Solid-state battery and method of forming a solid-state battery

Abstract

Methods for forming an electrochemical cell using a non-inert gas are disclosed. Exemplary methods include providing a first gas prior to applying one or more of a current and a voltage to the cell. The first (e.g., non-inert) gas may promote the formation of a solid electrolyte interface (SEI). Yet another example of the present disclosure relates to a method for forming an electrochemical cell or a portion thereof by electrospraying a solution comprising a polymeric material. Such methods may eliminate the step of compressing the cell at a pressure in excess of 100 MPa and extend cycle life while preventing fire.

Description

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims priority to U.S. non-provisional application serial number 17 / 242,284, filed on April 27, 2021, entitled SOLID-STATE BATTERY AND METHOD OF FORMING SAME, which is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. non-provisional application serial number 17 / 122,462, filed on December 15, 2020, entitled SOLID-STATE BATTERY AND METHOD OF FORMING SAME, and claims priority thereof, the contents of each of the foregoing applications being incorporated herein by reference to the extent that such contents do not conflict with the present disclosure. Technical Field

[0003] The present disclosure generally relates to solid-state batteries and methods of forming batteries. More specifically, examples of the present disclosure relate to methods of forming solid-state batteries using a first or non-inert gas. Further examples of the present disclosure relate to methods of forming batteries or components thereof using an electrospray process to produce a thin polymer film that can advantageously inhibit dendrite growth during the useful life of the battery. Background Art

[0004] Batteries are in high demand across a wide range of applications, from small batteries for industrial and medical devices to large batteries for electric vehicles and grid energy storage systems. Well-known and widely used batteries include lithium-ion batteries.

[0005] Lithium-ion batteries typically include one or more electrochemical cells, each of which includes an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte (e.g., a liquid), and a separator typically located between the anode and cathode. During discharge of the battery, lithium ions carry electrical current from the anode to the cathode and through the electrolyte of the electrochemical cell. To recharge the battery, an external current source with sufficient bias is applied to the battery to cause the lithium ions to flow in the opposite direction - from the cathode to the anode and redeposit on the anode or substrate. A typical lithium-ion electrochemical cell includes at least one electrode to which lithium is added using intercalation.

[0006] Although typical lithium-ion batteries are well suited for a variety of applications, there is still a need for batteries with higher energy density, higher charging rates, lower material costs, and lower safety risks (e.g., reduced flammability). Therefore, there is a need for improved lithium-ion battery cells, battery cell assemblies, battery packs including battery cells, and methods of forming and using battery cells and battery packs.

[0007] Any discussion set forth in this section, including discussion of problems and solutions, is included in the present disclosure solely for the purpose of providing context for the present disclosure. The discussion should not be construed as an admission that any or all information was known or otherwise constituted prior art at the time the present invention was made. Summary of the invention

[0008] The present disclosure generally relates to solid-state electrochemical cells and batteries and methods of forming the cells and batteries. Examples of the present disclosure provide solid-state batteries having solid electrolytes that advantageously provide low interfacial resistances similar to the interfacial resistances of lithium-ion batteries formed using conventional liquid electrolytes. The use of solid rather than liquid electrolytes can reduce safety hazards, such as potential fire hazards associated with the use or storage of the battery. Additionally, or alternatively, the use of solid electrolytes can extend the cycle life of the battery.

[0009] According to various examples of the present disclosure, a method of forming an electrochemical cell and / or a battery includes providing a first (e.g., non-inert) gas. The first / non-inert gas may contain at least one oxygen atom. The first gas may be provided while forming the battery and / or provided for replacing all or part of the gas that may be present in the battery (e.g., the gas in the battery housing). Advantageously, the solid-state batteries produced according to the exemplary embodiments exhibit improvements in interfacial ion conduction, which can lead to improvements in specific capacity, rate capacity, cycle life, energy density, power density, self-discharge rate, charging speed, and low and high temperature performance.

