Ultra-high throughput fluidic micro-self-assembly

Abstract

A method for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate, the method including: delivering a droplet comprising the electrical component to the substrate, wherein delivering the droplet includes: generating the droplet comprising the electrical component; inducing within the droplet an electrical charge; and optically inspecting the droplet to determine an electrical component property in the droplet, thereby identifying the electrical component as either an acceptable electrical component or as a rejected electrical component; aligning the electrical component with the substrate; and attaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity. An electrical component array and a µLED display produced according to these methods.

Description

ULTRA-HIGH THROUGHPUT FLUIDIC MICRO-SELF-ASSEMBLYCROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U. S. Application No. 63 / 736,269, filed on December 19. 2024, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.BACKGROUND

[0002] As the electronics industry approaches the limits of traditional CMOS scaling, the longstanding growth driven by the continuous reduction in cost per function can no longer be sustained by merely increasing transistor density. Instead, the assembly and packaging sector is increasingly taking on the responsibility of maintaining growth rates through functional diversification and function densification. Functional diversification, also referred to as ’More-than -Moore1(MtM), focuses on system and heterogeneous integration, rather than just increasing transistor density. Function densification, in the context of planar fabrication processes, refers to stacking components to enhance device density7

[0003] Self-assembly has been explored as a technique that enhances both functional diversification and function densification. Self-assembly can not only improve existing assembly and packaging techniques but also unlock possibilities that are constrained by current industry methodologies.

[0004] Self-assembly is defined as the autonomous organization of components into ordered patterns or structures without human intervention. In the specific context of microscale assembly and packaging, self-assembly generally involves three phases: a stochastic transportation phase, which brings discrete components to designated binding locations on a substrate; an alignment phase, which correctly orients components at the binding sites; and a final step, which permanently adheres components to the binding locations.

[0005] By this definition, completed fluidic self-assembly (FSA) processes use fluidic media to stochastically transport components to binding locations, molten solder to align the components, and then allow the solder to cool and solidify, thereby mechanically and electrically adhering the components to the substrate. In the context of microscale selfassembly, 'programmability'' refers to the ability to reliably direct different, reproducible outcomes with the same set of components in a self-assembly process.

[0006] Despite research efforts over the past quarter century promising fast and massively parallel assembly of microscale components, self-assembly has remained a niche technology with limited industrial applications Self-assembly has been successfully applied to surface-mount technology (SMT), but this approach has not replaced more conventional pick-and-pl ce methods.

[0007] Recently, the development of large-area displays based on micro light¬ emitting diodes (pLEDs) has created a renewed and urgent need for efficient microassembly techniques. Compared to popular organic LED (DEED) displays, inorganic pLEDs offer higher brightness, longer lifespan, better contrast and color accuracy, faster response times, and do not suffer from burn-in. For example, more than 24 million chiplets smaller than 100 pm are required for a 50-inch, ultra-higli-definition pLED display. Even with the most advanced pick-and-place machines, which can achieve up to 100,000 assemblies per hour, completing one such display would take an impractical 10 days. Consequently, display manufacturers (e g., LG Electronics, Samsung) have a strong interest in developing and refining micro-self-assembly, as evidenced by recent application-driven publications. This work has demonstrated significant progress towards the ultimate goal of low-cost, high-throughput manufacturing of full-color pLED displays,

[0008] One of the most impressive demonstrations to date has achieved assembly yields of 99.88% for pLED lighting panels consisting of 19,000 GaN chiplets, each with a 45 pm diameter and 5 pm thickness, in a fluidic self-assembly process within 60 seconds. However, these results are still three orders of magnitude below the requirements for pLED displays, and a defect rate of 0.12% would result in tens of thousands of defects. While it has been suggested that these remaining defects could be repaired through a final pick-and-place step, the current defect rate would make this a time-consuming, hours-long procedure.

[0009] It is also uncertain how these methods would scale across several orders of magnitude. While self-assembly is inherently a parallel process, designing a truly parallel self-assembly system that ensures the delivery of chiplets to their assembly sites with adequate speed and uniformity remains a challenge. For instance, already assembled chiplets often obstruct the movement of free chiplets, leading to insufficient transport to the remaining open assembly sites.

[0010] In summary, although significant progress has been made toward massively parallel self-assembly, the ultimate goal of efficiently and reliably assemblingmillions of parts, as required for high-resolution pLED displays, remains an open challenge.

[0011] Accordingly, there is a long-felt need in the art for methods and systems for self-assembly of one or more electrical components onto a substrate.SUMMARY[0012| To address these and related challenges the present disclosure provides methods and systems for self-assembly of one or more electrical components onto a substrate.

[0013] This summary' is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This summary is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter.

[0014] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides methods for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate, the methods including: delivering a droplet comprising the electrical component to the substrate, wherein delivering the droplet includes: generating the droplet comprising the electrical component; inducing within the droplet an electrical charge; and optically inspecting the droplet to determine an electrical component property in the droplet, thereby identifying the electrical component as either an acceptable electrical component or as a rejected electrical component; aligning the electrical component with the substrate; and attaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity.

[0015] In some embodiments, the droplet is part of a plurality of droplets comprising a plurality of electrical components.

[0016] In some embodiments, the electrical component property is a number of electrical components in the droplet, and wherein when the number of electrical components in the droplet is one, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0017] In some embodiments, the electrical component property is whether the electrical component in the droplet is defective, and wherein when the electrical component is non-defective, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0018] In some embodiments, if the droplet comprises the rejected electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to a discard site, and if the dropletcomprises the acceptable electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to the assembly site on the substrate.

[0019] In some embodiments, optically inspecting the droplet comprises: illuminating the droplet to generate an optical signal; detecting, with at least one sensor, the optical signal; and determining, based on the detected optical signal, the electrical component property in the droplet.

[0020] In some embodiments, aligning the electrical component with the substrate comprises surface energy minimization.

[0021] In some embodiments, attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises a solder reflow.

[0022] In some embodiments, attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises activating a heat-activated glue, a UV -light-activated glue, or a combination thereof.

[0023] In some embodiments, the electrical component comprises an RFID chip.

[0024] In some embodiments, the component comprises a pLED.

[0025] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a diameter of between about 5 pm and about 100 pm

[0026] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a diameter of between about 10 pm and about 100 pm.

[0027] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a thickness of between about 0.05 pm and about 10 pm.

[0028] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a thickness of between about 0.1 pm and about 10 pm.

[0029] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a rectangular geometry.

[0030] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a disk-shaped geometry.

[0031] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is different from the second side.

[0032] In some embodiments, the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophobic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophobic assembly site on the substrate.

[0033] In some embodiments, the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophilic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophilic assembly' site on the substrate.

[0034] In some embodiments, the uLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side and the second side are both hydrophobic or are both hydrophilic.

