Rechargeable lithium metal battery system

Abstract

In some aspects, the present disclosure provides the use of specific carbon nanostructures as hosts for lithium. In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system comprising the lithium metal electrode. In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides an electrolyte composition for rechargeable energy source. The present disclosure also relates to a method of operating a system for lithium extraction from brine.

Description

Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601RECHARGEABLE LITHIUM METAL BATTERY SYSTEMCROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 719,805, filed November 13, 2024, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 730,330, filed December 10, 2024, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 725,800, filed November 27, 2024, each of which application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirely.BACKGROUND

[0002] Lithium metal batteries are regarded as one of the promising next-generation rechargeable energy source systems, since lithium metal possesses the lowest density and the highest theoretical specific capacity among metallic anode materials. However, despite these advantages, the practical commercialization of lithium metal batteries has been hindered by various engineering challenges, including the instability of the lithium metal surface, uncontrolled dendrite growth, and poor interfacial compatibility with conventional electrolytes. Accordingly, there remains a need for improved electrode structures and electrolyte compositions capable of enhancing the stability, safety, and cycle life of lithium metal batteries.

[0003] Various strategies have been developed to improve the performance of anode materials in lithium batteries. One approach involves using silicon-based anodes instead of conventional carbon-based materials. Silicon-based anodes offer benefits such as faster charging rates.However, a significant drawback of this strategy is the electrochemical behavior of lithium ions. Integrating silicon in the anode increases the potential range at which lithium ions can insert into the anode's structure. For lithium metal batteries, the wider intercalation range is not advantageous, as it requires more energy to facilitate the process. There is a need for new approaches to address the limitations of existing methods for enhancing the performance of anode materials in lithium batteries.

[0004] The lithium metal battery is considered to be the pinnacle of rechargeable energy source systems, as lithium metal is the lightest and has the highest density of electrochemical energy among metals in the periodic table. However, the commercialization of lithium metal batteries has been hindered by engineering challenges - lithium metal electrodes were often plagued with dendrite formation. Dendrite formation can cause concerns including cycling stability and safety. Dendrites can lead to capacity loss of a lithium metal battery through multiple charge discharge cycling when dendrites can break off from the lithium metal electrode and become electrically isolated. Dendrites can also lead to safety concerns because dendrites may short-circuit the battery by penetrating the separator between the negative and positive electrode, ignitingAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601components of the battery by the sudden generation of heat. An important factor that can influence the cycling stability and safety of a lithium metal battery is the chemical composition of the electrolyte.

[0005] In the lithium electrodeposition process from a brine solution, water present in the brine poses challenges. It can react with lithium to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen, which can not only lead to wastage but also create safety concerns. Furthermore, water can interfere with the electrodeposition process by leading to the formation of a solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer on the lithium electrode. Although this layer can shield lithium from direct contact with the electrolyte, preventing potential side reactions, it can degrade over time, reducing the efficiency of the process. To address this, focus has been placed on the dehydration of the brine to achieve water-free lithium deposition, thereby enhancing safety and efficiency of lithium production. This necessitates a combination of innovative membrane technologies, which are crucial to developing efficient and safe methods for lithium extraction from brine. Despite efforts to tackle this issue, there remains an unmet need to overcome inherent limitations.SUMMARY

[0006] In certain aspects, this disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated surface of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and has a multimodal distribution of sizes; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode comprising a transition metal phosphate and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode that isAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 1000 cycles, and wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode, an electrolyte comprising lithium ions, and a negative electrode comprising lithium metal and a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface, and wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity 2-5 mAh / cm2; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

[0007] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode; and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and wherein each of the plurality of carbon particles has a diameter of about 400 nm to about 1400 nm; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and has a multimodal distribution of sizes; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode comprisingAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601a transition metal phosphate and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode that is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state; and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode and a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 1000 cycles, and wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises a positive electrode, an electrolyte comprising lithium ions, and a negative electrode comprising lithium metal and a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2-5 mAh / cm2; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system comprises: a positive electrode; and a negative electrode comprising a network of hard carbon nanosheets; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the network of hard carbon nanosheets and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium intersecting metal on a surface of the network of hard carbon nanosheets from an electrolyte.

[0008] In some embodiments, the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises a shape of intersecting nanosheets. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles comprises hardAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601carbon. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles or the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises amorphous carbon. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles or the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises nitrogen. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of carbon particles or each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets is spherical in morphology. In some embodiments, a diameter of the each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets ranges from about 400 to about 1400 nm. In some embodiments, the diameter of the each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets ranges from about 800 to about 950 nm.

[0009] In some embodiments, each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets has a multimodal distribution of sizes. In some embodiments, the multimodal distribution of sizes comprises a bimodal, a trimodal, or a quadmodal distribution.

[0010] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a transition metal phosphate. In some embodiments, the transition metal phosphate comprises LiFePO4.

[0011] In some embodiments, the positive electrode is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

[0012] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises vanadium-based compounds. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises VxOy. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises VxOyFz. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises at least one of: V6O5Fi9, V3OFH, VO2F, VOF3,VPO4F, LiV3OFn, Mn3V(PO4)6, V6O5FI9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, or VCo3O8.

[0013] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises MxV20s, wherein M comprises one or more of Li, Na, K, and Au.

[0014] In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2.5-3.5 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of about 3 mAh / cm2.

[0015] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 1.8 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 2.2 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.

[0016] In some embodiments, the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g to about 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity higher than 1000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode has an intercalation capacity of about 200 mAh / g to about 300 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode has a lithium metal capacity of about 400 mAh / g to about 800 mAh / g.

[0017] In some embodiments, each carbon particle of the plurality of carbon particles comprises a plurality of indents and a plurality of apexes. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles comprises a flower-like surface structure.

[0018] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system. In some embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises one or more lithium salts or one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts comprise lirthium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI) or lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI). In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiNCh. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is free of carbonate solvents.

[0019] In some embodiments, the cathode has a charge cutoff potential of 4V or less versus Li+ / Li. In some embodiments, the cathode comprises LiFePC or V2O5 with the full cell voltage range is 1.8 V to 4 V. In some embodiments, a current density ranges from about 0.1 mA / cm2to about 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, a current density ranges from about 0.3 mA / cm2to about 0.6 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the current density promotes homogeneous lithium plating and stripping.

[0020] In some embodiments, the system maintains at least 85%, 90%, 95%, or 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles.

[0021] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides a method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising: providing a cell comprising: a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and / or comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals; an electrolyte; and a positive electrode; cycling the battery within a voltage window of 1.8 V to 4 V; and applying a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the present disclosure also provides a method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising: providing a cell comprising: a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and / or comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals; an electrolyte; and a positive electrode; and repeatedly cycling the cell at a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA / cm2.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0022] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles comprises hard carbon. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles comprises amorphous carbon. In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles comprises nitrogen. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of carbon particles is spherical in morphology. In some embodiments, a diameter of the plurality of carbon particles ranges from about 400 to about 1400 nm. In some embodiments, the diameter the plurality of carbon particles ranges from about 800 to about 950 nm.

[0023] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles has a multimodal distribution of sizes. In some embodiments, the multimodal distribution of sizes comprises a bimodal, a trimodal, or a quadmodal distribution.

[0024] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a transition metal phosphate. In some embodiments, the transition metal phosphate comprises LiFePO4.

[0025] In some embodiments, the positive electrode is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

[0026] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises vanadium-based compounds. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises VxOy. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises VxOyFz. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises at least one of: V6O5Fi9, V3OFH, VO2F, VOF3,VPO4F, LiV3OFn, Mn3V(PO4)6, V6O5FI9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, or VCo3O8. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises MxV20s, wherein M comprises one or more of Li, Na, K, and Au.

[0027] In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2.5-3.5 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of about 3 mAh / cm2.

[0028] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 2.2 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 1.8 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0029] In some embodiments, the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g to about 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity higher than 1000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode has an intercalation capacity of about 200 mAh / g to about 300 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the negative electrode has a lithium metal capacity of about 400 mAh / g to about 800 mAh / g.

[0030] In some embodiments, each carbon particle of the plurality of carbon particles comprises a plurality of indents and a plurality of apexes.

[0031] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system. In some embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises one or more lithium salts or one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts comprise lirthium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI) or lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI). In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiNCh. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is free of carbonate solvents.

[0032] In some embodiments, the cathode has a charge cutoff potential of 4V or less versus Li+ / Li. In some embodiments, the cathode comprises LiFePC or V2O5 with the full cell voltage range is 1.8 V to 4 V.

[0033] In some embodiments, a current density ranges from about 0.3 mA / cm2to about 0.6 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system maintains at least 85%, 90%, 95%, or 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles.

[0034] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides an electrolyte composition comprising a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises at least three solvents. In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides an electrolyte composition comprising a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises at least two participating solvents and one or more nonparticipating solvents.

[0035] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a localized high concentration electrolyte (LHCE). In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises one or more participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the participating comprises dissolving or solvating the plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the one or more non-participating solvents comprises a diluent. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises three participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the ether comprises a heterocyclic ether. In some embodiments, the heterocyclic ether comprises a heterocyclic acetal structure. In some embodiments, the heterocyclic acetal structure comprises a five-membered dioxolane ring structure. In someAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises 1,3-dioxolane (DOL). In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises an alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the alkyl ether comprises a dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the dialkyl ether comprises a dimethyl ether (DME). In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a partially fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a partially fluorinated dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises l,l,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE). In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a fully fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a fully fluorinated dialkyl ether.

[0036] In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST).

[0037] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition further comprises one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise NOf.

[0038] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 15 wt% to about 25 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 10 wt% to about 20 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 35 wt% to 55 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0039] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises DOL, DME, or TTE. In some embodiments, the first solvent is DME. In some embodiments, the second solvent is DOL. In some embodiments, the third solvent is TTE.

[0040] In some embodiments, the electrolyte is configured to promote SEI formation on an anode to prevent growth of dendrites. In some embodiments, the electrolyte includes excess solvents to maintain lithium salts in solution and prevent precipitation during cycling.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0041] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents is configured to decrease viscosity and improves conductivity.

[0042] In some aspects, the present disclosure also provides an electrolyte composition comprising a mixture of a localized high concentration electrolyte, a plurality of solvents, and a plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises one or more participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the participating comprises dissolving or solvating the plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the one or more non-participating solvents comprises a diluent. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises three participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

[0043] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the ether comprises a heterocyclic ether. In some embodiments, the heterocyclic ether comprises a heterocyclic acetal structure. In some embodiments, the heterocyclic acetal structure comprises a five-membered dioxolane ring structure. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1,3-dioxolane (DOL). In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises an alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the alkyl ether comprises a dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the dialkyl ether comprises a dimethyl ether (DME). In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a partially fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a partially fluorinated dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises l,l,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE). In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a fully fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a fully fluorinated dialkyl ether.

[0044] In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFSF) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FSF).

[0045] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition further comprises one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiNCh.

[0046] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 15 wt% to about 25Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 10 wt% to about 20 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 35 wt% to 55 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0047] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises DOL, DME, or TTE. In some embodiments, the first solvent is DME. In some embodiments, the second solvent is DOL. In some embodiments, the third solvent is TTE.

[0048] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition is configured to promote SEI formation on an anode to prevent growth of dendrites. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition includes excess solvents to maintain lithium salts in solution and prevent precipitation during cycling. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition is configured to increases viscosity and improves conductivity.

[0049] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system comprising the electrolyte composition disclosed herein, wherein a cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system is at least 99.9% if measured at a cycling rate of a charge rate from about C / 20 to about 10C, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D.

[0050] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system comprising the electrolyte composition disclosed herein, wherein a capacity retention of the rechargeable energy source system is at least 80% if measured over 1000 cycles with a cycling rate of a charge rate from about C / 20 to about 10C, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D.

[0051] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system further comprises a lithium metal negative electrode. In some embodiments, the lithium metal negative electrode comprises a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles is spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system further comprises a positive electrode comprising a redox material as an active material. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises iron phosphate (LiFePCU), V2O5, or lithium nickel manganese cobalt (LiNixMnyCoi-x-yCE).

[0052] In certain aspects, the present disclosure also relates to a method for lithium extraction from brine, comprising: contacting a composite membrane with brine, wherein the composite membrane comprises a polymer layer and a plurality of lithium ion conductive particles, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles have sizes bigger than a thickness of the polymerAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601layer, and wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water and has a Li+conductivity of at least 1.0 * 10'5S / cm; and depositing one or more lithium metal islands onto a conductive substrate by subjecting a plurality of lithium ions from the brine to pass through the composite membrane to the conductive substrate, wherein at least one lithium metal island of the one or more lithium metal islands is smaller than 200 pm in at least one dimension.

[0053] In some embodiments, the one or more lithium metal islands are smaller than 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 pm in at least one dimension. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium metal islands are greater than 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 pm. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium metal islands are deposited with a nucleation site density of greater than 0.04 nucleation sites / mm2. In some embodiments, the nucleation site density is greater than 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation sites / mm2. In some embodiments, the nucleation site density is less than 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation sites / mm2.

[0054] In some embodiments, the depositing is performed substantially free of side reactions caused by water and / or other impurities. In some embodiments, the depositing is performed using a current density of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 mA / cm2.

[0055] In some embodiments, the other impurities comprise oxygen, an organic electrolyte, a surfactant, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, boron, chlorine, SC>42', nitrogen, an alkali metal, an alkali earth metal, or any combination thereof.

[0056] In some embodiments, the conductive substrate comprises copper, silicon, silver, carbon, aluminum, gold, or any combination thereof.

[0057] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a system for comprising a negative electrode, a positive electrode, and the composite membrane disclosed herein, wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water when the system is in operation or not in operation.

[0058] In some embodiments, the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water over at least 100 lithium plating or deposition-stripping cycles of the system.

[0059] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a polymer layer between the negative electrode and the composite membrane. In some embodiments, the polymer layer is configured to prevent the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles in the composite membrane from contacting the negative electrode.

[0060] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a porous filter between the negative electrode and the composite membrane. In some embodiments, the porous filter is configured toAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601prevent the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles in the composite membrane from contacting the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the porous filter is wet with a liquid organic electrolyte. In some embodiments, the composite membrane has a curved form factor.

[0061] In some embodiments, the system is a rechargeable energy source system, and wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water over at least 100, 500, or 1000 charge-discharge cycles of the rechargeable energy source system.In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is anodeless. In some embodiments, the system comprises a lithium metal layer having a thickness greater than 1 pm and a nucleation site density greater than 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation sites / mm2, when the rechargeable energy source system is fully charged.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0062] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such contradictory material.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0063] The novel features of the disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the disclosure are utilized, and the accompanying drawings of which:

[0064] FIG. 1 shows an example microscope image of carbon flowers, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0065] FIG. 2A displays a voltage profile for five formation cycles using the synthesized carbon flower powder in carbon flower | electrolyte | lithium metal, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0066] FIG. 2B displays the measurement results of capacity vs. cycle for the carbon flower powder after the formation process, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0067] FIG. 3A and 3B display the measurement results of discharge capacity (%) vs. cycle for a full cell comprising an LFP (lithium iron phosphate) cathode and an anode utilizing the carbon flower powder, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0068] FIG. 3C displays the measurement results of coulombic efficiency vs. cycle for a full cell comprising an LFP (lithium iron phosphate) cathode and an anode utilizing the carbon flower powder, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0069] FIG. 4 displays the measurement results of discharge capacity (%) vs. cycle for a full cell comprising an LFP (lithium iron phosphate) cathode and an anode utilizing the carbon flower powder, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0070] FIG. 5 shows cycling experiments conducted for the electrochemical cells containing various electrolytes, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0071] FIG. 6 displays a plot of specific capacity (mAh / g) vs. cycle for electrochemical cells utilizing an electrolyte solution described herein, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0072] FIG. 7 displays a plot of discharge capacity (%) vs. cycle for the electrochemical cells utilizing electrolyte solutions described herein, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0073] FIGS. 8A-8B show a schematic of a conductive composite membrane and its use in a system for extracting lithium from brine, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 8A shows a conductive composite membrane. FIG. 8B shows a system for extracting lithium from brine using a conductive composite membrane, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0074] FIGS. 9A-9B show a rechargeable energy source system comprising a conductive composite membrane, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0075] FIG. 10 shows a hydrophobic modification of a surface of a lithium ion conductive particle, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0076] FIGS. 11A-11B show electrolytic cells comprising a conductive composite membrane, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0077] FIGS. 12A-12B show an illustration of a lithium conductive polymer compressing in response to a growing thickness of a lithium metal deposit, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0078] The lithium metal battery is regarded as the pinnacle of rechargeable energy sources due to the exceptional properties of lithium metal. As the lightest metal with the highestAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601electrochemical energy density in the periodic table, lithium metal offers unparalleled potential for energy storage. However, the path to commercializing lithium metal batteries is riddled with complex engineering challenges, primarily stemming from the formation of dendrites on lithium metal electrodes. Dendrite formation poses a myriad of concerns that can significantly impact the battery's cycling stability and safety. Over numerous charge-discharge cycles, dendrites can detach from the lithium metal electrode, leading to a loss of capacity. Furthermore, the penetration of dendrites through the separator between the negative and positive electrodes can result in potential short-circuiting of the battery, leading to the ignition of components due to sudden heat generation, thereby posing significant safety risks.

[0079] To address the challenges of cyclic stability and safety arising from an unstable solidelectrolyte interphase (SEI), the present disclosure provides the use of specific carbon nanostructures as hosts for lithium. In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system comprising the lithium metal electrode. In certain aspects, the lithium metal electrode comprises a plurality of carbon particles comprising a plurality of carbon nanosheets resembling flower petals. In some embodiments, the carbon particles comprise a corrugated surface. In some embodiments, the carbon particles are spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface.

[0080] An important factor that can influence the cycling stability and safety of a lithium metal battery is the chemical composition of the electrolyte. The chemical composition in electrolyte can affect cycling stability and safety because the electrolyte can react with the lithium metal (or the positive electrode) when electrical potential is applied to the battery. The chemical composition in electrolyte can also affect cycling stability and safety because the electrolyte may decompose when electrical potential is applied to the battery even without reacting with another battery component, e.g., when the applied electrical potential can exceed the inherent electrochemical stability window of the electrolyte. In some aspects, the present disclosure provides an electrolyte composition.

[0081] In addition, one strategy for extracting lithium from brine is to electrodeposit lithium ions in brine on a substrate. Lithium can be extracted from brine by applying an electric potential between two electrodes. By applying an electric potential, lithium ions can conduct towards an electrode, where they are reduced to form lithium metal. In electrodeposition systems, water contamination in phases which are in contact with the electrodepositing lithium metal can degrade the lithium metal. Accordingly, it is advantageous to prevent or substantially reduce the presence of water that contacts the lithium metal. The lithium metal can be deposited onto a currently collector from a brine source to form an electrode, which can provide high purityAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601lithium metal deposit that can improve cyclability of a rechargeable energy source integrating such an electrode.

[0082] Thus, improved electrochemical methods are needed for the purification of lithium and other electroactive metals from dilute sources, the production of smooth, high-purity lithium metal and lithium metal alloys, and the preparation of lithium and lithium alloy negative electrodes for lithium metal batteries, while preventing water from contacting the electrodeposited lithium. In some aspects, provided herein are strategies for blocking the transport of water to a working electrode.RECHARGEABLE ENERGY SOURCE SYSTEM WITH LITHIUM METAL ELECTRODE AND COMPLEX ELECTROLYTE

[0083] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides a rechargeable energy source system comprising a positive electrode, a negative electrode, and an electrolyte. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a negative electrode. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a negative current collector. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a positive electrode. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a positive current collector. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise an electrolyte. The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a separator. The negative electrode can comprise a layer of lithium metal.

[0084] The components of the rechargeable energy source system can each constitute a predetermined mass fraction of the rechargeable energy source system. The specific predetermined mass fraction can be determined based on the thickness of the lithium metal (which can be tuned), choice of component materials (e.g., the redox material for the positive electrode, the electrolyte, and the current collectors), and performance requirements (e.g., energy density, safety, etc.).

[0085] The rechargeable energy source system can comprise a packaging. The packaging can be a pouch, coin, prismatic, or cylindrical packaging. Pouch packaging can be extremely light, which increases cell-level energy density. Fabricating pouch cells may involve providing external pressure to the cell, e.g., squeezing into a phone. Cylindrical, coin, and prismatic cells can provide for their own pressure from the casing, and can be swappable or self-contained.

[0086] In some aspects, the rechargeable energy source system can comprise a lithium metal electrode. The rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent of the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for a predetermined number of times. The rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain at most 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 91Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560192, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent of the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for a predetermined number of times. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, or 9000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, 5000, or 10000 times. The cycling can be from 2 V to 4.5 V, from 3 V to 4.5 V, or from 2 V to 3.9 V. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 1C, or 2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 1C, or 2C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, ID, or 2D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, ID, or 2D. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. For example, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain at least 80% of the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 200 cycles from 2 to 4.5 V at a D-rate of at least D / 5 and a D-rate of at least D / 5. In some cases, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain about 97% capacity after 800 cycles. In some cases, there is no dendrite formation or shorting observed during 800, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy storage system can be charged with a substantial constant current, or modulated current.

[0087] A cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system can be at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99%, when measured at a cycling rate of C / 20:D / 20, C / 10:D / 10, C / 5:D / 5, C / 2:D / 2, 0.5C:0.5D, 1C:1D, 2C:2D, 3C:3D, 5C:5D, 6C:6D, 7C:7D, 8C:8D, 9C:9D, or 10C:10D. In some embodiments, a cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system can be at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99%, when measured at a charge rate from about C / 20 to about 10C, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D. A cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system can be at most 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99%, when measured at a cycling rate of C / 20:D / 20, C / 10:D / 10, C / 5:D / 5, C / 2:D / 2, 0.5C:0.5D, 1C:1D, 2C:2D, 3C:3D,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256015C:5D, 6C:6D, 7C:7D, 8C:8D, 9C:9D, or 10C:10D . In some embodiments, a cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system can be at most 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99%, when measured at a charge rate from about C / 20 to about IOC, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D.

[0088] A capacity retention with respect to cyclability of the rechargeable energy source system can be at least 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% when measured over at least 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, or more than 8000 cycles with a cycling rate of at least C / 20:D / 20, C / 10:D / 10, C / 5:D / 5, C / 2:D / 2, 0.5C:0.5D, 1C:1D, 2C:2D, 3C:3D, 5C:5D, 6C:6D, 7C:7D, 8C:8D, 9C:9D, or 10C: 10D. A capacity retention with respect to cyclability of the rechargeable energy source system can be at most 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% when measured over at least 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, or more than 8000 cycles with a cycling rate of C / 20:D / 20, C / 10:D / 10, C / 5:D / 5, C / 2:D / 2, 0.5C:0.5D, 1C:1D, 2C:2D, 3C:3D, 5C:5D, 6C:6D, 7C:7D, 8C:8D, 9C:9D, or 10C:10D.Lithium Metal Electrode

[0089] In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises (1) lithium metal which is the electrochemically active component and (2) a substrate which serves as current lead / collector and as the contact to the external circuit. Lithium metal can be chemically unstable in air, so the contact can be made via another material, e.g., one that is chemically stable in air and in the cell chemistry environment. Another material can be chemically and electrochemically inert so as not to compete with the lithium. In some embodiments, a negative electrode can comprise copper, aluminum, graphite coated copper, nickel, silicon, silver, carbon (e.g., rough-surface carbon, graphene), a lithophilic material, aluminum, gold, a copper alloy (Cu-Zn, Cu-Al, Cu-Sn), or any combination thereof. The negative electrode can comprise a layer of lithium metal deposited thereon. Lithium metal can be deposited on the negative electrode with a thickness of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 pm. Lithium metal can be deposited on the negative electrode with a thickness of at least about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, or 500 pm. Lithium metal can be deposited on the negative electrode with a thickness of at most about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, or 500 pm. Lithium metal can comprise a thickness from 1 to 380 pm, from 1 to 370 pm, from 1 to 360 pm, from 1 to 350 pm, from 1 to 340 pm, from 1 to 330 pm, from 1 to 320 pm, from 1 to 310 pm, from 1 to 300 pm, from 1 to 250 pm, from 1 to 200 pm, from 1 to 150 pm, from 1 to 100 pm, from 1 to 90 pm, from 1 to 80 pm, from 1 to 70 pm, from 1 to 60 pm, from 1 to 50 pm, from 1 to 45 pm, from 1 to 40 pm, from 1 to 35 pm, from 1 to 30 pm, from 1 to 25 pm, from 1 to 20 pm, from 1 to 15 pm, from 1 to 10 pm, or from 1 to 5 pm.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0090] In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode has a specific capacity of greater than about 3500, 3600, 3700, 3750, or 3800 mAh per gram. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode has a specific capacity of less than about 3600, 3700, 3750, or 3800 mAh per gram. The overall capacity of the lithium metal electrode (e.g., in basis of mAh) can be substantially matched with the capacity of the positive electrode. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode has a density of from 0.4 g / cm3to 0.534 g / cm3. In some embodiments, lithium metal electrode has a density of from 0.45 g / cm3to 0.543 g / cm3. In some embodiments, lithium metal electrode has a density of greater than 0.46, 0.47, 0.48, 0.49, 0.50, 0.51, 0.52, or 0.53 g / cm3. In some embodiments, lithium metal electrode has a density of less than 0.46, 0.47, 0.48, 0.49, 0.50, 0.51, 0.52, 0.53, or 0.543 g / cm3.

[0091] In some embodiments, lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 0.1 wt% or at% of nitrogen, oxygen, or both. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 0.1 wt% or at% of boron. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 0.1 wt% or at% of magnesium, aluminum, or both. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 0.1 wt% or at% of non-conductive impurities. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 0.1 wt% lithium alloys. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 1 non-lithium subsurface structure / mm3. In some embodiments, a lithium metal electrode can comprise less than 1 nonlithium crystalline subsurface structure / mm3. Without being bound to a particular theory, it is hypothesized that some impurities in lithium may be capable of forming phases that are distinct from the lithium (e.g., crystallites of LAN or another compound or another element) after cycling experiments. Thus, a sample of lithium metal can be analyzed to detect the presence of impurities in the 3D images of the sample which can show structural impurities in lithium metal.