[0010] According to examples of the present disclosure, a method for forming an electrochemical cell is provided. According to exemplary aspects of these examples, the cell does not generate a large amount of gas during operation. In this case, not generating a large amount of gas means that gas formation is not a significant form of electrochemical reaction. For example, the method is not used to form a gas (e.g., air) cathode electrochemical cell. According to a further aspect, the method includes providing a housing, providing a first electrode in the housing, providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and located in the housing, providing a first gas (e.g., a non-inert gas) to the housing to replace the ambient gas in the housing, wherein the ambient gas is not an electrode, sealing the housing, applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell under the first gas, and after the application step, removing at least 90% by mass, preferably at least 95% by mass, more preferably at least 99% by mass of the gas present in the housing, wherein the mass percentage removed is based on the initial mass in the housing before the removal step. The gas present can be removed using, for example, a vacuum source (e.g., a vacuum pump) connected to a port passing through the housing. According to a further aspect, the method includes a step of forming a solid layer on the surface of the electrolyte and on one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode during the application step. Additionally or alternatively, the method includes a step of forming a solid layer between the electrodes. The thickness of the solid layer may vary between about 1 nm and about 1 μm, or have a diameter preferably of about 2 nm to about 500 nm, more preferably about 5 nm to about 200 nm. When present, the solid layer may contain oxygen or sulfur. When present, the solid layer may be ionically conductive and electrically insulating, and is part of the solid electrolyte. The first gas is not generated during the applying step or during the operation of the battery cell. The method may further include a step of providing a second gas to the housing to replace at least a portion of the first gas in the housing and cleaning at least a portion of the gas formed during the applying step before the removal step. The method may also additionally include performing at least one additional step before the removal step, namely applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell to form a solid layer between the solid electrolyte and one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode. The second gas is different from the first gas. The first gas contains at least one oxygen atom. An exemplary first gas may be selected from one or more of the group consisting of CO2, CO, O2, N2O, NO2 and SO2. The solid electrolyte contains at least one oxygen atom or at least one sulfur atom. In some cases, the first gas may include at least one sulfur atom, for example, the first gas may include one or more of S8, COS, CS2, SF6, H2S, SO2, CH4S, and C2H6S. The method may include the step of electrospraying a solution to form one or more of the first electrode, the electrolyte, and the second electrode.Additionally or alternatively, the method may comprise the step of compressing the battery cell assembly comprising the first electrode and the solid-state electrolyte at a reduced battery stack pressure of less than 100 MPa, preferably less than 50 MPa, more preferably less than 10 MPa.

[0011] According to a further example of the present disclosure, a method for forming an electrochemical cell includes providing a housing, providing a first electrode in the housing, providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and located in the housing, providing a substrate in the housing, providing a first non-inert gas to the housing to replace the ambient gas in the housing, and sealing the housing. The exemplary method may further include a step of forming a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) between the solid electrolyte and one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, the non-inert gas can be used in one or more steps of charging the electrochemical cell and discharging the electrochemical cell. The gas formed in one or more steps of charging the electrochemical cell and discharging the electrochemical cell can be cleaned with a non-inert gas, another (e.g., a second) non-inert gas, and / or an inert gas. The method may further include one or more second and / or additional steps, namely charging the electrochemical cell and discharging the electrochemical cell, which may be performed after the cleaning step.

[0012] According to additional examples of the present disclosure, an electrochemical cell is provided. The electrochemical cell may be formed using methods such as those described herein. The first electrode may include a first current collector, and the second electrode may include a second current collector, wherein one or more of the first current collector and the second current collector comprises a metal alloy having at least one material selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and combinations thereof. The electrochemical cell may be substantially free of a liquid electrolyte.

