation may be applied together to a subject to strengthen entrainment effects, reinforce perception of motion or balance, and engage higher-order cognitive and emotional networks in comparison to either the GVS or auditory stimulation alone. The vestibular stimulation system may comprise multiple inputs comprising auditory stimulation and electrical GVS. The dual-input GVS and auditory vestibular stimulation system may stimulate a relaxation sensation of a user or subject, attention control of a user or subject, or experience of sensations corresponding to a virtual reality stimulus, or modification of a perception of sensory input by the subject or user, such as multisensory input. Effects of GVS may be enhanced by the addition of auditory stimulation to the vestibular stimulation system. The intensity of the GVS or auditory stimulation applied together may be higher than an intensity of either the GVS or auditory stimulation alone. The GVS and auditory stimulation applied together in the vestibular stimulation system may modulate or improve coherence of interpretation of sensory input by a user or subject.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0107] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may comprise a vibratory stimulation applied to one or more neck muscles of the subject or user. The vibration can be applied to the one or more neck muscles to activate the vestibular system using one or more proprioceptive or vestibulo-spinal pathways, or both. Displacement may not be required to simulate motion of the head of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system comprising the vibratory stimulation of the one or more neck muscles for vestibular stimulation may comprise modifying the vibratory stimulation. The vibratory stimulation may be modulated to comprise low-frequency vibrations associated with one or more simulated sensations of swaying, or high-frequency vibrations associated with entrainment. The vestibular stimulation may be tuned across a plurality of frequencies. The vibratory stimulation of one or more neck muscles of the user may decrease a sensitivity of a subject or user to electrical stimulation, for example where the subject or user is excessively sensitive or feels pain in response to GVS electrical stimulation. The vestibular stimulation system may comprise one or more wearable devices.

[0108] etamaterial Impeckmce McLching Layer

[0109] In some embodiments, the system can further comprise an impedance matching layer. In some embodiments, the impedance matching layer can comprise a hydrogel microneedle array, wherein the hydrogel microneedle array can comprise a metamaterial matching layer. In some embodiments, the one or more ultrasonic transducers can comprise non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers. In some embodiments, the non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers can comprise PVDF material.

[0110] In some embodiments, hydrogel microneedles can be used as a dry metamaterial matching layer 1100 for impedance matching with ultrasonic transducers as depicted in FIG. 11. Microneedles 1102 connected to hydrogel microneedles system 1104 can enter the stratum corneum of a skin 1103, providing a painless and stable connection for an acoustic interface. In some embodiments, the impedance matching can provide a smooth gradient transition from a matching later into the skin and the hydrogel. In some embodiments, a spacing between microneedles can be dense resulting in capillary effect of moisture on the skin will wet the microneedles 1105, further improving an efficacy of the acoustic impedance matching layer, [oni] Non - yslal Ultrasonic Transducers

[0112] In some embodiments, ultrasonic transducers can be made of piezoelectric crystals. In some embodiments, ultrasonic transducers can be made of Poly vinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) which are flexible and can allow small form factor, cheap manufacturing, or dynamic frequency modulation.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0113] A Joint Electrical and Ultrasound Vestibular Stimulation System

[0114] In some embodiments, the system can comprise both the electrical vestibular stimulation system and the ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to generate one or more sensations of angular acceleration. In some embodiments, the system can be configured to utilize electrical noise to enhance magnitude of the sensations of the subj ect.

[0115] FIG. 12 illustrates a system 1200 comprising a combination of an electrical vestibular stimulation system 1202 and an ultrasound vestibular system 1201. In some embodiments, the ultrasound vestibular system can generate sensations of linear acceleration while using electrical stimulation to generate angular acceleration. In some embodiments, an electrical noise can be used to enhance a magnitude of responses to ultrasonic vestibular stimulation.Methods for Bodily Regulation

[0116] Additionally, disclosed herein in yet another embodiment is a method of vestibular stimulation which can comprise: generating two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves which can be configured to create one or more movement sensations to a subject using a vestibular stimulation device or system; and modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves using a controller, wherein the controller can be configured to form linear combinations of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.

[0117] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for regulating bodily function through vestibular stimulation. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can affect or control regulatory brain regions such as thalamus and suprachiasmatic nucleus, autonomic activities. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can affect or control conscious regulation or unconscious “autonomic” regulation. For example, the vestibular stimulation system can affect or control an act of balancing through modifying the visual system (vestibulo-ocular reflex), cardiovascular system, and muscle activity.

[0118] Controlled neurotransmitter release is difficult to induce using GVS, as GVS is difficult to appropriately control so that the autonomic nervous system is stimulated with sufficient accuracy to control neurotransmitter release. Systems and methods of vestibular stimulation as described herein can induce controlled and targeted neurotransmitter release by stimulating the autonomic nervous system with controlled and complex vestibular stimulation signal waves. The combinations of independent vestibular stimulation signal waves using the controller can be used to stimulate the autonomic nervous system to release a controlled amount and type of one or more neurotransmitters of a subject. These controlled and complex vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise complex electrical signals, or complex vibrational signals, or both complexAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 electrical signals and complex vibrational signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can be targeted by the vestibular simulation system to stimulate different areas of the autonomic nervous system with various intensities to stimulate release of various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of a plurality of neurotransmitters. Each of these various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters can be released in a controlled or targeted amount, proportion, or concentration using the vestibular stimulation signal waves. The intensities of the vestibular stimulation signal waves can be dynamically modified to adjust one or more of: a type, a combination of types, an amount, a proportion, or a concentration, or any combination thereof, of neurotransmitters released by stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The types and combinations of the vestibular stimulation waves can be modified, either alone or in combination with modifying their intensities, to adjust one or more of: a type, a combination of types, an amount, a proportion, or a concentration, or any combination thereof, of neurotransmitters released by stimulation of the autonomic nervous system. The types and combinations of the vestibular stimulation waves, or the intensities of the vestibular stimulation signal waves, or both, can be modified differently to stimulate controlled neurotransmitter release when a subject is asleep as compared to when the subject is awake.

[0119] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can create magnitudes of sensation for periods of time that are not feasible through physical stimulation, for example a sense of not falling with a rotation or not running into obstacles after the rotation. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can create systems that are deeply reactive to body activity, forming true closed-loop systems. In some embodiments, the body activity can be measured through brain waves, respiratory, cardio, Muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA), reflexes, or eye movements.

[0120] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can induce phantom sensations. In some embodiments, the phantom sensations are not tied to physical movement. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can induce feelings that are normally not possible to experience. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can give stimulation that has no physical movement analog. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can help users to overcome barriers such as inertia and move arbitrarily fast, discretely jump, instantaneous rotations, or signal jumping.

[0121] Base modulation modes

[0122] In some embodiments, the method can further comprise forming the linear combinations of the waves in the yaw, pitch, and roll axes. In some embodiments, the method can furtherAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 comprise modulating the waves for one or more of amplitude axes, frequency axes, creation of accompanying AM waves, or creation of accompanying FM waves, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the modulation can be triggered by one or more external devices.

[0123] In some embodiments, modes of modulation can be used for any type of stimulation such as Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS) or Ultrasound. In some embodiments, modes of modulation can be sine, triangle, sawtooth, square, smoothed square, noise, or breath-shaped waves. For example, the noise can be like white / brown in audio which amplitude changes up / down erratically. In some embodiments, linear combinations of the modes of modulation with phase offsets can be used in yaw, pitch, roll linear, or combo axes. For example, a linear combination of two sine waves in the roll and pitch axes creates a feeling of circular motion. In some embodiments, the waves on axes such as the amplitude or frequency axes can be modulated to created amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM). In some embodiments, AM and FM waves can be combined to create a fast sine carrier wave. In some embodiments, the fast carrier wave can be frequency -modulated to have a slow sine wave component.

[0125] In some embodiments, the method of vestibular stimulation can further comprise providing closed-loop reactivity modulation using the controller. In some embodiments, providing closed-loop reactivity modulation can comprise triggering the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves intermittently. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise adjusting the modulation based on information received from one or more external devices. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise adjusting the modulation based on one or more physiological functions of a subject. In some embodiments, the modulation modes can be changed by a closed-loop system to react to a body’s vital sign such as heart rate (HR) or blood pressure (BP) measured by biotrackers, sensors integrated into the system, ultrasound, or medical grade wearable devices. In some embodiments, stimulus can also be modulated by external triggers, such as timers, internet of things (loT) sensors, or other signals from users.

[0126] In some embodiments, reactive modulation can create matching bodily harmonics or ideal harmonics that are measured through responses resulting from stimulus and / or biometric measurement from a brain, breathing, blood pressure, or heart rate. In some embodiments, reactive modulation can create matching / reinforcing bodily behavior in real time.

[0127] In some embodiments, closed loop sensing can also create stronger effects by iteratively layering smaller but more palatable effects. In some embodiments, closed loop systems can include windowed matching, direct closed loop, iterative lowering / raising, or breath matching. InAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 some embodiments, closed loop sensing can have time scales ranging from milliseconds to minutes to hours to years. In some embodiments, time scales in milliseconds can be used to sense direct brain-wave reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or years can be used to sense brain wave activity over time. In some embodiments, time scales in minutes can be used to sense breath rate reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in seconds, hours, days, weeks, months, or years can be used to sense breath rate activity over time. In some embodiments, time scales in hours can be used to sense sleep stage reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in minutes can be used to sense sleep stage reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in seconds can be used to sense sleep stage reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in hours, days, weeks, months, or years can be used to sense sleep activity over time. In some embodiments, time scales in years can be used to sense body biomarkers or lifestyle reactivity. In some embodiments, time scales in months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, or seconds can be used to sense body biomarkers or lifestyle reactivity. In some embodiments, closed-loop reactivity can also include intermittent triggers, such as triggering certain stimulation when sleep stages change. In some embodiments, reactivity can also be triggered externally, such as by timers or other sensors. For example, sleep stage modifications can be coordinated to guide a user towards gentle wakefulness starting an hour before the alarm, or a captain of a large ship could be fed more fine-grained roll information through vestibular stimulation. In some embodiments, the reactivity can be used in various ways, such as to move a metric to a setpoint, to act as notification of triggers, to perform sensory addition, or to coordinate senses or bodily functions of groups of people. In some embodiments, sleep stage modifications can comprise elongating sleep stages, increasing the frequency of sleep stages in a sleep plan, transferring a user out of or into a sleep stage, or otherwise modifying the sleep of a user. In some embodiments, modulating sleep can comprise modulating one or more sleep stages. In some embodiments, modulating sleep stage can comprise transferring between sleep types, for example REM sleep, light sleep, or deep sleep. In some embodiments, modulating sleep can comprise elongating a sleep stage, shortening a sleep stage, transferring between sleep stages, or ending a sleep stage. In some embodiments, modulating sleep can comprise awakening the user or causing the user to sleep. In some embodiments, modulating sleep can comprise following a sleep plan. In some embodiments, a sleep plan can comprise a plan for modulating one or more sleep stages.