[0092] A sample of lithium metal can be imaged using monochromatic hard X-rays with energies chosen in the 22-25 keV range. X-rays can be generated using a synchrotron, which can illuminate the entire sample. The X-ray shadow cast by the sample can be converted into visible light using a scintillator. An optical microscope can magnify the image and convert it into digital format. The sample can be rotated, in fractions of degrees, up to 180 degrees to generate -1000 images of the sample. The shadow images can be converted into cross-sectional slides that is stacked together to render a 3D reconstruction of the sample. The 3D reconstruction can reveal structural impurities, e.g., crystallites.

[0093] Lithium metal can comprise less than 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of a non-metallic element. The ppm can be by mass or by count. The ppm can correspond to a basis used for the instrument to detect the non-metallic element. Lithium metal can compriseAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601less than 5 parts-per-million (ppm) of non-metallic elements. In some embodiments, the lithium metal includes no more than 1 ppm of non-metallic elements by mass. The non-metallic element can be nitrogen, boron, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, or fluorine. Non-metallic elements can be present as atomic species, or molecular species (e.g., as LisN, OH, lithium-boron compounds, carbonate, or O2). In some embodiments, a non-metallic element may form resistive material on a surface of the lithium metal. For example, LiCOs or LiOH can create resistive losses for a lithium metal electrode. The presence of a non-metallic element can be detected using, for example, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) or X-ray microtomography. The presence of a non-metallic elements may be detected using focused Ion Beam (FIB) with a secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). The presence of a non-metallic elements may be detected using electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), and / or transmission electron microscopy (TEM), by detecting and mapping lithium via the high ionization crosssection of the shallow Li K-edge that is 10-100 times greater than those of other light elements, e.g., O and F.

[0094] Lithium metal can comprise less than 1500 ppm of a trace metal. Lithium metal can comprise less than 1400, 1300, 1200, 1100, 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of a trace metal. Lithium metal can comprise more than 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 parts-per-billion (ppb) of a trace metal. The ppb can be by mass or by count. The ppb can correspond to a basis used for the instrument to detect the trace element. The trace metal can be aluminum, barium, calcium, chromium, iron, iridium, magnesium, tungsten, zinc, cobalt, or sodium. In some embodiments, a trace element may form an alloy with lithium. An alloy can reduce the capacity of a lithium metal electrode. Lithium metal can comprise less than 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of aluminum. Lithium metal can comprise less than 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of barium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of calcium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of chromium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of iron. Lithium metal can comprise less than 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of iridium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 5,040, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of magnesium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 23, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of tungsten. Lithium metal can comprise less than 0.7, 0.6,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256010.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of zinc. Lithium metal can comprise less than 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of sodium. Lithium metal can comprise less than 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 ppm of cobalt. The presence of trace metals can be detected using, for example, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).

[0095] A lithium metal electrode can comprise a low density of structural impurities, e.g., subsurface structural impurities. Without being bound to a particular theory, elemental or molecular impurities in lithium metal may form phases which are distinct from the lithium upon cycling. When current traverses through the lithium metal, the lithium metal may be heated. Higher temperature may permit impurities to conduct or diffuse in the lithium metal, which can lead to the formation of more stable phases of impurities in the lithium metal (e.g., crystallites). When such structural impurities (phases which have distinct crystal structures, or which have grain boundaries against lithium metal phases in the lithium metal) begin to form, they may continue to grow. Structural impurities can be detected by 3D techniques, e.g., X-ray tomography. Structural impurities may be present on the surface of lithium metal, or it may be present beneath the surface. The structural impurities can provide sites for dendrite nucleation or growth, and may crack the surrounding lithium metal. In some embodiments, the lithium metal can comprise less than 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 structural impurities / mm3. In some embodiments, the lithium metal can comprise less than 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 5,040, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of structural impurities by weight.

[0096] In certain embodiments, the lithium metal negative electrode comprises a plurality of carbon particles that are spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface. Various positive electrodes for the rechargeable energy source system are contemplated herein. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises LiFePC>4(LFP), nickel manganese cobalt (NMC), or a transition metal oxide as an active material.Complex Electrolyte

[0097] In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides an electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises at least three solvents. In other embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises at least one participating solvent and one or more non-participating solvents. In some cases, as used herein, the term “participating” refers to dissolving or solvating the plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the participating solvents comprises a diluent. In some embodiments, the non-participating solvents comprises a diluent. In some embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises at least one semi-participatingAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601solvent. In some embodiments, the participating solvents may provide a high dielectric constant that allows effective salt dissolution, demonstrate chemical stability with respect to other electrolyte components, remain liquid phase across a broad temperature window, and provide efficient ion transport due to relatively low viscosity.

[0098] In some embodiments, the non-participating solvents may exhibit minimal solubility for the salts, thereby preventing disruption of the primary salt-participating solvent coordination structure. The non-participating solvent may be also miscible with the participating solvent so as to form a clear and homogeneous solution without phase separation. In addition, the nonparticipating solvent may not substantially interfere with the structure of the high concentration salt-participating solvent clusters. To preserve the coordination environment, the nonparticipating solvent can have a weak ability to solvate lithium ions, thereby avoiding alteration of the solvation shell. In some embodiments, the non-participating solvent may provide a low viscosity and remain chemically inert and stable toward other electrolyte components under operating conditions.

[0099] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises a localized high-concentration electrolyte (LHCE), a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a plurality of solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a mixture of two solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a mixture of three solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a mixture of four solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a mixture of five solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a mixture of more than six solvents. The plurality of solvents comprises participating solvents and non-participating solvents.

[0100] In some embodiments, the electrolyte compositions disclosed herein may be nonflammable.

[0101] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises one or more participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 participating solvents and at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 participating solvents and at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the one or more nonparticipating solvents comprises a diluent. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises one participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises two participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises three participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises four participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises fiveAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises more than six participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises one nonparticipating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises two nonparticipating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises three nonparticipating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises four nonparticipating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises five nonparticipating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises more than six non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises two participating solvents and one non-participating solvent. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises three participating solvents and one non-participating solvent. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises four participating solvents and one nonparticipating solvent. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises two participating solvents and two non-participating solvents. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises three participating solvents and two non-participating solvents.

[0102] In some embodiments, the localized high-concentration electrolyte (LHCE) comprises a mixture of two solvents. LHCE may promote the formation of an anion-rich surface layer formation on the anode to prevent dendrites which encourages longer cycle life. In some embodiments, a first solvent may solvate a lithium salt, and a second solvent may be miscible with the first solvent and substantially does not solvate the lithium salt. In some embodiments, the lithium salt may be soluble in the first solvent by at least 1, 10, 50, 100, 500, or 1000 times more than in the second solvent. The solubility can be measured by, e.g., the concentration at which the lithium salt is saturated in the solvent at standard temperature and pressure. The solubility can also be measured as the free energy of solvation at standard temperature and pressure.

[0103] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system. These electrolytes are composed of a mixture of organic solvents, lithium salts, and additives. The electrolyte comprising an ether-based solvent system may have lower reduction potentials, indicating a higher tendency to donate electrons during a chemical reaction. As a result, the electrolyte may be less likely to react with the lithium metal in the cell, thereby improving the overall safety and stability of the battery. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise an ether-based solvent comprising 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxy ethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME), polyethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), or a mixture thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (EGDME) based electrolyte. EGDME exhibits good electrochemical performance and is used in lithium batteries as it is particularly efficient in transferring lithium ions from theAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601anode to the cathode during discharging and the other way around during charging. This high conductivity results in increased efficiency of the battery. In some embodiments, the ether-based electrolyte may be tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME) based electrolyte. TEGDME exhibits good thermal stability, high flash point, and high boiling point compared to other ether-based solvents. In some embodiments, the ether-based electrolyte can be poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME) based electrolyte, exhibiting high lithium transference number, high ionic conductivity, and better cycling performance. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be free of carbonate solvents.

[0104] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition may be configured to weakly solvate the lithium salt. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be configured to form an incomplete or a partial solvation shell around a lithium ion. The first solvent can be configured to form an incomplete or a partial solvation shell around a counterion to the lithium ion. The solvation shell can be mediated by an electrostatic interaction, e.g., a partially negative atom of the molecule of the first solvent can attract and coordinate with a lithium ion. A partially positive atom of the molecule of the first solvent can attract and coordinate with the counterion. Without being bound to a particular theory, the weak solvation structure of the first solvent around the lithium ions can allow the lithium ions to easily escape the solvation structure to electroplate onto a lithium metal surface during electrodeposition.

[0105] In some embodiments, the lithium salt may be substantially insoluble in the second solvent. In some embodiments, the lithium salt can be weakly solvated by the second solvent. The second solvent can be miscible with the first solvent, such that, they can form a homogeneous solution when mixed. The second solvent can be configured to lower the viscosity of the electrolyte when mixed with the first solvent. Without being bound to a particular theory, when lithium salts are dissolved in the electrolyte, the solvation structure afforded by the combination of the first solvent and the second solvent can be a weak solvation structure, although, the solvation structure afforded by only the first solvent can be a strong solvation structure.

[0106] The electrolyte can comprise any number of solvents which dissolve the lithium salt. The electrolyte can comprise any number of solvents which does not dissolve the lithium salt. For example, the electrolyte can comprise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more solvents that solvates the lithium salt, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more solvents that substantially does not solvate the lithium salt.

[0107] Various solvents are contemplated herein. In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises an ether-based solvent system. In some embodiments, the plurality of solventsAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601comprises a plurality of ethers. In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises a ring. In some embodiments, the ring comprises a dioxolane ring. In some embodiments, the ether comprises a heterocyclic ether. In some embodiments, heterocyclic ether comprises a heterocyclic acetal structure. In some embodiments, the heterocyclic acetal structure comprises a five-membered dioxolane ring structure. In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises an acetal. In some embodiments, the acetal comprises a heterocyclic acetal. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises 1,3-dioxolane (DOL). In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises an alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a dimethyl ether (DME). In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises a partially fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a partially fluorinated dialkyl ether. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises 1, 1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE). In some embodiments, a solvent of the plurality of solvents comprises a fully fluorinated alkyl ether. In some embodiments, the solvent comprises a fully fluorinated dialkyl ether. Without being bound to a theory, ether-based solvents may promote longer cycling in Li-metal batteries because they have a higher LUMO (lowest unoccupied molecular orbital) in contrast to some carbonate-based electrolytes, which can reduce the frequency of parasitic side reactions at the anode surface and elsewhere in an electrochemical cell. This can allow a more uniform anode surface layer to allow for stable plating and stripping during cycling.

[0108] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a plurality of lithium salts. In some embodiments, the plurality of lithium salts can comprise at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 lithium salts. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents can comprise at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 lithium salts.

[0109] Various lithium salts are contemplated herein. The salts described herein have proper salt solubility and dissociation ability, and are chemically inert toward the electrodes, solvents, and other components of the system. For example, the lithium salts can comprise Li2SO4, Li2COs, LiNOs, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFU, LiBCh, lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB), LiCIC , lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI), lithium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) orAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST). In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises NO3’.

[0110] A lithium salt can comprise lithium 12-hydroxy stearate, lithium acetate, lithium amide, lithium aspartate, lithium azide, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium borohydride, lithium bromide, lithium carbonate, lithium chlorate, lithium chloride, lithium citrate, lithium cyanide, lithium diphenylphosphide, lithium hexafluorogermanate, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium hypochlorite, lithium hypofluorite, lithium metaborate, lithium methoxide, lithium naphthalene, lithium niobate, lithium nitrate, lithium nitrite, lithium oxalate, lithium perchlorate, lithium stearate, lithium succinate, lithium sulfate, lithium sulfide, lithium superoxide, lithium tantalate, lithium tetrachloroaluminate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, lithium tritiate, lithium tungstate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise lithium salts comprising an organic anion selected from the group consisting of trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide (TFSI), N- butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PyruTFSI), trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), l-ethyl-3 - methylimidazolium-bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMI- TFSI), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the catholyte 290 comprises ionic liquid-forming salts dissolved in 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2 dimethoxy ethane (DME), or tetraethyl ene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME). In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise Li2SC>4, Li2CC>3, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiCICU, LiTFSI, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiSbFe, LiAsFe, LiSbFe, LiCFsSOs, Li(CF3SO2)3C, Li(CF3SO2)2N, LiC4F9SO3, LiC104, LiA104, LiAICU, LiAlF4, LiBPh4, LiBioCho, CH3SO3Li, C4F3SO3Li, (CF3SO2)2NLi, LiN(CxF2x+iSO2)(CxF2y+iSO2) (wherein x and y are natural numbers), CF3CO2Li, LiCl, LiBr, Lil, LIBOB (lithium bisoxalato borate), lower aliphatic carboxylic acid lithium, lithium terphenylborate, lithium imide, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt may be in a range of about 0.1 molar (“M”) to about 2.0 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at most 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3 M.[OHl] In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality ofAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST). In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises NOf.

[0112] In some embodiments, the lithium salts can comprise Li2SO4, IJ2CO3, LiNCL, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBF , LiBCL, lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB), lithium perchlorate (LiCICU), lithium hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsFe), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI), lithium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI), lithium bis(oxalate)borate (LiBOB), lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf), lithium bis(pentafluoroethanesulfonyl)imide (LiBETI), or any derivatives thereof, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the lithium salts comprise LiFSI, LiTFSI, LiBETI, or derivatives thereof. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion. In some embodiments, the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST). In some embodiments, a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises NOf.

[0113] The ratio of the salt / solvent combination may be adjusted based on the solubility of the salt(s) in the solvent(s). In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts are present in an amount of 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, or 3 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts are present in an amount of about 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, or 3 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts are present in an amount ofat least 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, or 3 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more lithium salts are present in an amount of at most 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, or 3 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 M of LiTFSI. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 M of LiTFSI. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 M of LiTFSI. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 M of LiFSI. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 M of LiFSI. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 M of LiFSI.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0114] In some embodiments, the electrolyte component further comprises one or more additives. The one or more additives may be configured to enhance the performance and stability of electrolytes. In some embodiments, the one or more additives may contribute to the overall stability of the electrolyte by preventing degradation under high temperatures and minimizing side reactions with electrodes. By improving ionic conductivity, additives facilitate efficient ion transport, which is vital for maintaining high charge and discharge rates. In some embodiments, the one or more additives may be configured to promote the formation of a stable solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) that protects the electrodes while allowing for effective ion conduction, thereby enhancing the longevity and safety of the device. In some embodiments, the one or more additives may be configured to modify the viscosity of the electrolyte, ensuring optimal flow and penetration into porous electrode materials. In some embodiments, the one or more additives include at least one of, but are not limited to, lithium difluorophosphate (LiDFP), lithium difluorobis(oxalate)phosphate (LiDFOP), lithium bis(oxalate)borate (LIBOB), lithium difluoro(oxalato)borate (LiDFOB), lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPFe), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), ethylene carbonate (EC), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and lithium nitrate (LiNCL). In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiNCh. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise VC. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiPFe. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiDFP. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiDFOP. LiNOs may promote formation of a nitrogen-rich surface layer formation on the anode to prevent dendrites which encourages a longer cycle life.

[0115] In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount ranging from about 0.1 wt% to about 5 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount ofat least 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of at most 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 wt% ofthe electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or 2 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present inAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601an amount of about 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or 2 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or 2 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the one or more additives are present in an amount of at most 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, or2 M in the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 wt% of LiNO3. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 wt% of LiNCh. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 wt% of LiNCh. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 wt% of LiDFP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 wt% of LiDFP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 wt% of LiDFP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 wt% of LiDFOP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 wt% of LiDFOP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 wt% of LiDFOP. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 0.5 wt% of LiPFe. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 1 wt% of LiPFe. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises 2 wt% of LiPFe.

[0116] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent. In some embodiments, the first solvent comprises from 0.05 to 0.5, from 0.1 to 0.4, or from 0.2 to 0.3 v / v of the plurality of solvents. In some embodiments, the second solvent comprises from 0.1 to 0.6, from 0.2 to 0.5, or from 0.3 to 0.4 v / v of the plurality of solvents. In some embodiments, the third solvent comprises from 0.1 to 0.6, from 0.2 to 0.5, or from 0.3 to 0.4 v / v of the plurality of solvents. In some embodiments, the first solvent is DOL. In some embodiments, the second solvent is DME. In some embodiments, the third solvent is TTE.

[0117] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent. In some embodiments, each solvent of the plurality of solvents is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, each solvent of the plurality of solvents is present in an amount of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, each solvent of the plurality of solvents is present in an amount of about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, each solvent of the plurality of solvents is present in an amount of at least 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In someAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601embodiments, each solvent of the plurality of solvents is present in an amount of at most 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0118] In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 15 wt% to about 25 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount of about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount of at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the first solvent is present in an amount of at most 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0119] In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 10 wt% to about 20 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount of an amount of 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount of an amount of about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount of an amount of at least 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the second solvent is present in an amount of an amount of at most 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0120] In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 35 wt% to 55 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount of about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount of at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition. In some embodiments, the third solvent is present in an amount of at most 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

[0121] In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises DOL, DME, TEGDME, PEGDME, TTE, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be DOL. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be DME. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be TEGDME. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be PEGDME. In someAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601embodiments, the first solvent may be TTE. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be DOL. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be DME. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be TEGDME. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be PEGDME. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be TTE. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be DOL. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be DME. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be TEGDME. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be PEGDME. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be TTE. In some embodiments, DOL is configured to balance viscosity and conductivity.

[0122] In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition comprises one or more solvating solvents, one or more lithium salts, and one or more diluents. The one or more diluents may have little or no solvating ability for the one or more lithium salts but may be readily miscible with the one or more solvating solvents. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition may be configured to promote SEI formation on an anode to prevent growth of dendrites. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition may be configured to reduce viscosity and improves conductivity. In some embodiments, the electrolyte composition may be configured to introduce excess solvents to maintain lithium salts in solution and prevent precipitation during cycling. In certain embodiments, the electrolyte composition provides excess solvating solvents capable of re-dissolving lithium salts that otherwise precipitate when the solvent is consumed or decomposed during cycling. By maintaining the salts in a solvated state, the electrolyte composition can suppress the formation of salt deposits or dendrite structures that lead to shorting and cell failure.

[0123] The electrolyte can comprise a lithium conductive polymer. The lithium conductive polymer can be a copolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer can comprise a block copolymer or a random copolymer. In some embodiments, a portion of the block copolymer is in contact with lithium metal, wherein the portion is substantially unreactive with the lithium metal. A block copolymer can, for example, be annealed to undergo microphase separation, providing an exposed hydrophobic surface that is substantially unreactive with lithium metal. Meanwhile, the block copolymer can further comprise a percolating hydrophilic domain that provides paths for lithium ions to traverse through from one side of the block copolymer to the other. In some embodiments, the block copolymer comprises diblock copolymer, triblock copolymer, triblock terpolymer, multiblock copolymer, grafted copolymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise PDMS-PEG (e.g., poly(polydimethylsiloxane methacrylate)-b-poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)). In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise POEM-b-PLMA, POEM-P(PDMSMA), PBA-b-PPEGMA, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a copolymer can comprise poly(butyl acrylate)Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601(PBA), Poly(butyl methacrylate) (PBMA), Poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PLMA), Poly(ethylene) (PE), Poly(ethylene-alt-propylene) (PEP), Poly(urethane) (PU), Poly(butadiene) (PB), Poly(polyvinylidene methacrylate) (PPVDFMA), Poly (polytetrafluoroethylene methacrylate) (PPTFEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether) (PFPE), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PPEGMA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate) (PPEGA), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), or any combination thereof.

[0124] The hydrophobic polymer can comprise, e.g., a cyclic olefin copolymer, fluorinated ethylene propylene, ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymer, polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polymethylpentene, polypropylene, polyphenylene sulfide, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, or any combination thereof.

[0125] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be a high conductivity electrolyte with a lithium transference number > 0.3, a low flammability, and weakly solvating ability to minimize the charge transfer resistance. In some embodiments, fluorinated compounds tend to make an inorganic rich SEI layer that promotes higher coulombic efficiencies.

[0126] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with a negative electrode, a positive electrode or both. The passivation layer can be a solid. The passivation layer can be stable such that further growth of the passivation layer is limited. The passivation layer can be configured to provide a low charge-transfer impedance. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with aluminum. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer comprising AIF3. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be stable when contacted with water. In some embodiments, an electrolyte does not produce HF when contacted with water.

[0127] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at least 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at most 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure.

[0128] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be compatible with a negative electrode of the present disclosure, a positive electrode of the present disclosure, or both. In some embodiments,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601the electrolyte comprises a carbonate. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a co-salt in addition to the inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a solvent. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a mixture of various electrolyte components disclosed herein. The various electrolyte components can have a wide variety of concentrations. For example, the electrolyte can comprise LP30 (1.0 M LiPF6 EC / DMC). In some embodiments, the inorganic salt can comprise LiPFe, LiDFOB, LiBOB, LiFSI, LiTFSI, LiCFsSCh, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent can comprise EC, DMC, EMC (ethyl methyl carbonate), DOL, DME, TTE, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise an additive. In some embodiments, the additive can comprise PC, FEC (fluoroethylene carbonate), VC (vinylene carbonate), LiNCh, CsNCh, or any combination thereof.

[0129] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an aqueous electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a non-aqueous electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an organic electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a lithium salt. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an ionic liquid. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a deep eutectic solvent. The electrolyte can be used in the manufacture of a lithium metal electrode. The electrolyte can be used in a rechargeable energy source system.

[0130] In some embodiments, an electrolyte is non-flammable or fire-resistant. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is substantially non-volatile at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is non-flammable at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is self-extinguishing. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises additives, e.g., nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or silicon compounds.

[0131] In some embodiments, an electrolyte is a liquid at a temperature of at least -40, -30, -20, -10, 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, or 70 °C. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is a liquid at a temperature of at most -40, -30, -20, -10, 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, or 70 °C.

[0132] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a surface tension of at least 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, or 60 mN / m. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a surface tension of at most 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, or 60 mN / m.

[0133] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of at least 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of at most 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of at least 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of at most 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90. An electrolyte can comprise variousAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601viscosities. Polymeric or polymer solution electrolytes can comprise a large viscosity, as the viscosity can scale exponentially with the molecular weight of the polymer above a critical molecular weight (e.g., entanglement molecular weight). In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 mPa«s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 Pa«s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 kPa«s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 kPa«s.

[0134] Various organic electrolytes can be used. In some embodiments, an organic electrolyte can comprise dimethyl carbonate, ethylmethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, l,3-dioxolan-2-one, 4-methyl-l,3-dioxolan-2-one, oxolan-2-one, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise an organic carbonate compound, an ester compound, an ether compound, a ketone compound, an alcohol compound, an aprotic bipolar solvent, or a combination thereof. The carbonate compound may be an open chain carbonate compound, a cyclic carbonate compound, a fluorocarbonate derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0135] In some embodiments, the chain carbonate compound can be diethyl carbonate (DEC), dimethyl carbonate, (DMC), dipropyl carbonate (DPC), methylpropyl carbonate (MPC), ethylpropylcarbonate (EPC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cyclic carbonate compound can be ethylene carbonate (EC), propylenecarbonate (PC), butylene carbonate (BC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), or any combination thereof . In some embodiments, the fluorocarbonate compound can be fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), 4,5-difluoroethylene carbonate, 4,4-difluoroethylene carbonate, 4,4,5-trifluoroethylene carbonate, 4, 4,5,5-tetrafluoroethylene carbonate, 4-fluoro-5-methylethylene carbonate, 4-fluoro-4-methylethylene carbonate, 4,5-difluoro-4-methylethylene carbonate, 4,4,5-trifluoro-5-methylethylene carbonate, trifluoromethylethylene carbonate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the carbonate compound may include a combination of cyclic carbonate and chain carbonate, inAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601consideration of dielectric constant and viscosity of the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the carbonate compound may be a mixture of such chain carbonate and / or cyclic carbonate compounds as described above with a fluorocarbonate compound. In some embodiments, the plurality of solvents comprises DEC, DMC, MEC, EC, or FEC. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be DEC. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be DMC. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be MEC. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be EC. In some embodiments, the first solvent may be FEC. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be DEC. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be DMC. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be MEC. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be EC. In some embodiments, the second solvent may be FEC. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be DEC. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be DMC. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be MEC. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be EC. In some embodiments, the third solvent may be FEC.

[0136] In some embodiments, the fluorocarbonate compound may increase solubility of a lithium salt to improve ionic conductivity of the electrolyte, and may facilitate formation of the thin film on the negative electrode.

[0137] In some embodiments, the ester compound is methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, n-propyl acetate, dimethyl acetate, methyl propionate (MP), ethyl propionate, y-butyrolactone, decanolide, valerolactone, mevalonolactone, caprolactone, methyl formate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the ether compound is dibutyl ether, tetraglyme, diglyme, 1,2-dimethoxy ethane, 1,2-di ethoxy ethane, ethoxymethoxy ethane, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, tetrafluoroproyl ether (TTE), tetrahydrofuran, or any combination thereof. An example of the ketone compound is cyclohexanone. In some embodiments, the alcohol compound can be ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol. In some embodiments, the aprotic solvent can be a nitrile (such as R — CN, wherein R is a C2-C20 linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon-based moiety that may include a double-bond, an aromatic ring or an ether bond), amides (such as formamide and dimethylformamide), dioxolanes (such as 1,2-dioxolane and 1,3-dioxolane), methylsulfoxide, sulfolanes (such as sulfolane and methylsulfolane), l,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone, nitromethane, trimethyl phosphate, triethyl phosphate, trioctyl phosphate, triester phosphate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise an aromatic hydrocarbon organic solvent in a carbonate solvent. In some embodiments, an aromatic hydrocarbon organic solvent can be benzene, fluorobenzene, 1,2-difluorobenzene, 1,3-difluorobenzene, 1,4-difluorobenzene, 1,2,3-trifluorobenzene, 1,2,4-trifluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, 1,2-di chlorobenzene, 1,3 -di chlorobenzene, 1,4-di chlorobenzene, 1,2,3-tri chlorobenzene, 1, 2, 4-tri chlorobenzene, iodobenzene, 1,2-diiodobenzene, 1,3-diiodobenzene,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256011,4-diiodobenzene, 1,2, 3 -triiodobenzene, 1,2,4-triiodobenzene, 2-fluorotoluene, 3 -fluorotoluene, 4-fluorotoluene, 2, 3 -difluorotoluene, 2,4-difluorotoluene, 2, 5 -difluorotoluene, 2,6-difluorotoluene, 3,4-difluorotoluene, 3, 5 -difluorotoluene, 2,3,4-trifluorotoluene, 2,3,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,3,6-trifluorotoluene, 3,4,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,4,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,4,6-trifluorotoluene, 2-chlorotoluene, 3 -chlorotoluene, 4-chlorotoluene, 2,3-dichlorotoluene, 2,4-di chlorotoluene, 2,5-dichlorotoluene, 2,6-dichlorotoluene, 2, 3, 4-tri chlorotoluene, 2,3,5-trichlorotoluene, 2,3,6-trichlorotoluene, 3, 4, 5-tri chlorotoluene, 2,4,5-trichlorotoluene, 2,4,6-tri chlorotoluene, 2-iodotoluene, 3 -iodotoluene, 4-iodotoluene, 2,3 -diiodotoluene, 2,4-diiodotoluene, 2,5-diiodotoluene, 2,6-diiodotoluene, 3,4-diiodotoluene, 3,5-diiodotoluene, 2,3,4-triiodotoluene, 2,3,5-triiodotoluene, 2,3,6-triiodotoluene, 3,4,5-triiodotoluene, 2,4,5-triiodotoluene, 2,4,6-triiodotoluene, o-xylene, m-xylene, p-xylene, or any combination thereof.