[0035] In some embodiments, the pLED is coated with a lower-density material.

[0036] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InGaN, AlGalnP, and other III-V semiconductor components.

[0037] In some embodiments, the substrate is mounted in a precision x-y stage.

[0038] In some embodiments, greater than 100,000 electrical components are self-assembled per second.

[0039] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides electrical component arrays produced according to any of the methods described herein.

[0040] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides pLED displays produced according to any of the methods described herein.DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0041] The foregoing aspects and many of the attendant advantages of the subject matter of the present disclosure will become more readily appreciated as the same become better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

[0042] FIG. I illustrates a schematic of a method in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0043] FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic of a coated acceptable electrical component in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0044] FIG. 3A illustrates a schematic of a defective electrical component in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0045] FIG. 3B illustrates a schematic of an aggregated electrical component in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0046] FIG. 4 illustrates a schematic of the delivery of one or more electrical components to a substrate in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0047] FIG. 5A illustrates a schematic of an electrical component in a droplet in accordance w ith an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0048] FIG, 5B illustrates a schematic of an electrical component in a droplet contacting a substrate including a non-assembly site and an assembly site in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. When the printed droplet first contacts thesubstrate, rapid compression waves form and reflect at the air-liquid interface as tension waves, creating negative pressure regions that can create cavitation.

[0049] FIG. 5C illustrates a schematic of an electrical component in a droplet contacting a substrate including a non-assembly site and an assembly site in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Once the three-phase interface forms, capillary forces start to dominate the chip motion.

[0050] FIG. 5D illustrates a schematic of an electrical component on a droplet aligning to an assembly site in accordance with an embodiment of the presen t disclosure.

[0051] FIG. 6A illustrates a process flow of the patterned substrate preparation for high-contrast receptors for self-alignment using tetramethylsilane (TMS) and patterned fluoro-ocyl-trichloro-silane (FOTS) to form contrast using polymer SAMs.

[0052] FIG. 6B illustrates a process flow of the patterned substrate preparation for high-contrast receptors for self-alignment using coated metal oxide.

[0053] FIG. 6C illustrates a process flow of the patterned substrate preparation for high-contrast receptors for self-alignment using a single-lithography process by using one mask to open ZnO windows for FOTS deposition.

[0054] FIG. 7A illustrates assembly sites and non-assembly sites in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0055] FIG. 7B illustrates assembly sites and non-assembly sites in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0056] FIG. 7C illustrates assembly sites and non-assembly sites in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosur e.

[0057] FIG. 7D illustrates assembly sites and non-assembly sites in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0058] Efficient assembly of electrical components into electrical systems (such as pLED and / or quantum dot (QD) displays, RFID tags, thermoelectric cooling (TEC) elements, or other electronic devices) involving millions of electrical components will require orders of magnitude improvements in scale and defect rate. A straightforward scale-up of current state-of-the-art self-assembly methods is unlikely to achieve such a dramatic improvement. In this regard, the present disclosure provides methods and systems for scalable self-assembly of electronic components, including pLED's for pLED displays, such that assembly times for tens of millions of components can be reduced from weeks tominutes. While the methods described herein are described with respect to LILED systems and for assembly of systems including tens of millions of components, it should be understood that the methods described herein are similarly useful for systems using smaller numbers of components, such as TECs which may require hundreds or thousands of TEC elements,[00591 Self-assembly of systems is related to chemical reaction kinetics, and this relation is helpful for understanding the limitations of self-assembly. As used herein, the term "self-assembly" is used to contrast the methods described in the present disclosure from "pick and place" processes, which typically involve a manual or robotic placement of a component in a particular site or location. As one of ordinary skill in the art would appreciate, "self-assembly" may include various self-assembly regimes. As a non-limiting list, "self-assembly" may include "directed assembly" (where capillary forces or surface tension are involved) and "fluidic self-assembly" (FSA). It should be further understood that "self-assembly" may include assembly that is driven by gravity, surface tension, shape matching, a nozzle and electric field, complementary DNA strands, etc.

[0060] Like a chemical reaction, self-assembly may be "transport-limited", i.e., the rate of assembly is constrained by the speed at which components can reach their assembly site, or it may be "reaction-limited", i.e., the rate of assembly is constrained by the time the component attaches to its assembly site. Moreover, some components may occasionally disassociate from their assembly sites ("reverse reaction") If the rate of assembly is, e.g., 500 times the rate of disassembly then an equilibrium will be reached with a defect rate of 1 / 500 = 0.2%. Thus, it is essential that a high-throughput self-assembly process has very high transport and assembly rates and very low disassembly rates.

[0061] Delivering 24 million components in 5 minutes implies a delivery rate of 80,000 components per second. Such rates are unachievable by pick-and-place technology.

[0062] The present disclosure describes methods for delivering pLEDs to the substrate for large panel displays by generating a stream of droplets containing single electrical components (such as pLEDs). This stream is optically inspected, and the droplets are charged accordingly. Droplets containing no pLED or more than one pLED are discarded, while the remaining droplets are precisely directed toward their assembly site on the substrate panel.

[0063] Accordingly, m an aspect, the present disclosure provides methods for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate.

[0064] Technology according to the present disclosure is capable of achieving throughputs well above 100,000 droplets per second. Advantageously, pLEDs have minimal geometric variation, may be made very' thin, and may be embedded or coated with a lower-density material for delivery.

[0065] One challenge overcome by the methods described in the present disclosure is how to precisely deliver the droplets to the substrate. The droplets must travel from the nozzle to specific locations on the substrate within a large array, similar to the electron beam in a cathode ray tube (CRT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), or electron beam lithography (EBL) system, or the ion beam in a focused ion beam (FIB) system. As in SEM, EBL, or FIB systems, the substrate may be mounted on a precision x-y stage to achieve large-area coverage.[00661 Once a droplet containing a pLED reaches its assembly site, the pLED attaches to the site and establishes electrical connectivity in order to function. Proper alignment may be achieved by surface energy minimization. Permanent attachment may be achieved by solder reflow. Alternatively, heat- or UV-light-activated glue may also be employed.

[0067] In some embodiments, the pLEDs of the present disclosure may be small and thin (with diameters in the tens of micrometers and thicknesses less than 10 pm).

[0068] Rotational alignment: To prevent misalignment, the pLEDs have a simple geometry, such as square or disk-shaped. Surface energy minimization naturally orients squares in one of four equally likely orientations, while the orientation of a disk may not matter at all. The electrode contacts are sized and shaped to function correctly in any of these orientations. In some embodiments, one contact is made from underneath, and the other from above.