[0128] In some embodiments, the system can be used to control REM sleep of a subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibrationAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modify REM sleep of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to elicit a change in REM sleep of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to elicit a change in REM sleep of the subject or user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain. The one or more areas of the brain that may be stimulated in a targeted manner by the vestibular stimulation system may comprise one or more of: the locus coeruleus (LC), the subcoeruleus nucleus (SubC), the pedunculopontine tegmentum (PPT) the laterodorsal tegmentum (LDT), the ventral part of the oral pontine reticular nucleus (vRPO), the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) region, the dorsal raphe (DR), or any combination thereof. The one or more areas of the brain that may be stimulated may comprise one or more of the hippocampus, the hypothalamus, the brain stem, or any other autonomic nervous-system-associated areas of the brain, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibular stimulation signals to start or stop a REM sleep state of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibular stimulation signals to activate a REM sleep state of the subject or user or stimulate a REM sleep state of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibular stimulation signals to interrupt a REM sleep state of the subject or user, stop a REM sleep state of a subject or user, or prevent a REM sleep state of the subject or user, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibular stimulation signals to increase a duration of a REM sleep state of a subject or user, improve a continuity of a REM sleep state of a subject or user, or reduce a duration of time between two or more REM sleep states of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibular stimulation signals to modify a duration of time of a transition between a REM sleep state and a non-REM sleep state, such as a light sleep state or a deep sleep state, or both. The duration of time for the transition can be reduced or lengthened by the vestibular stimulation signal. The vestibular stimulation system may utilize controlled vestibularAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 stimulation signals to modify a duration of time of a transition between a first REM sleep state and a second REM sleep state. The duration of time for the transition can be reduced or lengthened by the vestibular stimulation signal.

[0129] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to induce sleep onset. The vestibular stimulation system may be used to reduce a duration of time for a subject to achieve sleep onset. The vestibular stimulation system may generate vestibular stimulation signals that may generate sensations of movement for the user that modify sleep of the user. The vestibular stimulation signals may simulate a motion sensation of the subject comprising one or more of a rocking motion, a swaying motion, or another rhythmic motion that may stimulate an onset of sleep or a continuation of a sleep state for a subject. The vestibular stimulation signals may comprise non-motion generation signals. The non-motion generation signals may stimulate the vestibular system to provide a sensation of calmness or reduce anxiety of a subject. The non- motion generation signals may stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to the subject. The one or more neurotransmitters may affect sleep of a subject. The vestibular stimulation signals can comprise an ultra-slow oscillatory vestibular input. The ultra-slow vestibular input can have a frequency of about between 0.05Hz to 0.2Hz. The ultra-slow vestibular input can be applied to the subject prior to the subject entering a sleep state. The ultra-slow vestibular input vestibular stimulation signal can be applied to reduce sleep latency to less than about between 10 minutes and 1 minute. In some cases, the ultra-slow vestibular input can be applied to reduce sleep latency to about 10 minutes, 9 minutes, 8 minutes, 7 minutes, 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute, or less than about 1 minute. The ultra-slow vestibular input can be applied to reduce sleep latency to less than about between 60 minutes and 1 minute. In some cases, the ultra-slow vestibular input can be applied to reduce sleep latency to about 60, 59, 58, 57, 56, 55, 54, 53, 52, 51, 50, 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, 44, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, about 2 minutes, about 1 minute, or about less than 1 minute. The ultra-slow vestibular input vestibular stimulation signal can be applied to the user or subject for a predetermined or dynamic amount of time. The ultra-slow vestibular input vestibular stimulation signal can be applied to the user or subject for about less than 10 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 1 hour, about 2 hours, about 3 hours, about 4 hours, about 5 hours, about 6 hours, about 7 hours, about 8 hours, about 9 hours, about 10 hours, about 11 hours, about 12 hours, about 13 hours, about 14 hours, about 15 hours, about 16 hours, about 17 hours, about 18 hours, about 19 hours, about 20 hours, about 21 hours, about 22 hours, about 23 hours, about 24 hours, or about more than 24 hours. The ultra-slow vestibular input vestibular stimulation signal can be applied to the user or subject without producing notifications or alerts that may alert the subject or user. The vestibularAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 stimulation signal can be used to dynamically modify the ultra-slow vestibular input vestibular stimulation signal to modify the vestibular signal based at least in part on a sleep stage of the user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to prevent the subject from exiting a sleep stage or prolong a sleep stage. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate a subject to enter a sleep stage.

[0130] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to treat or address a depression of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals that may regulate a mood or other emotional state of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to treat one or more symptoms of depression of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to enhance, modulate, or mimic effects or sensations of pharmacological treatments for depression of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate one or more neurotransmitters of the subject or user associated with treatment of depression. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain. The one or more areas of the brain that may be stimulated in a targeted manner by the vestibular stimulation system comprise one or more of: the locus coeruleus (LC), the raphe nuclei, the hippocampus, the thalamus, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation signals can comprise slow oscillatory vestibular input patterns. The slow vestibular input can have a frequency of between about 0.05Hz to about 0.5Hz. The slow vestibular input can be applied to the subject to modulate sleep or relaxation using the autonomic nervous system of the subject, or both. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can be targeted by the vestibular simulation system to stimulate different areas of the autonomic nervous system with various intensities to stimulate release of various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of aAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 plurality of neurotransmitters. Each of these various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters can be released in a controlled or targeted amount, proportion, or concentration using the vestibular stimulation signal waves. The intensities of the vestibular stimulation signal waves can be dynamically modified to adjust one or more of: a type, a combination of types, an amount, a proportion, or a concentration, or any combination thereof, of neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters may comprise one or more of: norepinephrine, GABA, acetylcholine, or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation signal can modulate theta-gamma coupling similar to that resulting from one or more treatments for depression, such as Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) treatment. The vestibular stimulation system can use the vestibular stimulation signals to treat or address anxiety or related psychological disorders.

[0131] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to improve cognitive performance of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate cognitive performance of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate arousal of the subject, focus of the subject, fatigue of the subject, motivation of the subject, attention of the subject, working memory of the subject, memory retrieval of the subject, memory tagging of the subject, learning of the subject, creativity of the subject, neural plasticity of the subject, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to change in cognitive performance of the user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to improve cognitive performance of the user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to improve cognitive performance of a user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can beAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to improve one or more of: arousal of the subject, focus of the subject, fatigue of the subject, motivation of the subject, attention of the subject, working memory of the subject, memory retrieval of the subject, memory tagging of the subject, learning of the subject, creativity of the subject, neural plasticity of the subject, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate one or more controlled combinations of vestibular stimulation waveforms in a predetermined or dynamically controlled combination or sequence to improve the cognitive performance of the subject.

[0132] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve motivation of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate neurotransmitter release in one or more areas of the brain associated with reward sensations of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters. The one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters may comprise one or more of: dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, acetylcholine, or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters associated with a sensation of increased energy or increased motivation to perform one or more tasks in a subject or user.

[0133] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve alertness and perception or awareness of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate neurotransmitter release in one or more areas of the brain associated with alertness and arousal. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters comprising releasing norepinephrine,Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601GABA, acetylcholine, or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters associated with a sensation of increased alertness or increased awareness of one or more environmental stimuli in a subj ect or user.

[0134] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve focus of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate neurotransmitter release in one or more areas of the brain associated with focus or attention, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters comprising releasing one or more of: dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, acetylcholine, or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters associated with a sensation of increased focus or increased ability to sustain attention to one or more environmental stimuli in a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters associated with reduced distractibility, improved sustained focus, stabilized arousal, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals to enhance, mimic, or modulate treatment effects of treatments for attention deficit disorders, such as stimulant medication treatments. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals to enhance, mimic, or modulate treatment effects of treatments for attention deficit disorders without undesirable side effects that may result from pharmacological treatments for attention deficit disorders. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to treat attention deficit disorders using controlled phasic or rhythmic vestibular stimulation signals. The controlled phasic or rhythmic vestibular stimulation signals may be utilized to treat attention deficit disorders or modulate symptoms of attention deficit disorders without generating undesirable side effects such as insomnia, elevated heart rate, elevated blood pressure, or any combination thereof.

[0135] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to modulate or improve memory of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate neurotransmitter release in one or more areas of the brain associated with memory function. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters comprising acetylcholine (ACH), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate release, inhibition, or modulation of one or more neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters associated with one or more of working memory, memory generation, memory storage, memory retrieval, or memory tagging, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to activate one or more areas of the brain associated with memory, such as the hippocampus. The vestibular stimulation signal can modulate hippocampus activity. The hippocampus activity can comprise an increase in hippocampal theta-gamma coupling. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate production or release of one or more of: ACH, Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), or theta-gamma coupling, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate neuroplasticity, learning, or creativity, or any combination thereof.

[0136] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate a heightened state of suggestibility of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate neurotransmitter release in one or more areas of the brain associated with movement sensations or balance. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate motion sensations or changing balance shift sensations that are at odds with visual or auditory perception of a subject or user. The disparity between sensed motion and visual perception may enhance suggestibility and openness of a subject.