[0013] According to another example of the present disclosure, a battery is provided. The battery may include an electrochemical cell as described herein and / or an electrochemical cell formed according to the method described herein. For example, the battery may include a first gas (e.g., a non-inert gas), such as a gas containing at least one oxygen atom. According to various aspects of these embodiments, the first / non-inert gas is not intended to be used as an active material. Over the entire life cycle of the battery, the non-inert gas may be consumed or dissolved to an average of less than 0.01 mg / 1 mAh. As used herein, the term "the entire life cycle of the battery" is intended to mean that the life of the battery is considered to have exceeded its normal service life, which may be when the battery first shows 80% of its initial capacity. The battery may also include a cathode, which may include a compound that combines an organic group or a halogen atom. The first / non-inert gas may be in contact with the cathode and the electrolyte. The battery may also include a plasticizer as part of the electrode and electrolyte materials. Additionally or alternatively, the battery may include an electrosprayed polymer material as described herein.

[0014] According to a further example of the present disclosure, a method of forming a solid-state electrochemical cell or a portion thereof includes providing a substrate, such as a current collector, forming a solution including a polymeric material, and electrospraying the solution onto the substrate.

[0015] According to a further example of the present disclosure, a method of forming a solid-state electrochemical cell or a portion thereof includes providing a substrate, forming a solution comprising a polymeric material and a solid electrolyte material, electrospraying the solution onto the substrate to form a separate solid electrolyte, wherein the separate solid electrolyte comprises more than 70 weight percent, preferably greater than 80 weight percent, and more preferably greater than 90 weight percent of the solid electrolyte material, and compressing the cell assembly comprising the separate solid electrolyte and the electrode at a stacking pressure of less than 100 MPa, preferably less than 50 MPa, and more preferably less than 10 MPa. The method may further include the step of providing a first gas to form a solid layer on the surface of the electrolyte and on one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode.

[0016] According to other embodiments, the battery includes an electrolyte comprising an electrosprayed polymeric material. The polymeric material may have a -6 S / cm or less than 10 -7 The battery may also include a plasticizer as part of the electrode (e.g., cathode) and / or electrolyte material.

[0017] According to another exemplary embodiment, a method of manufacturing a battery includes forming a battery pack, the battery pack including a cathode and an electrolyte located in and on the cathode, the cathode including a cathode active material bonded to a conductive material. The method also includes introducing a non-inert gas into the battery pack. The electrolyte is in contact with the cathode and the gas. The battery can be operated at a current greater than 0 and less than 0.1 mA / cm 2 At least one charging and / or discharging operation is performed at a current density of

[0018] According to another exemplary embodiment, a method of manufacturing a battery includes forming a battery pack in a non-inert gas-filled atmosphere. The battery includes a cathode and an electrolyte located in and on the cathode, the cathode including a cathode active material bonded to a conductive material. The electrolyte is in contact with the cathode and the gas. The battery can be operated at a current greater than 0 and less than 0.1 mA / cm 2 At least one charging and / or discharging operation is performed at a current density of

[0019] In other embodiments and aspects, the battery can include an anode comprising a material selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, vanadium, aluminum, zinc, silicon, graphite, graphene, porous carbon, activated carbon, some form of silicon, a metal oxide, and combinations thereof.

[0020] In other embodiments and aspects, the conductive material comprises a porous carbon material selected from the group consisting of carbon black, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon dots, activated carbon, amorphous carbon, microporous carbon, mesoporous carbon, porous carbon, graphite, graphene, graphene oxide, graphene nanoribbons, nitrogen-doped carbon, nitrogen-doped graphene, nitrogen-doped graphene oxide, and combinations thereof.

[0021] In further aspects and embodiments, the porous carbon is in the form of particles, powder, paper, foam, fiber, sheet, disk, rod, and / or foil.

[0022] These and other embodiments will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of specific embodiments with reference to the attached figures; the invention is not limited to any particular embodiment disclosed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023] A more complete understanding of exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure may be obtained by referring to the detailed description and claims when considered in conjunction with the following illustrative drawings.

[0024] Figure 1 A battery according to at least one exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure is shown.

[0025] Figure 2 A method in accordance with at least one embodiment of the present disclosure is shown.

[0026] Figure 3-7 An exemplary method of manufacturing a battery according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure is shown.

[0027] Figure 8 A solid electrolyte according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure is shown.

[0028] Fig. 9 A structure including a solid electrolyte interface electrochemically produced by a non-inert gas according to an exemplary embodiment of the present disclosure is shown.