[0069] Top / bottom alignment: In some embodiments, the pLEDs may either have a front and a back side (requiring assembly with the back facing the substrate), or they may be symmetrical (allowing assembly on either side). A symmetrical design may be preferred to avoid incorrect upside-down assemblies. However, the sides of the pLEDs may be coated with hydrophobic and hydrophilic films to ensure that they only attach "right-side-up.” A temporary' coating on the front side could also be applied to protect the pLED during assembly and to adjust its specific weight to be closer to that of water.

[0070] As used herein, "electrical component" may refer to a pLED, an RFID chip, a TEC component, a quantum dot, or combinations thereof.

[0071] As used herein, " gLED" refers to a light emitting diode (LED) with a diameter along a major axis on the micron scale (i.e., from 100s of micrometers to single digit numbers of micrometers).

[0072] In this regard, in some embodiments, the diameter of the gLED is between about 10 gm and about 100 gm, or about 5 gm and about 100 gm. In some embodiments, the diameter of the gLED is between about 1 gm and about 5 gm. In some embodiments, the thickness of the gLED is about 0.1 gm and about 10 gm, or about 0.05 gm and about 10 gm.

[0073] The electronic component, such as a gLED, may be produced to have any suitable electronic component geometry. In some embodiments, an LED geometry may include a rectangular geometry, a disk-shaped geometry, and a triangular geometric shapes. The electronic component, such as gLED and an RFID may include an aspect ratio that is substantially flat. In some embodiments, such as where the electronic component is a TEC, the aspect ratio may be selected so that the TEC protrudes from a surface, such as where the aspect ratio is 1:1 or taller.

[0074] As used herein, "substantially flat" refers to a geometry where geometric object, defined by a face (defined by a length and a width) and a height, includes an aspect ratio between the length and / or the width of the geometric object and the height of the geometric object that is approximately greater than 10: 1, 20:1, 30:1, 40: 1, 50:1, 60:1. 70:1.80:1, 90: 1. 100:1, 1000:1. In some embodiments, the aspect ratio is 100:1. In some embodiments, the aspect ratio is between about 10:1 and about 100:1, between about 20:1 and about 100:1, or between about 30:1 and about 100:1.

[0075] Additionally, in some embodiments, the gLED may include a first side and a second side, where a material of the first side is different from a material of the second side. In this respect, in some embodiments, one of the first or second sides of the gLED may be configured to make electrical contact with a substrate, whereas the other of the first or second sides of the gLED may not be configured to make electrical contact with the substrate

[0076] In some embodiments, the first side and second side may be coated with, respectively, a hydrophobic film and a hydrophilic film. In this configuration, the first side of the gLED may be configured to make contact with the substrate. In some embodiments, the first side and second side may be coated with, respectively, a hydrophilic film and ahydrophobic film. In this configuration, the first side of the pLED may be configured to make contact with the substrate.

[0077] In some embodiments, the uLED and the substrate are submerged in water, wherein the first side of the pLED is coated with a substantially hydrophobic coating, and wherein the first side attaches to a hydrophobic assembly site on the substrate via a non-polar liquid.

[0078] In some embodiments, the pLED and the substrate are at least partially covered by water, wherein the first side of the pLED is coated with a substantially hydrophilic coating, and wherein the first side attaches to a hydrophilic assembly site on the substrate via a polar liquid, such as water.

[0079] In some embodiments, the pLED and the substrate are submerged in water, wherein the first side of the pLED is coated with a substantially hydrophilic coating, and wherein the water is configured to dry, thereby drawing the first side of the pLED to an attachment point on an assembly site on the substrate.

[0080] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is symmetrical to the second side.

[0081] In some embodiments, the pLED is coated with a lower-density material. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, a lower-density material coating may bring the specific weight of the electrical component, such as the pLED, closer to the specific weight of water. This would have the effect of making the pLED lighter relative to the droplet surround it. Moreover, the lower-density material coating may serve as a protective layer during the assembly process.

[0082] In some embodiments, the pLED comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InGaN, AlGalnP, and other III-V semiconductor components.

[0083] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides methods for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate, the methods including: delivering a droplet comprising the electrical component to the substrate, wherein delivering the droplet includes: generating the droplet comprising the electrical component; inducing within the droplet an electrical charge; and optically inspecting the droplet to determine an electrical component property in the droplet, thereby identifying the electrical component as either an acceptable electrical component or as a rejected electrical component; aligning theelectrical component with the substrate; and attaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity.

[0084] In some embodiments, the droplet is part of a plurality of droplets comprising a plurality of electrical components.

[0085] In this regard, FIG. 1 provides a schematic illustration of an apparatus performing steps according to the methods of the present disclosure. Self-assembly system 100 is depicted to include a delivery nozzle 110, one or more detectors 120, a laser 130, first electric plate 150a and second electric plate 150b, substrate 170, and discard site 180.

[0086] In the schematic of FIG. 1, the delivery nozzle 110 is configured to deliver droplets containing electrical components 160 to the substrate 170. In this regard, the delivery nozzle 110 may contain, collimate, and dispense of one or more electrical components 160. In the illustrated example, the one or more electrical components 160 enter through an input side of the delivery nozzle 110 and traverse towards a delivery nozzle outlet 114. The one or more electrical components 160 are contained in a carrier fluid. A sheath fluid 112 flows along an internal wall of the delivery nozzle 110, thereby focusing and delivering the one or more electrical components 160 to the delivery nozzle outlet 114 without damaging the one or more electrical components 160.

[0087] Once one of the one or more electrical components 160 flows through the delivery nozzle outlet 114, a droplet 166 is formed around each electrical component 160. In this regard, the delivery nozzle 110 generates a plurality of droplets including the one or more electrical components 160. As the plurality of droplets exit the delivery nozzle outlet 114, a charge 140 is applied to each droplet 166. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the plurality of droplets may be generated via oscillations of a piezo actuator operating at high frequencies, such as up to 100 kHz or higher. The charge on each droplet 166 may be acquired due to triboelectricity, input from the piezo, or an electrical bias that is applied to the nozzle. However, other methods for producing a plurality of droplets may be performed and fall within the scope of the present disclosure. The one or more electrical components 160 are depicted schematically to include both acceptable electrical components 162 and rejected electrical components 164.

[0088] Classification of the one or more electrical components 160 may be performed as the one or more electrical components 160 exit from the delivery' nozzle outlet 114 through optical inspection (such as by spectroscopic interrogation). In this regard, laser 130 is positioned to illuminate the one or more electrical components 160 as they exit thedelivery nozzle outlet 114. thereby performing single particle spectra analysis. This optical inspection is depicted in FIG. 1 to occur via illumination by a laser 130, though it should be understood that interrogation of particles exiting the delivery nozzle outlet 114 may occur using other sources of collimated light, such as via focusing of a diffuse light source via one or more lenses (not illustrated).