[0137] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may comprise a recurring longterm use system for a subject or user to utilize the vestibular stimulation system at regular intervals, such as daily for a period of time. The vestibular stimulation system may be appliedAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 passively or for short sessions, or in the background without explicit acknowledgement of the subject or user. The subject or user can be a healthy subject or user not having a disease. The vestibular stimulation system may be used to promote resilience, reduce stress load, and preserve long-term cognitive function of the brain of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may be utilized daily. The vestibular stimulation system may be utilized multiple times each day. The vestibular stimulation system may be utilized multiple times per week. The vestibular stimulation system may stimulate brain health.User Interface

[0138] In some embodiments, the system can be equipped with a user interface. In some embodiments the user interface can allow the user to interact with the system. In some embodiments, the user interface can allow the user to adjust features for modifying the system. In some cases, features that can be adjusted by the user can comprise customizations such as choosing a customized sleep composition, a profile of user settings from which the system can generate activation patterns, or a schedule of activation patterns. In some embodiments, the system can generate notifications to the user using the user interface. In some embodiments, the system can allow the user to modify the activations generated by the system using the user interface. In some embodiments, the user can adjust the activation type of the system, activation intensity of the system, activation schedule of the system, activation time of the system, or another setting of system activation. In some embodiments, the user interface can allow the user to confirm an automatic start or stop of the system. In some embodiments, the user interface can allow the user to set the system to automatically activate or deactivate when one or more criteria are met. In some cases, the criteria can comprise a time, a level of user activity, a user state, a user notification, a detection of a user state, for example a detection of user brain activity, user autonomic activity, user heartbeat, user breathing, user sleep, user location, user movement, or another characteristic of the user.

[0139] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may comprise a platform to perform testing for vestibular responsiveness of a subject or user. The platform may comprise one or more structured tests for vestibular responsiveness. The platform may be utilized to detect a subject or user experiencing discomfort, producing abnormal responses to the one or more structured tests, or failing to perceive stimulation within expected ranges of the one or more structured tests. Detecting failure of the one or more structured tests comprises an indication of vestibular dysfunction by the platform. The platform may prompt the subject or user to seek evaluation by a medical professional. The platform may be a triage platform. The platform may integrate VR technology in determining the responsiveness of a subject or user.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601Physiological Control

[0140] In some embodiments, the method of vestibular stimulation can further comprise controlling the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the one or more physiological functions of the subject by modulating the intensity, synchronization, and phase resets of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise triggering one or more physiological reflexes of the subject. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise controlling sleep of the subject by modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves. In some embodiments, a plurality of physiological metrics or behaviors can be affected or controlled through modulation modes or reactive closed-loop systems. In some embodiments, the plurality of physiological metrics or behaviors can be heart rate, heart rate variability, respiratory rate, respiratory rate variability, respiratory phase, respiratory inspiration / expiration composition, blood pressure, blood flow, blood oxygen, muscle activation, muscle recovery, body temperature, brainwave power across different frequency bands, sleep architecture, body temperature, cardiorespiratory synchronization, comfort, drowsiness, wakefulness, alertness, attention-pulling subjective experiences, surprise, vestibular reflex sensations, or vestibulo-ocular reflex.

[0141] In some embodiments, the plurality of physiological metrics or behaviors can be affected or controlled through synchronization of oscillators in a dynamical system to a driving force. In some embodiments, synchronization of oscillators can comprise entrainment. For example, the idea of entrainment can be used for controlling and synchronizing a respiration rate to a stimulation by setting a frequency of a modulating modes. In some embodiments, the frequency can comprise a sine wave a triangle wave, a sawtooth wave, a square wave, a smoothed square wave, a noise wave, or a breath-shaped wave. In some embodiments, signals can be sent based on degrees of freedom of system, could be any signal, any type of coordinate space, sine wave in roll, sine wave in pitch and roll, or a signal with no physical analog. As other examples, heart rate can be synchronized between co-sleepers, or respiration can be synchronized to rhythmic auditory stimulation. In some embodiments, the closed-loop system can be used for a detection of the breathing rate, and then dynamically updating the simulation based off of the detected breathing rate. For example, the stimulation system can entrain breathing, and then once entrainment occurs, the stimulation system can lower the frequency of sine wave in all axes independently resulting in lower breathing rates, while just starting at a low frequency sine wave would not effectively entrain. In some embodiments, the entrainment can result in decreased or increased respiratory rate variability, or phase. In some embodiments, a phase reset can be used for inducing a sudden change in stimulus that can shock a dynamical system into synchronizing. In some embodiments, the phase reset can be used for reinforcing, slowly changing bodilyAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 rhythms, or shocking the body out of negative rhythms such as anxiety attack, negative feelings or correlated brain waves. In some embodiments, the modulation system can be used for regulating sleep stages or reducing sleep disturbances through general physiological regulation, such as calmness or rhythm, sleep-architecture targeted stimulus, such as inducing or enhancing rapid eye movement, a vestibulo-ocular reflex or deep sleep with slow respiratory rate, detecting and responding to sleep changes, and informing the stimulus as a result, stimulation through neurally-coded physiological reflexes. In some embodiments, the reflexes can comprise eye movement. In some embodiments, the modulation system can be used for autonomic regulation through physiological response. In some embodiments, physiological response can comprise breathing rate or heart rate.

[0142] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for controlling an amplitude, frequency, and phase of physiological functions through changing a stimulus intensity, synchronization or phase resets. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for controlling physiological parameters such as a heart rate, respiration, or brain waves. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for triggering and exploiting physiological reflexes of the vestibular system. For example, a vestibulo- sympathetic reflex controls blood flow through a body, such as when pumping blood to a head when someone stands up suddenly. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to control blood flow through vestibular stimulus, enhancing cardiovascular health, or improving focus, digestion, or muscle recovery by directing blood. As another examples, a vestibulo-ocular reflex rotates eyes to stabilize vision when someone rotates head. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to create visual sensation or induce rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for controlling physiological metrics through changing the modulation modes inside of reactive closed-loop systems. For example, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for reducing anxiety through lowering respiratory rate and heart rate, improving focus through moving blood to the head, improving recovery through moving blood to a limb, or improving alertness and memory consolidation through reinforcing certain brain waves. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve athletic functionality of a subject. The vestibular stimulation system may be synchronized with one or more physical values or measurements of the subject. The vestibular stimulation system may be synchronized with a stride cadence of a subject or user, or a respiratory rate or pattern of the subject or user, or both. The vestibular stimulation system may perform this synchronization to enhance efficiency of pacing, reduce fatigue of the subject, and enhance efficient utilization of oxygen by the subject. The vestibular stimulation system may also be utilized to modulate blood flow to one or more areas of theAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 subject’s body using vestibular-autonomic pathways to support recovery and endurance of the subject or user. The blood flow can comprise cerebral blood flow. Controlling cerebral blood flow may be utilized to control blood distribution in the brain and body of a subject or user, to stimulate or enhance rehabilitation, cardiovascular health, and exercise recovery by modulating blood pressure and vascular resistance.

[0143] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to control one or more physiological functions to facilitate meditation actions of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate arousal, attention, and internal body awareness of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate parasympathetic activation of the subject or user, interoceptive awareness of the subject or user, or sensory perceptions of the subject or user, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to suppress perception of sensory stimuli or modulate activation of the parasympathetic nervous system. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to suppress perception of sensory sensations or parasympathetic activation of the user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to modulate parasympathetic activation of a user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to improve meditative states of the user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate low- amplitude vestibular stimulation signals. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate patterns of low-amplitude vestibular stimulation signals to modulate activation of the parasympathetic activation of the nervous system of a user or subject to promote a meditative state of the subject or user.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0144] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to control one or more respiratory functions of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may be configured to control one or more respiratory functions of the subject or user to train a subject or user in respiratory control. The vestibular stimulation system may couple stimulation frequency with a respiratory cycle of a user. The vestibular stimulation system may group or associate one or more stimulation frequencies with an inhalation and exhalation cycle of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may guide the subject or user to slower, deeper, and more sustainable breathing patterns. The vestibular stimulation system may be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals that improves a vagal tone of a subject or user, stress resilience of a subject or user, or cardiopulmonary efficiency of a subject or user, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation system may be used to modulate or improve one or more of athletic training, stress reduction, or therapeutic use in conditions where breath regulation is therapeutic to the condition. The breath training of the subject may be utilized to modify breathing patterns of the subj ect.

[0145] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to control one or more physiological functions of a cardiovascular system of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate cardiovascular function of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate heart rate variability of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate heart rate variability of the subject or user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to suppress perception of sensory sensations or parasympathetic activation of the user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to modulateAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 parasympathetic activation of a user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve cardiovascular health, stress resilience, and performance recovery. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate low-amplitude vestibular stimulation signals. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate patterns of low-amplitude vestibular stimulation signals to modulate activation of the parasympathetic nervous system of a user or subject to generate quantifiable changes in heart rate variability from available integration data obtained using a wearable device.

[0146] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to control one or more physiological functions of an endocrine or reproductive system of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate autonomic and limbic activation of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the autonomic or limbic systems of the brain of a subject or user to modulate sexual arousal of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate sexual arousal of the subject or user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters associated with sexual arousal of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to stimulate or modulate release of one or more neurotransmitters to increase parasympathetic nervous system activation and stimulate dopaminergic receptors of a user or subject. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve stimulate or enhance genital blood flow and subjective arousal states. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate patterns of vestibular stimulation signals. The patterns of vestibular stimulation signals may modulate or enhance sexual wellness, intimacy sensations, or provide treatment for sexual dysfunction.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0147] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to treat or address symptoms of a dementia of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to modulate blood flow in the nervous system of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system may generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate vascular function, lymphatic function, or neuromodulator function of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate sleep enhancement, cortical synchronization, and blood flow of the subject or user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to treat or address multiple symptoms of dementia or related diseases simultaneously or in parallel. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate slow- oscillation signals for sleep and lymphatic function modulation, and gamma burst vestibular stimulation signals for cortical synchronization, as well as autonomic modulation of blood flow. The cortical synchronization can be stimulated by applying, using the vestibular stimulation system, stimulation waveforms in the gamma range to one or more target areas of the subject or user. The stimulation waveforms in the gamma range can comprise a frequency of about 40 Hz. The stimulation waveforms may comprise a gamma band having a frequency of 40 Hz. The stimulation waveforms can comprise amplitude-balanced, high-frequency bursts at regions of the brain associated with thamalo-cortical neural circuits that may oscillate at a gamma subunit. The stimulation waveforms may enhance cognitive function of a subject or user and synchronize neuronal populations in target areas of the brain of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to slow progression of dementia or related disease or improve daily functioning of a subject or user having dementia or a related disease.