[0029] Fig.10 is a graph showing the stable cycling performance of a symmetric cell including a solid electrolyte preformed under a non-inert gas compared to the stable cycling performance of a symmetric cell including a solid electrolyte preformed under an inert gas.

[0030] Fig.11 is a graph showing the improvement in ionic conductivity of preformed electrolytes at different partial pressures of various non-inert gases.

[0031] Fig.12 is a graph showing ionic conductivity of a battery pack according to an example of the present disclosure.

[0032] Fig.13 The formation of a solid electrolyte interface using a non-inert gas according to an example of the present disclosure is shown.

[0033] Fig.14 Another method according to an example of the present disclosure is shown.

[0034] It should be understood that the elements in the figures are shown for simplicity and are not necessarily drawn to scale. For example, the size of some elements in the figures may be exaggerated relative to other elements to help improve the understanding of the illustrated embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0035] Although certain embodiments and examples are disclosed below, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that the present invention extends beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments and / or uses of the present invention and obvious modifications and equivalents thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the scope of the present invention disclosed should not be limited to the specific disclosed embodiments described below.

[0036] The present disclosure relates to batteries and methods of producing batteries that address various shortcomings of conventional lithium-ion battery packs. Batteries described according to various exemplary (and non-limiting) embodiments herein provide several advantages. For example, compared to other lithium-ion batteries, particularly other solid-state lithium-ion batteries, the exemplary batteries exhibit one or more of the following: higher energy density, higher power density, longer cycle life, enhanced safety, and enhanced low-temperature performance.

[0037] In the present disclosure, "gas" may include materials that are gaseous, vaporized solids, and / or vaporized liquids at normal temperature and pressure (NTP), and may consist of a single gas or a mixture of gases depending on the context.

[0038] As used herein, the term "non-inert gas" refers to a gas material that does not include an inert gas. In some cases, the first gas is a non-inert gas. An inert gas refers to a gas that does not participate in a chemical reaction within a perceptible or measurable range. An inert gas may include, for example, nitrogen, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, or any combination thereof.

[0039] As used herein, the term "plasticizer" refers to a material added to an organic or polymeric material to make it softer, more flexible and / or increase its plasticity. Exemplary plasticizers include, but are not limited to, succinonitrile, glutaronitrile, adiponitrile, ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, gamma-butyrolactone, cyclopentane, 3-methyl-2-oxazolidinone, butylene carbonate, phthalate derivatives, trimellitate, adipate, sebacate, maleate, or any combination thereof.

[0040] As used herein, the term "cathode" refers to an electrode of a battery cell that receives electrons from an external circuit and is reduced during discharge, and transfers electrons to an external circuit by oxidation during charge. The cathode may be referred to as a positive electrode.

[0041] As used herein, the term "anode" refers to an electrode of a battery cell that transfers electrons to an external circuit by oxidation during discharge and receives electrons from the external circuit and is reduced during charge. The anode may be referred to as a negative electrode.

[0042] As used herein, the term "electrolyte" refers to a material that provides ion transport for a battery cell. The electrolyte acts as a conduit for ion transport through its interaction with the anode and cathode. When the battery is charged, the electrolyte facilitates the movement of ions from the cathode to the anode, and when the battery is discharged, the electrolyte facilitates the movement of ions from the anode to the cathode. In a rechargeable battery, the electrolyte facilitates the circulation of ions between the anode and the cathode.

[0043] As used herein, the term "current collector" refers to a component that is generally adjacent to a positive electrode or a negative electrode. In some embodiments, the current collector comprises a conductive material. In some embodiments, the current collector comprises a metal alloy having at least one material selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and combinations thereof.

[0044] As used herein, the term "electrospray", also known as electrospinning, is used to refer to a thin film production process that uses electrical power to stretch charged wires of an organic solution or organic melt. As described herein, the electrospray process can advantageously allow for the extension and thinning of an organic material coated on a substrate.