[0089] The one or more detectors 120 are positioned to detect a signal produced by the one or more electrical components 160 as they pass through a beam of light emitted by the laser 130. In the illustrated example, the one or more detectors 120 include side scatter detector 122 and front scatter detector 124. Each of the one or more detectors 120 may be configured to probe a different property of the one or more electrical components 160.

[0090] For instance, the side scatter detector 122 may be configured to detect the presence of an electrical component, which may be determined by an increase in detected photon intensity when an electrical component 160 passes through the laser beam, thereby generating side scattering signal.

[0091] The side scatter detector 122 may also be configured to identify whether an electrical component that passes through the laser beam is functional, such as where the electrical component is selectively labeled when it is in a functional state. In this manner, in some embodiments, methods according to the present disclosure include optically inspecting a plurality of droplets including the one or more electrical components 160.

[0092] Along similar lines, the front scatter detector 124 may be configured to identify a property of an electrical component 160 as it passes through the laser beam, such as a color of the electrical component 160. In this regard, when the electrical component 160 passes through the laser beam, the laser may lead to fluorescent excitation of at least a portion of the electrical component 160. A subsequent fluorescent emission of light may indicate a color property of the electrical component 160.

[0093] One or more of the side scatter detector 122 and the front scatter detector 124 may further be configured to determine a number of electrical components within each drop of the plurality7of droplets, such as by measuring a total intensity7of light as each droplet 166 passes through the beam produced by laser 130.

[0094] In this regard, in some embodiments, optically inspecting the plurality of droplets 166 includes illuminating each droplet to generate an optical signal, detecting, withat least one detector (or sensor) the optical signal and determining, based on the detected optical signal, the number of electrical components 160 within each droplet.

[0095] Following interrogation of the droplets 166, the electric charge 140 that was induced within each droplet 166 may be leveraged for purposes of sorting of droplets 166, A sorting process determined based on the signal from the optical interrogation may thereafter be performed based on this electrical charge, thereby allowing the droplets 166 containing one or more electrical components 160 to be sorted based on whether they contain acceptable electrical components 162 or rejected electrical components 164.

[0096] In some embodiments, each droplet 166 carries a substantively identical charge determined based on the droplet formation and ejection process. In some embodiments, the electrical electric charge 140 induced within a droplet 166 is based at least partially on the number of electrical components 160 w ithin said droplet 166.

[0097] In this regard, FIG. 2 illustrates an acceptable electrical component 162, which is part of the one or more electrical components 160. Acceptable electrical component 162 is depicted to include a coating 168. The coating 168 may be hydrophobic, or the coating 168 may be hydrophilic. In some embodiments, the coating 168 includes both a labeled moiety 168a and an embedded moiety' 168b. The embedded moiety 168b is selected to embed within a surface of the acceptable electrical component 162, thereby at least partially coating a surface of the acceptable electrical component 162. Wien the embedded moiety 168b embeds in the acceptable electrical component 162, the labeled moiety 168a is exposed for interrogation, such as by laser 130. Moreover, while the coating 168 is depicted as discrete moieties attached to a surface of acceptable electrical component 162 for illustrative purposes, coating 168 may be a film that at least partially or completely coats at least a portion of any of the one or more electrical components 160 described herein.

[0098] In this regard, properties of acceptable electrical component 162 may' be detected by’ the one or more detectors 120. For example, in the illustrated embodiment of FIG. 2, the acceptable electrical component 162 includes a labeled moiety 168a. indicating the acceptable electrical component 162 is a functional acceptable electrical component 162,

[0099] Additionally, when acceptable electrical component 162 is probed by the laser 130, signal associated with only a single acceptable electrical component 162 is detected, thus allowing for an appropriate deflection force to be applied to position thedroplet 166 carrying the electric charge to an appropriate destination, such as in the manner described below.

[0100] In contrast. FIG. 3 A illustrates a defective component 164a. Unlike acceptable electrical component 162, the defective component 164a is unlabeled, and includes only a single defective component 164a. When defective component 164a is probed by the laser 130. signal associated with only a single defective component 164a is detected, thus allowing for an appropriate deflection force to be applied to direct the droplet 166 carrying the electric charge to an appropriate destination, such as in the manner described below. In some embodiments, defective component 164a is discarded.

[0101] Along similar lines, FIG. 3B illustrates a component aggregate 164b, which is illustrated to consist of t ’O acceptable electrical components 162. When component aggregate 164b is probed by the laser 130, signal associated with two acceptable electrical components 162 forming a component aggregate 164b is detected, thus allowing for an appropriate deflection force to be applied to direct the droplet 166 carrying the electric charge to be deflected, such as in the manner described below. In some embodiments, component aggregate 164b is discarded. In some embodiments, component aggregate 164b is solvated again and recycled.

[0102] Wliile component aggregate 164b is depicted to include only two acceptable electrical components 162 for illustrative purposes, additional numbers of components may form component aggregate 164b. Additionally, while component aggregate 164b is depicted as including acceptable electrical components 162 that are in contact with one another, there is no requirement that component aggregate 164b consist of contacting acceptable electrical component 162. Similarly, there is no requirement that the electrical components 160 of component aggregate 164b all be acceptable electrical component 162, but instead may consist of defective components 164a, or combinations of acceptable electrical components 162 and defective components 164a. Rather, a component aggregate 164b is defined anytime two or more electrical components 160 (including both acceptable electrical component 162 and defective component 164a) are included within a single droplet 166.

[0103] In this regal’d, in some embodiments, FIGs. 2 3B indicate that droplets 166 according to embodiments of the methods of the present disclosure may be identifi ed through optical interrogation such that the sorting may be performed by synchronization of, for instance, an electrical field that is pulsed based on the destination for a dropletdetermined by the optical interrogation. Thus, a different deflection force may be applied to droplets containing functional electrical components 162, defective electrical components 164a, single electrical components 160, and aggregate electrical components 164b. Moreover, droplets 166 containing no electrical components 160 may similarly be deflected with a corresponding deflection force in any of the manners described herein,[01041 As depicted in FIG. 1, once a droplet 166 has been imparted with an electrical charge by electric charge 140, the droplet 166 may pass between a first electric plate 150a and a second electric plate 150b. The first electric plate 150a and second electric plate 150b together impart an electric field with a field strength. It should be noted that, while two opposing electric plates 150a and 150b are depicted as generating the electric field for illustrative purposes, other configurations capable of producing an electric field are w ithin the reach of one of ordinary7skill in the art and are thus within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0105] When the droplets 166 pass through the electric field, the electric field strength may be synchronized with the optical signal determined through the optical interrogation process, thereby resulting in a differential deflection of the droplets 166. For instance, a droplet 166 that has an optical signal indicating the presence of acceptable electrical component 162 may interact with the electric field at a strength and in a manner where the acceptable electrical component 162 is directed to a location on a substrate including an assembly site, such as substrate 170 including assembly site 175. In this regard, in some embodiments, droplets comprising one electrical component may be directed to the assembly site on the substrate. In some embodiments, the substrate 170 is mounted m a precision x-y stage (see FIG. 4) such that each droplet 166 containing acceptable electrical component 162 may be placed with precision upon an individual assembly’ site in a pre-defined pattern. In some embodiments, greater than 100,000 electrical components may be self-assembled according to these methods per second.