[0148] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system may be used to treat or address neurodegenerative disease or symptoms thereof. The vestibular stimulation system can be usedAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the vestibular system of the subject or user so as to stimulate or promote transition into a deep sleep phase, or maintenance of a deep sleep phase. The vestibular stimulation system may generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate glymphatic system enhancement in clearing metabolic waste from the brain of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate deep sleep enhancement or glymphatic clearance enhancement. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain to facilitate improved glymphatic clearance and thus support brain health, potentially impacting neurodegenerative disease prevention and recovery. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate slow-oscillation signals for sleep and glymphatic function modulation, as well as autonomic modulation of blood flow. The stimulation waveforms may enhance cognitive function of a subject or user and slow or reverse neurodegenerative disease or disease symptoms of the subject or user.

[0149] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to treat or address an addiction or addiction behavior of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals that may regulate a mood or other emotional state of the subject or user in response to a behavior, such as an addiction behavior. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the brain of the subject associated with generating one or more neurotransmitters associated with addictive behaviors or reward. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selectedAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to enhance, modulate, or mimic effects or sensations of pharmacological treatments for addiction of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to modulate one or more neurotransmitters of the subject or user associated with treatment of addiction. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain. The one or more areas of the brain that may be stimulated in a targeted manner by the vestibular stimulation system comprise the Ventral tegmental area (VTA). The vestibular stimulation signals can modulate tonic levels of neurotransmitters. The vestibular stimulation can be applied to the subject to stimulate release of dopamine neurotransmitter at predetermined or dynamically determined conditions, for example in response to a behavior of the subject or an absence of a behavior of the subject. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can be targeted by the vestibular simulation system to stimulate different areas of the autonomic nervous system with various intensities to stimulate release of various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of a plurality of neurotransmitters. Each of these various targeted neurotransmitters or combinations of neurotransmitters can be released in a controlled or targeted amount, proportion, or concentration using the vestibular stimulation signal waves. The intensities of the vestibular stimulation signal waves can be dynamically modified to adjust one or more of: a type, a combination of types, an amount, a proportion, or a concentration, or any combination thereof, of neurotransmitters. The vestibular stimulation signal may stimulate dopamine release to reinforce positive or desirable behaviors of the subject or user and inhibit negative or undesirable behaviors of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation signal may stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters may comprise one or more of: dopamine, norepinephrine, GABA, acetylcholine, or serotonin, or any combination thereof. The vestibular stimulation signal may stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters associated with one or more addictive substances to achieve controlled release.

[0150] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to treat or address post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals that may generate guided movements of one or both eyes of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to target different areas of the brain of the subject associated with generating one or more neurotransmitters associated with PTSD. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to selectively weaken memory storage or recall of a traumatic event of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled intensities or magnitudes of vestibular stimulation signals to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to stimulate guided eye movements, tactile sensation sensory perception, and audio sensory perception by the subject or user. The targeted areas can be stimulated at a controlled intensity or magnitude based at least in part on the controlled combinations of waveform types, or the controlled intensity or magnitude of the vestibular stimulation signals, or both. The vestibular stimulation system can generate controlled vestibular stimulation signals that target one or more areas of the brain. The one or more areas of the brain that may be stimulated in a targeted manner by the vestibular stimulation system comprise the hippocampus. The vestibular stimulation signals can stimulate the autonomic nervous system of a subject or user to control eye movements of the subject or user, to stimulate a predetermined pattern or dynamic pattern of eye movement. The vestibular stimulation signal may stimulate release of one or more neurotransmitters associated with memory storage for treatment of PTSD.

[0151] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to improve or modulate vision of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate vestibular stimulation signals that may modify or modulate a vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) of one or both eyes of the subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can be used to generate controlled vestibular stimulation signal waves that are complex and independent from each other. The vestibular stimulation signal can comprise complex electrical signals or vibration signals, or both electrical signals and vibration signals. The vestibular stimulation signal waves can comprise controlled combinations of sine waveforms, square waveforms, and pulsing waveforms. The vestibular stimulation system can control the vestibular stimulation signal to dynamically modulate and modify the VOR to improve gaze stabilization and visual clarity of one or both eyes of a subject or user. The vestibular stimulation system can generate predetermined or dynamically selected controlled combinations of waveform types to stimulate targeted areas of the vestibular system of the brain of a subject or user to recalibrate the VOR,Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601 reduce visual drift, and improve focus. The vestibular stimulation system could treat or address conditions involving poor eye tracking, reading difficulties, or general enhancement of visual acuity and stability during dynamic environments.Epidermis Stimulation

[0152] In some embodiments, disclosed herein is a system for stimulating the epidermis of a subject. In some embodiments, the system can comprise one or more electrode arrays. In some embodiments, the one or more electrode arrays can comprise a plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, each of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits can comprise a first electrode. In some embodiments, the first electrode can be configured to output electrical signals. In some embodiments, each of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits can comprise a second electrode. In some embodiments, the second electrode can be configured to receive electrical signals from the first electrode. In some embodiments, the second electrode can be configured to receive electrical signals from the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the second electrode can be configured to receive electrical signals from the first electrode and receive electrical signals from the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the system can comprise a processor communicatively coupled to the one or more electrode arrays.

[0153] In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to predict faradaic reactions of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to predict faradaic reactions of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits based on at least in part the electrical signals received by the second electrode. In some embodiments, the processor can comprise a controller. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to adjust the electrical signals of the first electrode. In some embodiments, the processor can comprise a controller. In some embodiments, the controller can be configured to adjust the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the controller can be further configured to reduce the electrical signals of the first electrode. In some embodiments, the controller can be further configured to reduce the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to detect current flowing through one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits. In someAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 embodiments, the processor can be further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to the ground. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to each other. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value based on the detected voltage. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value based on the detected current. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value based on the predicted faradaic reactions. In some embodiments, the maximum value of current density can be 1mA over an area. In some embodiments, the area can comprise an area of each individual electrode cell of the plurality of individual electrode cell subunits.

[0154] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to determine resistance of the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an indication. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is above a dynamic threshold. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is above a predetermined threshold. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is below a dynamic threshold. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is below a predetermined threshold. In some embodiments, the indication can comprise notification. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits are not properly contacting the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits has been degraded. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits has been damaged. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that an area of the epidermis of the subject is susceptible to irritation. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that the system is not properly functioning. In some embodiments, the notification can comprise a notification that the system should be adjusted. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to prevent activation of one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cellAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 subunits. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to prevent activation of the one or more electrode arrays.

[0155] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to distribute electrical current to a subset of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.

[0156] Additionally, disclosed herein in yet another embodiment is a method for performing galvanic vestibular stimulation on a subject. In some embodiments, the method can comprise applying three or fewer electrode arrays to the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, each electrode array can comprise a plurality of individually addressable electrode cells. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise processing feedback data received from the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise mapping resistance of each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise controlling the current output by each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise controlling the current output by each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells based at least in part on the mapped resistance.

[0157] In some embodiments, disclosed herein is an electrode array. In some embodiments, the electrode array comprises a plurality of individually addressable electrode “cells”. In some embodiments, the electrode array can comprise one electrode cell, two electrode cells, three electrode cells, four electrode cells, five electrode cells, six electrode cells, seven electrode cells, eight electrode cells, nine electrode cells, ten electrode cells, eleven electrode cells, twelve electrode cells, thirteen electrode cells, fourteen electrode cells, fifteen electrode cells, sixteen electrode cells, seventeen electrode cells, eighteen electrode cells, nineteen electrode cells, twenty electrode cells, twenty-one electrode cells, twenty-two electrode cells, twenty-three electrode cells, twenty-four electrode cells, twenty-five electrode cells, twenty-six electrode cells, twenty-seven electrode cells, twenty-eight electrode cells, twenty-nine electrode cells, thirty electrode cells, thirty-one electrode cells, thirty-two electrode cells, thirty-three electrode cells, thirty-four electrode cells, thirty-five electrode cells, thirty-six electrode cells, thirty-seven electrode cells, thirty-eight electrode cells, thirty-nine electrode cells, forty electrode cells, forty- one electrode cells, forty-two electrode cells, forty -three electrode cells, forty-four electrode cells, forty-five electrode cells, forty-six electrode cells, forty-seven electrode cells, forty-eight electrode cells, forty-nine electrode cells, fifty electrode cells, fifty-one electrode cells, fifty-two electrode cells, fifty-three electrode cells, fifty-four electrode cells, fifty-five electrode cells, fifty-six electrode cells, fifty-seven electrode cells, fifty-eight electrode cells, fifty-nine electrodeAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 cells, sixty electrode cells, sixty-one electrode cells, sixty-two electrode cells, sixty-three electrode cells, sixty-four electrode cells, sixty-five electrode cells, sixty-six electrode cells, sixty-seven electrode cells, sixty-eight electrode cells, sixty-nine electrode cells, seventy electrode cells, seventy-one electrode cells, seventy-two electrode cells, seventy-three electrode cells, seventy-four electrode cells, seventy-five electrode cells, seventy-six electrode cells, seventy-seven electrode cells, seventy-eight electrode cells, seventy-nine electrode cells, eighty electrode cells, eighty-one electrode cells, eighty-two electrode cells, eighty-three electrode cells, eighty-four electrode cells, eighty-five electrode cells, eighty-six electrode cells, eighty-seven electrode cells, eighty-eight electrode cells, eighty-nine electrode cells, ninety electrode cells, ninety-one electrode cells, ninety-two electrode cells, ninety-three electrode cells, ninety-four electrode cells, ninety-five electrode cells, ninety-six electrode cells, ninety-seven electrode cells, ninety-eight electrode cells, ninety-nine electrode cells, one hundred electrode cells, or more than one hundred electrode cells.