[0045] As used herein, the term "substrate" may refer to any underlying material(s) upon which another material may be deposited. The substrate may include, for example, a current collector, a current collector and electrode material, and / or a current collector and an electrolyte.

[0046] In addition, any variable value indicated (whether or not it is indicated with "about") may refer to an exact value or an approximate value, and include equivalent values, and may refer to an average value, a median value, a representative value, a majority value, etc. In addition, in the present disclosure, the terms "including", "consisting of" and "having" may independently refer to "typically or broadly including", "including", "essentially consisting of" or "consisting of" in some embodiments. Substantially no or substantially zero may refer to a conversion of less than 1, less than 0.5, less than 0.001 volume or weight percent. In the present disclosure, in some embodiments, the meaning of any definition does not necessarily exclude the ordinary and customary meaning.

[0047] Now turning to the attached figure, Figure 1 A battery 100 according to various examples of the present disclosure is shown. The battery 100 includes a housing 102, a cathode current collector 104, a cathode material 106, an electrolyte 108, an anode material 110, an anode current collector 112, and a gas 114. The battery 100 may be or include a solid-state lithium-ion battery. Although not shown separately, the battery 100 may also include terminals and wires from the current collectors 104, 112 to the respective terminals. Although the battery 100 is shown as a battery of a single battery cell, similar principles can be applied to assemblies including more than one battery cell and / or more than one battery (e.g., a battery pack, etc.) within the battery. Such multi-battery assemblies should be understood to fall within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0048] The housing 102 may include any suitable material. Generally, the housing 102 encloses the battery components 104-114 and isolates them from the environment. For example, the housing may include metal, foil bags, polymer films, etc.

[0049] Suitable current collectors for the cathode current collector 104 and the anode current collector 112 include conductive materials. For example, the cathode current collector can be or include aluminum, a form of aluminum, an aluminum alloy, nickel, a form of nickel, a nickel alloy, duplex steel, stainless steel, titanium, a form of titanium, a titanium alloy; the anode current collector can be or include copper, copper oxide, copper alloy, nickel, nickel oxide, nickel alloy, duplex steel, stainless steel, silver, silver alloy. Additionally or alternatively, either current collector can be or include at least one material selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and combinations thereof. The current collector can be with at least one halogen atom (e.g., Li6PS5Cl) and / or one sulfur atom (e.g., Li 10 GeP2S 12 ) is in contact with a compound. The compound may be an electrolyte and / or an electrode (anode and / or cathode) material. The current collector may be perforated, wherein the pore size may be about 500 nm or more (e.g., about 500 nm to about 5 mm), and the distance between the pores may be about 10 μm or more (e.g., about 10 μm to about 10 mm).

[0050] The cathode material 106 may include a cathode active material such as sulfur, a form of sulfur, a sulfide (such as lithium titanium disulfide (LTS)), an oxide (such as a form of M' 1-x M"O2、M' 1-w (M" x M"' y )O2、M 1-w (Mn x Ni y Co z )O2、M 1-w (Mn x Ni y Co z Al w )O2、M 1-w (Ni x Co y Al z )O2、M' 1-w (Ni x Co y M" z )O2、M' 1-w (Ni x Mn y M" z )O2、M'M"M'"2O4、M x V y O z 、M'M"PO4、M'M" x M'" 1-x PO4, wherein M', M" and M'" are different metals, lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium nickel oxide (LNO), lithium manganese oxide (LMO)), organic materials (e.g., trimerized indone, trimerized indone derivatives, phenoxazine, phenoxazine derivatives, phenothiazine, phenothiazine derivatives, quinone, quinone derivatives, diamine derivatives, phenazine, phenazine derivatives, quinoxaline, quinoxaline derivatives, pyrazine, pyrazine derivatives, cyclohexane, cyclohexane derivatives, triazine, triazine derivatives, melamine, melamine derivatives, dimethoxybenzene, dimethoxybenzene derivatives, cyclopropene derivatives, amide derivatives), a certain form of halogen, halide or any combination thereof. The cathode active material can store and release ions. Examples of ions include alkali metal ions (e.g., lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions), alkaline earth metal ions (e.g., magnesium ions, calcium ions) or amphoteric metal ions (e.g., aluminum ions, zinc ions). Most importantly, in order to provide high energy density, alkali metal ions are preferred, and lithium ions are particularly preferred. The cathode active material may be mixed with an electrolyte material and applied to a cathode current collector. The cathode includes the cathode active material.