[0106] On the other hand, a droplet 166 that has an optical signal indicating the presence of defective component 164a, a component aggregate 164b, and / or no electrical components 160, may interact with an electric field at a strength and in a manner so as to be directed to a discard site, such as discard site 180. In some embodiments, discard site 180 may include a single discard site 180. In this regard, in some embodiments, droplets containing zero electrical components 160 and multiple electrical components 160. such as component aggregate 164b, may be directed to the discard site.

[0107] In some embodiments, separate discard sites 180 may be used, such as to differentially segregate defective components 164a from component aggregates 164b. This may be advantageous, for instance, to recycle and reuse the component aggregate 164b in the self-assembly system 100 after a disaggregating process has taken place, such as may occur via sonication of the component aggregate 164b. The defective component 164a may then be disposed of.

[0108] In some embodiments, the methods of the present disclosure include aligning the electrical components 160 with the substrate 170. In this regard, FIGs. 5A-5D illustrate a schematic of an electrical component (i.e., a chip) in a droplet (i.e., a chip-laden droplet, depicted in FIG. 5A) contacting a substrate including a non-assembly site and an assembly site (i.e., a wettability-patterned substrate) in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0109] In some embodiments, the electrical component property is a number of electrical components in the droplet, and wherein when the number of electrical components in the droplet is one, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0110] In some embodiments, the electrical component property is whether the electrical component in the droplet is defective, and wherein when the electrical component is non-defective. the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0111] In some embodiments, if the droplet comprises the rejected electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to a discard site, and if the droplet comprises the acceptable electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to the assembly site on the substrate.

[0112] In some embodiments, optically inspecting the droplet comprises: illuminating the droplet to generate an optical signal; detecting, with at least one sensor, the optical signal; and determining, based on the detected optical signal, the electrical component property in the droplet.

[0113] In some embodiments, aligning the electrical component with the substrate comprises surface energy minimization.

[0114] In some embodiments, attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises a solder reflow.

[0115] In some embodiments, attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises activating a heat-activated glue, a UV -light-activated glue, or a combination thereof.

[0116] In some embodiments, the substrate is mounted in a precision x-y stage.

[0117] In some embodiments, greater than 100,000 electrical components are self-assembled per second.

[0118] During the whole process, the motion of the chip experiences two phases: (1) the printing phase, and (2) the capillary alignment phase In the illustrated embodiment, the chip is a square plate of edge IV, thickness t, and density ps immersed in the liquid of density pf, viscosity p, and surface tension y. The substrate has hydrophilic target assembly site 175 and hydrophobic background non-assembly site 17 >. The chip has hydrophilic bottom and hydrophobic top surface.

[0119] In a printing phase, before the droplet impacts the substrate, the force exerted on the chip comes from gravity and buoyancy initially. As the chip 162 slips relative to the surrounding liquid 166, the Stokes drag increases with velocity.

[0120] When the chip is silicon and droplet is water, the pre-impact slip is only few microns Thus, the chip remains near its initial location relative to the droplet. When the printed droplet first contacts the substrate, depicted in FIG. 5B, rapid compression waves form and reflect at the air-liquid interface as tension waves, creating negative pressure regions that can create cavitation. The cavitation is expected to happen when the wave-reflection cavitation number is small enough.

[0121] As the chip accelerates relative to the surrounding liquid, it also accelerates the nearby fluid, which behaves like added inertia that will resist the chip’s relative acceleration. The capillary force will dominate once the chip touches the air-liquid interface and trap the chip above the droplet. In order to make the chip touch the interface, the liquid may be evaporated, or the chip's impact-induced upward movement may be controlled. This impact gives the chip an initial upward speed. Then, the chip slows down due to gravity and Stokes drag during the ascent process. Thus, by controlling the impact velocity and further controlling the printing velocity, the chip may raft above the droplet in the end of the printing phase, as depicted in FIG. 5C.

[0122] Once the three-phase interface forms, capillary forces start to dominate the chip motion. In this stage, the droplet's surface energy' minimization generates a restoring force that pulls the chip toward the center of the receptor. This process can bedivided into three regimes depending on the extent of the contact line overlap with the background and the receptor: the off-site regime, the partial-overlap regime, and the fulloverlap regime. As the lateral displacement increases, the droplet contact line transits among these three regions. The chip experiences a constant restoring force in the off-site regime, a quasi-linear dependence in the intermediate region, and a fully linear spring-like response once the droplet fully overlaps the receptor.

[0123] The droplet pins when the contact line completely covers the receptor area, and depinning occurs when the lateral displacement exceeds a geometric threshold. Beyond this threshold, both the front and back contact line slides, and the lateral restoring force transits back to the off-site regime. Once the droplet enters the pinned regime (i.e.. the assembly site 175 as depicted in FIG. 5D). the motion of the chip can be modeled as a damped harmonic oscillator, where inertia, surface tension, and viscous drag jointly determine the chip dynamics. The lateral alignment follows a mass-spring-damper model. For typical wetting angles, the alignment time is on the order of milliseconds, which is negligible compared to the overall assembly timescale.

[0124] Accordingly, in some embodiments, the methods according to the present disclosure include attaching the electrical components 160 to the substrate 170, thereby establishing electrical conductivity. In some embodiments, aligning the one or more electrical components with the substrate comprises surface energy minimization. In some embodiments, attaching the one or more electrical components to the substrate comprises a solder reflow. In some embodiments, attaching the one or more electrical components to the substrate comprises activating a heat-activated glue, a UV -light-activated glue, or a combination thereof.

[0125] To validate the theoretical models described with respect to FIGs. 5A-5D, wettability-patterned substrates were fabricated and chip-laden droplets were delivered under controlled conditions. The goal is to achieve high-contrast receptors for self¬ alignment.

[0126] Initially, tetramethyl silane (TMS) and patterned fluoro-ocyl -tri chlorosilane (FOTS) were used to form contrast using polymer SAMs (FIG. 6A) This process flow7was attractive for simplicity, but the polymer layers were optically invisible, which is difficult for contact angle measurement.

[0127] To improve on this, coated metal oxide was next prepared (FIG. 6B). A dual lithography process was used to deposit ZnO first, which was more visible and reliablefor wettability contrast. Photoresist (PR) was applied in stages. This approach required two masks and added misalignment nsk.