[0158] In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be individually addressable. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be communicatively connected to a processor. In some embodiments, the processor can comprise a controller. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be communicatively connected to one or more other electrode cells of the electrode array. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be electrically isolated from every other cell. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be electrically isolated using an insulating material between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the insulating material can comprise a ceramic material, a glass material, a silicone material, a rubber material, a polymer material such as PFV, polystyrene such as PEDOT:PSS, polyethylene, polycarbonate, or any combination thereof, or another insulating material. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be current-controlled. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be current-controlled by the processor. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be current-controlled by the controller. In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be current-controlled and electrically isolated from every other electrode cell.

[0159] In some embodiments, each electrode cell can be semi-isolated. In some embodiments, subsets of two or more electrode cells can be communicatively coupled. In some embodiments, subsets of two electrode cells, three electrode cells, four electrode cells, five electrode cells, six electrode cells, seven electrode cells, eight electrode cells, nine electrode cells, ten electrode cells, eleven electrode cells, twelve electrode cells, thirteen electrode cells, fourteen electrode cells, fifteen electrode cells, sixteen electrode cells, seventeen electrode cells, eighteen electrode cells, nineteen electrode cells, twenty electrode cells, twenty-one electrode cells, twenty-two electrode cells, twenty-three electrode cells, twenty-four electrode cells, twenty-five electrodeAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 cells, twenty-six electrode cells, twenty-seven electrode cells, twenty-eight electrode cells, twenty-nine electrode cells, thirty electrode cells, thirty-one electrode cells, thirty-two electrode cells, thirty-three electrode cells, thirty-four electrode cells, thirty-five electrode cells, thirty-six electrode cells, thirty-seven electrode cells, thirty-eight electrode cells, thirty-nine electrode cells, forty electrode cells, forty-one electrode cells, forty-two electrode cells, forty-three electrode cells, forty-four electrode cells, forty-five electrode cells, forty-six electrode cells, forty-seven electrode cells, forty-eight electrode cells, forty-nine electrode cells, fifty electrode cells, fifty-one electrode cells, fifty-two electrode cells, fifty-three electrode cells, fifty-four electrode cells, fifty-five electrode cells, fifty-six electrode cells, fifty-seven electrode cells, fiftyeight electrode cells, fifty-nine electrode cells, sixty electrode cells, sixty-one electrode cells, sixty-two electrode cells, sixty-three electrode cells, sixty-four electrode cells, sixty-five electrode cells, sixty-six electrode cells, sixty-seven electrode cells, sixty-eight electrode cells, sixty-nine electrode cells, seventy electrode cells, seventy-one electrode cells, seventy-two electrode cells, seventy-three electrode cells, seventy-four electrode cells, seventy-five electrode cells, seventy-six electrode cells, seventy-seven electrode cells, seventy-eight electrode cells, seventy-nine electrode cells, eighty electrode cells, eighty-one electrode cells, eighty-two electrode cells, eighty-three electrode cells, eighty-four electrode cells, eighty-five electrode cells, eighty-six electrode cells, eighty-seven electrode cells, eighty-eight electrode cells, eighty- nine electrode cells, ninety electrode cells, ninety-one electrode cells, ninety-two electrode cells, ninety-three electrode cells, ninety-four electrode cells, ninety-five electrode cells, ninety-six electrode cells, ninety-seven electrode cells, ninety-eight electrode cells, ninety-nine electrode cells, one hundred electrode cells, or more than one hundred electrode cells can be electrically coupled while being electrically isolated from other electrode cells in the electrode array.

[0160] In some embodiments, the electrode array can comprise a plurality of current-controlled and electrically isolated electrode cells. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of electrode cells can contact a different area of the epidermis of a subject. In some embodiments, groups of electrode cells can each contact different areas of the epidermis of a subject. In some embodiments, the contact point of one or more electrode cells can comprise a different resistance. In some embodiments, the contact point of one or more electrode cells can comprise the same resistance. In some embodiments, the contact point can comprise a point on an epidermis of a subject. In some embodiments, the epidermis contact point of a first electrode cell can have lower resistance than the epidermis contact point of a second electrode cell. In some embodiments, current in each of the one or more electrode cells can be the same. In some embodiments, the processor can adjust the current in one or more electrode cells. In someAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 embodiments, the current can be evenly distributed amongst the one or more electrode cells by the processor.

[0161] In some embodiments, each isolated electrode cell can comprise a dome, bubble, or blister-shaped chamber. In some embodiments, the dome, bubble, or blister-shaped chamber can contain material. In some embodiments, the material can comprise a conductive material such as a salt bridge, an ion solution, or a hydrogel. In some embodiments, each isolated electrode cell can comprise a gel. In some embodiments, the gel can comprise an ion-rich gel. In some embodiments, the gel can comprise a hydrogel.

[0162] In some embodiments, each isolated electrode cell can comprise a first wire. In some embodiments, the first wire can be surrounded by the gel. In some embodiments, the first wire can be embedded within the gel. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise metal. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise a metal alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise copper or a copper alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise silver or a silver alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise gold or gold alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise tungsten or a tungsten alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise platinum or a platinum alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise nickel or a nickel alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise carbon or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the material of the first wire can comprise silver chloride. In some embodiments, the first wire can facilitate charge transfer of electrons to ions. In some embodiments, the first wire can facilitate charge transfer of ions to electrons.

[0163] In some embodiments, each isolated electrode cell can comprise a second wire. In some embodiments, the second wire can be surrounded by the gel. In some embodiments, the second wire can be embedded within the gel. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise metal. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise a metal alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise copper or a copper alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise silver or a silver alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise gold or gold alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise tungsten or a tungsten alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise platinum or a platinum alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise nickel or a nickel alloy. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise carbon or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the material of the second wire can comprise silver chloride.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0164] In some embodiments, the second wire can detect the activity of the first wire. In some embodiments, the second wire can measure the electrical potential of the first wire. In some embodiments, the second wire can monitor the electrode potential of the first wire. In some embodiments, the second wire can detect the electrode potential at the charge-transfer interface of the first wire. In some embodiments, the charge-transfer interface can comprise the area where the first wire contacts the conductive material. In some embodiments, the charge-transfer interface can comprise the area where the first wire contacts the salt bridge, ion solution, or gel. In some embodiments, the charge-transfer interface can comprise the area where the first wire contacts the ion-rich gel such as hydrogel. In some embodiments, the charge-transfer interface can comprise the area where the first wire contacts the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the second wire can measure the electrode potential of the first wire within each individual electrode cell of the plurality of electrode cells.

[0165] In some embodiments, the first wire, the second wire, or both can be communicatively coupled with the processor. In some embodiments, the processor can comprise a controller. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to receive data from the first wire, from the second wire, or both. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to output instructions to the first wire, the second wire, or both. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to control the second wire’s monitoring of the first wire. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to control the frequency of the second wire’s monitoring of the first wire. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to control the duration of the second wire’s monitoring of the first wire. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to control the duration and frequency of the second wire’s monitoring of the first wire. In some embodiments, the processor can send a command for the second wire to measure the first wire’s electrode potential. In some embodiments, the measurement of the first wire’s electrode potential comprises a measurement of each electrode cell’s electrode potential.

[0166] In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to estimate Faradaic reactions of each electrode cell. In some embodiments, the estimation of Faradaic reactions can comprise an estimation of one or more characteristics of the Faradaic reactions. In some embodiments, the one or more estimated characteristics of the Faradaic reactions can comprise a rate of the Faradaic reactions, a number of the Faradaic reactions, or a frequency of the Faradaic reactions, or any combination thereof for each electrode cell of the plurality of electrode cells in the electrode arrays. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to estimate the characteristics of the Faradaic reactions based at least in part of the input data comprising the electrode potential of the first wire. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to estimate the characteristics of the Faradaic reactions based at least in part on the measurementsAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 of the second wire. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to estimate the likelihood of undesirable Faradaic reactions. In some embodiments, the processor can be configured to predict the occurrence of Faradaic reactions in real time.

[0167] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to adjust the functionality of the one or more electrode cells. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to estimate that one or more electrode cells have a high electrode potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to estimate that one or more electrode cells have a greater likelihood of undesirable Faradaic reactions based on the estimation of the high electrode potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to modify the electrical current flowing through the first wire of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to modify the electrical current flowing through the second wire of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to modify the electrical current flowing through the first wire and the second wire of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate values comprising a range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to retrieve from a database values comprising a range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to restrict current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the first wire is within the range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to restrict current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the second wire is within the range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the range of electrical potential can comprise the water window for electrochemical hydrolysis. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to restrict current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the first wire and the second wire are both within the range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to increase current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the first wire is within the range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to increase current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the second wire is within the range of electrical potential. In some embodiments, the range of electrical potential can comprise the water window for electrochemical hydrolysis. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to increase current flow to the first wire, the second wire, or both, until the electrical potential of the first wire and the second wire are both within the range of electrical potential.

[0168] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of current flow of an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated rate of Faradaic reactionsAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of current flow of the first wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated rate of Faradaic reactions of the first wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of current flow of the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated rate of Faradaic reactions of the second wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of current flow of the first wire and the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated rate of Faradaic reactions of the first wire and the second wire in the electrode cell.

[0169] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of quantity of electricity passing through an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated number of Faradaic reactions of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of quantity of electricity passing through the first wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated number of Faradaic reactions of the first wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of quantity of electricity passing through the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated number of Faradaic reactions of the second wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of quantity of electricity passing through the first wire and the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated number of Faradaic reactions of the first wire and the second wire in the electrode cell.