[0138] Various polymeric electrolytes can be used. A polymer electrolyte can comprise poly(ethylene oxide), poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(caprolactone), poly(chitosan), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinyl fluoride), poly(imide), or any combination thereof, which can inherently conduct lithium ions or be doped with one or more lithium salts to make the polymer be lithium conductive.

[0139] Various ionic liquids can be used, e.g., any one of the ionic liquids listed on the Ionic Liquids Database (ILThermo) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

[0140] Various lithium salts can be used. A lithium salt can comprise lithium 12-hydroxystearate, lithium acetate, lithium amide, lithium aspartate, lithium azide, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium borohydride, lithium bromide, lithium carbonate, lithium chlorate, lithium chloride, lithium citrate, lithium cyanide, lithium diphenylphosphide, lithium hexafluorogermanate, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium hypochlorite, lithium hypofluorite, lithium metaborate, lithium methoxide, lithium naphthalene, lithium niobate, lithium nitrate, lithium nitrite, lithium oxalate, lithium perchlorate, lithium stearate, lithium succinate, lithium sulfate, lithium sulfide, lithium superoxide, lithium tantalate, lithium tetrachloroaluminate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, lithium triflate, lithium tungstate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise lithium salts comprising an organic anion selected from the group consisting of trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide (TFSI), N- butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PyruTFSI), trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), l-ethyl-3 - methylimidazolium-bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMI- TFSI), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the catholyte 290 comprises ionic liquid-forming salts dissolved in 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2 dimethoxy ethane (DME), or tetraethyl ene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME). InAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise Li2SO4, Li2CO3, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBF , LiBO, LiDFOB, LiCICU, LiTFSI, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFU, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiSbFe, LiAsFe, LiSbFe, LiCF3SO3, Li(CF3SO2)3C, Li(CF3SO2)2N, LiC4F9SO3, LiC104, LiA104, LiAICU, LiAlF4, LiBPh4, LiBioCho, CH3SO3Li, C4F3SO3Li, (CF3SO2)2NLi, LiN(CxF2x+iSO2)(CxF2y+iSO2) (wherein x and y are natural numbers), CF3CO2Li, LiCl, LiBr, Lil, LIBOB (lithium bisoxalato borate), lower aliphatic carboxylic acid lithium, lithium terphenylborate, lithium imide, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt may be in a range of about 0.1 molar (“M”) to about 2.0 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at least 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at most 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3 M.

[0141] The electrolyte can comprise a lithium conductive polymer. The lithium conductive polymer can be a copolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer can comprise a block copolymer or a random copolymer. In some embodiments, a portion of the block copolymer is in contact with lithium metal, wherein the portion is substantially unreactive with the lithium metal. A block copolymer can, for example, be annealed to undergo microphase separation, providing an exposed hydrophobic surface that is substantially unreactive with lithium metal. Meanwhile, the block copolymer can further comprise a percolating hydrophilic domain that provides paths for lithium ions to traverse through from one side of the block copolymer to the other. In some embodiments, the block copolymer comprises diblock copolymer, triblock copolymer, triblock terpolymer, multiblock copolymer, grafted copolymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise PDMS-PEG (e.g., poly(polydimethylsiloxane methacrylate)-b-poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)). In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise POEM-b-PLMA, POEM-P(PDMSMA), PBA-b-PPEGMA, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a copolymer can comprise poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA), Poly(butyl methacrylate) (PBMA), Poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PLMA), Poly(ethylene) (PE), Poly(ethylene-alt-propylene) (PEP), Poly(urethane) (PU), Poly(butadiene) (PB), Poly(polyvinylidene methacrylate) (PPVDFMA), Poly (polytetrafluoroethylene methacrylate) (PPTFEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether) (PFPE), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PPEGMA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate) (PPEGA), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), or any combination thereof.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0142] The hydrophobic polymer can comprise, e.g., a cyclic olefin copolymer, fluorinated ethylene propylene, ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymer, polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polymethylpentene, polypropylene, polyphenylene sulfide, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, or any combination thereof.

[0143] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be a high conductivity electrolyte with a lithium transference number > 0.3, a low flammability, and weakly solvating ability to minimize the charge transfer resistance. In some embodiments, fluorinated compounds tend to make an inorganic rich SEI layer that promotes higher coulombic efficiencies.

[0144] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with a negative electrode, a positive electrode or both. The passivation layer can be a solid. The passivation layer can be stable such that further growth of the passivation layer is limited. The passivation layer can be configured to provide a low charge-transfer impedance. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with aluminum. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer comprising AIF3. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be stable when contacted with water. In some embodiments, an electrolyte does not produce HF when contacted with water.

[0145] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at least 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at most 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure.

[0146] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be compatible with a negative electrode of the present disclosure, a positive electrode of the present disclosure, or both. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a carbonate. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a co-salt in addition to the inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a solvent. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a mixture of various electrolyte components disclosed herein. The various electrolyte components can have a wide variety of concentrations. For example, the electrolyte can comprise LP30 (1.0 M LiPFe EC / DMC). In some embodiments, the inorganic salt can comprise LiPFe, LiDFOB, LiBOB, LiFSI, LiTFSI, LiCFsSCh, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent canAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601comprise EC, DMC, EMC (ethyl methyl carbonate), DOL, DME, TTE, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise an additive. In some embodiments, the additive can comprise PC, FEC (fluoroethylene carbonate), VC (vinylene carbonate), LiNCh, CsNCh, or any combination thereof.

[0147] An electrolyte can comprise various viscosities.

[0148] Polymeric or polymer solution electrolytes can comprise a large viscosity, as the viscosity can scale exponentially with the molecular weight of the polymer above a critical molecular weight (e.g., entanglement molecular weight). In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 0.1 mPa»s, 0.2 mPa»s, 0.3 mPa»s, 0.4 mPa»s, 0.5 mPa»s, 0.6 mPa»s, 0.7 mPa»s, 0.8 mPa»s, 0.9 mPa»s, 1 mPa»s, 2 mPa»s, 3 mPa»s, 4 mPa»s, 5 mPa»s, 6 mPa»s, 7 mPa»s, 8 mPa»s, 9 mPa»s, 10 mPa»s, 20 mPa»s, 30 mPa»s, 40 mPa»s, 50 mPa»s, 60 mPa»s, 70 mPa»s, 80 mPa»s, 90 mPa»s, 100 mPa»s, 200 mPa»s, 300 mPa»s, 400 mPa»s, 500 mPa»s, 600 mPa»s, 700 mPa»s, 800 mPa»s, or 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 0.1 mPa»s, about 0.2 mPa»s, about 0.3 mPa»s, about 0.4 mPa»s, about 0.5 mPa»s, about 0.6 mPa»s, about 0.7 mPa»s, about 0.8 mPa»s, about 0.9 mPa»s, about 1 mPa»s, about 2 mPa»s, about 3 mPa»s, about 4 mPa»s, about 5 mPa»s, about 6 mPa»s, about 7 mPa»s, about 8 mPa»s, about 9 mPa»s, about 10 mPa»s, about 20 mPa»s, about 30 mPa»s, about 40 mPa»s, about 50 mPa»s, about 60 mPa»s, about 70 mPa»s, about 80 mPa»s, about 90 mPa»s, about 100 mPa»s, about 200 mPa»s, about 300 mPa»s, about 400 mPa»s, about 500 mPa»s, about 600 mPa»s, about 700 mPa»s, about 800 mPa»s, or about 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 0.1 mPa»s, at least 0.2 mPa»s, at least 0.3 mPa»s, at least 0.4 mPa»s, at least 0.5 mPa»s, at least 0.6 mPa»s, at least 0.7 mPa»s, at least 0.8 mPa»s, at least 0.9 mPa»s, at least 1 mPa»s, at least 2 mPa»s, at least 3 mPa»s, at least 4 mPa»s, at least 5 mPa»s, at least 6 mPa»s, at least 7 mPa»s, at least 8 mPa»s, at least 9 mPa»s, at least 10 mPa»s, at least 20 mPa»s, at least 30 mPa»s, at least 40 mPa»s, at least 50 mPa»s, at least 60 mPa»s, at least 70 mPa»s, at least 80 mPa»s, at least 90 mPa»s, at least 100 mPa»s, at least 200 mPa»s, at least 300 mPa»s, at least 400 mPa»s, at least 500 mPa»s, at least 600 mPa»s, at least 700 mPa»s, at least 800 mPa»s, or at least 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 0.1 mPa»s, at most 0.2 mPa»s, at most 0.3 mPa»s, at most 0.4 mPa»s, at most 0.5 mPa»s, at most 0.6 mPa»s, at most 0.7 mPa»s, at most 0.8 mPa»s, at most 0.9 mPa»s, at most 1 mPa»s, at most 2 mPa»s, at most 3 mPa»s, at most 4 mPa»s, at most 5 mPa»s, at most 6 mPa»s, at most 7 mPa»s, at most 8 mPa»s, at most 9 mPa»s, at most 10 mPa»s, at most 20 mPa»s, at most 30 mPa»s, at most 40 mPa»s, at most 50 mPa»s, at most 60 mPa»s, at most 70 mPa»s, at most 80 mPa»s, at most 90 mPa»s, at most 100 mPa»s, at most 200 mPa»s, at most 300 mPa»s, at most 400 mPa»s, at most 500 mPa»s, at most 600 mPa»s, at most 700 mPa»s, at 1 most 800 mPa»s, or at most 900 mPa»s.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0149] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 1 Pa»s, 2 Pa»s, 3 Pa»s, 4 Pa»s, 5 Pa»s, 6 Pa»s, 7 Pa»s, 8 Pa»s, 9 Pa»s, 10 Pa»s, 20 Pa»s, 30 Pa»s, 40 Pa»s, 50 Pa»s, 60 Pa»s, 70 Pa»s, 80 Pa»s, 90 Pa»s, 100 Pa»s, 200 Pa»s, 300 Pa»s, 400 Pa»s, 500 Pa»s, 600 Pa»s, 700 Pa»s, 800 Pa»s, or 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 1 Pa»s, about 2 Pa»s, about 3 Pa»s, about 4 Pa»s, about 5 Pa»s, about 6 Pa»s, about 7 Pa»s, about 8 Pa»s, about 9 Pa»s, about 10 Pa»s, about 20 Pa»s, about 30 Pa»s, about 40 Pa»s, about 50 Pa»s, about 60 Pa»s, about 70 Pa»s, about 80 Pa»s, about 90 Pa»s, about 100 Pa»s, about 200 Pa»s, about 300 Pa»s, about 400 Pa»s, about 500 Pa»s, about 600 Pa»s, about 700 Pa»s, about 800 Pa»s, or about 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1 Pa»s, at least 2 Pa»s, at least 3 Pa»s, at least 4 Pa»s, at least 5 Pa»s, at least 6 Pa»s, at least 7 Pa»s, at least 8 Pa»s, at least 9 Pa»s, at least 10 Pa»s, at least 20 Pa»s, at least 30 Pa»s, at least 40 Pa»s, at least 50 Pa»s, at least 60 Pa»s, at least 70 Pa»s, at least 80 Pa»s, at least 90 Pa»s, at least 100 Pa»s, at least 200 Pa»s, at least 300 Pa»s, at least 400 Pa»s, at least 500 Pa»s, at least 600 Pa»s, at least 700 Pa»s, at least 800 Pa»s, or at least 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1 Pa»s, at most 2 Pa»s, at most 3 Pa»s, at most 4 Pa»s, at most 5 Pa»s, at most 6 Pa»s, at most 7 Pa»s, at most 8 Pa»s, at most 9 Pa»s, at most 10 Pa»s, at most 20 Pa»s, at most 30 Pa»s, at most 40 Pa»s, at most 50 Pa»s, at most 60 Pa»s, at most 70 Pa»s, at most 80 Pa»s, at most 90 Pa»s, at most 100 Pa»s, at most 200 Pa»s, at most 300 Pa»s, at most 400 Pa»s, at most 500 Pa»s, at most 600 Pa»s, at most 700 Pa»s, at most 800 Pa»s, or at most 900 Pa»s.

[0150] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 1 kPa»s, 2 kPa»s, 3 kPa»s, 4 kPa»s, 5 kPa»s, 6 kPa»s, 7 kPa»s, 8 kPa»s, 9 kPa»s, 10 kPa»s, 20 kPa»s, 30 kPa»s, 40 kPa»s, 50 kPa»s, 60 kPa»s, 70 kPa»s, 80 kPa»s, 90 kPa»s, 100 kPa»s, 200 kPa»s, 300 kPa»s, 400 kPa»s, 500 kPa»s, 600 kPa»s, 700 kPa»s, 800 kPa»s, or 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 1 kPa»s, about 2 kPa»s, about 3 kPa»s, about 4 kPa»s, about 5 kPa»s, about 6 kPa»s, about 7 kPa»s, about 8 kPa»s, about 9 kPa»s, about 10 kPa»s, about 20 kPa»s, about 30 kPa»s, about 40 kPa»s, about 50 kPa»s, about 60 kPa»s, about 70 kPa»s, about 80 kPa»s, about 90 kPa»s, about 100 kPa»s, about 200 kPa»s, about 300 kPa»s, about 400 kPa»s, about 500 kPa»s, about 600 kPa»s, about 700 kPa»s, about 800 kPa»s, or about 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1 kPa»s, at least 2 kPa»s, at least 3 kPa»s, at least 4 kPa»s, at least 5 kPa»s, at least 6 kPa»s, at least 7 kPa»s, at least 8 kPa»s, at least 9 kPa»s, at least 10 kPa»s, at least 20 kPa»s, at least 30 kPa»s, at least 40 kPa»s, at least 50 kPa»s, at least 60 kPa»s, at least 70 kPa»s, at least 80 kPa»s, at least 90 kPa»s, at least 100 kPa»s, at least 200 kPa»s, at least 300 kPa»s, at least 400 kPa»s, at least 500 kPa»s, at least 600 kPa»s, at least 700 kPa»s, at least 800 kPa»s, or at least 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1 kPa»s, at most 2 kPa»s, at most 3 kPa»s, at most 4 kPa»s, atAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601most 5 kPa»s, at most 6 kPa»s, at most k7 Pa»s, at most 8 kPa»s, at most 9 kPa»s, at most 10 kPa»s, at most 20 kPa»s, at most 30 kPa»s, at most 40 kPa»s, at most 50 kPa»s, at most 60 kPa»s, at most 70 kPa»s, at most 80 kPa»s, at most 90 kPa»s, at most 100 kPa»s, at most 200 kPa»s, at most 300 kPa»s, at most 400 kPa»s, at most 500 kPa»s, at most 600 kPa»s, at most 700 kPa»s, at most 800 kPa»s, or at most 900 kPa»s.

[0151] The electrolyte may contain one or more lithium salts dissolved in a solvent to provide ionic conductivity between the positive and negative electrodes. Various lithium salts can be used. In some embodiments, the lithium salt in the electrolyte solution can be at least one of, but not limited to, lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPFe), lithium tetrafluorob orate (LiBF4), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI), lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), lithium tetrafluorob orate (LiBF4), lithium perchlorate (LiCIC ), lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiCF3SO3), lithium bs(oxalate)borate (LiBOB), and lithium difluoro(oxalate)borate (LiDFOB). These salts serve as ionic charge carriers and facilitate the transport of lithium ions between electrodes during charge and discharge. In certain embodiments, salts such as LiTFSI or LiFSI may further enhance electrochemical stability and reduce interfacial resistance, thereby improving the cycle life and safety of the cell. A lithium salt can comprise lithium 12-hydroxystearate, lithium acetate, lithium amide, lithium aspartate, lithium azide, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium borohydride, lithium bromide, lithium carbonate, lithium chlorate, lithium chloride, lithium citrate, lithium cyanide, lithium diphenylphosphide, lithium hexafluorogermanate, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium hypochlorite, lithium hypofluorite, lithium metaborate, lithium methoxide, lithium naphthalene, lithium niobate, lithium nitrate, lithium nitrite, lithium oxalate, lithium perchlorate, lithium stearate, lithium succinate, lithium sulfate, lithium sulfide, lithium superoxide, lithium tantalate, lithium tetrachloroaluminate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, lithium tritiate, lithium tungstate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise lithium salts comprising an organic anion selected from the group consisting of trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide (TFSI), N- butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PyruTFSI), trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), and l-ethyl-3- methylimidazolium-bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMI- TFSI) . In some embodiments, the catholyte 290 comprises ionic liquid-forming salts dissolved in 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2 dimethoxyethane (DME), or tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME). In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise Li2SC>4, Li2CO3, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBEL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiClO4, LiTFSI, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiSbF6, LiAsF6, LiSbF6, LiCF3SO3, Li(CF3SO2)3C, Li(CF3SO2)2N, LiC4F9SO3,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601LiCIC , LiAIC , LiAICU, LiAlF4, LiBPh4, LiBioClio, CH3SO3Li, C4F3SO3Li, (CF3SO2)2NLi, LiN(CxF2x+iSO2)(CxF2y+iSO2) (wherein x and are natural numbers), CF3CO2Li, LiCl, LiBr, Lil, LIBOB (lithium bisoxalato borate), lower aliphatic carboxylic acid lithium, lithium terphenylborate, lithium imide, and any combination thereof.

[0152] In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt can be in a range of about 0.1 molar (M) to about 2.0 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is 0.01 M, 0.02 M, 0.03 M, 0.04 M, 0.05 M, 0.06 M, 0.07 M, 0.08 M, 0.09 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is about 0.01 M, about 0.02 M, about 0.03 M, about 0.04 M, about 0.05 M, about 0.06 M, about 0.07 M, about 0.08 M, about 0.09 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.6 M, about 0.7 M, about 0.8 M, about 0.9 M, about 1.0 M, about 1.5 M, about 2.0 M, about 2.5 M, or about 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at least 0.01 M, at least 0.02 M, at least 0.03 M, at least 0.04 M, at least 0.05 M, at least 0.06 M, at least 0.07 M, at least 0.08 M, at least 0.09 M, at least 0.1 M, at least 0.2 M, at least 0.3 M, at least 0.4 M, at least 0.5 M, at least 0.6 M, at least 0.7 M, at least 0.8 M, at least 0.9 M, at least 1.0 M, at least 1.5 M, at least 2.0 M, at least 2.5 M, or at least 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at most 0.01 M, at most 0.02 M, at most 0.03 M, at most 0.04 M, at most 0.05 M, at most 0.06 M, at most 0.07 M, at most 0.08 M, at most 0.09 M, at most 0.1 M, at most 0.2 M, at most 0.3 M, at most 0.4 M, at most 0.5 M, at most 0.6 M, at most 0.7 M, at most 0.8 M, at most 0.9 M, at most 1.0 M, at most 1.5 M, at most 2.0 M, at most 2.5 M, or at most 3 M.

[0153] The electrolyte can comprise a lithium conductive polymer. The lithium conductive polymer can be a copolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer can comprise a block copolymer or a random copolymer. In some embodiments, a portion of the block copolymer is in contact with lithium metal, wherein the portion is substantially unreactive with the lithium metal. A block copolymer can, for example, be annealed to undergo microphase separation, providing an exposed hydrophobic surface that is substantially unreactive with lithium metal. Meanwhile, the block copolymer can further comprise a percolating hydrophilic domain that provides paths for lithium ions to traverse through from one side of the block copolymer to the other. In some embodiments, the block copolymer comprises diblock copolymer, triblock copolymer, triblock terpolymer, multiblock copolymer, and grafted copolymer. In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise PDMS-PEG (e.g., poly(polydimethylsiloxane methacrylate)-b-poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)). In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise POEM-b-PLMA, POEM-P(PDMSMA), PBA-b-PPEGMA, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a copolymer can comprise poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA), Poly(butylAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601methacrylate) (PBMA), Poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PLMA), Poly(ethylene) (PE), Polyethyleneal t-propylene) (PEP), Poly(urethane) (PU), Poly(butadiene) (PB), Poly(polyvinylidene methacrylate) (PPVDFMA), Poly(polytetrafluoroethylene methacrylate) (PPTFEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether) (PFPE), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PPEGMA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate) (PPEGA), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), or any combination thereof.

[0154] The hydrophobic polymer can comprise, e.g., a cyclic olefin copolymer, fluorinated ethylene propylene, ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymer, polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polymethylpentene, polypropylene, polyphenylene sulfide, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, or any combination thereof.

[0155] In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be a high conductivity electrolyte with a lithium transference number > 0.3, a low flammability, and weakly solvating ability to minimize the charge transfer resistance. In some embodiments, fluorinated compounds tend to make an inorganic rich SEI layer that promotes higher coulombic efficiencies.

[0156] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with a negative electrode, a positive electrode or both. The passivation layer can be a solid. The passivation layer can be stable such that further growth of the passivation layer is limited. The passivation layer can be configured to provide a low charge-transfer impedance. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer upon contact with aluminum. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be configured to form a passivation layer comprising AIF3. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be stable when contacted with water. In some embodiments, an electrolyte does not produce HF when contacted with water.

[0157] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at least 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be configured to have a 1stcycle Coulombic efficiency of at most 90, 91 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.1, 99.2, 99.3, 99.4, 99.5, 99.6, 99.7, 99.8, 99.9, 99.91, 99.92, 99.93, 99.94, 99.95, 99.96, 99.97, 99.98, or 99.99 percent when incorporated into a rechargeable energy source system of the present disclosure.

[0158] In some embodiments, an electrolyte may be compatible with a negative electrode of the present disclosure, a positive electrode of the present disclosure, or both. In some embodiments,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601the electrolyte comprises a carbonate. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a co-salt in addition to the inorganic salt. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises a solvent. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is a mixture of various electrolyte components disclosed herein. The various electrolyte components can have a wide variety of concentrations. For example, the electrolyte can comprise LP30 (1.0 M LiPF6 EC / DMC). In some embodiments, the inorganic salt can comprise LiPFe, LiDFOB, LiBOB, LiFSI, LiTFSI, LiCFsSCh, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the solvent can comprise EC, DMC, EMC (ethyl methyl carbonate), DOL, DME, TTE, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise an additive. In some embodiments, the additive can comprise PC, FEC (fluoroethylene carbonate), VC (vinylene carbonate), LiNCh, CsNCh, or any combination thereof.NANOSTRUCTURED CARBON FOR NEGATIVE ELECTRODENanostructured carbon

[0159] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides a negative electrode which can be used in a rechargeable energy storage device, for example a lithium metal battery. The negative electrode can comprise one or more carbon phases. The one or more carbon phases can be configured to intercalate lithium ions within the phase itself, spaces between carbon phase structures, or both. The one or more carbon phases can be hard carbon, amorphous carbon, or amorphous hard carbon. Hard carbon phase may be carbon that does not graphitize at temperatures higher than, or as high as, 500, 750, 1000, 1250, 1500, 1750, or 2000 degrees,

[0160] The one or more carbon phases can comprise particles, cylinders, sheets, or other continuous morphologies such as lamellae, gyroid, or a continuous comprising spherical or cylindrical holes. For example, a carbon phase can be fabricated from copolymers synthesized from free radical polymerization, where weight fractions of the block copolymer’s monomers can be varied to create different phases. Various phases can be synthesized, e.g., in the case of block copolymers made of two different monomers: copolymer A forming spherical domains in a copolymer B matrix, copolymer A forming cylindrical domains in a copolymer B matrix, copolymer A and copolymer B forming a bicontinuous matrix (e.g., gyroid), copolymer A and copolymer B forming a lamellae, or vice versa. One of the domains can be etched via chemical etching, which may leave behind a matrix. The matrix can be pyrolyzed to form hard carbon, for example.

[0161] The negative electrode can comprise a plurality of carbon particles. The plurality of carbon particles can be amorphous, hard, or amorphous hard carbon. In some embodiments, the carbon particles can be concaved shaped. The carbon particles can be concavely shaped in that aAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601particle can have one or more cavities or voids. In some embodiments, the carbon particles comprise a flower-like surface structure. In some embodiments, the carbon particles comprise a plurality of carbon nanosheets resembling flower petals. In some embodiments, the carbon particles can refer to carbon flowers. In some embodiments, the carbon particles can refer to carbon roses. The carbon particles disclosed herein are different or distinguishable from a carbon dot or a graphene dot because of their morphology. In some embodiments, carbon particles may be hard carbons. In some embodiments, the negative electrode can comprise one or more carbon phases that are configured to intercalate lithium ions. In some embodiments, the one or more carbon phases can comprise particles (spherical, cylindrical, or other shapes), sheets, ribbons, wires, and various other shapes.

[0162] In some embodiments, the one or more carbon phases can be doped with heteroatoms. The heteroatoms can comprise nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, or metals. The heteroatoms can comprise additives, dopants, or inert elements, e.g., the one or more carbon phases can comprise oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, fluorine, sodium, calcium, magnesium, or iron atoms. The heteroatoms elements may be in trace amounts. In some embodiments, the one or more carbon phases can be nitrogen-doped. In some embodiments, the one or more carbon phases can be sulfur-doped. The heteroatoms can be detected by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The nitrogen-doped carbon can be detected by XPS. In some embodiments, the one or more carbon phases may be subjected to a high temperature treatment at about 1000°C and the amount of any nitrogen element in the resulting material may be minimal.