[0128] Finally, a single-lithography process was used with one mask to open ZnO windows for FOTS deposition (FIG. 6C). This process eliminated the alignment errors and simplified the process,[01291 FIGs. 7A--7D illustrates assembly sites and non-assembly sites in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. In some embodiments (FIG.7 A), the assembly sites 175a may be circular in geometry, where the non-assembly sites 176a define the interstitial regions of the substrate 170. In this embodiment, electrical components 160 including a circular geometry may be implanted on the substrate 170.

[0130] In some embodiments (FIG. 7B), the assembly sites 175b may be ovalshaped or elliptical in geometry, where the non-assembly sites 176b define the interstitial regions of the substrate 170. In this embodiment, electrical components 160 including an elliptical geometry may be implanted on the substrate 170.

[0131] In some embodiments (FIG. 7C), the assembly sites 175c may be triangular in geometiy, where the non-assembly sites 176c define the interstitial regions of the substrate 170. In this embodiment, electrical components 160 including a triangular geometry may be implanted on the substrate 170.

[0132] In some embodiments (FIG. 7D), the assembly sites 175d may be square and / or rectangular in geometiy, where the non-assembly sites 176d define the interstitial regions of the substrate 170. In this embodiment, electrical components 160 including a square and / or rectangular geometry may be implanted on the substrate 170.

[0133] Example 1: Production of pLED-scale Silicon Microchips[01341 For the initial tests, pLED-scale silicon microchips will be prepared with a hydrophilic bottom surface and a hydrophobic top surface The chip-laden droplet will be manually delivered from a fixed height onto the patterned substrate. The chip motion will be captured by a high-speed camera to extract lateral displacement x(t), angular orientation 0(t), and settling time.

[0135] Two aspects of the droplet-driven self-alignment process will be validated: (i) the rafting criterion during the printing phase, which states that the impact impulse must drive Azup > zo; and (ii) the capillary alignment phase modeled as mass-spring-damper system.

[0136] As for the printing experiments, parameters (t, zo, W, Udrop) will be swept spanning from no-raft to raft regime to determine the operating window, The measured Uimp will be fit into an upwards criterion, which will be compared to the analytical prediction.

[0137] As for the alignment experiments, the initial offsets will be swept, W, θ, VLG and x(t), θ(t) will be recorded until chip settles, which can be fitted into the mass¬ spring-damper model. The settling time will be measured, an unpin threshold determined, and these will be compared with the analytical results.

[0138] Example 2: An Electrical Component Array

[0139] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides electrical component arrays produced according to any of the methods described herein.

[0140] In some embodiments, the electrical component array includes acceptable electrical components 162 comprising a labeled moiety 168a, 168b. In this regard, optical interrogation of the electrical component array may produce a signal related to the presence of labeled moiety 168a. 168b.

[0141] In some embodiments, the electrical component array includes acceptable electrical components 162 comprising hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings 168.In some embodiments, the substrate may include assembly sites 175 and non-assembly sites 176, where the substrate is sized and shaped to receive droplets delivering electrical components.

[0142] Example 3: A pLED display

[0143] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides pLED displays produced according to any of the methods described herein.

[0144] In some embodiments, the pLED display includes acceptable electrical components 162 comprising a labeled moiety 168a, 168b. In this regard, optical interrogation of the electrical component array may produce a signal related to the presence of labeled moiety 168a, 168 b.

[0145] In some embodiments, the pLED display includes acceptable electrical components 162 comprising hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings 168.

[0146] In some embodiments, the substrate may include assembly sites 175 and non-assembly sites 176, where the substrate is sized and shaped to receive droplets delivering electrical components.

[0147] Example 4: A Self-Assembly System

[0148] In an aspect, the present disclosure relates to a self-assembly system, such as self-assembly system 100, according to any of the methods described herein.

[0149] In some embodiments, the self-assembly system 100 includes a delivery nozzle 110, one or more detectors 120, a laser 130, a source of electric charge 140, and a first electric plate 150a and a second electric plate 150b, as described in detail with respect to FIG. 1.

[0150] In some embodiments, the self-assembly system 100 further includes discard site 180. In some embodiments, there may be two or more discard sites 180,

[0151] In some embodiments, the self-assembly system 100 further includes a substrate 170. In some embodiments, the 170 is on a precision x-y positioning stage. In some embodiments, the substrate 170 is a plurality' of substrates 170.

[0152] In some embodiments, the delivery nozzle 110 includes a delivery nozzle outlet 114. The delivery nozzle 110 may be configured to house one or more electrical components 160 in a carrier fluid. The delivery nozzle 110 may be configured such that a sheath fluid 112 runs adjacent to an inner wall of the delivery nozzle 110, thereby focusing the one or more electrical components 160 in the carrier fluid from an electrical components 160 source to the delivery nozzle outlet 114.

[0153] In some embodiments, the self-assembly system 100 further includes one or more controllers (not illustrated) coupled to the self-assembly system 100. In some embodiments, the controller includes at least one processor and a computer-readable medium having computer-executable instructions stored thereon that, in response to execution by the at least one processor, cause the controller to perform operations implementing any of the methods described herein, including delivering a droplet comprising an electrical component of the one or more electrical components to the substrate; aligning the electrical component with the substrate; and attaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity.

[0154] Delivering the droplet may include generating a plurality of droplets comprising the one or more electrical components; inducing within each droplet an electrical charge; optically inspecting the plurality of droplets to determine a number of electrical components in each droplet of the plurality of droplets;; and directing each droplet to either an assembly site on the substrate or to a discard site based on the number of electrical components in each droplet.

[0155] Droplets including zero electrical components and droplets comprising more than one electrical components may be directed to the discard site. Droplets including one electrical component may be directed to the assembly site on the substrate.

[0156] Optically inspecting the plurality of droplets may include: illuminating each droplet to generate an optical signal; detecting, with at least one sensor, the optical signal; and determining, based on the detected optical signal, the number of electrical components in each droplet. The components may be labeled (e.g., fluorescently labeled) based on whether they are functional, thus allowing dysfunctional components to be discarded.

[0157] The detailed description set forth above in connection with the appended drawings, where like numerals reference like elements, are intended as a description of various embodiments of the present disclosure and are not intended to represent the only embodiments. Each embodiment described in this disclosure is provided as a representative example or illustration and should not be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments. The representative examples provided herein are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the disclosure to the precise forms disclosed. Similarly, any steps described herein may be interchangeable with other steps, or combinations of steps, in order to achieve the same or substantially similar result. Generally, the embodiments disclosed herein are non-limiting, and the inventors contemplate that other embodiments within the scope of this disclosure may include structures and functionalities from more than one specific embodiment shown in the figures and described in the specification. That is, the present disclosure includes embodiments that combine features from different embodiments.