[0170] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of impedance of an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated frequency of Faradaic reactions of the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of impedance of the first wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated frequency of Faradaic reactions of the first wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of impedance of the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated frequency of Faradaic reactions of the second wire in the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate an estimate of impedance of the first wire and the second wire in an electrode cell based at least in part on the estimated frequency of Faradaic reactions of the first wire and the second wire in the electrode cell.

[0171] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to receive data comprising values concerning current flowing through one or more electrode cells. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to store the received data comprising values concerningAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 current flowing through one or more electrode cell in a memory. In some embodiments, the memory can be a remote memory storage. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to communicate over a network to a remote memory storage data comprising the received data comprising values concerning current flowing through one or more electrode cell.

[0172] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to process data comprising values concerning voltage of one or more electrode cells. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to store the received data comprising values concerning voltage of one or more electrode cells in a memory. In some embodiments, the memory can be a remote memory storage. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to communicate over a network to a remote memory storage data comprising the voltage of one or electrode cells. In some embodiments, the voltage of the one or more electrode cells can comprise a voltage relative to a ground. In some embodiments, the voltage of the one or more electrode cells can comprise a voltage relative to a neutral site. In some embodiments, the voltage of the one or more electrode cells can comprise a voltage relative to a different electrode cell of the one or more electrode cells.

[0173] In some embodiments, the processor can further be configured to generate a determination of epidermis electrical resistance for each electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can further be configured to detect a high epidermis electrical resistance or a low epidermis electrical resistance.

[0174] In some embodiments, the processor can further be configured to generate an indication based on the determination of electrical resistance of the epidermis. In some embodiments, the processor can indicate that one or more electrode cells are not making full contact with the epidermis of the subject. In some embodiments, the indication that one or more electrode cells are not making full contact with the epidermis of the subject is based at least in part on the electrical resistance of epidermis at the electrical interface of each of the one or more electrode cells. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to generate values indicative of a resistance range for the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to retrieve from memory values indicative of a resistance range for the electrode cell. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to indicate that one or more electrode cells have been damaged or degraded. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to indicate that one or more areas of the epidermis may be more susceptible to irritation. In some embodiments, the one or more areas of the epidermis comprise can be areas contacted by the one or more electrode cells.

[0175] In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured to monitor data from the one or more electrode cells. In some embodiments, the processor can be further configured toAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 make live adjustments to the electrode arrays. In some embodiments, the live adjustments can comprise changing the distribution of current across the plurality of electrode cells comprising the one or more electrode arrays.EXAMPLES

[0176] The following examples are provided to further illustrate some embodiments of the present disclosure, but are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure; it will be understood by their exemplary nature that other procedures, methodologies, or techniques known to those skilled in the art may alternatively be used.

[0177] In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used to modify sleep. In some embodiments, the vestibular stimulation system can be used for decreasing a time it takes to fall asleep and increase an amount of deep (slow-wave) sleep across a night through matching the respiratory rate while entraining it to reduce variability. For example, users can use the vestibular stimulation system to optimize their sleep, through choosing to have a “memory consolidation night” where REM sleep is encouraged, a “recovery night” where deep sleep is reinforced, or set sleep stage schedules to combat jet lag or ensure they will wake up refreshed at a specific time.EXAMPLE 1: MODULATION MODE

[0178] FIG. 13 illustrates an example of a modulation mode utilizing both entrainment and phase reset. The stimulation (shown in the second-to-top graph) spikes in amplitude, inducing a phase reset. The green line in the top graph shows respiration. The red line in the top graph shows heart rate. The example demonstrates how alterations in modulation modes, including waveform frequency and amplitude, can influence physiological parameters.EXAMPLE 2: WAVE PATTERNS

[0179] FIGs. 14A and 14B illustrate an example of wave patterns that are received through sensors by the vestibular stimulation system. The wave patterns illustrated in FIGs. 14A and 14B are also be output by the vestibular stimulation system, in some cases to achieve synchronization and entrainment.EXAMPLE 3: CURRENT-CONTROLLED ELECTRODES

[0180] FIG. 16A illustrates an example of a non-circuit controlled electrode array. In a nonlimiting example, the epidermis can be segmented into nine areas. The electrode array can be modeled as nine resistors in parallel. A single-gel electrode can be placed across the entire surface of the epidermis. The nine areas of the epidermis can contact an equipotential surface. For example, one area can have a substantially lower resistance, and as a result can facilitate the bulk of the current flow, as seen in the top-right area of FIG. 16A. For example, the total currentAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 flow can be 9 mA. For example, there is a high max current density of 8 mA / area. This can result in, for example, high irritation at that area of the epidermis.

[0181] FIG. 16B illustrates an example of a circuit-controlled individually addressable electrode array. For example, a single-gel electrode can be divided into nine individual electrode cells. Each individual electrode cell can correspond to its own area of the epidermis, or resistor. The electrode cells can be subject to current-control and electrical isolation. For example, the total current flow can be 9 mA. For example, each area can facilitate an amount of current specified by a processor. Even distribution as shown in FIG. 16B can limit the maximum current density to 1 mA / area. This can, for example, reduce localized nerve stimulation. This can limit the maximum current. For example, the current density can be limited to a value that is below a threshold of pain. The current can be reduced as well as distributed as shown in FIG. 16B.Computing Systems

[0182] Referring to FIG. 15, a block diagram is shown depicting an exemplary machine that includes a computer system 1500 (e.g., a processing or computing system) within which a set of instructions can execute for causing a device to perform or execute any one or more of the aspects and / or methodologies for static code scheduling of the present disclosure. The components in FIG. 15 are examples only and do not limit the scope of use or functionality of any hardware, software, embedded logic component, or a combination of two or more such components implementing particular embodiments.

[0183] Computer system 1500 may include one or more processors 1501, a memory 1503, and a storage 1508 that communicate with each other, and with other components, via a bus 1540. The bus 1540 may also link a display 1532, one or more input devices 1533 (which may, for example, include a keypad, a keyboard, a mouse, a stylus, etc.), one or more output devices 134, one or more storage devices 1535, and various tangible storage media 1536. All of these elements may interface directly or via one or more interfaces or adaptors to the bus 1540. For instance, the various tangible storage media 1536 can interface with the bus 1540 via storage medium interface 1526. Computer system 1500 may have any suitable physical form, including but not limited to one or more integrated circuits (ICs), printed circuit boards (PCBs), mobile handheld devices (such as mobile telephones or PDAs), laptop or notebook computers, distributed computer systems, computing grids, or servers.

[0184] Computer system 1500 includes one or more processor(s) 1501 (e.g., central processing units (CPUs) or general-purpose graphics processing units (GPGPUs)) that carry out functions. Processor(s) 1501 optionally contains a cache memory unit 1502 for temporary local storage of instructions, data, or computer addresses. Processor(s) 1501 are configured to assist in executionAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 of computer readable instructions. Computer system 1500 may provide functionality for the components depicted in FIG. 15 as a result of the processor(s) 1501 executing non-transitory, processor-executable instructions embodied in one or more tangible computer-readable storage media, such as memory 1503, storage 1508, storage devices 1535, and / or storage medium 1536. The computer-readable media may store software that implements particular embodiments, and processor(s) 1501 may execute the software. Memory 1503 may read the software from one or more other computer-readable media (such as mass storage device(s) 1535, 1536) or from one or more other sources through a suitable interface, such as network interface 1520. The software may cause processor(s) 1501 to carry out one or more processes or one or more steps of one or more processes described or illustrated herein. Carrying out such processes or steps may include defining data structures stored in memory 1503 and modifying the data structures as directed by the software.

[0185] The memory 1503 may include various components (e.g., machine readable media) including, but not limited to, a random access memory component (e.g., RAM 1504) (e.g., static RAM (SRAM), dynamic RAM (DRAM), ferroelectric random access memory (FRAM), phasechange random access memory (PRAM), etc.), a read-only memory component (e.g., ROM 1505), and any combinations thereof. ROM 1505 may act to communicate data and instructions unidirectionally to processor(s) 1501, and RAM 1504 may act to communicate data and instructions bidirectionally with processor(s) 1501. ROM 1505 and RAM 1504 may include any suitable tangible computer-readable media described below. In one example, a basic input / output system 1506 (BIOS), including basic routines that help to transfer information between elements within computer system 1500, such as during start-up, may be stored in the memory 1503.

[0186] Fixed storage 1508 is connected bidirectionally to processor(s) 1501, optionally through storage control unit 1507. Fixed storage 1508 provides additional data storage capacity and may also include any suitable tangible computer-readable media described herein. Storage 1508 may be used to store operating system 1509, executable(s) 1510, data 1511, applications 1512 (application programs), and the like. Storage 1508 can also include an optical disk drive, a solid- state memory device (e.g., flash-based systems), or a combination of any of the above. Information in storage 1508 may, in appropriate cases, be incorporated as virtual memory in memory 1503.

[0187] In one example, storage device(s) 1535 may be removably interfaced with computer system 1500 (e.g., via an external port connector (not shown)) via a storage device interface 1525. Particularly, storage device(s) 1535 and an associated machine-readable medium may provide non-volatile and / or volatile storage of machine-readable instructions, data structures, program modules, and / or other data for the computer system 1500. In one example, softwareAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 may reside, completely or partially, within a machine-readable medium on storage device(s) 1535. In another example, software may reside, completely or partially, within processor(s) 1501

[0188] Bus 1540 connects a wide variety of subsystems. Herein, reference to a bus may encompass one or more digital signal lines serving a common function, where appropriate. Bus 1540 may be any of several types of bus structures including, but not limited to, a memory bus, a memory controller, a peripheral bus, a local bus, and any combinations thereof, using any of a variety of bus architectures. As an example and not by way of limitation, such architectures include an Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, an Enhanced ISA (EISA) bus, a Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus, a Video Electronics Standards Association local bus (VLB), a Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, a PCI-Express (PCI-X) bus, an Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) bus, HyperTransport (HTX) bus, serial advanced technology attachment (SATA) bus, and any combinations thereof.