[0051] Anode material 110 may include an anode active material such as, for example, lithium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, vanadium, aluminum, zinc, silicon, graphite, graphene, porous carbon, activated carbon, silicon compounds, metal sulfides (e.g., MV 0.5 Ti 0.5 S2), metal oxides (e.g., M x Ti5O 12 、TiO2、TiNb2O7、Nb2O5、M x VO4, H2Ti6O 13 、M x MnBO3, M x V2O5、M x MoO4,M x W2O7 form of material, wherein M is a metal, lithium titanate (LTO), or any combination thereof. The anode active material is not particularly limited as long as it is capable of storing and releasing ions. Examples of ions include alkali metal ions (e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium), alkaline earth metal ions (e.g., magnesium, calcium), or amphoteric metal ions (e.g., aluminum, zinc). Most importantly, in order to provide high energy density, alkali metal ions are preferred, and lithium ions are particularly preferred. The anode active material may be mixed with an electrolyte material and disposed on or above the anode current collector. In some cases, the battery may include a substrate (e.g., a current collector) that does not initially include any anode active material. During the initial charging of the battery, the anode active material may be deposited on or embedded in the substrate. The anode material may additionally include the electrolyte material described herein. The anode includes the anode material. In some cases, the battery according to the examples of the present disclosure does not include an anode. In these cases, the electrolyte may be located in the cathode and between the anode current collector and the cathode.

[0052] The electrolyte 108 is a solid electrolyte. According to an example of the present disclosure, the electrolyte 108 includes one or more polymers, glasses, phosphates, fluorophosphates, carbonates, amines, borates, fluoroborates, halides, halogenates, oxohalides, oxides (e.g., SiO2, TiO 2, Al2O3, Y2O3, Mg2B2O5, Li2O, LiOH, Li2O2, Li2CO3, P2O5, GeO2, AlPO4, Li2Ti3O7), perovskites, anti-peroxides (such as Li3OBr, Li3OCl, Li2OHBr, Li2OHCl), LISICON-type electrolytes (such as Li 1+x Al x Ti 2-x (PO4)3、Li 2+2X Zn 1-x GeO4、Li (3+x) Ge x V (1-x) O4、Li (4-x)Si (1-x) P x O4、Li 1+x+y Al x Ti 2- x Si y P 3-y O 12 , Li 1+x Al x Ge y Ti 2-x-y P3O 12 , Li 1+x+3y Al x (Ge,Ti) 2-x (Si y PO4)3、Li 14 ZnGe4O 16 , Li 4- x VxD x O4), garnet (such as Li7La3Zr2O 12 , Li 7-x Ln3Z 2-x Nb x O 12 、Li7La 3-x Ca x Zr 2-x Nb x O 12 , Li 6+ x Ln3Z 1+x Ta 1-x O 12 ), sulfides (such as Li6PS5Cl, Li 9.54 Si 1.74 P 1.44 S 11.7 Cl 0.3 , Li 10 GeP2S 12 、Li7PS6、Li7P3S 11 , Li 3.25 P 0.95 S4, Li 3+x Ge x P 1-x S4), thio-isoconical electrolytes (such as Li (4-x) Ge (1-x) P x S4), nitrogen oxides, nitrides, etc. The width and length of the electrolyte may be greater than the current collector to avoid contact between the anode and cathode.

[0053] As described in more detail below, according to examples of the present disclosure, one or more electrodes and / or electrolytes include electrosprayed organic or polymeric materials. The organic / polymeric (sometimes simply referred to as polymeric) material may have a relative humidity greater than 0 and less than 10 -6 S / cm or 10 -7 The invention discloses an ionic conductivity of 1000 s / cm, and the weight percentage of the polymer material in the electrolyte is greater than 0 and less than 5 weight percent of the total weight of the polymer material and the electrolyte.