[0163] In some embodiments, the carbon particles can comprise a shape comprising a plurality of protruding nanosheets. The plurality of protruding nanosheets can give the visual impression of a flower-shaped particle, e.g., a carbon flower. The carbon flowers can comprise a type of carbon microstructure / nanostructure that has a floral or flower-like morphology. The morphology of carbon flowers can consist of numerous petal-like structures. In some embodiments, these petals comprise a hard carbon phase, an amorphous carbon phase, or an amorphous hard carbon phase. In some embodiments, these petals further comprise graphene layers, graphite layers, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, these petals comprise nanosheets. In some embodiments, the carbon nanosheets are stacked in a disorganized manner and separated by large void spaces, giving the appearance of a flower when viewed under an electron microscope. In some embodiments, the carbon particles are spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface. In some embodiments, each carbon particle comprises a network of interconnected corrugated carbon nanosheets. The structure of the carbon flowers may provide or contribute to a high surface area. In some cases, the surface area of the carbon flowers can beAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601from about 100 m2 / g to about 5000 m2 / g. The carbon particles can provide a high porosity. In some cases, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be from 0.1 to 3 cm3 / g.

[0164] In some embodiments, the carbon flowers can be doped with heteroatoms. The heteroatoms can comprise nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, or metals. The heteroatoms can comprise additives, dopants, or inert elements, e.g., the carbon flowers can comprise oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, fluorine, sodium, calcium, magnesium, or iron atoms. The heteroatoms elements may be in trace amounts. In some embodiments, the carbon flowers can be nitrogen-doped. In some embodiments, the carbon flowers can be sulfur-doped. The heteroatoms can be detected by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The nitrogen-doped carbon can be detected by XPS.

[0165] The structure of carbon flowers may provide or contribute to a high surface area. In some cases, the surface area of the carbon flowers can be from about 10 m2 / g to about 5000 m2 / g. In certain embodiments, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area measurements indicate that the carbon flowers have a specific surface area in the range of about 16 m2 / g to about 32 m2 / g, with a median value of approximately 25 m2 / g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the carbon flower may be 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, or 50 m2 / g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the carbon flower may be about 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, or 50 m2 / g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the carbon flower may be at least 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, or 50 m2 / g. In some embodiments, the surface area of the carbon flower may be at most 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, or 50 m2 / g.

[0166] Higher surface areas can be achieved, e.g., by synthesizing smaller particles, adding heteroatoms which may be etched away from the hard carbon during or after synthesis. In some embodiments, the surface area of the carbon flowers can be from 10 m2 / g to 5000 m2 / g. In some embodiments, a surface area of the carbon flowers can be 10 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g, 40 m2 / g, 60 m2 / g, 80 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g, 400 m2 / g, 600 m2 / g, 800 m2 / g, 1000 m2 / g, 1200 m2 / g, 1400 m2 / g, 1600 m2 / g, 1800 m2 / g, 2000 m2 / g, 2200 m2 / g, 2400 m2 / g, 2600 m2 / g, 2800 m2 / g, 3000 m2 / g, 3200 m2 / g, 3400 m2 / g, 3600 m2 / g, 3800 m2 / g, 4000 m2 / g, 4200 m2 / g, 4400 m2 / g, 4600 m2 / g, 4800 m2 / g, or 5000 m2 / g. In some embodiments, a surface area of the carbon flowers can be about 10 m2 / g, about 20 m2 / g, about 40 m2 / g, about 60 m2 / g, about 80 m2 / g, about 100 m2 / g, about 200 m2 / g, about 400 m2 / g, about 600 m2 / g, about 800 m2 / g, about 1000 m2 / g, about 1200 m2 / g, about 1400 m2 / g, about 1600 m2 / g, about 1800 m2 / g, about 2000 m2 / g, about 2200 m2 / g, about 2400 m2 / g, about 2600 m2 / g, about 2800 m2 / g, about 3000 m2 / g, about 3200 m2 / g, about 3400 m2 / g, about 3600 m2 / g, about 3800 m2 / g, about 4000 m2 / g, about 4200 m2 / g, about 4400 m2 / g, about 4600 m2 / g, about 4800 m2 / g, or about 5000 m2 / g. In some embodiments, a surfaceAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601area of the carbon flowers can be at least 10 m2 / g, at least 20 m2 / g, at least 40 m2 / g, at least 60 m2 / g, at least 80 m2 / g, at least 100 m2 / g, at least 200 m2 / g, at least 400 m2 / g, at least 600 m2 / g, at least 800 m2 / g, at least 1000 m2 / g, at least 1200 m2 / g, at least 1400 m2 / g, at least 1600 m2 / g, at least 1800 m2 / g, at least 2000 m2 / g, at least 2200 m2 / g, at least 2400 m2 / g, at least 2600 m2 / g, at least 2800 m2 / g, at least 3000 m2 / g, at least 3200 m2 / g, at least 3400 m2 / g, at least 3600 m2 / g, at least 3800 m2 / g, at least 4000 m2 / g, at least 4200 m2 / g, at least 4400 m2 / g, at least 4600 m2 / g, at least 4800 m2 / g, or at least 5000 m2 / g. In some embodiments, a surface area of the carbon flowers can be at most 400 m2 / g, at most 600 m2 / g, at most 800 m2 / g, at most 1000 m2 / g, at most 1200 m2 / g, at most 1400 m2 / g, at most 1600 m2 / g, at most 1800 m2 / g, at most 2000 m2 / g, at most 2200 m2 / g, at most 2400 m2 / g, at most 2600 m2 / g, at most 2800 m2 / g, at most 3000 m2 / g, at most 3200 m2 / g, at most 3400 m2 / g, at most 3600 m2 / g, at most 3800 m2 / g, at most 4000 m2 / g, at most 4200 m2 / g, at most 4400 m2 / g, at most 4600 m2 / g, at most 4800 m2 / g, or at most 5000 m2 / g. In some embodiments, a surface area of the carbon flowers can be 10 m2 / g to 200 m2 / g, 20 m2 / g to 260 m2 / g, 100 m2 / g to 1600 m2 / g, 200 m2 / g to 2600 m2 / g, 600 m2 / g to 3000 m2 / g, or 400 m2 / g to 2400 m2 / g, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0167] In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be from 0.1 to 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be 0.1 cm3 / g, 0.2 cm3 / g, 0.4 cm3 / g, 0.6 cm3 / g, 0.8 cm3 / g, 1 cm3 / g, 1.2 cm3 / g, 1.4 cm3 / g, 1.6 cm3 / g, 1.8 cm3 / g, 2 cm3 / g, 2.2 cm3 / g, 2.4 cm3 / g, 2.6 cm3 / g, 2.8 cm3 / g, or 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be about 0.1 cm3 / g, about 0.2 cm3 / g, about 0.4 cm3 / g, about 0.6 cm3 / g, about 0.8 cm3 / g, about 1 cm3 / g, about 1.2 cm3 / g, about 1.4 cm3 / g, about 1.6 cm3 / g, about 1.8 cm3 / g, about 2 cm3 / g, about 2.2 cm3 / g, about 2.4 cm3 / g, about 2.6 cm3 / g, about 2.8 cm3 / g, or about 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be at least 0.1 cm3 / g, at least 0.2 cm3 / g, at least 0.4 cm3 / g, at least 0.6 cm3 / g, at least 0.8 cm3 / g, at least 1 cm3 / g, at least 1.2 cm3 / g, at least 1.4 cm3 / g, at least 1.6 cm3 / g, at least 1.8 cm3 / g, at least 2 cm3 / g, at least 2.2 cm3 / g, at least 2.4 cm3 / g, at least 2.6 cm3 / g, at least 2.8 cm3 / g, or at least 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be at most 0.6 cm3 / g, at most 0.8 cm3 / g, at most 1 cm3 / g, at most 1.2 cm3 / g, at most 1.4 cm3 / g, at most 1.6 cm3 / g, at most 1.8 cm3 / g, at most 2 cm3 / g, at most 2.2 cm3 / g, at most 2.4 cm3 / g, at most 2.6 cm3 / g, at most 2.8 cm3 / g, or at most 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a pore volume of the carbon flowers can be 0.2 cm3 / g to 2.6 cm3 / g, 1 cm3 / g to 2.2 cm3 / g, 0.6 cm3 / g to 2.8 cm3 / g, or 0.8 cm3 / g to 3 cm3 / g, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0168] In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be from 0.1 to 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be 0.1 cm3 / g, 0.2 cm3 / g, 0.4 cm3 / g, 0.6 cm3 / g, 0.8 cm3 / g, 1 cm3 / g, 1.2 cm3 / g, 1.4 cm3 / g, 1.6 cm3 / g, 1.8 cm3 / g, 2 cm3 / g, 2.2 cm3 / g, 2.4Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601cm3 / g, 2.6 cm3 / g, 2.8 cm3 / g, or 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be about 0.1 cm3 / g, about 0.2 cm3 / g, about 0.4 cm3 / g, about 0.6 cm3 / g, about 0.8 cm3 / g, about 1 cm3 / g, about 1.2 cm3 / g, about 1.4 cm3 / g, about 1.6 cm3 / g, about 1.8 cm3 / g, about 2 cm3 / g, about 2.2 cm3 / g, about 2.4 cm3 / g, about 2.6 cm3 / g, about 2.8 cm3 / g, or about 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be at least 0.1 cm3 / g, at least 0.2 cm3 / g, at least 0.4 cm3 / g, at least 0.6 cm3 / g, at least 0.8 cm3 / g, at least 1 cm3 / g, at least 1.2 cm3 / g, at least 1.4 cm3 / g, at least 1.6 cm3 / g, at least 1.8 cm3 / g, at least 2 cm3 / g, at least 2.2 cm3 / g, at least 2.4 cm3 / g, at least 2.6 cm3 / g, at least 2.8 cm3 / g, or at least 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be at most 0.6 cm3 / g, at most 0.8 cm3 / g, at most 1 cm3 / g, at most 1.2 cm3 / g, at most 1.4 cm3 / g, at most 1.6 cm3 / g, at most 1.8 cm3 / g, at most 2 cm3 / g, at most 2.2 cm3 / g, at most 2.4 cm3 / g, at most 2.6 cm3 / g, at most 2.8 cm3 / g, or at most 3 cm3 / g. In some embodiments, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be 0.2 cm3 / g to 2.6 cm3 / g, 1 cm3 / g to 2.2 cm3 / g, 0.6 cm3 / g to 2.8 cm3 / g, or 0.8 cm3 / g to 3 cm3 / g, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0169] In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers ranges from about 0.1 pm to about 20 pm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers ranges from about 200 nm to about 2000 nm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers ranges from about 450 nm to about 1350 nm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers ranges from about 200 nm to about 1500 nm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers ranges from about 800 nm to about 900 nm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers may be about 870 nm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be 0.1 pm, 0.2 pm, 0.3 pm, 0.4 pm, 0.5 pm, 1 pm, 1.5 pm, 2 pm, 2.5 pm, 3 pm, 3.5 pm, 4 pm, 4.5 pm, 5 pm, 5.5 pm, 6 pm, 6.5 pm, 7 pm, 7.5 pm, 8 pm, 8.5 pm, 9 pm, 9.5 pm, 10 pm, 12 pm, 14 pm, 16 pm, 18 pm, or 20 pm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be about 0.1 pm, about 0.2 pm, about 0.3 pm, about 0.4 pm, about 0.5 pm, about 1 pm, about 1.5 pm, about 2 pm, about 2.5 pm, about 3 pm, about 3.5 pm, about 4 pm, about 4.5 pm, about 5 pm, about 5.5 pm, about 6 pm, about 6.5 pm, about 7 pm, about 7.5 pm, about 8 pm, about 8.5 pm, about 9 pm, about 9.5 pm, about 10 pm, about 12 pm, about 14 pm, about 16 pm, about 18 pm, or about 20 pm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be at least 0.1 pm, at least 0.2 pm, at least 0.3 pm, at least 0.4 pm, at least 0.5 pm, at least 1 pm, at least 1.5 pm, at least 2 pm, at least 2.5 pm, at least 3 pm, at least 3.5 pm, at least 4 pm, at least 4.5 pm, at least 5 pm, at least 5.5 pm, at least 6 pm, at least 6.5 pm, at least 7 pm, at least 7.5Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601jim, at least 8 pm, at least 8.5 pm, at least 9 pm, at least 9.5 pm, at least 10 pm, at least 12 pm, at least 14 pm, or at least 16 pm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be at most 0.5 pm, at most 1 pm, at most 1.5 pm, at most 2 pm, at most 2.5 pm, at most 3 pm, at most 3.5 pm, at most 4 pm, at most 4.5 pm, at most 5 pm, at most 5.5 pm, at most 6 pm, at most 6.5 pm, at most 7 pm, at most 7.5 pm, at most 8 pm, at most 8.5 pm, at most 9 pm, at most 9.5 pm, at most 10 pm, at most 12 pm, at most 14 pm, at most 16 pm, at most 18 pm, or at most 20 pm. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be 0.2 pm to 1.8 pm, 0.4 pm to 2.5 pm, 1.5 pm to 8 pm, 2 pm to 5.5 pm, 3.5 pm to 8.5 pm, 6 pm to 10 pm, 2.5 pm to 10 pm, or 4 pm to 9 pm, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0170] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles can have a multimodal distribution of sizes to increase packing density. In some embodiments, the multimodal distribution of sizes comprises a bimodal, a trimodal, or a quadmodal distribution.

[0171] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles can have a bimodal distribution of sizes. In some embodiments, a diameter of the carbon particles or carbon flowers can be from 0.5 pm to 10 pm. In some embodiments, a first mode of the bimodal distribution represents the smaller particles, while a second mode of the bimodal distribution represents the larger ones. The specific ranges for each mode can vary depending on the distribution of sizes in the sample, and can be adjusted according to the requirements of the sample. The key characteristic of a bimodal distribution is the presence of two distinct size ranges in the distribution. For example, a diameter of the first mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 0.5 pm to about 2 pm, while a diameter of the second mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 2 pm to about 10 pm.

[0172] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles can have a trimodal distribution of sizes. For example, a diameter of the first mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 0.5 pm to about 2 pm, while a diameter of the second mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 2 pm to about 5 pm. A diameter of the third mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 5 pm to about 10 pm.

[0173] In some embodiments, the plurality of carbon particles can have a quadmodal distribution of sizes. For example, a diameter of the first mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 0.5 pm to about 2 pm, while a diameter of the second mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 2 pm to about 4 pm. A diameter of the third mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 4 pm to about 7 pm. AAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601diameter of the fourth mode of the bimodal distribution carbon particles can be from about 7 pm to about 10 pm.

[0174] In some embodiments, optimizations can be implemented on the carbon flower, primarily by reducing the overall carbon content in the anode. By minimizing the carbon mass or volume, the proportion of the active material in the anode can be increased, thereby enhancing the overall energy density of the cell. One of the key parameters contributing to the enhancement of energy density is the surface area. An increase in the surface area of the anode allows for more efficient deposition of lithium metal, aiding in the promotion of a homogeneous deposition and reducing the occurrence of dendritic growth. As a result, a larger surface area results in improved performance of the cell. Therefore, a balance between increasing the surface area as much as possible and reducing the carbon mass or volume can be important. The overall aim using the carbon flower powder can be to minimize the space that carbon occupies while maximizing the area available for lithium metal deposition. This approach increases the energy density and boosts the overall efficiency of the lithium battery, making it an effective strategy for improving battery performance.

[0175] In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be at least 4 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be 2 mAh / cm2, 2.5 mAh / cm2, 3 mAh / cm2, 3.5 mAh / cm2, 4 mAh / cm2, 4.5 mAh / cm2, 5 mAh / cm2, 5.5 mAh / cm2, 6 mAh / cm2, 6.5 mAh / cm2, 7 mAh / cm2, 7.5 mAh / cm2, 8 mAh / cm2, 8.5 mAh / cm2, 9 mAh / cm2, 9.5 mAh / cm2, or 10 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be about 2 mAh / cm2, about 2.5 mAh / cm2, about 3 mAh / cm2, about 3.5 mAh / cm2, about 4 mAh / cm2, about 4.5 mAh / cm2, about 5 mAh / cm2, about 5.5 mAh / cm2, about 6 mAh / cm2, about 6.5 mAh / cm2, about 7 mAh / cm2, about 7.5 mAh / cm2, about 8 mAh / cm2, about 8.5 mAh / cm2, about 9 mAh / cm2, about 9.5 mAh / cm2, or about 10 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be at least 2 mAh / cm2, at least 2.5 mAh / cm2, at least 3 mAh / cm2, at least 3.5 mAh / cm2, at least 4 mAh / cm2, at least 4.5 mAh / cm2, at least 5 mAh / cm2, at least 5.5 mAh / cm2, at least 6 mAh / cm2, at least 6.5 mAh / cm2, at least 7 mAh / cm2, at least 7.5 mAh / cm2, at least 8 mAh / cm2, at least 8.5 mAh / cm2, at least 9 mAh / cm2, at least 9.5 mAh / cm2, or at least 10 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be at most 2 mAh / cm2, at most 2.5 mAh / cm2, at most 3 mAh / cm2, at most 3.5 mAh / cm2, at most 4 mAh / cm2, at most 4.5 mAh / cm2, at most 5 mAh / cm2, at most 5.5 mAh / cm2, at most 6 mAh / cm2, at most 6.5 mAh / cm2, at most 7 mAh / cm2, at most 7.5 mAh / cm2, at most 8 mAh / cm2, at most 8.5 mAh / cm2, at most 9 mAh / cm2, at most 9.5 mAh / cm2, or at most 10 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, an areal capacity of the negative electrode can be 2 mAh / cm2to 7.5 mAh / cm2, 3Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601mAh / cm2to 9 mAh / cm2, 4 mAh / cm2to 10 mAh / cm2, 5 mAh / cm2to 9.5 mAh / cm2, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0176] In some embodiments, the capacity of the negative electrode can be 50 mAh / g, 100 mAh / g, 150 mAh / g, 200 mAh / g, 250 mAh / g, 300 mAh / g, 350 mAh / g, 400 mAh / g, 450 mAh / g, or 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the negative electrode can be about 50 mAh / g, about 100 mAh / g, about 150 mAh / g, about 200 mAh / g, about 250 mAh / g, about 300 mAh / g, about 350 mAh / g, about 400 mAh / g, about 450 mAh / g, or about 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the negative electrode can be at least 50 mAh / g, at least 100 mAh / g, at least 150 mAh / g, at least 200 mAh / g, at least 250 mAh / g, at least 300 mAh / g, at least 350 mAh / g, at least 400 mAh / g, at least 450 mAh / g, or at least 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the negative electrode can be at most 50 mAh / g, at most 100 mAh / g, at most 150 mAh / g, at most 200 mAh / g, at most 250 mAh / g, at most 300 mAh / g, at most 350 mAh / g, at most 400 mAh / g, at most 450 mAh / g, or at most 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the negative electrode can be 150 mAh / g to 300 mAh / g, 100 mAh / g to 400 mAh / g, 250 mAh / g to 500 mAh / g, or 100 mAh / g to 300 mAh / g, including all values and sub ranges in between. For example, the capacity of the negative electrode can be at least 250 mAh / g.

[0177] In some embodiments, the energy density of the negative electrode can be 200 Wh / kg, 400 Wh / kg, 600 Wh / kg, 800 Wh / kg, 1000 Wh / kg, 1200 Wh / kg, 1400 Wh / kg, or 1600 Wh / kg. In some embodiments, the energy density of the negative electrode can be about 200 Wh / kg, about 400 Wh / kg, about 600 Wh / kg, about 800 Wh / kg, about 1000 Wh / kg, about 1200 Wh / kg, about 1400 Wh / kg, or about 1600 Wh / kg. The energy density of the negative electrode can be at least 200 Wh / kg, at least 400 Wh / kg, at least 600 Wh / kg, at least 800 Wh / kg, at least 1000 Wh / kg, at least 1200 Wh / kg, at least 1400 Wh / kg, or at least 1600 Wh / kg. The energy density of the negative electrode can be at most 200 Wh / kg, at most 400 Wh / kg, at most 600 Wh / kg, at most 800 Wh / kg, at most 1000 Wh / kg, at most 1200 Wh / kg, at most 1400 Wh / kg, or at most 1600 Wh / kg. In some embodiments, the energy density of the negative electrode can be 400 Wh / kg to 1200 Wh / kg, 600 Wh / kg to 1600 Wh / kg, 800 Wh / kg to 1400 Wh / kg, or 400 Wh / kg to 1000 Wh / kg, including all values and sub ranges in between. For example, the energy density of the negative electrode can be at least 800 Wh / kg.

[0178] In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of about 90 percent (%),Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000 cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, about 8000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from 2 V to 5 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from 1.5 V to 4 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 3.8 V, or 2 V to 3 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from about 2 V to about 5 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 4.5 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can beAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0179] In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of about 90 percent (%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the negative electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000 cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, aboutAtty Dkt No.: 65848-7256018000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50 cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2 V to 5 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from 1.5 V to 4 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled from 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 3.8 V, or 2 V to 3 V. In some embodiments, the negative electrode may be cycled can be from about 2 V to about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 4.5 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20: C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at mostAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0180] The negative electrode can comprise a plurality of carbon particles. In some embodiments, the carbon particles can be concaved shaped as shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, the carbon particles comprise a plurality of carbon nanosheets resembling flower petals, referred to herein as “carbon flowers.” The carbon particles are spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface. The structure of carbon flowers provides a high surface area. In some cases, the surface area of the carbon flowers can be from 10 m2 / g to 5000 m2 / g. In certain embodiments, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area measurements indicate that the carbon flowers have a specific surface area in the range of about 16 m2 / g to about 32 m2 / g, with a median value of approximately 25 m2 / g.

[0181] The carbon particles can provide a high porosity. In some cases, a porosity of the carbon flowers can be from 0.1 to 3 cm3 / g. The positive electrode can comprise a transition metal phosphate, for example lithium iron phosphate (LFP). The positive electrode can be substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

[0182] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to (1) facilitate the intercalation of the plurality of carbon particles with a plurality of lithium ions derived from an electrolyte, and (2) effectuate the plating of these plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on a surface of the plurality of carbon particles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to intercalate the plurality of carbon particles with a plurality of lithium ions from an anode through an electrolyte at a near zero voltage. As potential increases, the lithium ions achieve full intercalation, subsequently transforming into lithium metal at which point lithium metal deposition begins. The rechargeable energy source system disclosed herein can be configured to effectuate a homogeneous distribution of lithium ions prior to the initiation of nucleation into lithium metal. It can allow the uniform distribution of current across the carbon particles, thereby enhancing system stability. In particular, this feature mitigates the risk of formation or propagation of lithium dendrites, which are commonly induced by high and localized currents. By ensuring the uniform distribution of current and the controlled lithium metal deposition, the rechargeable energy storage system herein disclosed offers improved safety, efficiency, and reliability.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0183] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on a surface of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles at a near zero voltage. As potential increases, the lithium ions achieve full intercalation, subsequently transforming into lithium metal at which point lithium metal deposition begins. The rechargeable energy source system disclosed herein can be configured to effectuate a homogeneous distribution of lithium ions prior to the initiation of nucleation into lithium metal. It can allow the uniform distribution of current across the carbon particles, thereby enhancing system stability. In particular, this feature mitigates the risk of formation or propagation of lithium dendrites.

[0184] Carbon flowers, due to their unique nanostructured morphology, present a high surface area for interaction with lithium ions. This physical characteristic may provide a dual mode of operation. This operation can accommodate both lithium-ion intercalation into the carbon flowers at voltages near zero (relative to lithium), and lithium metal plating at voltages slightly below zero. When the battery is charging, the lithium ions from the electrolyte can be intercalated into the carbon flowers at lower potentials, mimicking the operation of a typical lithium-ion battery. As the charging process continues and the potential increases, the system can transition into a lithium metal battery operation. The lithium ions can be then plated onto the surface of the carbon flowers as lithium metal.