[0158] In the foregoing description, specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art, however, that the embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced without embodying all the specific details. In some instances, well-known process steps have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure various aspects of the present disclosure. Further, it will be appreciated that embodiments of the present disclosure may employ any combination of features described herein.

[0159] In the detailed description herein, references to "one embodiment," "an embodiment," "an example embodiment." "some embodiments," "one or more embodiments," etc., indicate that the embodiment described may include a particularfeature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. In addition, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described. After reading the description, it will be apparent to one skilled in the relevant art(s) how to implement the disclosure in alternative embodiments. Thus, it will be appreciated that embodiments of the present disclosure may employ any combination of features described herein. All such combinations or sub-combinations of features are within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0160] In view of the limitations of the processing techniques available in the field, the terms "approximately", "substantially", and "about" reflect a certain inability (or uncertainty) to precisely control the exact dimensions of certain features and measurements described herein. Depending on the level of precision that can be achieved using the commercially available processing and measurement tools available at the time, the terms "approximately", "substantially", and "about" may be used to mean within ±10% of a target value for some features. The terms "approximately", "substantially", and "about" may include the target value.

[0161] Throughout this specification, terms of art may be used These terms are to take on their ordinary meaning in the art from which they come, unless specifically defined herein or the context of their use would clearly suggest otherwise.

[0162] The drawings in the FIGURES are not to scale. Similar elements are generally denoted by similar references in the FIGURES. For the purposes of this disclosure, the same or similar elements may bear the same references. Furthermore, the presence of reference numbers or letters in the drawings cannot be considered limiting, even when such numbers or letters are indicated in the claims.

[0163] Terms such as "a," "an," "the," and "said" are used to indicate the presence of one or more elements and components. The terms "comprise." "include," "have," "contain," and their variants are used to be open ended and may include or encompass additional elements, components, etc., in addition to the listed elements, components, etc., unless otherwise specified. The terms "first," "second," etc. may be used as differentiatingidentifiers of individual or respective components among a group thereof, rather than as a descriptor of a number of the components, unless clearly indicated otherwise.

[0164] Although relative terms such as "on," "below," "upper," "lower," "top," "bottom," "right," and "left" may be used to describe the relative spatial relationships of certain structural features, these terms are used for convenience only, as a direction in the examples. Thus, if a structure is turned upside down, the "upper" component will become a "lower" component. When a structure or feature is described as being "on" (or formed on) another structure or feature, the structure can be positioned directly on (z.e., contacting) the other structure, without any other structures or features intervening between the structure and the other structure. When a structure or feature is described as being "over" (or formed over) another structure or feature, the structure can be positioned over the other structure, with or without other structures or features intervening between them.

[0165] When two components are described as being "coupled to" each other, the components can be electrically coupled to each other, with or without other components being electrically coupled and intervening between them. When two components are described as being "directly coupled to" each other, the components can be electrically coupled to each other, without other components being electrically coupled between them,

[0166] The present application may also reference quantities and numbers. Unless specifically stated, such quantities and numbers are not to be considered restrictive, but exemplary of the possible quantities or numbers associated with the present application. Also in this regard, the present application may use the term "plurality" to reference a quantity or number. In this regard, the term "plurality" is meant to be any number that is more than one. for example, two, three, four, five, etc. The term "based upon" means "based at least partially upon."

[0167] Embodiments disclosed herein may utilize circuitry in order to implement technologies and methodologies described herein, operatively connect two or more components, generate information, determine operation conditions, control an appliance, device, or method, and / or the like. Circuitry of any type can be used. In an embodiment, circuitry includes, among other things, one or more computing devices such as a processor (e.g., a microprocessor), a central processing unit (CPU), a digital signal processor (DSP), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), or the like, or any combinations thereof, and can include discrete digital or analog circuit elements or electronics, or combinations thereof.

[0168] An embodiment includes one or more data stores that, for example, store instructions or data. Non-limiting examples of one or more data stores include volatile memory (e.g., Random Access memory (RAM), Dynamic Random Access memory (DRAM), or the like), non-volatile memory (e.g., Read-Only memory (ROM), Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only memory (EEPROM), Compact Disc Read-Only memory (CD-ROM), or the like), persistent memory, or the like. Further non-limiting examples of one or more data stores include Erasable Programmable Read-Only memory (EPROM), flash memory, or the like. The one or more data stores can be connected to. for example, one or more computing devices by one or more instructions, data, or power buses.

[0169] In an embodiment, circuitry includes a computer-readable media drive or memory slot configured to accept signal-bearing medium (e.g.. computer-readable memory media, computer-readable recording media, or the like). In an embodiment, a program for causing a system to execute any of the disclosed methods can be stored on, for example, a computer-readable recording medium (CRMM), a signal-bearing medium, or the like. Non¬ limiting examples of signal-bearing media include a recordable type medium such as any form of flash memory, magnetic tape, floppy disk, a hard disk drive, a Compact Disc (CD), a Digital Video Disk (DVD), Blu-Ray Disc, a digital tape, a computer memory, or the like, as well as transmission type medium such as a digital and / or an analog communication medium (e.g., a fiber optic cable, a waveguide, a wired communications link, a wireless communication link (e.g., transmitter, receiver, transceiver, transmission logic, reception logic, etc.). Further non-limiting examples of signal-bearing media include, but are not limited to, DVD-ROM, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW, DVD-RW, DVD-R, DVD HR, CD-ROM, Super Audio CD, CD-R, CD+R, CD+RW, CD-RW, Video Compact Discs. Super Video Discs, flash memory, magnetic tape, magneto-optic disk, MINIDISC, non-volatile memoiy card, EEPROM, optical disk, optical storage, RAM, ROM, system memory, web server, or the like.

[0170] The principles, representative embodiments, and modes of operation of the present disclosure have been described in the foregoing description. However, aspects of the present disclosure, which are intended to be protected, are not to be construed as limited to the particular embodiments disclosed. Further, the embodiments described herein are to be regarded as illustrative rather than restrictive. It will be appreciated that variations and changes may be made by others, and equivalents employed, without departing from the spirit of the present disclosure. Accordingly, it is expressly intended that all suchvariations, changes, and equivalents fall within the spirit and scope of the present disclosure as claimed.

[0171] While illustrative embodiments have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.NON-LIMITING EMBODIMENTS

[0172] While general features of the disclosure are described and shown and particular features of the disclosure are set forth in the claims, the following non-limiting embodiments relate to features, and combinations of features, that are explicitly envisioned as being part of the disclosure. The following non-limiting embodiments contain elements that are modular and can be combined with each other in any number, order, or combination to form a new non-limiting embodiment, which can itself be further combined with other non-limiting embodiments.