[0054] The cathode and anode may also comprise electrosprayed organic / polymeric materials.The cell may also comprise a plasticizer, such as those described herein, as part of the electrodes and / or electrolyte.

[0055] The gas 114 may include an inert gas or a first gas (e.g., a non-inert gas) and / or a gas located within the housing 102 after one or more of a voltage and a current are applied to the electrochemical cell under the first gas. According to an example of the present disclosure, the first or non-inert gas is not used as an active material. During the entire life cycle of the battery, the first or non-inert gas may be consumed or dissolved to an average of less than 0.01 mg / 1 mAh. As used herein, the term "entire life cycle of a battery" is intended to mean that the life of the battery is considered to have exceeded its normal service life, which may be the point in time when the battery first exhibits 80% of its initial capacity. The gas 114 may be in contact with the anode active material, the cathode active material, and / or the electrolyte.

[0056] Battery 100 may be formed as a button cell, a pouch cell, alternating plates, a cylindrical cell, a jelly roll, a prismatic cell, a flow cell, etc. Battery 100 may be formed using the methods disclosed herein. Battery 200 and / or the electrochemical cells within battery 100 may be substantially free of liquid electrolyte, such as less than 1% by weight, 0.5% by weight, or 0.0015% by weight of liquid electrolyte in the battery and / or the cell.

[0057] Figure 2A method 200 according to other examples of the present disclosure is shown. The method 200 includes the following steps: providing a housing (step 202), providing a first electrode in the housing (step 204), providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and located in the housing (step 206), providing a substrate in the housing (step 208), providing a first non-inert gas to the housing to replace the ambient gas in the housing (step 210), sealing the housing (step 212), and performing at least one charge and / or discharge cycle (step 214). Unless otherwise indicated, the steps of the method 200 do not have to be performed in the order shown. For example, step 212 can be performed before step 210 and / or the order of steps 204 and 208 can be reversed. Other sequences are also possible. In addition, the exemplary method does not need to include all the steps shown and / or may include additional steps.

[0058] During step 202, a housing, such as housing 102, is provided.

[0059] During step 204, a first electrode (e.g., a cathode) is provided. The first electrode can be an anode or a cathode. The first electrode can include an electrode active material. The first electrode can include an electrolyte material. In some cases, step 204 can also include providing a current collector.

[0060] During step 206, a solid electrolyte is provided. The solid electrolyte may be, for example, electrolyte 108.

[0061] During step 208, a substrate, such as a current collector, is provided. In some cases, step 208 may also include providing an electroactive electrode (eg, anode) material. In some cases, step 208 does not include initially providing an electroactive electrode material.

[0062] During step 210, a (e.g., first) non-inert gas is provided to the housing to replace the ambient gas within the housing. The non-inert gas may include at least one oxygen. For example, the non-inert gas may include one or more of CO2, CO, O2, N2O, NO2, and SO2. The non-inert gas may be in contact with the electrode and the electrolyte.

[0063] During step 212, the battery components (e.g., electrodes, electrolyte, current collectors, etc.) are encapsulated. Once encapsulated, gases can be added to or exhausted from the enclosure, such as through one or more ports 116, 118, such as Figure 1 shown.

[0064] During step 214, at least one discharge and / or at least one charge step is performed. Step 214 may be performed in the presence of the non-inert gas and / or inert gas provided during step 210. During step 214, the charge and / or discharge current density may be greater than 0 and less than 0.1 mA / cm2 .

[0065] Figure 3-7 Various methods 300-700 are shown as variations of method 200. Each method 300-700 includes at least one step of providing a non-inert gas. In addition to the other advantages mentioned herein, the use of a non-inert gas can extend the cycle life of the battery while mitigating any fire hazards associated with its use.

[0066] Figure 3 A method 300 is shown, which includes the steps of providing a battery cell assembly (step 302), compressing the battery cell assembly (step 304), providing a non-inert gas (step 306), performing at least one charge / discharge cycle (step 308), and replacing the formed gas with the non-inert gas (step 310).