[0185] The rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of 600 mAh / g-5000 mAh / g. The rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity higher than 1000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of 600 mAh / g, 650 mAh / g, 700 mAh / g, 750 mAh / g, 800 mAh / g, 850 mAh / g, 900 mAh / g, 950 mAh / g, 1000 mAh / g, 1100 mAh / g, 1200 mAh / g, 1300 mAh / g, 1400 mAh / g, 1500 mAh / g, 1600 mAh / g, 1700 mAh / g, 1800 mAh / g, 1900 mAh / g, 2000 mAh / g, 2500 mAh / g, 3000 mAh / g, 3500 mAh / g, 4000 mAh / g, 4500 mAh / g, or 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g, about 650 mAh / g, about 700 mAh / g, about 750 mAh / g, about 800 mAh / g, about 850 mAh / g, about 900 mAh / g, about 950 mAh / g, about 1000 mAh / g, about 1100 mAh / g, about 1200 mAh / g, about 1300 mAh / g, about 1400 mAh / g, about 1500 mAh / g, about 1600 mAh / g, about 1700 mAh / g, about 1800 mAh / g, about 1900 mAh / g, about 2000 mAh / g, about 2500 mAh / g, about 3000 mAh / g, about 3500 mAh / g, about 4000 mAh / g, about 4500 mAh / g, or about 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of at least 600 mAh / g, at least 650 mAh / g, at least 700Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601mAh / g, at least 750 mAh / g, at least 800 mAh / g, at least 850 mAh / g, at least 900 mAh / g, at least 950 mAh / g, at least 1000 mAh / g, at least 1100 mAh / g, at least 1200 mAh / g, at least 1300 mAh / g, at least 1400 mAh / g, at least 1500 mAh / g, at least 1600 mAh / g, at least 1700 mAh / g, at least 1800 mAh / g, at least 1900 mAh / g, at least 2000 mAh / g, at least 2500 mAh / g, at least 3000 mAh / g, at least 3500 mAh / g, at least 4000 mAh / g, at least 4500 mAh / g, or at least 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of at most 700 mAh / g, at most 750 mAh / g, at most 800 mAh / g, at most 850 mAh / g, at most 900 mAh / g, at most 950 mAh / g, at most 1000 mAh / g, at most 1100 mAh / g, at most 1200 mAh / g, at most 1300 mAh / g, at most 1400 mAh / g, at most 1500 mAh / g, at most 1600 mAh / g, at most 1700 mAh / g, at most 1800 mAh / g, at most 1900 mAh / g, at most 2000 mAh / g, at most 2500 mAh / g, at most 3000 mAh / g, at most 3500 mAh / g, at most 4000 mAh / g, at most 4500 mAh / g, or at most 5000 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of 800 mAh / g-1200 mAh / g, 700 mAh / g-1100 mAh / g, 900 mAh / g-1400 mAh / g, 1500 mAh / g-4200 mAh / g, 1700 mAh / g-3900 mAh / g, 1900 mAh / g-4000 mAh / g, or 2600 mAh / g-4000 mAh / g, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0186] The rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 200 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for 200 cycles, 300 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 1100 cycles, 1200 cycles, 1400 cycles, 1500 cycles, 1600 cycles, 1700 cycles, 1800 cycles, 1900 cycles, 2000 cycles, 2500 cycles, 3000 cycles, 3500 cycles, 4000 cycles, 4500 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, or 6000 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for about 200 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 1100 cycles, about 1200 cycles, about 1300 cycles, about 1400 cycles, about 1500 cycles, about 1600 cycles, about 1700 cycles, about 1800 cycles, about 1900 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 2500 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 3500 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 4500 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, or about 6000 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 200 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 1100 cycles, at least 1200 cycles, at least 1300 cycles, at least 1400 cycles, at least 1500 cycles, at least 1600 cycles, at least 1700 cycles, at least 1800 cycles, at least 1900 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, atAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601least 2500 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 3500 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 4500 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, or at least 6000 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 1100 cycles, at most 1200 cycles, at most 1300 cycles, at most 1400 cycles, at most 1500 cycles, at most 1600 cycles, at most 1700 cycles, at most 1800 cycles, at most 1900 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 2100 cycles, at most 2200 cycles, at most 2300 cycles, at most 2400 cycles, at most 2500 cycles, at most 2600 cycles, at most 2700 cycles, at most 2800 cycles, at most 2900 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 3500 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 4500 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, or at most 6000 cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for 400 cycles to 2000 cycles, 600 cycles to 1800 cycles, 800 cycles to 2200 cycles, 500 cycles to 2300 cycles, 1400 cycles to 4000 cycles, 2600 cycles to 4800 cycles, 1800 cycles to 5200 cycles, 3500 cycles to 5300 cycles or 2400 cycles to 4600 cycles, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0187] Excess lithium deposition can undermine the cyclability of the battery. In some cases, higher levels of lithium loading can induce cracking in the anode material. This physical degradation can lead to a loss of active material, which in turn reduces the capacity and overall efficiency of the battery. With a more balanced lithium deposition disclosed herein, it can effectively enhance the durability and performance of the anode, thereby leading to more effective and sustainable battery performance. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of 1.5 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of less than 2 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of 0.6 mAh / cm2, 0.7 mAh / cm2, 0.8 mAh / cm2, 0.9 mAh / cm2, 1 mAh / cm2, 1.1 mAh / cm2, 1.2 mAh / cm2, 1.3 mAh / cm2, 1.4 mAh / cm2, 1.5 mAh / cm2, 1.6 mAh / cm2, 1.7 mAh / cm2, or 1.8 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of about 0.6 mAh / cm2, about 0.7 mAh / cm2, about 0.8 mAh / cm2, about 0.9 mAh / cm2, about 1 mAh / cm2, about 1.1 mAh / cm2, about 1.2 mAh / cm2, about 1.3 mAh / cm2, about 1.4 mAh / cm2, about 1.5 mAh / cm2, about 1.6 mAh / cm2, about 1.7 mAh / cm2, or about 1.8 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of at least 0.6 mAh / cm2, at least 0.7 mAh / cm2, at least 0.8 mAh / cm2, at least 0.9 mAh / cm2, at least 1 mAh / cm2, at least 1.1 mAh / cm2, at least 1.2 mAh / cm2, at least 1.3 mAh / cm2,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601at least 1.4 mAh / cm2, at least 1.5 mAh / cm2, at least 1.6 mAh / cm2, at least 1.7 mAh / cm2, or at least 1.8 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of at most 0.6 mAh / cm2, at most 0.7 mAh / cm2, at most 0.8 mAh / cm2, at most 0.9 mAh / cm2, at most 1 mAh / cm2, at most 1.1 mAh / cm2, at most 1.2 mAh / cm2, at most 1.3 mAh / cm2, at most 1.4 mAh / cm2, at most 1.5 mAh / cm2, at most 1.6 mAh / cm2, at most 1.7 mAh / cm2, or at most 1.8 mAh / cm2. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide lithium deposition of 0.6 mAh / cm2to 0.9 mAh / cm2, 0.7 mAh / cm2to 1.2 mAh / cm2, 0.8 mAh / cm2to 1.4 mAh / cm2, or 0.6 mAh / cm2to 1.5 mAh / cm2, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0188] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of about 90 percent (%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000 cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, about 8000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50 cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 2 V to 5 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 1.5 V to 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 2.2 V to 4 V, 1.8 V to 4 V, 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 3.8 V, or 2 V to 3 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 1.5 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 2.2 V to about 4 V, about 1.8 V to about 4 V, about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 3.8 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 2.2 V to 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 1.8 V to 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 2.2 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 1.8 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge.

[0189] The cyclability of the rechargeable energy source system may be enhanced (e.g., higher number of cycles, higher cycling efficiency) when operated at a reduced current density. TheAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601reduced current density can be 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA mA / cm2. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of about 0.1 mA / cm2to about 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2, 0.2 mA / cm2, 0.3 mA / cm2, 0.4 mA / cm2, 0.5 mA / cm2, 0.6 mA / cm2, 0.7 mA / cm2, 0.8 mA / cm2, 0.9 mA / cm2, or 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of about 0.1 mA / cm2, about 0.2 mA / cm2, about 0.3 mA / cm2, about 0.4 mA / cm2, about 0.5 mA / cm2, about 0.6 mA / cm2, about 0.7 mA / cm2, about 0.8 mA / cm2, about 0.9 mA / cm2, or about 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of at least 0.1 mA / cm2, at least 0.2 mA / cm2, at least 0.3 mA / cm2, at least 0.4 mA / cm2, at least 0.5 mA / cm2, at least 0.6 mA / cm2, at least 0.7 mA / cm2, at least 0.8 mA / cm2, at least 0.9 mA / cm2, or at least 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled by applying a current density of at most 0.1 mA / cm2, at most 0.2 mA / cm2, at most 0.3 mA / cm2, at most 0.4 mA / cm2, at most 0.5 mA / cm2, at most 0.6 mA / cm2, at most 0.7 mA / cm2, at most 0.8 mA / cm2, at most 0.9 mA / cm2, or at most 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

[0190] In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256011C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0191] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a columbic efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a columbic efficiency of about 90 percent (%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a columbic efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a columbic efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a columbic efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, about 8000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50 cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the system (e.g., a cell) may be cycled from 2.2 V to 4 V, 1.8 V to 4 V, 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 3.8 V, or 2 V to 3 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 1.5 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 2.2 V to about 4 V, about 1.8 V to about 4 V, about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 3.8 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 2.2 V to 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from 1.8 V to 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 2.2 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the system may be cycled from about 1.8 V to about 4 V during charge and discharge. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2 V to 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2 V to about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 4.5 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cyclingAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0192] In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, or 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 98%, about 99%, about 99.1%, about 99.2%, about 99.3%, about 99.4%, about 99.5%, about 99.6%, about 99.7%, about 99.8%, about 99.9%, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, or about 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, at least 99%, at least 99.1%, at least 99.2%, at least 99.3%, at least 99.4%, at least 99.5%, at least 99.6%, at least 99.7%, at least 99.8%, at least 99.9%, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, or at least 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at leastAtty Dkt No.: 65848-7256015500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at most 80%, at most 85%, at most 90%, at most 95%, at most 98%, at most 99%, at most 99.1%, at most 99.2%, at most 99.3%, at most 99.4%, at most 99.5%, at most 99.6%, at most 99.7%, at most 99.8%, at most 99.9%, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, or at most 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 80% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 85% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5000 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 90% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 95% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles.Electrolyte

[0193] Various organic electrolytes can be used. In some embodiments, an electrolyte for an electrochemical cell comprising nanostructured carbon can be a complex electrolyte of the present disclosure. For example, an electrolyte for an electrochemical cell comprising nanostructured carbon can comprise one or more participating solvents and one or more nonparticipating solvents. The electrolyte can further comprise one or more semi-participating solvents. In some embodiments, an organic electrolyte can comprise dimethyl carbonate, ethylmethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, 1,3-dioxolan-2-one, 4-methyl-l,3-dioxolan-2-one, oxolan-2-one, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise an organic carbonate compound, an ester compound, an ether compound, a ketone compound, an alcohol compound, an aprotic bipolar solvent, or a combination thereof. The carbonate compound can be an open chain carbonate compound, a cyclic carbonate compound, a fluorocarbonate derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0194] In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise an ether-based electrolytes. In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system. These electrolytes are composed of a mixture of organic solvents, lithium salts, and additives. The electrolyte comprising an ether-based solvent system may have lower reduction potentials, indicating a higher tendency to donate electrons during a chemical reaction. As a result, the electrolyte is less likely to react with the lithium metal with the cell, thereby improving the overall safety and stability of the battery. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise an ether-basedAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601solvent comprising 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2-dimethoxy ethane (DME), tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME), poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME), or a mixture thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (EGDME) based electrolyte. EGDME exhibits good electrochemical performance and is used in lithium batteries as it is particularly efficient in transferring lithium ions from the anode to the cathode during discharging and the other way around during charging. This high conductivity results in increased efficiency of the battery. In some embodiments, the ether-based electrolyte may be tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME) based electrolyte. TEGDME exhibits good thermal stability, high flash point, and high boiling point compared to other ether-based solvents. In some embodiments, the ether-based electrolyte can be poly(ethylene glycol) dimethyl ether (PEGDME) based electrolyte, exhibiting high lithium transference number, high ionic conductivity, and better cycling performance. In some embodiments, the electrolyte may be free of carbonate solvents.

[0195] In certain embodiments, the electrolyte may comprise an ether-based solvent system. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of 600 mAh / g, 650 mAh / g, 700 mAh / g, 750 mAh / g, 800 mAh / g, 850 mAh / g, 900 mAh / g, 950 mAh / g, 1000 mAh / g, 1100 mAh / g, 1200 mAh / g, 1300 mAh / g, 1400 mAh / g, 1500 mAh / g, 1600 mAh / g, 1700 mAh / g, 1800 mAh / g, 1900 mAh / g, 2000 mAh / g, 2500 mAh / g, 3000 mAh / g, 3500 mAh / g, 4000 mAh / g, 4500 mAh / g, or 5000 mAh / g with an ether-based electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g, about 650 mAh / g, about 700 mAh / g, about 750 mAh / g, about 800 mAh / g, about 850 mAh / g, about 900 mAh / g, about 950 mAh / g, about 1000 mAh / g, about 1100 mAh / g, about 1200 mAh / g, about 1300 mAh / g, about 1400 mAh / g, about 1500 mAh / g, about 1600 mAh / g, about 1700 mAh / g, about 1800 mAh / g, about 1900 mAh / g, about 2000 mAh / g, about 2500 mAh / g, about 3000 mAh / g, about 3500 mAh / g, about 4000 mAh / g, about 4500 mAh / g, or about 5000 mAh / g with an ether-based electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of at least 600 mAh / g, at least 650 mAh / g, at least 700 mAh / g, at least 750 mAh / g, at least 800 mAh / g, at least 850 mAh / g, at least 900 mAh / g, at least 950 mAh / g, at least 1000 mAh / g, at least 1100 mAh / g, at least 1200 mAh / g, at least 1300 mAh / g, at least 1400 mAh / g, at least 1500 mAh / g, at least 1600 mAh / g, at least 1700 mAh / g, at least 1800 mAh / g, at least 1900 mAh / g, at least 2000 mAh / g, at least 2500 mAh / g, at least 3000 mAh / g, at least 3500 mAh / g, at least 4000 mAh / g, at least 4500 mAh / g, or at least 5000 mAh / g with an ether-based electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of at most 700 mAh / g, at most 750 mAh / g, at most 800 mAh / g, at most 850 mAh / g, at most 900 mAh / g, at mostAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601950 mAh / g, at most 1000 mAh / g, at most 1100 mAh / g, at most 1200 mAh / g, at most 1300 mAh / g, at most 1400 mAh / g, at most 1500 mAh / g, at most 1600 mAh / g, at most 1700 mAh / g, at most 1800 mAh / g, at most 1900 mAh / g, at most 2000 mAh / g, at most 2500 mAh / g, at most 3000 mAh / g, at most 3500 mAh / g, at most 4000 mAh / g, at most 4500 mAh / g, or at most 5000 mAh / g with an ether-based electrolyte. In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system can be configured to provide a capacity of 800 mAh / g-1200 mAh / g, 700 mAh / g-1100 mAh / g, 900 mAh / g-1400 mAh / g, 1500 mAh / g-4200 mAh / g, 1700 mAh / g-3900 mAh / g, 1900 mAh / g-4000 mAh / g, or 2600 mAh / g-4000 mAh / g with an ether-based electrolyte, including all values and sub ranges in between.

[0196] In some embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain 80%, 85%, 90%, 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain about 80%, about 85%, about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90 %, at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 chargedischarge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at most 80%, at most 85%, at most 90%, at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 chargedischarge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 80% of its initial discharge capacity after at leastAtty Dkt No.: 65848-7256015500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 85% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 90% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 95% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte. In certain embodiments, the rechargeable energy source system may maintain at least 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles with an ether-based electrolyte.

[0197] In some embodiments, the organic electrolyte can comprise dimethyl carbonate, ethylmethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, 1,3-dioxolan-2-one, 4-methyl-l,3-dioxolan-2-one, oxolan-2-one, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte can comprise an organic carbonate compound, an ester compound, an ether compound, a ketone compound, an alcohol compound, an aprotic bipolar solvent, or a combination thereof. The carbonate compound can be an open chain carbonate compound, a cyclic carbonate compound, a fluorocarbonate derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0198] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an aqueous electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a non-aqueous electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a polymer electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an organic electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a lithium salt. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises an ionic liquid. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a deep eutectic solvent. The electrolyte can be used in the manufacture of a lithium metal electrode. The electrolyte can be used in a rechargeable energy source system.

[0199] In some embodiments, an electrolyte is non-flammable or fire-resistant. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is substantially non-volatile at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is non-flammable at room temperature and pressure. In some embodiments, an electrolyte is self-extinguishing.

[0200] In some embodiments, the electrolyte further comprises one or more additives, e.g., nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or silicon compounds. The additives may improve the electrochemical performance and stability of the cell. Without being bound by theory, such additives may function to form or stabilize a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on the anode surface, suppress gas generation or transition-metal dissolution, enhance oxidation stability at the cathode, or improve overall ionic conductivity. The additives include but are not limited to vinyl carbonate (VC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), lithium difluoro(oxalate)borate (LiDFOB),Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601lithium bis(oxalate)borate (LiBOB), lithium nitrate (LiNCh), tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphate (TMSP), 1,3-propane sultone (PS), ethylene sulfate (ES), and dimethyl sulfite (DMS). In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise lithium nitrate (LiNCh). In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise VC. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise LiDFOB. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise FEC. In some embodiments, the one or more additives comprise ES. In some embodiment, the electrolyte comprises one or more additives of 0.5 wt, 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt%, 5 wt%, 6 wt%, 7 wt%, 8 wt%, 9 wt%, or 10 wt% of the electrolyte. In some embodiment, the electrolyte comprises one or more additives of about 0.5 wt, about 1 wt%, about 2 wt%, about 3 wt%, about 4 wt%, about 5 wt%, about 6 wt%, about 7 wt%, about 8 wt%, about 9 wt%, or about 10 wt% of the electrolyte. In some embodiment, the electrolyte comprises one or more additives of at least 0.5 wt, at least 1 wt%, at least 2 wt%, at least 3 wt%, at least 4 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 6 wt%, at least 7 wt%, at least 8 wt%, at least 9 wt%, or at least 10 wt% of the electrolyte. In some embodiment, the electrolyte comprises one or more additives of at most 0.5 wt, at most 1 wt%, at most 2 wt%, at most 3 wt%, at most 4 wt%, at most 5 wt%, at most 6 wt%, at most 7 wt%, at most 8 wt%, at most 9 wt%, or at most 10 wt% of the electrolyte. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of 2 V, 3 V, 4 V, 5 V, or 6 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of 4 V or higher. In some embodiments, a solvent of the electrolyte decomposes oxidatively above ~4 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of about 2 V, about 3 V, about 4 V, about 5 V, or about 6 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of at least 2 V, at least 3 V, at least 4 V, at least 5 V, or at least 6 V. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a decomposition potential of at most 2 V, at most 3 V, at most 4 V, at most 5 V, or at most 6 V.

[0201] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of about 2, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, or about 80. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 30, at least 40, at least 50, at least 60, at least 70, or at least 80. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a dielectric constant of at most 3, at most 5, at most 10, at most 20, at most 30, at most 40, at most 50, at most 60, at most 70, at most 80, or at most 90.

[0202] Various organic electrolytes can be used. In some embodiments, an organic electrolyte can comprise dimethyl carbonate, ethylmethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, l,3-dioxolan-2-one, 4-methyl-l,3-dioxolan-2-one, oxolan-2-one, and anyAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise an organic carbonate compound, an ester compound, an ether compound, a ketone compound, an alcohol compound, an aprotic bipolar solvent, or a combination thereof. The carbonate compound may be an open chain carbonate compound, a cyclic carbonate compound, a fluorocarbonate derivative thereof, or a combination thereof.

[0203] In some embodiments, the chain carbonate compound can be diethyl carbonate (DEC), dimethyl carbonate ( DMC), dipropyl carbonate (DPC), methylpropyl carbonate (MPC), ethylpropylcarbonate (EPC), methylethyl carbonate (MEC), and a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cyclic carbonate compound can be ethylene carbonate (EC), propylenecarbonate (PC), butylene carbonate (BC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), and a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the fluorocarbonate compound can be fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), 4,5-difluoroethylene carbonate, 4,4-difluoroethylene carbonate, 4,4,5-trifluoroethylene carbonate, 4, 4,5,5-tetrafluoroethylene carbonate, 4-fluoro-5-methylethylene carbonate, 4-fluoro-4-methylethylene carbonate, 4,5-difluoro-4-methylethylene carbonate, 4,4,5-trifluoro-5-methylethylene carbonate, trifluoromethylethylene carbonate, and a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the carbonate compound can include a combination of cyclic carbonate and chain carbonate, in consideration of dielectric constant and viscosity of the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the carbonate compound can be a mixture of such chain carbonate and / or cyclic carbonate compounds as described above with a fluorocarbonate compound.

[0204] In some embodiments, the fluorocarbonate compound can increase solubility of a lithium salt to improve ionic conductivity of the electrolyte, and can facilitate formation of the thin film on the negative electrode. In some embodiments, the ester compound is methyl acetate, ethyl acetate, n-propyl acetate, dimethyl acetate, methyl propionate (MP), ethyl propionate, y-butyrolactone, decanolide, valerolactone, mevalonolactone, caprolactone, and methyl formate.

[0205] In some embodiments, the ether compound is dibutyl ether, tetraglyme, diglyme, 1,2-dimethoxy ethane, 1,2-di ethoxy ethane, ethoxymethoxy ethane, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, tetrafluoroproyl ether (TTE), and tetrahydrofuran. An example of the ketone compound is cyclohexanone. In some embodiments, the alcohol compound can be ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol. In some embodiments, the aprotic solvent can be a nitrile (such as R — CN, wherein R is a C2-C20 linear, branched, or cyclic hydrocarbon-based moiety that can include a double-bond, an aromatic ring or an ether bond), amides (such as formamide and dimethylformamide), dioxolanes (such as 1,2-dioxolane and 1,3-dioxolane), methylsulfoxide, sulfolanes (such as sulfolane and methylsulfolane), l,3-dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone, nitromethane, trimethyl phosphate, triethyl phosphate, trioctyl phosphate, and triester phosphate.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0206] In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise an aromatic hydrocarbon organic solvent in a carbonate solvent. In some embodiments, an aromatic hydrocarbon organic solvent can be benzene, fluorobenzene, 1,2-difluorobenzene, 1,3 -difluorobenzene, 1,4-difluorobenzene, 1.2.3 -trifluorobenzene, 1,2,4-trifluorobenzene, chlorobenzene, 1,2-di chlorobenzene, 1,3-di chlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene, 1, 2, 4-tri chlorobenzene, iodobenzene, 1,2-diiodobenzene, 1,3 -diiodobenzene, 1,4-diiodobenzene, 1,2, 3 -triiodobenzene, 1.2.4-triiodobenzene, 2-fluorotoluene, 3 -fluorotoluene, 4-fluorotoluene, 2,3 -difluorotoluene, 2,4-difluorotoluene, 2, 5 -difluorotoluene, 2,6-difluorotoluene, 3,4-difluorotoluene, 3,5-difluorotoluene, 2,3,4-trifluorotoluene, 2,3,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,3,6-trifluorotoluene, 3,4,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,4,5-trifluorotoluene, 2,4,6-trifluorotoluene, 2-chlorotoluene, 3 -chlorotoluene, 4-chlorotoluene, 2,3-dichlorotoluene, 2,4-dichlorotoluene, 2,5-dichlorotoluene, 2,6-di chlorotoluene, 2,3,4-trichlorotoluene, 2,3,5-trichlorotoluene, 2,3,6-trichlorotoluene, 3,4,5-trichlorotoluene, 2,4,5-trichlorotoluene, 2,4,6-trichlorotoluene, 2-iodotoluene, 3 -iodotoluene, 4-iodotoluene, 2,3-diiodotoluene, 2,4-diiodotoluene, 2,5-diiodotoluene, 2,6-diiodotoluene, 3,4-diiodotoluene, 3,5-diiodotoluene, 2,3,4-triiodotoluene, 2,3,5-triiodotoluene, 2,3,6-triiodotoluene, 3.4.5-triiodotoluene, 2,4,5-triiodotoluene, 2,4,6-triiodotoluene, o-xylene, m-xylene, p-xylene, and combinations thereof.

[0207] An electrolyte can comprise various viscosities. Polymeric or polymer solution electrolytes can comprise a large viscosity, as the viscosity can scale exponentially with the molecular weight of the polymer above a critical molecular weight (e.g., entanglement molecular weight). In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 0.1 mPa»s, 0.2 mPa»s, 0.3 mPa»s, 0.4 mPa»s, 0.5 mPa»s, 0.6 mPa»s, 0.7 mPa»s, 0.8 mPa»s, 0.9 mPa»s, 1 mPa»s, 2 mPa»s, 3 mPa»s, 4 mPa»s, 5 mPa»s, 6 mPa»s, 7 mPa»s, 8 mPa»s, 9 mPa»s, 10 mPa»s, 20 mPa»s, 30 mPa»s, 40 mPa»s, 50 mPa»s, 60 mPa»s, 70 mPa»s, 80 mPa»s, 90 mPa»s, 100 mPa»s, 200 mPa»s, 300 mPa»s, 400 mPa»s, 500 mPa»s, 600 mPa»s, 700 mPa»s, 800 mPa»s, or 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 0.1 mPa»s, about 0.2 mPa»s, about 0.3 mPa»s, about 0.4 mPa»s, about 0.5 mPa»s, about 0.6 mPa»s, about 0.7 mPa»s, about 0.8 mPa»s, about 0.9 mPa»s, about 1 mPa»s, about 2 mPa»s, about 3 mPa»s, about 4 mPa»s, about 5 mPa»s, about 6 mPa»s, about 7 mPa»s, about 8 mPa»s, about 9 mPa»s, about 10 mPa»s, about 20 mPa»s, about 30 mPa»s, about 40 mPa»s, about 50 mPa»s, about 60 mPa»s, about 70 mPa»s, about 80 mPa»s, about 90 mPa»s, about 100 mPa»s, about 200 mPa»s, about 300 mPa»s, about 400 mPa»s, about 500 mPa»s, about 600 mPa»s, about 700 mPa»s, about 800 mPa»s, or about 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 0.1 mPa»s, at least 0.2 mPa»s, at least 0.3 mPa»s, at least 0.4 mPa»s, at least 0.5 mPa»s, at least 0.6 mPa»s, at least 0.7 mPa»s, at least 0.8 mPa»s, at least 0.9 mPa»s, at least 1 mPa»s, at least 2 mPa»s, at least 3Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601mPa»s, at least 4 mPa»s, at least 5 mPa»s, at least 6 mPa»s, at least 7 mPa»s, at least 8 mPa»s, at least 9 mPa»s, at least 10 mPa»s, at least 20 mPa»s, at least 30 mPa»s, at least 40 mPa»s, at least 50 mPa»s, at least 60 mPa»s, at least 70 mPa»s, at least 80 mPa»s, at least 90 mPa»s, at least 100 mPa»s, at least 200 mPa»s, at least 300 mPa»s, at least 400 mPa»s, at least 500 mPa»s, at least 600 mPa»s, at least 700 mPa»s, at least 800 mPa»s, or at least 900 mPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 0.1 mPa»s, at most 0.2 mPa»s, at most 0.3 mPa»s, at most 0.4 mPa»s, at most 0.5 mPa»s, at most 0.6 mPa»s, at most 0.7 mPa»s, at most 0.8 mPa»s, at most 0.9 mPa»s, at most 1 mPa»s, at most 2 mPa»s, at most 3 mPa»s, at most 4 mPa»s, at most 5 mPa»s, at most 6 mPa»s, at most 7 mPa»s, at most 8 mPa»s, at most 9 mPa»s, at most 10 mPa»s, at most 20 mPa»s, at most 30 mPa»s, at most 40 mPa»s, at most 50 mPa»s, at most 60 mPa»s, at most 70 mPa»s, at most 80 mPa»s, at most 90 mPa»s, at most 100 mPa»s, at most 200 mPa»s, at most 300 mPa»s, at most 400 mPa»s, at most 500 mPa»s, at most 600 mPa»s, at most 700 mPa»s, at 1 most 800 mPa»s, or at most 900 mPa»s.