[0189] Computer system 1500 may also include an input device 1533. In one example, a user of computer system 100 may enter commands and / or other information into computer system 1500 via input device(s) 1533. Examples of an input device(s) 1533 include, but are not limited to, an alpha-numeric input device (e.g., a keyboard), a pointing device (e.g., a mouse or touchpad), a touchpad, a touch screen, a multi-touch screen, a joystick, a stylus, a gamepad, an audio input device (e.g., a microphone, a voice response system, etc.), an optical scanner, a video or still image capture device (e.g., a camera), and any combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the input device is a Kinect, Leap Motion, or the like. Input device(s) 1533 may be interfaced to bus 1540 via any of a variety of input interfaces 1523 (e.g., input interface 1523) including, but not limited to, serial, parallel, game port, USB, FIREWIRE, THUNDERBOLT, or any combination of the above.

[0190] In particular embodiments, when computer system 1500 is connected to network 1530, computer system 1500 may communicate with other devices, specifically mobile devices and enterprise systems, distributed computing systems, cloud storage systems, cloud computing systems, and the like, connected to network 1530. Communications to and from computer system 1500 may be sent through network interface 1520. For example, network interface 1520 may receive incoming communications (such as requests or responses from other devices) in the form of one or more packets (such as Internet Protocol (IP) packets) from network 130, and computer system 1500 may store the incoming communications in memory 1503 for processing. Computer system 1500 may similarly store outgoing communications (such as requests or responses to other devices) in the form of one or more packets in memory 1503 andAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 communicated to network 1530 from network interface 1520. Processor(s) 1501 may access these communication packets stored in memory 1503 for processing.

[0191] Examples of the network interface 1520 include, but are not limited to, a network interface card, a modem, and any combination thereof. Examples of a network 1530 or network segment 1530 include, but are not limited to, a distributed computing system, a cloud computing system, a wide area network (WAN) (e.g., the Internet, an enterprise network), a local area network (LAN) (e.g., a network associated with an office, a building, a campus or other relatively small geographic space), a telephone network, a direct connection between two computing devices, a peer-to-peer network, and any combinations thereof. A network, such as network 1530, may employ a wired and / or a wireless mode of communication. In general, any network topology may be used.

[0192] Information and data can be displayed through a display 1532. Examples of a display 1532 include, but are not limited to, a cathode ray tube (CRT), a liquid crystal display (LCD), a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD), an organic liquid crystal display (OLED) such as a passive-matrix OLED (PMOLED) or active-matrix OLED (AMOLED) display, a plasma display, and any combinations thereof. The display 1532 can interface to the processor(s) 1501, memory 1503, and fixed storage 1508, as well as other devices, such as input device(s) 1533, via the bus 1540. The display 1532 is linked to the bus 1540 via a video interface 1522, and transport of data between the display 1532 and the bus 1540 can be controlled via the graphics control 1521. In some embodiments, the display is a video projector. In some embodiments, the display is a head-mounted display (HMD) such as a VR headset. In further embodiments, suitable VR headsets include, by way of non-limiting examples, HTC Vive, Oculus Rift, Samsung Gear VR, Microsoft HoloLens, Razer OSVR, FOVE VR, Zeiss VR One, Avegant Glyph, Freefly VR headset, and the like. In still further embodiments, the display is a combination of devices such as those disclosed herein.

[0193] In addition to a display 1532, computer system 1500 may include one or more other peripheral output devices 1534 including, but not limited to, an audio speaker, a printer, a storage device, and any combinations thereof. Such peripheral output devices may be connected to the bus 1540 via an output interface 1524. Examples of an output interface 1524 include, but are not limited to, a serial port, a parallel connection, a USB port, a FIREWIRE port, a THUNDERBOLT port, and any combinations thereof.

[0194] In addition, or as an alternative, computer system 1500 may provide functionality as a result of logic hardwired or otherwise embodied in a circuit, which may operate in place of or together with software to execute one or more processes or one or more steps of one or more processes described or illustrated herein. Reference to software in this disclosure may encompassAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 logic, and reference to logic may encompass software. Moreover, reference to a computer- readable medium may encompass a circuit (such as an IC) storing software for execution, a circuit embodying logic for execution, or both, where appropriate. The present disclosure encompasses any suitable combination of hardware, software, or both.

[0195] Those of skill in the art will appreciate that the various illustrative logical blocks, modules, circuits, and algorithm steps described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, or combinations of both. To clearly illustrate this interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules, circuits, and steps have been described above generally in terms of their functionality.

[0196] The various illustrative logical blocks, modules, and circuits described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general purpose processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but in the alternative, the processor may be any conventional processor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processor may also be implemented as a combination of computing devices, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration.

[0197] The steps of a method or algorithm described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be embodied directly in hardware, in a software module executed by one or more processor(s), or in a combination of the two. A software module may reside in RAM memory, flash memory, ROM memory, EPROM memory, EEPROM memory, registers, hard disk, a removable disk, a CD-ROM, or any other form of storage medium known in the art. An exemplary storage medium is coupled to the processor such the processor can read information from, and write information to, the storage medium. In the alternative, the storage medium may be integral to the processor. The processor and the storage medium may reside in an ASIC. The ASIC may reside in a user terminal. In the alternative, the processor and the storage medium may reside as discrete components in a user terminal.

[0198] In accordance with the description herein, suitable computing devices include, by way of non-limiting examples, cloud computing platforms, distributed computing platforms, server clusters, server computers, desktop computers, laptop computers, notebook computers, subnotebook computers, netbook computers, and netpad computers.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601

[0199] In some embodiments, the computing device includes an operating system configured to perform executable instructions. The operating system is, for example, software, including programs and data, which manages the device’s hardware and provides services for execution of applications. Those of skill in the art will recognize that suitable server operating systems include, by way of non -limiting examples, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD®, Linux, Apple® Mac OS X Server®, Oracle® Solaris®, Windows Server®, and Novell® NetWare®. Those of skill in the art will recognize that suitable personal computer operating systems include, by way of nonlimiting examples, Microsoft® Windows®, Apple® Mac OS X®, UNIX®, and UNIX-like operating systems such as GNU / Linux®. In some embodiments, the operating system is provided by cloud computing. Those of skill in the art will also recognize that suitable mobile smartphone operating systems include, by way of non-limiting examples, Nokia® Symbian® OS, Apple® iOS®, Research in Motion® BlackBerry OS®, Google® Android®, Microsoft® Windows Phone® OS, Microsoft® Windows Mobile® OS, Linux®, and Palm® WebOS®.Non-transitory Computer Readable Storage Medium

[0200] In some embodiments, the platforms, systems, media, and methods disclosed herein include one or more non-transitory computer readable storage media encoded with a program including instructions executable by the operating system of an optionally networked computing device. In further embodiments, a computer readable storage medium is a tangible component of a computing device. In still further embodiments, a computer readable storage medium is optionally removable from a computing device. In some embodiments, a computer readable storage medium includes, by way of non-limiting examples, CD-ROMs, DVDs, flash memory devices, solid state memory, magnetic disk drives, magnetic tape drives, optical disk drives, distributed computing systems including cloud computing systems and services, and the like. In some cases, the program and instructions are permanently, substantially permanently, semipermanently, or non-transitorily encoded on the media.Computer Programs

[0201] In some embodiments, the platforms, systems, media, and methods disclosed herein include at least one computer program, or use of the same. A computer program includes a sequence of instructions, executable by one or more processor(s) of the computing device’s CPU, written to perform a specified task. Computer readable instructions may be implemented as program modules, such as functions, objects, Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), computing data structures, and the like, which perform particular tasks or implement particularAtorney Docket No. 68445-701601 abstract data types. In light of the disclosure provided herein, those of skill in the art will recognize that a computer program may be written in various versions of various languages.

[0202] The functionality of the computer readable instructions may be combined or distributed as desired in various environments. In some embodiments, a computer program comprises one sequence of instructions. In some embodiments, a computer program comprises a plurality of sequences of instructions. In some embodiments, a computer program is provided from one location. In other embodiments, a computer program is provided from a plurality of locations. In various embodiments, a computer program includes one or more software modules. In various embodiments, a computer program includes, in part or in whole, one or more web applications, one or more mobile applications, one or more standalone applications, one or more web browser plug-ins, extensions, add-ins, or add-ons, or combinations thereof.Software Modules

[0203] In some embodiments, the platforms, systems, media, and methods disclosed herein include software, server, and / or database modules, or use of the same. In view of the disclosure provided herein, software modules are created by techniques known to those of skill in the art using machines, software, and languages known to the art. The software modules disclosed herein are implemented in a multitude of ways. In various embodiments, a software module comprises a file, a section of code, a programming object, a programming structure, a distributed computing resource, a cloud computing resource, or combinations thereof. In further various embodiments, a software module comprises a plurality of files, a plurality of sections of code, a plurality of programming objects, a plurality of programming structures, a plurality of distributed computing resources, a plurality of cloud computing resources, or combinations thereof. In various embodiments, the one or more software modules comprise, by way of non-limiting examples, a web application, a mobile application, a standalone application, and a distributed or cloud computing application. In some embodiments, software modules are in one computer program or application. In other embodiments, software modules are in more than one computer program or application. In some embodiments, software modules are hosted on one machine. In other embodiments, software modules are hosted on more than one machine. In further embodiments, software modules are hosted on a distributed computing platform such as a cloud computing platform. In some embodiments, software modules are hosted on one or more machines in one location. In other embodiments, software modules are hosted on one or more machines in more than one location.Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601Databases

[0204] In some embodiments, the platforms, systems, media, and methods disclosed herein include one or more databases, or use of the same. In view of the disclosure provided herein, those of skill in the art will recognize that many databases are suitable for storage and retrieval of information, for example customer incident data. In various embodiments, suitable databases include, by way of non-limiting examples, relational databases, non-relational databases, object oriented databases, object databases, entity-relationship model databases, associative databases, XML databases, document oriented databases, and graph databases. Further non-limiting examples include SQL, PostgreSQL, MySQL, Oracle, DB2, Sybase, and MongoDB. In some embodiments, a database is Internet-based. In further embodiments, a database is web-based. In still further embodiments, a database is cloud computing-based. In a particular embodiment, a database is a distributed database. In other embodiments, a database is based on one or more local computer storage devices.