[0173] Embodiment 1. A method for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate, the method including: delivering a droplet comprising the electrical component to the substrate, wherein delivering the droplet includes: generating the droplet comprising the electrical component; inducing within the droplet an electrical charge: and optically inspecting the droplet to determine an electrical component property in the droplet, thereby identifying the electrical component as either an acceptable electrical component or as a rejected electrical component; aligning the electrical component with the substrate; and attaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity.

[0174] Embodiment 2. The method of Embodiment 1 or any other Embodiment, wherein the droplet is part of a plurality of droplets comprising a plurality of electrical components.

[0175] Embodiment 3. The method of any of Embodiments 1-2 or any other Embodiment, wherein the electrical component property is a number of electrical components in the droplet, and wherein when the number of electrical components in the droplet is one, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0176] Embodiment 4. The method of any of Embodiments 1-3 or any other Embodiment, wherein the electrical component property is whether the electrical component in the droplet is defective, and wherein when the electrical component is nondefective, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

[0177] Embodiment 5. The method of any of Embodiments 1-4 or any other Embodiment, wherein, if the droplet comprises the rejected electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to a discard site, and if the droplet comprises the acceptable electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to the assembly site on the substrate.[01781 Embodiment 6. The method of any of Embodiments 1-5 or any other Embodiment, wherein optically inspecting the droplet comprises: illuminating the droplet to generate an optical signal; detecting, with at least one sensor, the optical signal; and determining, based on the detected optical signal, the electrical component property in the droplet.

[0179] Embodiment 7. The method of any of Embodiments 1-6 or any other Embodiment, wherein aligning the electrical component with the substrate comprises surface energy minimization.

[0180] Embodiment 8. The method of any of Embodiments 1-7 or any other Embodiment, wherein attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises a solder reflow.

[0181] Embodiment 9. The method of any of Embodiments 1-8 or any other Embodiment, wherein attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises activating a heat-activated glue, a UV-light-activated glue, or a combination thereof.

[0182] Embodiment 10. The method of any of Embodiments 1 -9 or any other Embodiment, wherein the electrical component comprises an RFID chip.

[0183] Embodiment 11. The method of any of Embodiments 1-10 or any other Embodiment, wherein the component comprises a pLED

[0184] Embodiment 12. The method of any of Embodiments 1-11 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a diameter of between about 5 pm and about 100 pm.

[0185] Embodiment 13. The method of any of Embodiments 1-12 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a diameter of between about 10 pm and about 100 pm.

[0186] Embodiment 14. The method of any of Embodiments 1-13 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a thickness of between about 0.05 pm and about 10 pm.

[0187] Embodiment 15, The method of any of Embodiments 1-14 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a thickness of between about 0.1 pm and about 10 pm.

[0188] Embodiment 16. The method of any of Embodiments 1-15 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a rectangular geometry.

[0189] Embodiment 17. The method of any of Embodiments 1-16 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a disk-shaped geometry.

[0190] Embodiment 18, The method of any of Embodiments 1-17 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is different from the second side.

[0191] Embodiment 19. The method of any of Embodiments 1-18 or any other Embodiment, wherein the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophobic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophobic assembly site on the substrate.

[0192] Embodiment 20. The method of any of Embodiments 1-19 or any other Embodiment, wherein the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophilic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophilic assembly site on the substrate.

[0193] Embodiment 21, The method of any of Embodiments 1-20 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side and the second side are both hydrophobic or are both hydrophilic.

[0194] Embodiment 22. The method of any of Embodiments 1-21 or any other Embodiment, wherein the pLED is coated with a lower-density material.

[0195] Embodiment 23. The method of any of Embodiments 1-22 or any other Embodiment, w'herein the pLED comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InGaN, AlGalnP, and other III-V semiconductor components.

[0196] Embodiment 24. The method of any of Embodiments 1-23 or any other Embodiment, wherein the substrate is mounted in a precision x-y stage.

[0197] Embodiment 25. The method of any of Embodiments 1-24 or any other Embodiment, w herein greater than 100,000 electrical components are self-assembled per second,

[0198] Embodiment 26. An electrical component array produced according to the method of any one of Embodiments 1-25.

[0199] Embodiment 27. A pLED display produced according to the method of any one of Embodiments 11-25.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A method for self-assembly of an electrical component onto a substrate, the method comprising:delivering a droplet comprising the electrical component to the substrate, wherein delivering the droplet comprises:generating the droplet comprising the electrical component; inducing within the droplet an electrical charge; andoptically inspecting the droplet to determine an electrical component property in the droplet, thereby identifying the electrical component as either an acceptable electrical component or as a rejected electrical component;aligning the electrical component with the substrate; andattaching the electrical component to the substrate, thereby establishing electrical connectivity.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the droplet is part of a plurality of droplets comprising a plurality of electrical components.

3. The method of any one of claims 1-2, wherein the electrical component property is a number of electrical components in the droplet, and wherein when the number of electrical components in the droplet is one, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

4. The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the electrical component property is whether the electrical component in the droplet is defective, and wherein when the electrical component is non-defective, the electrical component is an acceptable electrical component.

5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, whereinif the droplet comprises the rejected electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to a discard site, andif the droplet comprises the acceptable electrical component, the droplet is directed via an electric field to the assembly site on the substrate.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-5. wherein optically inspecting the droplet comprises:illuminating the droplet to generate an optical signal,detecting, with at least one sensor, the optical signal; anddetermining, based on the detected optical signal, the electrical component property in the droplet.

7. The method of any one of claims 1-6, wherein aligning the electrical component with the substrate comprises surface energy minimization.

8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, wherein attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises a solder reflow.

9. The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein attaching the electrical component to the substrate comprises activating a heat-activated glue. a UV-light-activated glue, or a combination thereof.

10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the electrical component comprises an RFID chip.

11. The method of any one of claims 1 -9, wherein the component comprises a pLED.

12. The method of claim 11. wherein the pLED comprises a diameter of between about 5 pm and about 100 pm13. The method of any one of claims 11-12, wherein the pLED comprises a thickness of between about 0.05 pm and about 10 pm.

14. The method of any one of claims 11-13, wherein the pLED comprises a first side and a second side, wherein the first side is different from the second side.

15. The method of claim 11-14, wherein the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophobic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophobic assembly site on the substrate.

16. The method of claim 11-15, wherein the first side and second side are coated with, respectively, a hydrophilic film and a hydrophilic film, thereby configuring the first side of the pLED to contact a hydrophilic assembly site on the substrate.

17. The method of any one of claims 11-16, wherein the pLED is coated with a lower-density material.

18. The method of any one of claims 11-17, wherein the pLED comprises a material selected from the group consisting of GaAs, GaN, InGaN, AlGalnP, and other III-V semiconductor components.

19. An electrical component array produced according to the method of any one of claims 1-18.

20. A pLED display produced according to the method of any one of claims 11- 18.

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