[0208] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 1 Pa»s, 2 Pa»s, 3 Pa»s, 4 Pa»s, 5 Pa»s, 6 Pa»s, 7 Pa»s, 8 Pa»s, 9 Pa»s, 10 Pa»s, 20 Pa»s, 30 Pa»s, 40 Pa»s, 50 Pa»s, 60 Pa»s, 70 Pa»s, 80 Pa»s, 90 Pa»s, 100 Pa»s, 200 Pa»s, 300 Pa»s, 400 Pa»s, 500 Pa»s, 600 Pa»s, 700 Pa»s, 800 Pa»s, or 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 1 Pa»s, about 2 Pa»s, about 3 Pa»s, about 4 Pa»s, about 5 Pa»s, about 6 Pa»s, about 7 Pa»s, about 8 Pa»s, about 9 Pa»s, about 10 Pa»s, about 20 Pa»s, about 30 Pa»s, about 40 Pa»s, about 50 Pa»s, about 60 Pa»s, about 70 Pa»s, about 80 Pa»s, about 90 Pa»s, about 100 Pa»s, about 200 Pa»s, about 300 Pa»s, about 400 Pa»s, about 500 Pa»s, about 600 Pa»s, about 700 Pa»s, about 800 Pa»s, or about 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1 Pa»s, at least 2 Pa»s, at least 3 Pa»s, at least 4 Pa»s, at least 5 Pa»s, at least 6 Pa»s, at least 7 Pa»s, at least 8 Pa»s, at least 9 Pa»s, at least 10 Pa»s, at least 20 Pa»s, at least 30 Pa»s, at least 40 Pa»s, at least 50 Pa»s, at least 60 Pa»s, at least 70 Pa»s, at least 80 Pa»s, at least 90 Pa»s, at least 100 Pa»s, at least 200 Pa»s, at least 300 Pa»s, at least 400 Pa»s, at least 500 Pa»s, at least 600 Pa»s, at least 700 Pa»s, at least 800 Pa»s, or at least 900 Pa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1 Pa»s, at most 2 Pa»s, at most 3 Pa»s, at most 4 Pa»s, at most 5 Pa»s, at most 6 Pa»s, at most 7 Pa»s, at most 8 Pa»s, at most 9 Pa»s, at most 10 Pa»s, at most 20 Pa»s, at most 30 Pa»s, at most 40 Pa»s, at most 50 Pa»s, at most 60 Pa»s, at most 70 Pa»s, at most 80 Pa»s, at most 90 Pa»s, at most 100 Pa»s, at most 200 Pa»s, at most 300 Pa»s, at most 400 Pa»s, at most 500 Pa»s, at most 600 Pa»s, at most 700 Pa»s, at most 800 Pa»s, or at most 900 Pa»s.

[0209] In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of 1 kPa»s, 2 kPa»s, 3 kPa»s, 4 kPa»s, 5 kPa»s, 6 kPa»s, 7 kPa»s, 8 kPa»s, 9 kPa»s, 10 kPa»s, 20 kPa»s, 30 kPa»s, 40 kPa»s, 50 kPa»s, 60 kPa»s, 70 kPa»s, 80 kPa»s, 90 kPa»s, 100 kPa»s, 200 kPa»s, 300 kPa»s, 400 kPa»s, 500Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601kPa»s, 600 kPa»s, 700 kPa»s, 800 kPa»s, or 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of about 1 kPa»s, about 2 kPa»s, about 3 kPa»s, about 4 kPa»s, about 5 kPa»s, about 6 kPa»s, about 7 kPa»s, about 8 kPa»s, about 9 kPa»s, about 10 kPa»s, about 20 kPa»s, about 30 kPa»s, about 40 kPa»s, about 50 kPa»s, about 60 kPa»s, about 70 kPa»s, about 80 kPa»s, about 90 kPa»s, about 100 kPa»s, about 200 kPa»s, about 300 kPa»s, about 400 kPa»s, about 500 kPa»s, about 600 kPa»s, about 700 kPa»s, about 800 kPa»s, or about 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at least 1 kPa»s, at least 2 kPa»s, at least 3 kPa»s, at least 4 kPa»s, at least 5 kPa»s, at least 6 kPa»s, at least 7 kPa»s, at least 8 kPa»s, at least 9 kPa»s, at least 10 kPa»s, at least 20 kPa»s, at least 30 kPa»s, at least 40 kPa»s, at least 50 kPa»s, at least 60 kPa»s, at least 70 kPa»s, at least 80 kPa»s, at least 90 kPa»s, at least 100 kPa»s, at least 200 kPa»s, at least 300 kPa»s, at least 400 kPa»s, at least 500 kPa»s, at least 600 kPa»s, at least 700 kPa»s, at least 800 kPa»s, or at least 900 kPa»s. In some embodiments, an electrolyte comprises a viscosity of at most 1 kPa»s, at most 2 kPa»s, at most 3 kPa»s, at most 4 kPa»s, at most 5 kPa»s, at most 6 kPa»s, at most k7 Pa»s, at most 8 kPa»s, at most 9 kPa»s, at most 10 kPa»s, at most 20 kPa»s, at most 30 kPa»s, at most 40 kPa»s, at most 50 kPa»s, at most 60 kPa»s, at most 70 kPa»s, at most 80 kPa»s, at most 90 kPa»s, at most 100 kPa»s, at most 200 kPa»s, at most 300 kPa»s, at most 400 kPa»s, at most 500 kPa»s, at most 600 kPa»s, at most 700 kPa»s, at most 800 kPa»s, or at most 900 kPa»s.

[0210] Various polymeric electrolytes can be used. A polymer electrolyte can comprise poly(ethylene oxide), poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(caprolactone), poly(chitosan), poly(vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(vinyl chloride), poly(vinyl fluoride), poly(imide), or any combination thereof, which can inherently conduct lithium ions or be doped with one or more lithium salts to make the polymer be lithium conductive.

[0211] Various ionic liquids can be used, e.g., any one of the ionic liquids listed on the Ionic Liquids Database (ILThermo) of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

[0212] Various lithium salts can be used. In some embodiments, the lithium salt in the electrolyte solution can be, but not limited to lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPFe), lithium tetrafluorob orate (LiBF4), or lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI). A lithium salt can comprise lithium 12-hydroxy stearate, lithium acetate, lithium amide, lithium aspartate, lithium azide, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, lithium borohydride, lithium bromide, lithium carbonate, lithium chlorate, lithium chloride, lithium citrate, lithium cyanide, lithium diphenylphosphide, lithium hexafluorogermanate, lithium hexafluorophosphate, lithium hypochlorite, lithium hypofluorite, lithium metaborate, lithium methoxide, lithium naphthalene, lithium niobate, lithium nitrate, lithium nitrite, lithium oxalate, lithium perchlorate, lithium stearate, lithium succinate, lithium sulfate, lithium sulfide, lithium superoxide, lithium tantalate,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601lithium tetrachloroaluminate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate, lithium triflate, lithium tungstate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise lithium salts comprising an organic anion selected from the group consisting of trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide (TFSI), N- butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (PyruTFSI), trifluoromethanesulfonyl-imide, bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Li TFSI), and l-ethyl-3 - methylimidazolium-bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (EMI- TFSI) . In some embodiments, the catholyte 290 comprises ionic liquid-forming salts dissolved in 1,3-dioxolane (DOL), 1,2 dimethoxyethane (DME), or tetraethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME). In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise Li2SC>4, Li2CO3, LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiCICU, LiTFSI, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can comprise LiPFe, LiBF4, LiBFL, LiBO, LiDFOB, LiSbF6, LiAsF6, LiSbF6, LiCF3SO3, Li(CF3SO2)3C, Li(CF3SO2)2N, LiC4F9SO3, LiC104, LiA104, LiAICU, LiAlF4, LiBPh4, LiBioClio, CH3SO3Li, C4F3SO3Li, (CF3SO2)2NLi, LiN(CxF2x+iSO2)(CxF2y+iSO2) (wherein x and are natural numbers), CF3CO2Li, LiCl, LiBr, Lil, LIBOB (lithium bisoxalato borate), lower aliphatic carboxylic acid lithium, lithium terphenylborate, lithium imide, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt can be in a range of about 0.1 molar (“M”) to about 2.0 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is 0.01 M, 0.02 M, 0.03 M, 0.04 M, 0.05 M, 0.06 M, 0.07 M, 0.08 M, 0.09 M, 0.1 M, 0.2 M, 0.3 M, 0.4 M, 0.5 M, 0.6 M, 0.7 M, 0.8 M, 0.9 M, 1.0 M, 1.5 M, 2.0 M, 2.5 M, or 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is about 0.01 M, about 0.02 M, about 0.03 M, about 0.04 M, about 0.05 M, about 0.06 M, about 0.07 M, about 0.08 M, about 0.09 M, about 0.1 M, about 0.2 M, about 0.3 M, about 0.4 M, about 0.5 M, about 0.6 M, about 0.7 M, about 0.8 M, about 0.9 M, about 1.0 M, about 1.5 M, about 2.0 M, about 2.5 M, or about 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at least 0.01 M, at least 0.02 M, at least 0.03 M, at least 0.04 M, at least 0.05 M, at least 0.06 M, at least 0.07 M, at least 0.08 M, at least 0.09 M, at least 0.1 M, at least 0.2 M, at least 0.3 M, at least 0.4 M, at least 0.5 M, at least 0.6 M, at least 0.7 M, at least 0.8 M, at least 0.9 M, at least 1.0 M, at least 1.5 M, at least 2.0 M, at least 2.5 M, or at least 3 M. In some embodiments, a concentration of the lithium salt is at most 0.01 M, at most 0.02 M, at most 0.03 M, at most 0.04 M, at most 0.05 M, at most 0.06 M, at most 0.07 M, at most 0.08 M, at most 0.09 M, at most 0.1 M, at most 0.2 M, at most 0.3 M, at most 0.4 M, at most 0.5 M, at most 0.6 M, at most 0.7 M, at most 0.8 M, at most 0.9 M, at most 1.0 M, at most 1.5 M, at most 2.0 M, at most 2.5 M, or at most 3 M.

[0213] The electrolyte can comprise a lithium conductive polymer. The lithium conductive polymer can be a copolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer can comprise a blockAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601copolymer or a random copolymer. In some embodiments, a portion of the block copolymer is in contact with lithium metal, wherein the portion is substantially unreactive with the lithium metal. A block copolymer can, for example, be annealed to undergo microphase separation, providing an exposed hydrophobic surface that is substantially unreactive with lithium metal. Meanwhile, the block copolymer can further comprise a percolating hydrophilic domain that provides paths for lithium ions to traverse through from one side of the block copolymer to the other. In some embodiments, the block copolymer comprises diblock copolymer, triblock copolymer, triblock terpolymer, multiblock copolymer, and grafted copolymer. In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise PDMS-PEG (e.g., poly(polydimethylsiloxane methacrylate)-b-poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)). In some embodiments, the block copolymer can comprise POEM-b-PLMA, POEM-P(PDMSMA), PBA-b-PPEGMA, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, a copolymer can comprise poly(butyl acrylate) (PBA), Poly(butyl methacrylate) (PBMA), Poly(lauryl methacrylate) (PLMA), Poly(ethylene) (PE), Poly(ethylene-alt-propylene) (PEP), Poly(urethane) (PU), Poly(butadiene) (PB), Poly(polyvinylidene methacrylate) (PPVDFMA), Poly(polytetrafluoroethylene methacrylate) (PPTFEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether) (PFPE), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (PPEGMA), Poly(poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate) (PPEGA), Poly(perfluoropolyether methacrylate) (PFPEMA), Poly(perfluoropolyether acrylate) (PFPEA), or any combination thereof.

[0214] The hydrophobic polymer can comprise, e.g., a cyclic olefin copolymer, fluorinated ethylene propylene, ethylene-methyl acrylate copolymer, polymonochlorotrifluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy polymer, polymethylpentene, polypropylene, polyphenylene sulfide, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene, ethylene vinyl acetate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, an electrolyte can be a high conductivity electrolyte with a lithium transference number > 0.3, a low flammability, and weakly solvating ability to minimize the charge transfer resistance. In some embodiments, fluorinated compounds tend to make an inorganic rich SEI layer that promotes higher coulombic efficiencies.POSITIVE ELECTRODE

[0215] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides a positive electrode. The positive electrode can comprise a redox material as an active material. The redox material can be synthesized to be substantially free of lithium. The redox material can be in contact with a substrate.

[0216] The redox material can comprise a lithium intercalating material. The redox material can comprise a multi -electron intercalating material. The redox material can comprise a transitionAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601metal, which undergoes a change in oxidation state of at least two between a charged and discharged state. The redox material can be configured to receive lithium via an intercalation mechanism, a conversion mechanism, or both.

[0217] The redox material can comprise atoms with multiple oxidation states. The redox material can comprise titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, germanium, arsenic, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, tin, antimony, or any combination thereof.

[0218] The redox material can comprise a transition metal. The redox material can comprise at least one of: vanadium, cobalt, nickel, a cobalt-aluminum alloy, manganese, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, tungsten, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, palladium, or platinum. The redox material can comprise vanadium. The redox material can comprise an oxide. The redox material can comprise VxOy. The redox material can comprise VxOyFz. ‘X’, ‘ Y’, and ‘Z’ can be integers. ‘X’, ‘ Y’, and ‘Z’ can be real numbers, which can represent variations from exact stoichiometric ratios. The redox material can comprise at least one of: V6O5Fi9, V3OF11, VO2F, VOF3,VPO4F, LiV3OFn, Mn3V(PO4)6, V6O5FI9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, VCo3O8, or any combination thereof. The redox material can comprise FePO4, NiMnCoCh, or TiS2.

[0219] The redox material can comprise a transition metal phosphate. The redox material can comprise LiFePO4. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises LiFePO4as an active material. In some embodiments, the positive electrode may be made of LiFePO4. (LFP). In some embodiments, the redox material comprises LiMFePO4. The ‘M’ in LiMFePO4can be a secondary metal. The secondary metal can be nickel, cobalt, manganese, or vanadium, for example. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises particles. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises lithium manganese iron phosphate (LiMnxFeyPO4; LMFP). In some embodiments, the redox material comprises LiMno.8Feo.2P04. The particles can be agglomerated, well-dispersed, or a combination of both. The particles can be rods, wires, spheres, spheroids, or plates.

[0220] The redox material can comprise V2O5.

[0221] The high valence vanadium pentoxide, where vanadium exists in the +5 oxidation state and oxygen in the -2 oxidation state, may crystallize in the orthorhombic (Pmna) structure. In the Pmna structure, atomically there are alternating pairs of V2O5 corner-sharing square pyramidal polyhedra that edge-share with polyhedra pointing in opposite directions along the crystallographic c-axis. This two-dimensional layered structure is commonly referred to as theAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601alpha phase (01-V2O5). This initial V2O5 framework can undergo numerous layer shifts and develop shear planes that rearrange into alternate phases still described as V2O5. These polymorphic phases include the alpha (a), beta (fl), and gamma (y), that can be described using an orthorhombic, monoclinic, or triclinic system. The polymorphs of the V2O5 maintain the V+5oxidation state. All these structures can provide significant amounts of empty interstitial space that can accommodate inserted species that makes vanadium oxide a strong candidate for electrochemical intercalation batteries. Without being bound to a particular theory, electrochemical lithiation of V2O5 described by the formula LixV2Os can reach a limit of x = 3 in the structure however, when x > 1 the lithium ions become irreversibly trapped in the vanadium oxide framework. Some work has shown the alpha phase has a sequential phase transformation to four different lithiated phases named, epsilon (a), delta (8), gamma (y), and finally (w). Preintercalation of other elements into V2O5 can yield the beta structure (P-MxV2Os). This structure belongs to the general class of compounds known as bronzes in that the inserted alkali or transition metal maintains the same P-MxV2Os crystalline structure, where x can be 0.33 or 0.66. The addition of other elements while maintaining the V2O5 structure can cause a change in the electronic structure of the vanadium oxide due to charge neutrality with the intercalated elements remaining in an ionic state and vanadium is proportionately reduced from V5+to V4+and / or V3+depending on the oxidation state and amount of intercalant. The stoichiometry for the preintercalated templated synthesis ion is determined by both the P-V2O5 lattice space available and the ionic radii of the chosen element. It has been demonstrated that Na or Ag ions can incorporate at ~ 0.33 but for smaller ions such as Li or Cu they can incorporate at ~ 0.66. In both cases, there is a proportionate reduction of vanadium to an average of approximately +4.84 oxidation state for x = 0.33 and approximately +4.66 for x = 0.66 and it is assumed the Li, Ag, and Cu all exist at an oxidation state of +1 in the crystalline structure of P-MxV2Os.

[0222] To increase the electrochemical performance of these vanadium oxide phases, the M ion concentration can be finely controlled and tuned thereby increasing the usable specific capacity and significantly opening the structure promoting faster charge and discharge rates. Herein, vanadium pentoxide compounds can be written as i+MyX^CL and C-MvNzV2-zO5 where M and N are interstitial or substitutional elements, respectively the concentration M is denoted by y can be less than 0.15. These phases where the concentration of M denoted by y is greatly below 0.33 can be referred to as zeta phases. It is worthwhile to note that there are residual M and N ions impact the structure stability, electrochemical stability, and performance of the material in a battery.

[0223] In some aspects, the present disclosure relates to the electrochemical reaction of C-V2O5 (zeta vanadium oxide, ZVO) and derivative compounds such as C-AxMvV2O5 and C-AxMvNzV2-Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601zO5that are incorporated into a positive electrode material to provide an extra lithium reserve at the positive electrode to overcome capacity losses during cycling without the need to add any additional chemical, component, or positive electrode material. In ^-AxMyNzV2-zO5, A can be one or more ions selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, and Al. The concentration of x can range from 0.0-3.0 during charging and discharging the rechargeable electrochemical cell. M can be a transitional metal, alkaline earth, alkali, post-transition metal, metalloid, or combination thereof. In some variations, y can range from 0.0001-0.66. N can be a transition metal, post-transition metal, metalloid, or combinations thereof. In some variations, z can range from 0-2. The terms ^-V2Os, V2O5, or ZVO may be used interchangeably to include all derivates of the vanadium oxide compounds including ^-V2Os, ^-AxV2Os, C-AxMvV2O5. and -AxMyNzV2-zO5in various states of charge ranging from fully lithiatied (3 Li) to unlithiated (0 Li).

[0224] The positive electrode material can be incorporated into a positive electrode. The positive electrode can be a mixture of the ZVO positive electrode material, a polymeric binder (such as polyvinylidene fluoride), conductive additives (such as, carbon blacks, graphite, carbon nanotubes, graphene, etc.), or any combination thereof, that are deposited on a current collector, typically aluminum. The ZVO positive electrode material can comprise the chemical compound in the positive electrode that intercalates ions and is responsible for generating the electrochemical potential. The conductive additive can be a form of carbon that acts to electrically connect the ZVO positive electrode materials to the current collector. The polymeric binder can hold the ZVO positive electrode material and conductive additives together through cohesion. The polymeric binder can hold the entire deposited layer on the current collector.

[0225] In an electrochemical energy storage system ZVO can undergo the following reaction below.Equation 1: 3Li++ V2O5 — LisV2O5

[0226] Lithium-ions in Equation 1 can be replaced with other metal ions such as Na, Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Al, or other generally known electrochemical intercalation ions. In £-AxMvV2O5. and -AxMyNzV2-zO5this is represented by the concentration of A as denoted by x.

[0227] The theoretical specific capacity, CT, can follow the Equation 2 below:Equation 2: CT = (n • F) / (3.6 • Mw)where n is the number of electrons participating in the electrochemical reaction, F is Faraday’s constant (96,485.33 C / mol), 3.6 is a constant that converts theoretical specific capacity from C / g to mAh / g, and Mw is the molecular weight in g / mol of the positive electrode material chemical composition. Equation 2 results in 442 mAh / g of theoretical specific capacity when 3 lithium ions participate in the electrochemical reaction and the Mwis 181.88 g / mol V2O5. Equation 2Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601results in 396.66 mAh / g of theoretical specific capacity when 3 lithium ions participate in the electrochemical reaction and the Mwis 202.7 g / mol LisX^Ch.

[0228] Unlike other pre-lithiation reagents that commonly result in inactive components after the formation cycle; the positive electrode material taught herein does not require any sacrificial additive or component but instead relies on the inherent specific capacity of the ZVO material composition to provide extra lithium capacity.

[0229] Distinct to previously attempted over lithiation of positive electrode materials such as Lii.2NMC, ZVO is a positive electrode material that can store extra lithium capacity. The extra lithium capacity in ZVO can be easily accessible on the bottom of the voltage between 2.2-1.5 V where upon charging is transferred to the negative electrode and used to mitigate first cycle capacity loss. This is distinct from NCA and NMC positive electrode materials that indeed contain extra lithium capacity above 4.2 V wherein electrolyte and positive electrode active material (cathode active material; CAM) stability of these layered intercalation materials rapidly degrades cycle life. This phenomenon is often observed at high voltages above 4.2 V where the CAM particles crack, resulting in fresh positive electrode surfaces that consume more lithium capacity to build additional passivation layers on the newly formed surfaces, further exacerbating CE capacity loss.

[0230] With all these considerations a positive electrode material is presented for a rechargeable electrochemical cell that comprises a negative electrode, a positive electrode, and an electrolyte. The positive electrode material can comprise a compound with the general formula ^-AxMyV20s and / or ^-AxMyNzV2-zO5, where M and N are transition metals, alkaline earths, alkalis, posttransition metals, metalloids, or a combination thereof and A can be one or more ions selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, and Al ions. The positive electrode material may be incorporated in rechargeable electrochemical cells operating in a voltage window between 1.5-4.5 V. The concentration of “A” as denoted by “x” can be between 0 and 3.0. The concentration of “M” as denoted by “y” can be between 0.00001 and 0.66. The concentration of “N” as denoted “z” can be between 0 and 1.33.

[0231] Some compositions of positive electrode material that have been found to be particularly effective include a positive electrode material wherein a concentration of “A” as denoted by “x” can be between 0-3, a concentration of “M” as denoted by “y” can be 0.0001-0.15, and where “M” can be one or more selected from the group consisting of Cu, Ag, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Pb, Al, Sn, Cs, Rb, and Fe.

[0232] Another effective composition of positive electrode material comprises a concentration of “A” as denoted by “x” can be between 0-3, a concentration of “M” as denoted by “y” can be between 0.0001-0.15, a concentration of “N” as denoted by “z” can be between 0-1.33, andAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601where "N "is from the group consisting of W, Nb, Mo, Zr, Y, Hf, Cr, Sn, Fe, Ti, Mn, Ta, Ce, La, Ni, Si, Ga, Ge, and Co.

[0233] Some variations of the rechargeable electrochemical cell in which the positive electrode material is incorporated could have a negative electrode that is one of graphite, carbon, silicon, Li metal, Na metal, Mg metal, Ca metal, Zn metal, Al metal, and a combination thereof. In other variations of positive electrode material, the first cycle capacity loss associated with establishing a passivation layer can be mitigated by a reservoir of additional “A” ions above the concentration “x” used for cycling the rechargeable electrochemical cell. In other variations of positive electrode material, the rechargeable electrochemical cell has a lithium reservoir for passivation layer formation and operates in a voltage window between 2.0-4.5 V for cycling and below 2.0 V to access the lithium reservoir. In other variations of positive electrode material an intermittent charge / discharge cycling protocol is used wherein the charge / discharge cycles occur between 2.0-4.5 V and on-demand cycles between 1.5-4.5 V to deliver additional capacity to an external circuit. In other variations of positive electrode material, a continuous charge / discharge cycling protocol cycles from 1.5 -4.5 V to deliver capacity to an external circuit.

[0234] The redox material can comprise a zeta-polymorph of V2O5 (X-V2O5). In some embodiments, the redox material is a metastable phase. The redox material can comprise intercalated Na+ions, Al3+ions, Y3+ions, Ca2+ions, Mg2+ions, Zn2+ions, K+ions, or any combination thereof. Without being bound to a particular theory, the ions intercalation can prop open lithium-conductive tunnels within the redox material, can reduce electrostatic repulsions between inserted Li-ions, and can modify diffusion pathways within the redox material, or any combination thereof. The intercalation of ions can provide higher Li-ion diffusivities and / or conductivities, and can provide higher capacities for the positive electrode. The redox material comprising V2O5 can be manufactured, for example, using a process disclosed in PCT / US2018 / 067392 or PCT / US2023 / 033969, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0235] In some embodiments, the redox material is manufactured without the use of a silver precursor. In some embodiments, the redox material does not comprise above 1, 10, 100, or 1000 ppm of silver. In some embodiments, the redox material is manufactured with a copper precursor. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises copper at a stoichiometric ratio of less than 0.01, 0.001, or 0.0001 of copper to V2O5. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises copper at a stoichiometric ratio of greater than 0, 0.01, 0.001, or 0.0001 of copper to V2O5. In some embodiments, the redox material shows no copper signal when analyzed by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0236] In some embodiments, the redox material comprises C-V2O5 nanowires. In some embodiments, the C-V2O5 nanowires are magnesiated metastable C-V2O5 nanowires. In some embodiments, the C-V2O5 nanowires comprise a theoretical or measured lattice constants comprising: a =15.25±0.4 A, b=3.60±0.02 A, and c=10.10±0.03 A. In some embodiments, the V2O5 nanowires comprise a unit cell angle, [1, between about 109.1° and about 110.9°. The lattice constants and / or the unit cell angle can be measured using X-ray diffraction (XRD) such as powder XRD.

[0237] In some embodiments, the redox material is pre-intercalated. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-NaxV20s, P-KyV20s, or both. In some embodiments, x is about 0.20 to about 0.34. In some embodiments, y is about 0.22 to about 0.33. In some embodiments, x is at least 0.20, 0.21, 0.22, 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.27, 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32, or 0.33. In some embodiments, x is at most 0.21, 0.22, 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.27, 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32, 0.33, or 0.34. In some embodiments, y is at least 0.22, 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.27, 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32. In some embodiments, y is at most 0.23, 0.24, 0.25, 0.26, 0.27, 0.28, 0.29, 0.30, 0.31, 0.32, or 0.33. In some embodiments x is about 0.32. In some embodiments y is about 0.22

[0238] In some embodiments, the redox material comprises pre-intercalated P-NaxV2Os, where x is about 0.22 to about 0.28 or is about 0.25. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises pre-intercalated P-KyV20s, where y is about 0.22 to about 0.33 or is about 0.27. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-NaxV2Os, having lattice constants comprising a = 15.409(8) A, b = 3.609(1) A, and c = 10.780(9) A for x=0.25. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-NaxV2Os, having lattice constants comprising a = 15.3629(7) A, b = 3.6109(2) A, and c = 10.0502(5) A for x=0.32. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-KyV20s, having lattice constants comprising a = 15.60(2) A, b = 3.612(1) A, and c = 10.093(9) A for y=0.27. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-KyV20s, having lattice constants comprising a = 15.4753(10) A, b = 3.6123(2) A, and c = 10.0693(6) A for y =0.22.

[0239] In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-K0.27V2O5 having a unit cell volume of 537.085 A3. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P-Nao.25V20s having a unit cell volume of 528.168 A3. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises P~ Nao.32 / p'-Lio.33V205. In some embodiments, the redox material comprises a unit cell volume of 530.32(3) A3 and lattice constants comprising: a = 10.1482(3) A, b = 3.6308(1) A, and c = 15.2420(4) A.