[0205] While preferred embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present disclosure may be employed in practicing the present disclosure. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present disclosure and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

Attorney Docket No. 68445-701601CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A vestibular stimulation system comprising: three or fewer sets of electrodes configured to each independently generate one or more realtime sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface comprising a processor configured to independently control electrical signals generated by each set of electrodes of the three or fewer sets of electrodes, wherein the one or more real-time sensations are generated by the electrical signals.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more real-time sensations of movement comprise one or more real-time sensations of angular rotation.

3. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the three or fewer sets of electrodes comprise one set of electrodes at a left mastoid of a subject, one set of electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject, and one set of electrodes at an area of the subject’s upper body.

4. The system of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the control interface is further configured to generate: a left side rotational vector comprising a left side standardized activation rotational vector, a left side standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both; and a right side rotational vector comprising a right side standardized activation rotational vector, or a right side standardized inhibition rotational vector, or both.

5. The system of claim 4, wherein the control interface is further configured to map together the left side rotational vector and the right side rotational vector using a combination function.

6. The system of claim 4 or 5, wherein the left side rotational vector is based on stimulation of the set of electrodes at the left mastoid of the subject, and the right side rotational vector is based on stimulation of the set of electrodes on the right mastoid of the subject.

7. The system of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the controller is further configured to generate fluid dynamic simulations of the inner ear in response to one or more simulated movements.Atorney Docket No. 68445-7016018. The system of claim 7, wherein the one or more simulated movements comprise one or more simulated rotations.

9. The system of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the electrodes comprise microneedle electrodes.

10. The system of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the electrodes comprise PEDOT:PSS microneedle electrodes.

11. The system of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the electrodes further comprise an ion-replenishing interface.

12. The system of claim 11, wherein the ion-replenishing interface comprises a salt bridge, an ion solution, or a hydrogel.

13. The system of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the electrodes comprise hydrogel microneedle electrodes.

14. The system of claim 13, wherein the hydrogel microneedle electrodes comprise dissolved PEDOT, PEDOT fragments, silver nanoparticles, or any combination thereof.

15. The system of claim 13 or 14, wherein the hydrogel microneedle electrodes contain chloride ions.

16. The system of any one of claims 13-15, wherein the hydrogel microneedle electrodes are comprised of silver or silver alloy.

17. The system of any one of claims 13-15, wherein the hydrogel microneedle electrodes are coated, wherein the coating comprises silver chloride.

18. An ultrasonic vestibular stimulation system comprising: one or more ultrasonic transducers configured to each independently generate one or more real-time sensations of movement in all axes; and a control interface comprising a processor configured to independently control acoustic wave signals generated by each ultrasonic transducer of the one or more ultrasonic transducers, wherein the one or more real-time sensations are generated by the acoustic wave signals.

19. The system of claim 18, wherein the movement comprises angular movement.Atorney Docket No. 68445-70160120. The system of claim 19, wherein the one or more ultrasonic transducers comprise an ultrasonic phased array.

21. The system of any one of claims 18-20, wherein the acoustic wave signals generated by the one or more ultrasonic transducers are configured to exert one or more forces on the otolith organs of a subject.

22. The system of any one of claims 18-21, further comprising an imaging device configured to image the otolith organs of the subject.

23. The system of any one of claims 18-22, wherein the one or more ultrasonic transducers comprise the imaging device.

24. The system of any one of claims 18-23, wherein the system is configured to simultaneously image the otolith organs of the subject and exert the one or more forces on the otolith organs of the subject.

25. The system of any one of claims 18-24, wherein the acoustic wave signals further comprise one or more of harmonic ultrasonic frequencies, counter vibration frequencies, endolymph-focused ultrasonic wave signals, semicircular canal-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or transcranial-focused ultrasonic wave signals, or any combination thereof.

26. The system of any one of claims 18-25, further comprising an impedance matching layer.

27. The system of claim 26, wherein the impedance matching layer comprises a hydrogel microneedle array, wherein the hydrogel microneedle array comprises a metamaterial matching layer.

28. The system of any one of claims 18-27, wherein the one or more ultrasonic transducers comprise non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers.

29. The system of claim 28, wherein the non-crystal piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers comprise PVDF material.

30. A vestibular stimulation system comprising the system of any one of claims 1-17 and the system of any one of claims 18-29.

31. The system of claim 30, wherein the system is configured to generate one or more sensations of angular acceleration.Atorney Docket No. 68445-70160132. The system of claim 30, wherein the system is configured to utilize electrical noise to enhance magnitude of the sensations of the subject.

33. A method of vestibular stimulation comprising: generating two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves configured to create one or more movement sensations to a subject using a vestibular stimulation device or system; and modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves using a controller, wherein the controller is configured to form linear combinations of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.

34. The method of claim 33, further comprising forming the linear combinations of the waves in the yaw, pitch, and roll axes.

35. The method of claim 33 or 34, further comprising modulating the waves for one or more of amplitude axes, frequency axes, creation of accompanying AM waves, or creation of accompanying FM waves, or any combination thereof.

36. The method of any one of claims 33-35, wherein the modulation is triggered by one or more external devices.

37. The method of any one of claims 33-36, further comprising providing closed-loop reactivity modulation using the controller.

38. The method of claim 37, wherein providing closed-loop reactivity modulation comprises triggering the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves intermittently.

39. The method of any one of claims 33-37, further comprising adjusting the modulation based on information received from one or more external devices.

40. The method of any one of claims 33-37, further comprising adjusting the modulation based on one or more physiological functions of a subject.

41. The method of claim 40, further comprising controlling the amplitude, frequency, and phase of the one or more physiological functions of the subject by modulating the intensity, synchronization, and phase resets of the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.Atorney Docket No. 68445-70160142. The method of claim 40 or 41, further comprising triggering one or more physiological reflexes of the subject.

43. The method of any one of claims 40-42, further comprising controlling sleep of the subject by modulating the two or more independent vestibular stimulation signal waves.

44. A method of stimulating a vestibular system of a human user, the method comprising generating one or more acoustic waves applied to the vestibular system of a human user to generate one or more movement sensations in the human user.

45. The method of claim 44, wherein the one or more acoustic waves comprise ultrasonic waves.

46. The method of claim 44 or 45, further comprising modulating the acoustic waves to generate the one or more movement sensations in the human user.

47. The method of any one of claims 44-46, wherein the movement sensations in the human user are created by forming linear combinations of the acoustic waves.

48. An ultrasonic vestibular stimulation device configured to generate one or more movement sensations in a human user by generating one or more acoustic waves directed to a vestibular system of the human user.

49. The device of claim 48, wherein the one or more acoustic waves generated by the device comprise ultrasonic waves.

50. The device of claim 48 or claim 49, wherein the device is in communication with a controller.

51. The device of claim 50, wherein the device is further configured to receive instructions communicated by the controller to modulate the one or more acoustic waves.

52. The device of claim 51, wherein the device is further configured to generate modified acoustic waves in response to input from the controller.

53. The device of claim 52, wherein the device is further configured to generate the one or more acoustic waves independently.

54. A system for stimulating the epidermis of a subject, the system comprising:Atorney Docket No. 68445-701601(a) one or more electrode arrays, wherein the electrode array comprises a plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits, wherein each of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits comprises: (i) a first electrode configured to output electrical signals, and (ii) a second electrode configured to receive electrical signals from the first electrode or the epidermis of the subject, or both; and(b) a processor communicatively coupled to the one or more electrode arrays.

55. The system of claim 54, wherein the processor is configured to predict faradaic reactions of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits based on at least in part the electrical signals received by the second electrode.

56. The system of claim 55, wherein the processor comprises a controller.

57. The system of claim 56, wherein the controller is configured to adjust the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.

58. The system of claim 57, wherein the controller is further configured to reduce the electrical signals of the first electrode based at least in part on the predicted faradaic reactions of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.

59. The system of any one of claims 54-58, wherein the processor is configured to detect current flowing through one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits.

60. The system of claim 59, wherein the processor is further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to the ground.

61. The system of claim 59, wherein the processor is further configured to detect the voltage of one or more of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits in comparison to each other.

62. The system of claims 60 or 61, wherein the processor is further configured to limit the current density to a maximum value based on the detected voltage, the detected current, the predicted faradaic reactions, or any combination thereof.Atorney Docket No. 68445-70160163. The system of claim 62, wherein the maximum value of current density is measured over an area.

64. The system of claim 63, wherein the area comprises an area of each individual electrode cell of the plurality of individual electrode cell subunits.

65. The system of any one of claims 54-64, wherein the processor is further configured to determine resistance of the epidermis of the subject.

66. The system of claim 65, wherein the processor is further configured to generate an indication when the resistance of the epidermis of a subject is above or below a dynamic or predetermined threshold.

67. The system of claim 66, wherein the indication comprises a notification.

68. The system of claim 67, wherein the notification comprises a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits are not properly contacting the epidermis of the subject.

69. The system of claim 67, wherein the notification comprises a notification that the one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits has been degraded or damaged.

70. The system of claim 67, wherein the notification comprises a notification that an area of the epidermis of the subject is susceptible to irritation.

71. The system of claim 67, wherein the notification comprises a notification that the system is not properly functioning or should be adjusted, or both.

72. The system of claim 66, wherein the processor is further configured to prevent activation of one or more of the individually addressable electrode cell subunits of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.

73. The system of claim 66, wherein the processor is further configured to prevent activation of the one or more electrode arrays.

74. The system of any one of claims 54-73, wherein the processor is further configured to distribute electrical current to a subset of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cell subunits.Atorney Docket No. 68445-70160175. A method for performing galvanic vestibular stimulation on a subject, the method comprising:(a) applying three or fewer electrode arrays to the epidermis of the subject, wherein each electrode array comprises a plurality of individually addressable electrode cells;(b) processing feedback data received from the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells;(c) mapping resistance of each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells; and(d) controlling the current output by each individually addressable electrode cell of the plurality of individually addressable electrode cells based at least in part on the mapped resistance.

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