[0240] In some embodiments, the redox material comprises MgxV2Os. In some embodiments, x is between about 0.01 and about 0.85.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0241] In some embodiments, metal ions may be reversibly inserted into and extracted from the redox material many times. In some embodiments, metal ions may be reversibly inserted into and extracted from the redox material 10 times, 20 times, 50 times, 100 times, 200 times, or more without significantly affecting the structure of the redox material. As discussed further herein with respect to batteries of the present disclosure, such reversible insertion and extraction leads to high ion discharge capacities.

[0242] In some embodiments, the redox material comprises metastable ^-V2Os nanowires. In some embodiments, the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire comprises lattice constants comprising: a=15.25±0.4 A, b=3.60±0.02 A, and c=10.10±0.03 A. In some embodiments, the metastable V2O5 nanowire comprises a unit cell volume, V, between about 515 A3 and about 540 A3.

[0243] In some embodiments, the interstices of the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire include quasi-one-dimensional tunnels. In some embodiments, the quasi-one-dimensional tunnels are configured to reversibly accept one or more metal ions. In some embodiments, the quasi-one-dimensional tunnels extend parallel to a major axis of the metastable C-V2O5 nanowire. In some embodiments, the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire comprises has a unit cell angle, P, between about 108° and about 111°. In some embodiments, the unit cell angle, P, is the angle between the a and c axes of the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire.

[0244] In some embodiments, the residual of equivalents of the metastable C-V2O5 nanowire is 0.04-0.06. In some embodiments, the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire comprises residual precursor metal ions intercalated into the quasi-one-dimensional tunnels of the C-V2O5 nanowires. In some embodiments, the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire comprises a formula ^-(Cux)V2Os, wherein x is between about 0.006 and 0.33. In some embodiments, x is at least 0.006, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, or 0.3. In some embodiments, x is at most 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, or 0.33. In some embodiments, the metastable ^-V2Os nanowire comprises a formula p / p'-(Cux)V20s. In some embodiments, x is between 0.006 and 0.66. In some embodiments, x is at least 0.006, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, or 0.5. In some embodiments, x is at most 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, or 0.6. In some embodiments, the metastable C-V2O5 nanowire comprises a smallest dimension between about 20 nm and about 80 nm. In some embodiments, the smallest dimension is at least 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80 nm. In some embodiments, the smallest dimension is at most 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80 nm.

[0245] Without being bound to a particular theory, the high strength of the bonds between oxygen atoms and vanadium atoms of V2O5 may be the underlying reason that V2O5 has a high thermal runway temperature. Meanwhile, the strength of the bonds formed between oxygen atoms and lithium atoms might not be so strong as to prevent lithium release during charging of a rechargeable energy storage system. Thus, another advantage of V2O5 as a positive electrode isAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601that a rechargeable energy source system can comprise numerous cells, each comprising a V2O5, in a densely packed arrangement.

[0246] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises V2O5 and an electrically conductive filler. In some embodiments, the electrically conductive filler comprises graphene. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises V2O5 and at least 2.5% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 3.0% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 3.5% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 4.0% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 5% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 6% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 7% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 8% by weight electrically conductive filler, at least 9% by weight electrically conductive filler, or at least 10% by weight electrically conductive filler. The positive electrode can comprise, for example, at least 75% by weight V2O5, at least 5% by weight graphene nanoplatelets, and at least 5% by weight of a poly vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. The intercalation electrode composition may comprise 85% by weight V2O5, at least 5% by weight graphene nanoplatelets, and 10% by weight binder. The intercalation electrode composition may comprise 75% by weight V2O5, 15% by weight graphene nanoplatelets, and 10% by weight of a poly vinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binder. In some embodiments, the electrode composition may comprise 88% by weight V2O5, 6.9% carbon, and 5.1% binder. In some embodiments, the carbon comprises carbon nanotubes.

[0247] The redox material can comprise a metal sulfide. The redox material can comprise titanium disulfide. The redox material can comprise a metal oxide. The positive electrode can comprise LixMC>2, wherein M is a metal. The redox material can comprise vanadium. The redox material can comprise vanadium, cobalt, nickel, a cobalt-aluminum alloy, manganese, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, tungsten, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, palladium, platinum, or any combination thereof. The redox material can comprise a polyatomic anion. The polyatomic anion can comprise PO4.

[0248] The redox material can comprise additives. The redox material can comprise phosphate based materials such as FePC , VPO4F, V2(PO4)2F3, FePC F, and V2(PO4)3; oxides such as CoO2, V2O5, orthorhombic MnCh, layered iron oxides FeCh, chromium oxide CrCh, layered Nio.5Mno.5O2, and VeOis nanorods; layer sulfides such as DS2; perovskite transition metal fluorides, or a mixture thereof. The redox material can comprise a filler, which can be conductive, e.g., graphene. The redox material can comprise a binder, which can be a polymer, e.g., poly vinylidene fluoride.

[0249] The redox material can comprise 20 percent (%), 15 %, 10 %, 9 %, 8 %, 7 %, 6 %, 5 %, 4 %, 3 %, 2 %, or 1 % lithium by mass. The redox material can comprise about 20 %, about 15 %, about 10 %, about 9 %, about 8 %, about 7 %, about 6 %, about 5 %, about 4 %, about 3 %,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601about 2 %, or about 1 % lithium by mass. The redox material can comprise less than 20 %, 15 %, 10 %, 9 %, 8 %, 7 %, 6 %, 5 %, 4 %, 3 %, 2 %, or 1 % lithium by mass. The redox material can comprise greater than 20 %, 15 %, 10 %, 9 %, 8 %, 7 %, 6 %, 5 %, 4 %, 3 %, 2 %, or 1 % lithium by mass. For example, the redox material can comprise less than 10% lithium by mass. The amount of lithium can be measured at a delithiated state.

[0250] In some embodiments, a positive electrode can be substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

[0251] In some embodiments, a positive electrode can be selected based on factors including, not limited to a high conductivity (both ionic and electronic), a low toxicity, a high crustal abundance, a low oxygen evolution, an upper voltage limit less than 4.5, and a low voltage cutoff higher than 50% of the upper cutoff window.

[0252] The redox material can comprise a binder. The binder can bind the redox material to the current collector. The binder can be electrically conductive. The binder can comprise polyvinyl alcohol, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, diacetyl cellulose, polyvinyl chloride, carboxylated polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl fluoride, a polymer including ethylene oxide, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyurethane, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyethylene, polypropylene, styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), acrylated SBR, epoxy resin, and nylon. The binder can comprise carbon black or vapor ground carbon fibers. The binder can be polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), sodium alginate, and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. The binder can comprise PVDF, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), and polyimide. The binder can graphene or carbon nanotubes.

[0253] The redox material can comprise a surface coating. The surface coating can comprise an oxide, a hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide, an oxycarbonate, or a hydroxycarbonate. The surface coating can be amorphous or crystalline. The surface coating can comprise magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), cobalt (Co), potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), silicon (Si), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), tin (Sn), germanium (Ge), gallium (Ga), boron (B), arsenic (As), zirconium (Zr), or any combination thereof. The surface coating can be formed using a spray coating method, a dipping method, or any other suitable method.

[0254] The redox material can comprise a polymer binder. The polymer binder can comprise a block copolymer. The block copolymer can provide a hydrophobic domain on a surface of the electrode. A hydrophobic polymer membrane can be bound to the hydrophobic domain on the surface of the redox material.

[0255] The substrate can comprise a current collector. The current collector can comprise copper, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium, sintered carbon, copper or stainless steel that is surface-treated with carbon, nickel, titanium or silver, and aluminum-cadmium alloys. TheAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601current collector can comprise various forms including films, sheets, foils, nets, porous structures, foams, and non-woven fabrics. The current collector can comprise carbon, carbon paper, carbon cloth or a metal or noble metal mesh or foil. The current collector can comprise fine irregularities on surfaces thereof so as to enhance the adhesive strength of the current collector to the redox material. The current collector can have a thickness of 1 pm, 2 pm, 3 pm, 4 pm, 5 pm, 6 pm, 7 pm, 8 pm, 9 pm, 10 pm, 20 pm, 30 pm, 40 pm, 50 pm, 60 pm, 70 pm, 80 pm, 90 pm, 100 pm, 200 pm, 300 pm, 400 pm, 500 pm, 600 pm, 700 pm, 800 pm, 900 pm, or 1000 pm. The current collector can have a thickness of about 1 pm, about 2 pm, about 3 pm, about 4 pm, about 5 pm, about 6 pm, about 7 pm, about 8 pm, about 9 pm, about 10 pm, about 20 pm, about 30 pm, about 40 pm, about 50 pm, about 60 pm, about 70 pm, about 80 pm, about 90 pm, about 100 pm, about 200 pm, about 300 pm, about 400 pm, about 500 pm, about 600 pm, about 700 pm, about 800 pm, about 900 pm, or about 1000 pm. The current collector can have a thickness of at least 1 pm, at least 2 pm, at least 3 pm, at least 4 pm, at least 5 pm, at least 6 pm, at least 7 pm, at least 8 pm, at least 9 pm, at least 10 pm, at least 20 pm, at least 30 pm, at least 40 pm, at least 50 pm, at least 60 pm, at least 70 pm, at least 80 pm, at least 90 pm, at least 100 pm, at least 200 pm, at least 300 pm, at least 400 pm, at least 500 pm, at least 600 pm, at least 700 pm, at least 800 pm, at least 900 pm, or at least 1000 pm. The current collector can have a thickness of at most 1 pm, at most 2 pm, at most 3 pm, at most 4 pm, at most 5 pm, at most 6 pm, at most 7 pm, at most 8 pm, at most 9 pm, at most 10 pm, at most 20 pm, at most 30 pm, at most 40 pm, at most 50 pm, at most 60 pm, at most 70 pm, at most 80 pm, at most 90 pm, at most 100 pm, at most 200 pm, at most 300 pm, at most 400 pm, at most 500 pm, at most 600 pm, at most 700 pm, at most 800 pm, at most 900 pm, or at most 1000 pm.

[0256] The positive electrode can be configured to have a stable capacity. Over numerous cycles, the positive electrode can resist loss of redox material. For example, uncontrolled crack formation and propagation can lead to loss of redox material when a piece of the redox material comprising lithium breaks loose. The broken piece can become electrically isolated from the rest of the positive electrode, and the lithium contained within cannot be able to participate in the redox reactions and not be able to contribute to the capacity and the energy density of the electrochemical system. Stable volume of the redox material with respect to its state of charge, temperature, and pressure can reflect the physical stability of the positive electrode.

[0257] In some embodiments, the positive electrode may have a charge cutoff potential of 4 V or less versus Li+ / Li. In some embodiments, the positive electrode may have a charge cutoff potential of about 4 V or less versus Li+ / Li.

[0258] In some embodiments, the capacity of the positive electrode can be 50 mAh / g, 100 mAh / g, 150 mAh / g, 200 mAh / g, 250 mAh / g, 300 mAh / g, 350 mAh / g, 400 mAh / g, 450 mAh / g,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601or 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the positive electrode can be about 50 mAh / g, about 100 mAh / g, about 150 mAh / g, about 200 mAh / g, about 250 mAh / g, about 300 mAh / g, about 350 mAh / g, about 400 mAh / g, about 450 mAh / g, or about 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the positive electrode can be at least 50 mAh / g, at least 100 mAh / g, at least 150 mAh / g, at least 200 mAh / g, at least 250 mAh / g, at least 300 mAh / g, at least 350 mAh / g, at least 400 mAh / g, at least 450 mAh / g, or at least 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the positive electrode can be at most 50 mAh / g, at most 100 mAh / g, at most 150 mAh / g, at most 200 mAh / g, at most 250 mAh / g, at most 300 mAh / g, at most 350 mAh / g, at most 400 mAh / g, at most 450 mAh / g, or at most 500 mAh / g. In some embodiments, the capacity of the positive electrode can be 150 mAh / g to 300 mAh / g, 100 mAh / g to 400 mAh / g, 250 mAh / g to 500 mAh / g, or 100 mAh / g to 300 mAh / g, including all values and sub ranges in between. For example, the capacity of the negative electrode can be at least 250 mAh / g.

[0259] In some embodiments, the energy density of the positive electrode can be 200 Wh / kg, 400 Wh / kg, 600 Wh / kg, 800 Wh / kg, 1000 Wh / kg, 1200 Wh / kg, 1400 Wh / kg, or 1600 Wh / kg. In some embodiments, the energy density of the positive electrode can be about 200 Wh / kg, about 400 Wh / kg, about 600 Wh / kg, about 800 Wh / kg, about 1000 Wh / kg, about 1200 Wh / kg, about 1400 Wh / kg, or about 1600 Wh / kg. The energy density of the positive electrode can be at least 200 Wh / kg, at least 400 Wh / kg, at least 600 Wh / kg, at least 800 Wh / kg, at least 1000 Wh / kg, at least 1200 Wh / kg, at least 1400 Wh / kg, or at least 1600 Wh / kg. The energy density of the positive electrode can be at most 200 Wh / kg, at most 400 Wh / kg, at most 600 Wh / kg, at most 800 Wh / kg, at most 1000 Wh / kg, at most 1200 Wh / kg, at most 1400 Wh / kg, or at most 1600 Wh / kg. In some embodiments, the energy density of the positive electrode can be 400 Wh / kg to 1200 Wh / kg, 600 Wh / kg to 1600 Wh / kg, 800 Wh / kg to 1400 Wh / kg, or 400 Wh / kg to 1000 Wh / kg, including all values and sub ranges in between. For example, the energy density of the negative electrode can be at least 800 Wh / kg.

[0260] In some embodiments, the redox material exhibits a volumetric change of 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% when cycled for a predetermined number of times. In some embodiments, the redox material exhibits a volumetric change of about 50%, about 45%, about 40%, about 35%, about 30%, about 25%, about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, about 4%, about 3%, about 2%, or about 1% when cycled for a predetermined number of times. In some embodiments, the redox material exhibits a volumetric change of less than 50%, less than 45%, less than 40%, less than 35%, less than 30%, less than 25%, less than 20%, less than 15%, less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%, or less than 1% when cycled for a predetermined number of times. In someAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601embodiments, the redox material exhibits a volumetric change of more than 50%, more than 45%, more than 40%, more than 35%, more than 30%, more than 25%, more than 20%, more than 15%, more than 10%, more than 5%, more than 4%, more than 3%, more than 2%, or more than 1% when cycled for a predetermined number of times. The predetermined number of times can be 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, or 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be about 50, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 300, about 350, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 1000, or about 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50, at least 100, at least 150, at least 200, at least 250, at least 300, at least 350, at least 400, at least 500, at least 600, at least 700, at least 800, at least 1000, or at least 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50, at most 100, at most 150, at most 200, at most 250, at most 300, at most 350, at most 400, at most 500, at most 600, at most 700, at most 800, at most 1000, or at most 5000 times. The cycling can be from 1.5 V to 4 V, 2 V to 4.5 V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D

[0261] In some embodiments, an energy capacity loss of the positive electrode can be 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.09%, 0.08%, 0.07%, 0.06%, 0.05%, 0.04%, 0.03%, 0.02%, or 0.01% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, an energy capacity loss of the positive electrode can be about 30%, about 25%, about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, about 4%, about 3%, about 2%, about 1%, about 0.9%, about 0.8%, about 0.7%, about 0.6%, about 0.5%, about 0.4%, about 0.3%, about 0.2%, about 0.1%, about 0.09%, about 0.08%, about 0.07%, about 0.06%, about 0.05%, about 0.04%, about 0.03%, about 0.02%, or about 0.01% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, an energy capacity loss of the positive electrode can be less than 30%, less than 25%, less than 20%, less than 15%, less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%, less than 1%, less than 0.9%, lessAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601than 0.8%, less than 0.7%, less than 0.6%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.4%, less than 0.3%, less than 0.2%, less than 0.1%, less than 0.09%, less than 0.08%, less than 0.07%, less than 0.06%, less than 0.05%, less than 0.04%, less than 0.03%, less than 0.02%, or less than 0.01% over a predetermined number of cycles. The energy capacity loss of the positive electrode can be greater than 30%, greater than 25%, greater than 20%, greater than 15%, greater than 10%, greater than 5%, greater than 4%, greater than 3%, greater than 2%, greater than 1%, greater than 0.9%, greater than 0.8%, greater than 0.7%, greater than 0.6%, greater than 0.5%, greater than 0.4%, greater than 0.3%, greater than 0.2%, greater than 0.1%, greater than 0.09%, greater than 0.08%, greater than 0.07%, greater than 0.06%, greater than 0.05%, greater than 0.04%, greater than 0.03%, greater than 0.02%, or greater than 0.01% over a predetermined number of cycles. The predetermined number of times can be 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, or 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be about 50, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 300, about 350, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 1000, or about 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50, at least 100, at least 150, at least 200, at least 250, at least 300, at least 350, at least 400, at least 500, at least 600, at least 700, at least 800, at least 1000, or at least 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50, at most 100, at most 150, at most 200, at most 250, at most 300, at most 350, at most 400, at most 500, at most 600, at most 700, at most 800, at most 1000, or at most 5000 times. The cycling can be from 1.5 V to 4 V, 2 V to 4.5 V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2: C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D

[0262] In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a coulombic efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, or 99.9 % over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a coulombic efficiency of about 90 percentAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601(%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, or about 99.9 % over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a coulombic efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, or at least 99.9 % over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a coulombic efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, or at most 99.9 % over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a coulombic efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, or 99 % to 99.9 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of times can be 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 1000, or 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be about 50, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 300, about 350, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 1000, or about 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50, at least 100, at least 150, at least 200, at least 250, at least 300, at least 350, at least 400, at least 500, at least 600, at least 700, at least 800, at least 1000, or at least 5000 times. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50, at most 100, at most 150, at most 200, at most 250, at most 300, at most 350, at most 400, at most 500, at most 600, at most 700, at most 800, at most 1000, or at most 5000 times. The cycling can be from 2 V to 4.5 V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0263] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of about 90 percent (%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a cycling efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, , 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000 cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, about 1000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, about 8000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50 cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2 V to 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 1.5 V to 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2 V to about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 4.5 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20: C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or 10C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at mostAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0264] In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of 90 percent (%), 91 %, 92 %, 93 %, 94 %, 95 %, 96 %, 97 %, 98 %, 99 %, 99.1 %, 99.2 %, 99.3 %, 99.4 %, 99.5 %, 99.6 %, 99.7 %, 99.8 %, 99.9 %, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of about 90 percent (%), about 91 %, about 92 %, about 93 %, about 94 %, about 95 %, about 96 %, about 97 %, about 98 %, about 99 %, about 99.1 %, about 99.2 %, about 99.3 %, about 99.4 %, about 99.5 %, about 99.6 %, about 99.7 %, about 99.8 %, about 99.9 %, about 99.91%, about 99.92%, about 99.93%, about 99.94%, about 99.95%, about 99.96%, about 99.97%, about 99.98%, about 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of at least 90 percent (%), at least 91 %, at least 92 %, at least 93 %, at least 94 %, at least 95 %, at least 96 %, at least 97 %, at least 98 %, at least 99 %, at least 99.1 %, at least 99.2 %, at least 99.3 %, at least 99.4 %, at least 99.5 %, at least 99.6 %, at least 99.7 %, at least 99.8 %, at least 99.9 %, at least 99.91%, at least 99.92%, at least 99.93%, at least 99.94%, at least 99.95%, at least 99.96%, at least 99.97%, at least 99.98%, at least 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of at most 90 percent (%), at most 91 %, at most 92 %, at most 93 %, at most 94 %, at most 95 %, at most 96 %, at most 97 %, at most 98 %, at most 99 %, at most 99.1 %, at most 99.2 %, at most 99.3 %, at most 99.4 %, at most 99.5 %, at most 99.6 %, at most 99.7 %, at most 99.8 %, at most 99.9 %, at most 99.91%, at most 99.92%, at most 99.93%, at most 99.94%, at most 99.95%, at most 99.96%, at most 99.97%, at most 99.98%, at most 99.99% over a predetermined number of cycles. In some embodiments, the positive electrode comprises a columbic efficiency of 90 % to 99 %, 99.2 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 98 %, 99.8 % to 99.99 %, 99.5 % to 99.8 %, 92 % to 99.6 %, or 99 % to 99.99 %, including all values and sub ranges in between. The predetermined number of cycles can be 50 cycles, 100 cycles, 150 cycles, 200 cycles, 250 cycles, 300 cycles, 350 cycles, 400 cycles, 500 cycles, 600 cycles, 700 cycles, 800 cycles, 900 cycles, 1000 cycles, 2000 cycles, 3000 cycles, 4000 cycles, 5000 cycles, 5500 cycles, 6000 cycles, 6500 cycles, 7000 cycles, 7500 cycles, 8000 cycles, 8500 cycles, or 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be about 50 cycles, about 100 cycles, about 150 cycles, about 200 cycles, about 250 cycles, about 300 cycles, about 350 cycles, about 400 cycles, about 500 cycles, about 600 cycles, about 700 cycles, about 800 cycles, about 900 cycles, aboutAtty Dkt No.: 65848-7256011000 cycles, about 2000 cycles, about 3000 cycles, about 4000 cycles, about 5000 cycles, about 5500 cycles, about 6000 cycles, about 6500 cycles, about 7000 cycles, about 7500 cycles, about 8000 cycles, about 8500 cycles, or about 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at least 50 cycles, at least 100 cycles, at least 150 cycles, at least 200 cycles, at least 250 cycles, at least 300 cycles, at least 350 cycles, at least 400 cycles, at least 500 cycles, at least 600 cycles, at least 700 cycles, at least 800 cycles, at least 900 cycles, at least 1000 cycles, at least 2000 cycles, at least 3000 cycles, at least 4000 cycles, at least 5000 cycles, at least 5500 cycles, at least 6000 cycles, at least 6500 cycles, at least 7000 cycles, at least 7500 cycles, at least 8000 cycles, at least 8500 cycles, or at least 9000 cycles. The predetermined number of times can be at most 50 cycles, at most 100 cycles, at most 150 cycles, at most 200 cycles, at most 250 cycles, at most 300 cycles, at most 350 cycles, at most 400 cycles, at most 500 cycles, at most 600 cycles, at most 700 cycles, at most 800 cycles, at most 900 cycles, at most 1000 cycles, at most 2000 cycles, at most 3000 cycles, at most 4000 cycles, at most 5000 cycles, at most 5500 cycles, at most 6000 cycles, at most 6500 cycles, at most 7000 cycles, at most 7500 cycles, at most 8000 cycles, at most 8500 cycles, or at most 9000 cycles. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2 V to 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 1.5 V to 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from 2.5 V to 3.75 V, 3 V to 4V, 3 V to 4.5 V, or 2 V to 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2 V to about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling can be from about 2.5 V to about 3.75 V, about 3 V to about 4V, about 3 V to about 4.5 V, or about 2 V to about 3 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, or about 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at least 2 V, at least 2.5 V, at least 3 V, at least 3.5 V, or at least 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling starts from at most 2 V, at most 2.5 V, at most 3 V, at most 3.5 V, or at most 4 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at 3 V, 3.25V, 3.5 V, 3.75 V, 4 V, 4.25 V, 4.5 V, 4.75 V, or 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at about 3 V, about 3.25V, about 3.5 V, about 3.75 V, about 4 V, about 4.25 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.75 V, or about 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at least 3 V, at least 3.25V, at least 3.5 V, at least 3.75 V, at least 4 V, at least 4.25 V, at least 4.5 V, at least 4.75 V, or at least 5 V. In some embodiments, the cycling finishes at most 3 V, at most 3.25V, at most 3.5 V, at most 3.75 V, at most 4 V, at most 4.25 V, at most 4.5 V, at most 4.75 V, or at most 5 V. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5 and a D-rate of at least 1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5C, C / 2, C / 3, C / 4, or C / 5. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 20:C / 20, C / 10:C / 10, C / 5:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, 1C:1C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at least C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256012C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed at a C rate of at most C / 2:C / 5, lC:C / 5, 2C:C / 5, C / 2:C / 2, lC:C / 2, 2C:C / 2, C / 2:1C, 1C:1C, 2C:1C, C / 2:2C, 1C:2C, or 2C:2C. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at least C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a C-rate of at most C / 20, C / 10, C / 5, C / 2, 0.5C, 1C, 2C, 3C, 5C, 6C, 7C, 8C, 9C, or IOC. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at least D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D. The cycling can be performed using a D-rate of at most D / 20, D / 10, D / 5, D / 2, 0.5D, ID, 2D, 3D, 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, or 10D.

[0265] Provided herein are various redox materials. The redox material can be integrated into a rechargeable energy source system. Table 1 provides a list of some redox materials for the positive electrode, in accordance with some embodiments (Volts: V; milliampere-hours: mAh; gram: g; watt-hours: Wh; kilograms: kg).Table 1. Some material choices for the redox materials of the positive electrode.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601

[0266] The redox material can comprise atoms with multiple oxidation states. The redox material can comprise atoms of titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, germanium, arsenic, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, tin, antimony, or any combination thereof. The redox material can comprise vanadium atoms.

[0267] The redox material can comprise a transition metal. The redox material can comprise at least one of: vanadium, cobalt, nickel, a cobalt-aluminum alloy, manganese, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, tungsten, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, palladium, or platinum atoms. The redox material can comprise vanadium atoms. The redox material can comprise an oxide. The redox material can comprise VxOy. The redox material can comprise VxOyFz. ‘X’, ‘Y’, and ‘Z’ may be integers. ‘X’, ‘Y’, and ‘Z’ may be real numbers, which can represent variations from exact stoichiometric ratios. The redox material can comprise at least one of: V6O5FI9, V3OF11, VO2F, VOF3,VPO4F, LiV3OFn, Mn3V(PO4)6, V6O5FI9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, VCo3O8, or any combination thereof. The redox material can comprise a V2O5 based compound with the general formula £-AxMvV2O5 and / or -AxMyNzV2-zO5, where M and N may be real fractional numbers and represent transition metals, alkaline earths, alkalis, post-transition metals, metalloids, or a combination thereof and A is one or more ions selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, and Al ions with aAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601concentration of x ranging from 0.0-3.0 during charging and discharging the rechargeable electrochemical cell. The redox material can comprise FePC , NiMnCoCh, or TiS?.

[0268] The redox material can comprise a metal sulfide. The redox material can comprise titanium disulfide. The redox material can comprise a metal oxide. The positive electrode can comprise LixMC>2, wherein M is a metal. The redox material can comprise vanadium atoms. The redox material can comprise vanadium, cobalt, nickel, a cobalt-aluminum alloy, manganese, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, tungsten, rhenium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, palladium, platinum atoms, or any combination thereof. The redox material can comprise a polyatomic anion. The polyatomic anion can comprise PO4.

[0269] The redox material can comprise additives. The redox material can comprise phosphate based materials such as FePC , VPO4F, V2(PO4)2F3, FePC F, and V2(PO4)3; oxides such as CoO2, V2O5 based compounds, orthorhombic MnCh, layered iron oxides FeCh, chromium oxide CrCh, layered Nio.5Mno.5O2, and VeOis nanorods; layer sulfides such as TiS2; perovskite transition metal fluorides, or a mixture thereof. The redox material can comprise a filler, which can be conductive, e.g., graphene. The redox material can comprise a binder, which can be a polymer, e.g., poly vinylidene fluoride.

[0270] The redox material can comprise less than 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 percent lithium by mass. The redox material can comprise greater than 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 percent lithium by mass. For example, the redox material can comprise less than 10% lithium by mass. The amount of lithium can be measured at a delithiated state.

[0271] In some embodiments, a positive electrode may be selected based on factors including, not limited to a high conductivity (both ionic and electronic), a low toxicity, a high crustal abundance, a low oxygen evolution, an upper voltage limit less than 4.5, and a low voltage cutoff higher than 50% of the upper cutoff window.

[0272] In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a capacity of at least 275, 280, 290, 300, or 305 mAh / g. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a capacity of at most 275, 280, 290, 300, or 305 mAh / g.

[0273] In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises a current collector. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises an active material. In some embodiments, a positive electrode comprises an active material disposed on a current collector. In some embodiments, a current collector may have a thickness of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 pm. In some embodiments, a current collector may have a thickness of at most 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 pm. In some embodiments, a current collector comprises copper, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, titanium,Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601sintered carbon, copper or stainless steel that is surface-treated with carbon, nickel, titanium or silver, and aluminum-cadmium alloys In some embodiments, a current collector comprises fine irregularities on surfaces thereof so as to enhance adhesive strength of the positive electrode current collector to the positive electrode active material. In some embodiments, a current collector comprises can comprise various f...

Claims

1. Atty Dkt No.: 65848-7256012.CLAIMS3.What is claimed is:

1. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:5.(a) a positive electrode; and6.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface;7.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated surface of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

2. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:9.(a) a positive electrode; and10.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and has a multimodal distribution of sizes;11.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

3. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:13.(a) a positive electrode comprising a transition metal phosphate; and14.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface;15.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

4. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:17.(a) a positive electrode that is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state; and18.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface,19.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560120.plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

5. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:22.(a) a positive electrode; and23.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface,24.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 1000 cycles, and25.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

6. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:27.(a) a positive electrode;28.(b) an electrolyte comprising lithium ions; and29.(c) a negative electrode comprising lithium metal and a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface, and wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity 2-5 mAh / cm2; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

7. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:31.(a) a positive electrode; and32.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and wherein each of the plurality of carbon particles has a diameter of about 400 nm to about 1400 nm; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

8. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:34.(a) a positive electrode; and Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560135.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and has a multimodal distribution of sizes;36.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

9. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:38.(a) a positive electrode comprising a transition metal phosphate; and39.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals;40.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

10. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:42.(a) a positive electrode that is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state; and43.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals;44.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

11. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:46.(a) a positive electrode; and47.(b) a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals;48.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain the capacity when the rechargeable energy source system is cycled for at least 1000 cycles, and Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560149.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

12. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:51.(a) a positive electrode;52.(b) an electrolyte comprising lithium ions; and53.(c) a negative electrode comprising lithium metal and a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals and wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2-5 mAh / cm2;54.wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the plurality of carbon particles and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium metal on the corrugated of the plurality of carbon particles from an electrolyte.

13. A rechargeable energy source system, comprising:56.(a) a positive electrode; and57.(b) a negative electrode comprising a network of hard carbon nanosheets; wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to (1) intercalate a plurality of lithium ions into the network of hard carbon nanosheets and (2) plate the plurality of lithium ions as lithium intersecting metal on a surface of the network of hard carbon nanosheets from an electrolyte.

14. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 13, wherein the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises a shape of intersecting nanosheets.

15. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises hard carbon.

16. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-15, wherein the plurality of carbon particles or the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises amorphous carbon.

17. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-16, wherein the plurality of carbon particles or the network of hard carbon nanosheets comprises nitrogen.

18. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-17, wherein each of the plurality of carbon particles or each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets is spherical in morphology.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560119. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 18, wherein a diameter of the each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets ranges from about 400 to about 1400 nm.

20. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 19, wherein the diameter of the each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets ranges from about 800 to about 950 nm.

21. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 18-20, each of the plurality of carbon particles or the each of the network of hard carbon nanosheets has a multimodal distribution of sizes.

22. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 21, wherein the multimodal distribution of sizes comprises a bimodal, a trimodal, or a quadmodal distribution.

23. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-22, wherein the positive electrode comprises a transition metal phosphate.

24. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 23, wherein the transition metal phosphate comprises LiFePC .

25. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-24, wherein the positive electrode is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

26. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 25, wherein the positive electrode comprises vanadium -based compounds.

27. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 26, wherein the positive electrode comprises VxOy.

28. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 26, wherein the positive electrode comprises VxOyFz.

29. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 26, wherein the positive electrode comprises at least one of: V6O5F19, V3OF11, VO2F, VOF3,VPC>4F, LiVsOFn, Mn3V(PO4)e, V6O5Fi9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, or VCo3O8.

30. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 26, wherein the positive electrode comprises MxV20s, wherein M comprises one or more of Li, Na, K, and Au.

31. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-30, wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2.5-3.5 mAh / cm2.

32. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-31, wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of about 3 mAh / cm2.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560133. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-32, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 1.8 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.

34. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-32, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 2.2 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.

35. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g to about 5000 mAh / g.

36. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity higher than 1000 mAh / g.

37. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the negative electrode has an intercalation capacity of about 200 mAh / g to about 300 mAh / g.

38. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the negative electrode has a lithium metal capacity of about 400 mAh / g to about 800 mAh / g.

39. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-38, wherein each carbon particle of the plurality of carbon particles comprises a plurality of indents and a plurality of apexes.

40. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-39, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a flower-like surface structure.

41. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-40, wherein the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system.

42. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-41, wherein the electrolyte further comprises one or more lithium salts or one or more additives.

43. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 42, wherein the one or more lithium salts comprise lirthium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI) or lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI).

44. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 42, wherein the one or more additives comprise LiNCh.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560145. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-44, wherein the electrolyte is free of carbonate solvents.

46. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-45, wherein the cathode has a charge cutoff potential of 4 V or less versus Li+ / Li.

47. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-46, wherein the cathode comprises LiFePC or V2O5 with the full cell voltage range is 1.8 V to 4 V.

48. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-47, wherein a current density ranges from about 0.1 mA / cm2to about 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

49. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-47, wherein a current density ranges from about 0.3 mA / cm2to about 0.6 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

50. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 48 or 49, wherein the current density promotes homogeneous lithium plating and stripping.

51. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 1-50, wherein the system maintains at least 85%, 90%, 95%, or 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles.

52. A method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising:95.(i) providing a cell comprising:96.a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and / or comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals;97.an electrolyte; and98.a positive electrode;99.(ii) cycling the battery within a voltage window of 1.8 V to 4 V; and100.(iii) applying a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

53. A method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising:102.(i) providing a cell comprising:103.a negative electrode comprising a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises a corrugated surface and / or comprises a plurality of nanosheets resembling flower petals;104.an electrolyte; and105.a positive electrode; and106.(ii) repeatedly cycling the cell at a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA / cm2.

54. The method of claim 52 or 53, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises hard carbon.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560155. The method of any one of claims 52-54, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises amorphous carbon.

56. The method of any one of claims 52-55, wherein the plurality of carbon particles comprises nitrogen.

57. The method of any one of claims 52-56, wherein each of the plurality of carbon particles is spherical in morphology.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein a diameter of the plurality of carbon particles ranges from about 400 to about 1400 nm.

59. The method of claim 57, wherein the diameter the plurality of carbon particles ranges from about 800 to about 950 nm.

60. The method of any one of claims 57-59, the plurality of carbon particles has a multimodal distribution of sizes.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein the multimodal distribution of sizes comprises a bimodal, a trimodal, or a quadmodal distribution.

62. The method of any one of claims 52-61, wherein the positive electrode comprises a transition metal phosphate.

63. The method of claim 62, wherein the transition metal phosphate comprises LiFePO4.

64. The method of any one of claims 52-63, wherein the positive electrode is substantially free of lithium when the rechargeable energy source system is in a charged state.

65. The method of claim 64, wherein the positive electrode comprises vanadium-based compounds.

66. The method of claim 65, wherein the positive electrode comprises VxOy.

67. The method of claim 65, wherein the positive electrode comprises VxOyFz.

68. The method of claim 65, wherein the positive electrode comprises at least one of:121.V6O5Fi9, V3OFH, VO2F, VOF3,VPO4F, LiV3OFn, Mn3V(PO4)6, V6O5FI9, V2(PO4)3, LiVOF4, LiV(OF)2, LiV(OF)2, MnVP2(O4F)2, V4O7F5, LiV3CoOio, VPO5, VFeP2(O4F)2, TiVO4, LiTiV3Oio, VFeP2(HO5)2, Li2VOF5, MnV40i2, VBO4, LiV2P2(O4F)2, LiV3CrO8, V4(OF3)3, LiV4O8, V(CO3)2, LiVsOio, VCuO4, or VCo3O8.

69. The method of claim 65, wherein the positive electrode comprises MxV20s, wherein M comprises one or more of Li, Na, K, and Au.

70. The method of any one of claims 52-69, wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of 2.5-3.5 mAh / cm2.

71. The method of any one of claims 52-70, wherein the negative electrode comprises an areal capacity of about 3 mAh / cm2.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560172. The method of any one of claims 52-71, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 2.2 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.

73. The method of any one of claims 52-71, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is configured to maintain a cycling efficiency of at least 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.91%, 99.92%, 99.93%, 99.94%, 99.95%, 99.96%, 99.97%, 99.98%, 99.99% over at least 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, or 1000 cycles when charged and discharged from 1.8 to 4 volts at a C-rate of at least 1C and a D-rate of at least 1C.

74. The method of any one of claims 52-73, wherein the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity of about 600 mAh / g to about 5000 mAh / g.

75. The method of any one of claims 52-74, wherein the negative electrode is configured to provide a capacity higher than 1000 mAh / g.

76. The method of any one of claims 52-75, wherein the negative electrode has an intercalation capacity of about 200 mAh / g to about 300 mAh / g.

77. The method of any one of claims 52-75, wherein the negative electrode has a lithium metal capacity of about 400 mAh / g to about 800 mAh / g.

78. The method m of any one of claims 52-77, wherein each carbon particle of the plurality of carbon particles comprises a plurality of indents and a plurality of apexes.

79. The method of any one of claims 52-78, wherein the electrolyte comprises an ether-based solvent system.

80. The method of any one of claims 52-79, wherein the electrolyte further comprises one or more lithium salts or one or more additives.

81. The method of claim 80, wherein the one or more lithium salts comprise lirthium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (LiTFSI) or lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI).

82. The method of claim 80, wherein the one or more additives comprise LiNCh.

83. The method of any one of claims 52-82, wherein the electrolyte is free of carbonate solvents.

84. The method of any one of claims 52-83, wherein the cathode has a charge cutoff potential of 4V or less versus Li+ / Li.

85. The method of any one of claims 52-84, wherein the cathode comprises LiFePC or V2O5 with the full cell voltage range is 1.8 V to 4 V.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-72560186. The method of any one of claims 52-85, wherein a current density ranges from about 0.3 mA / cm2to about 0.6 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

87. The method of any one of claims 52-86, wherein the system maintains at least 85%, 90%, 95%, or 98% of its initial discharge capacity after at least 5500 charge-discharge cycles.

88. An electrolyte composition comprising a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises at least three solvents.

89. An electrolyte composition comprising a plurality of solvents and a plurality of lithium salts, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises at least two participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

90. The electrolyte composition of claim 88 or 89, wherein the electrolyte comprises a localized high concentration electrolyte (LHCE).

91. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-90, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises one or more participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

92. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 89-91, wherein the participating comprises dissolving or solvating the plurality of lithium salts.

93. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 89-92, wherein the one or more nonparticipating solvents comprises a diluent.

94. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 89-93, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises three participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

95. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 89-94, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises an ether.

96. The electrolyte composition of claim 95, wherein the ether comprises a heterocyclic ether.

97. The electrolyte composition of claim 96, wherein the heterocyclic ether comprises a heterocyclic acetal structure.

98. The electrolyte composition of claim 97, wherein the heterocyclic acetal structure comprises a five-membered dioxolane ring structure.

99. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 95-98, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises 1,3-dioxolane (DOL).

100. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-95, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises an alkyl ether.

101. The electrolyte composition of claim 100, wherein the alkyl ether comprises a dialkyl ether.

102. The electrolyte composition of claim 101, wherein the dialkyl ether comprises a dimethyl ether (DME).Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601103. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-95, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises a partially fluorinated alkyl ether.

104. The electrolyte composition of claim 103, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises a partially fluorinated dialkyl ether.

105. The electrolyte composition of claim 104, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises l,l,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE).

106. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-95, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises a fully fluorinated alkyl ether.

107. The electrolyte composition of claim 106, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises a fully fluorinated dialkyl ether.

108. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-107, wherein a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom.

109. The electrolyte composition of claim 108, wherein at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom.

110. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-109, wherein a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion.

111. The electrolyte composition of claim 109, wherein at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion.

112. The electrolyte composition of claim 110 or 111, wherein the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST).

113. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-112, further comprising one or more additives.

114. The electrolyte composition of claim 113, wherein the one or more additives comprise NO3’.

115. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-114, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent.

116. The electrolyte composition of claim 115, wherein the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

117. The electrolyte composition of claim 116, wherein the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 15 wt% to about 25 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

118. The electrolyte composition of claim 115, wherein the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

119. The electrolyte composition of claim 118, wherein the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 10 wt% to about 20 wt% of the electrolyte composition.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601120. The electrolyte composition of claim 115, wherein the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

121. The electrolyte composition of claim 120, wherein the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 35 wt% to 55 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

122. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-121, wherein the plurality of solvents comprises DOL, DME, or TTE.

123. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 115-122, wherein the first solvent is DME.

124. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 115-123, wherein the second solvent is DOL.

125. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 115-124, wherein the third solvent is TTE.

126. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-125, wherein the electrolyte is configured to promote SEI formation on an anode to prevent growth of dendrites.

127. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-126, wherein the electrolyte includes excess solvents to maintain lithium salts in solution and prevent precipitation during cycling.

128. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-127, wherein the plurality of solvents is configured to decrease viscosity and improves conductivity.

129. An electrolyte composition comprising a mixture of a localized high concentration electrolyte, a plurality of solvents, and a plurality of lithium salts.

130. The electrolyte composition of claim 129, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises one or more participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

131. The electrolyte composition of claim 130, wherein the participating comprises dissolving or solvating the plurality of lithium salts.

132. The electrolyte composition of claim 130 or 131, wherein the one or more nonparticipating solvents comprises a diluent.

133. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 130-132, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises three participating solvents and one or more non-participating solvents.

134. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-133, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises an ether.

135. The electrolyte composition of claim 134, wherein the ether comprises a heterocyclic ether.

136. The electrolyte composition of claim 135, wherein the heterocyclic ether comprises a heterocyclic acetal structure.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601137. The electrolyte composition of claim 136, wherein the heterocyclic acetal structure comprises a five-membered dioxolane ring structure.

138. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-137, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises 1,3-dioxolane (DOL).

139. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-133, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises an alkyl ether.

140. The electrolyte composition of claim 139, wherein the alkyl ether comprises a dialkyl ether.

141. The electrolyte composition of claim 140, wherein the dialkyl ether comprises a dimethyl ether (DME).

142. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-133, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a partially fluorinated alkyl ether.

143. The electrolyte composition of claim 142, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a partially fluorinated dialkyl ether.

144. The electrolyte composition of claim 143, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises l,l,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl-2,2,3,3-tetrafluoropropyl ether (TTE).

145. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-133, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a fully fluorinated alkyl ether.

146. The electrolyte composition of claim 145, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a fully fluorinated dialkyl ether.

147. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-146, wherein a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom.

148. The electrolyte composition of claim 147, wherein at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a nitrogen atom.

149. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-148, wherein a lithium salt of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion.

150. The electrolyte composition of claim 149, wherein at least two lithium salts of the plurality of lithium salts comprises a non-coordinating anion.

151. The electrolyte composition of claim 149 or 150, wherein the non-coordinating anion comprises bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (TFST) or bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (FST).

152. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-151, further comprising one or more additives.

153. The electrolyte composition of claim 152, wherein the one or more additives comprise LiNO3.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601154. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-153, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises a first solvent, a second solvent, and a third solvent.

155. The electrolyte composition of claim 154, wherein the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

156. The electrolyte composition of claim 155, wherein the first solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 15 wt% to about 25 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

157. The electrolyte composition of claim 154, wherein the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 1 wt% to about 45 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

158. The electrolyte composition of claim 157, wherein the second solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 10 wt% to about 20 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

159. The electrolyte composition of claim 154, wherein the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 5 wt% to 70 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

160. The electrolyte composition of claim 159, wherein the third solvent is present in an amount ranging from about 35 wt% to 55 wt% of the electrolyte composition.

161. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-160, wherein the electrolyte composition comprises DOL, DME, or TTE.

162. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 154-161, wherein the first solvent is DME.

163. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 154-162, wherein the second solvent is DOL.

164. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 154-163, wherein the third solvent is TTE.

165. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-164, wherein the electrolyte composition is configured to promote SEI formation on an anode to prevent growth of dendrites.

166. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-165, wherein the electrolyte composition includes excess solvents to maintain lithium salts in solution and prevent precipitation during cycling.

167. The electrolyte composition of any one of claims 129-166, wherein the electrolyte composition is configured to increases viscosity and improves conductivity.

168. A rechargeable energy source system comprising the electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-167, wherein a cycling efficiency of the rechargeable energy source system is at least 99.9% if measured at a cycling rate of a charge rate from about C / 20 to about 10C, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D.

169. A rechargeable energy source system comprising the electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-167, wherein a capacity retention of the rechargeable energy source system is atAtty Dkt No.: 65848-725601222.least 80% if measured over 1000 cycles with a cycling rate of a charge rate from about C / 20 to about 10C, and a discharge rate from about D / 20 to about 10D.

170. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 168 or 169, further comprising a lithium metal negative electrode.

171. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 170, the lithium metal negative electrode comprises a plurality of carbon particles, wherein the plurality of carbon particles is spherical in morphology with a corrugated surface.

172. The rechargeable energy source system of any one of claims 168-171, further comprising a positive electrode comprising a redox material as an active material.

173. The rechargeable energy source system of claim 172, wherein the redox material comprises iron phosphate (LiFePC ), V2O5, or lithium nickel manganese cobalt (LiNixMnyCoi-x-yO2).

174. A method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising:228.(iv) providing a cell comprising:229.a negative electrode;230.an electrolyte comprising the electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-167; and231.a positive electrode;232.(v) cycling the battery within a voltage window of 1.8 V to 4 V; and233.(vi) applying a current density of 0.1 mA / cm2to 1 mA mA / cm2during charge and discharge.

175. A method of operating a lithium metal battery, comprising:235.(iii) providing a cell comprising:236.a negative electrode;237.an electrolyte comprising the electrolyte composition of any one of claims 88-167; and238.a positive electrode; and239.(iv) repeatedly cycling the cell at a current density of 0.1 to 1 mA / cm2.

176. A composite membrane comprising:241.a polymer layer and a plurality of lithium ion conductive particles, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles have sizes smaller than a thickness of the polymer layer, and wherein the composite membrane is configured to be used to extract lithium metal from brine, and wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water and has a Li+conductivity of at least 1.0 x 10"5S / cm. Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601177. The composite membrane of claim 176, wherein the thickness is at least 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 pm.

178. The composite membrane of claim 176 or 177, wherein the thickness is at most 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 pm.

179. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-178, wherein an average of the sizes of the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles is greater than 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, or 150 pm.

180. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-179, wherein an average of the sizes of the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles is less than 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, or 150 pm.

181. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-180, wherein a ratio of the thickness of the polymer layer to an average of the sizes of the lithium ion conductive particles is at least 0.5 to 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.

182. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-181, wherein a ratio of the thickness of the polymer layer to an average of the sizes of the lithium ion conductive particles is at most 0.5 to 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10.

183. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-182, wherein the composite membrane has a Young’s modulus of less than 10 GPa.

184. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-183, wherein the composite membrane has a water permeability of less than 1 nL / cm2 / min under 1 mA / cm2of the current density as measured at least in part by Near-Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy.

185. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-184, wherein the composite membrane comprises less than 0.01% pores by volume.

186. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-185, wherein the composite membrane is bendable to a radius of curvature of at least 1 mm without substantially affecting a water impermeability and / or the Li+conductivity of the composite membrane.

187. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-186, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles comprises a particle density of at least 30%, or at most 99%.

188. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-187, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles selectively conducts lithium ions.

189. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-188, wherein a transference number of lithium ions in the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles is between 0.90 and 1.

190. The composite membrane any one of claims 176-189, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles comprises a ceramic material.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601191. The composite membrane of claim 190, wherein the ceramic material comprises lithium ion conductive glass ceramic (LICGC), lithium aluminum titanium phosphate (LATP), lithium lanthanum zirconium tantalum oxide (LLZTO), LiFePCU, LiCoCh, lithium-lanthanum titanates (LLTO), garnet type electrolytes, NASICON, LISICON and Thio-LISICON electrolytes, Li?La-ZrsOn (LLZO), cubic phase LLZO, LATP, LiePSsCl, LiePSsBr, LiePSsI, a transition metal oxide, LiFePCU, LiCoCh, LiNiCh, LiMnCh, layered LiCoCh and LiNiCh and LiMnCh, LiX^Os, a garnet material, an argyrodite material, an olivine material, or any combination thereof.

192. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-191, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles comprises a hydrophobically modified surface.

193. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-192, wherein the composite membrane comprises at least three layers comprising two hydrophobic layers and one hydrophilic layer, wherein the hydrophilic layer is between the two hydrophobic layers.

194. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-193, wherein a layer of the two hydrophobic layers is adhered to the hydrophilic layer by an adhesive.

195. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-194, wherein at least one side of the composite membrane comprises a lithium conductive polymer.

196. The composite membrane of claim 195, wherein the lithium conductive polymer comprises a block copolymer.

197. The composite membrane of claim 196, wherein a portion of the block copolymer is in contact with lithium metal, wherein the portion is substantially unreactive with the lithium metal.

198. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-197, wherein the composite membrane comprises a thermoplastic polymer or a thermoset polymer.

199. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-198, wherein the lithium conductive polymer comprises an apparent melting transition temperature greater than 20 °C.

200. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-199, wherein an ion conductive domain of the lithium conductive polymer has a glass transition temperature of less than 20 °C.

201. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-200, wherein the lithium conductive polymer increases uniformity of current distribution for lithium plating.

202. The composite membrane of any one of claims 176-201, wherein the lithium conductive polymer substantially prevents or inhibits reactions between plated lithium and the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles.

203. A method for lithium extraction from brine, comprising:269.(a) contacting a composite membrane with brine, wherein the composite membrane comprises a polymer layer and a plurality of lithium ion conductive particles, wherein the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles has sizes bigger than a Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601270.thickness of the polymer layer, and wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water and has a Li+conductivity of at least 1.0 x 10"5S / cm; and271.(b) depositing one or more lithium metal islands onto a conductive substrate by subjecting a plurality of lithium ions from the brine to pass through the composite membrane to the conductive substrate, wherein at least one lithium metal island of the one or more lithium metal islands is smaller than 200 pm in at least one dimension.

204. The method of claim 203, wherein the one or more lithium metal islands are smaller than 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 pm in at least one dimension.

205. The method of claim 203 or 159, wherein the one or more lithium metal islands are greater than 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 140, 130, 120, 110, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 pm.

206. The method of any one of claims 203-205, wherein the one or more lithium metal islands are deposited with a nucleation site density of greater than 0.04 nucleation sites / mm2.

207. The method of claim 206, wherein the nucleation site density is greater than 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation sites / mm2.

208. The method of claim 206 or 207, wherein the nucleation site density is less than 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation sites / mm2.

209. The method of any one of claims 203-208, wherein the depositing is performed substantially free of side reactions caused by water and / or other impurities.

210. The method of claim 209, wherein the depositing is performed using a current density of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, or 50 mA / cm2.

211. The method of claim 209 or 210, wherein the other impurities comprise oxygen, an organic electrolyte, a surfactant, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, boron, chlorine, SC>42', nitrogen, an alkali metal, an alkali earth metal, or any combination thereof.

212. The method of any one of claims 203-211, wherein the conductive substrate comprises copper, silicon, silver, carbon, aluminum, gold, or any combination thereof.

213. A system for comprising a negative electrode, a positive electrode, and the composite membrane of any one of claims 176-212, wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water when the system is in operation or not in operation.Atty Dkt No.: 65848-725601214. The system of claim 213, wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water over at least 100 lithium plating or deposition-stripping cycles of the system.

215. The system of claim 213 or 214, further comprising a polymer layer between the negative electrode and the composite membrane.

216. The system of claim 215, wherein the polymer layer is configured to prevent the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles in the composite membrane from contacting the negative electrode.

217. The system of claim 215 or 216, further comprising a porous filter between the negative electrode and the composite membrane.

218. The system of claim 217, wherein the porous filter is configured to prevent the plurality of lithium ion conductive particles in the composite membrane from contacting the negative electrode.

219. The system of claim 218, wherein the porous filter is wet with a liquid organic electrolyte.

220. The system of any one of claims 213-219, wherein the composite membrane has a curved form factor.

221. The system of any one of claims 213-220, wherein the system is a rechargeable energy source system, and wherein the composite membrane is substantially impermeable to water over at least 100, 500, or 1000 charge-discharge cycles of the rechargeable energy source system.

222. The system of claim 221, wherein the rechargeable energy source system is anodeless.

223. The system of claim 221 or 222, comprising a lithium metal layer having a thickness greater than 1 pm and a nucleation site density greater than 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleation site / mm2, when the rechargeable energy source system is fully charged.

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