[0067] During step 302, battery cell components are provided, such as a housing, an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, such as those described herein.

[0068] During step 304, the battery cell assembly is compressed. The battery cell assembly can be compressed using, for example, a press with a stacking pressure of about 10 MPa (e.g., about 1 MPa to about 100 MPa). Step 304 can be used to promote the desired contact between the electrolyte, the anode material, and the cathode material. During step 304, the amount of stacking pressure applied to the battery cell can be controlled to distinguish the boundary between the anode and the cathode. Advantageously, the stacking pressure applied during step 304 and during similar steps described herein can be lower than the stacking pressure typically applied to the electrochemical battery cell during battery cell manufacturing. Typical stacking pressures are greater than 100 MPa. Fig.13 The formation of a SEI between the electrolyte material and the electrode material is shown. It is believed that the use of a non-inert gas to form the SEI mitigates the contact loss between the electrolyte material and the electrode material without the need to use higher stacking pressures (e.g., above 10 MPa), as described herein.

[0069] During step 306, a (e.g., first) non-inert gas is provided within the housing provided during step 302. The non-inert gas may be a non-inert gas as described herein. The non-inert gas may be used to displace ambient gas contained or enclosed in the housing. The use of a non-inert gas may add electroactive functional groups on the surface of the electrode material and / or redesign the chemical structure of the electrode material, which may help store more energy per unit mass or area of ​​the electrode and / or may be used to form a solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer during step 308.

[0070] The enclosure may be sealed before or after step 306. If before, a non-inert gas may be introduced and the ambient gas may be exhausted through a port in the enclosure (such as the ports described herein).

[0071] During step 308, at least one discharge and / or at least one charge cycle is performed. During step 308, an SEI may be formed between at least one electrode and the electrolyte. For example, an SEI may be formed between the cathode and the solid electrolyte and / or between the anode and the solid electrolyte (e.g., on one or more of the anode, cathode, and electrolyte). The SEI layer is believed to reduce the interface and / or charge transfer resistance. The battery may be charged and / or discharged at a rate greater than 0 and less than 0.1 mA / cm 2 carried out at a current density of .

[0072] The number of charge and / or discharge steps may vary depending on the anode material, non-inert gas, etc. For example, about 1 to about 10, or about 2 to about 50, or about 3 to about 100 charge and / or discharge cycles are performed during step 308. In other methods described herein, a similar number of charge / discharge steps may be performed.

[0073] During step 310, the pressure within the enclosure may be reduced (e.g., to about standard atmospheric pressure, 1 bar), and the gas formed during step 208 may be purged with a non-inert gas. It should be understood that not all of the gas within the enclosure may or need to be purged during this step. The non-inert gas used during step 310 may be the same or different than the non-inert gas used during step 306. After step 310, the battery is ready for use.

[0074] Method 400 includes the steps of providing a battery cell assembly (step 402), compressing the battery cell assembly (step 404), providing an inert gas (step 406), performing at least one charge / discharge cycle (step 408), and replacing the formed gas with a non-inert gas (step 410).

[0075] Steps 402, 404, 408, and 410 may be the same or similar to steps 302, 204, 308, and 310 described above. Method 400 differs from method 300 at step 306 / 406. In method 400, an inert gas is provided within the enclosure during step 406. The battery cells are then cycled during step 408, and the enclosure is purged with a non-inert gas in step 410.

[0076] Method 500 is also similar to method 300. Method 500 includes the steps of providing a battery cell assembly (step 502), compressing the battery cell assembly (step 504), providing a non-inert gas (step 506), performing at least one charge / discharge cycle (step 508), and replacing the formed gas with a gas (step 510).

[0077] Steps 502-508 may be the same or similar to steps 302-308 described above. Method 500 differs from method 300 at step 510 / 310. In method 500, an inert gas is provided within the enclosure to purge the enclosure during step 510. In contrast, in method 300, a non-inert gas is used to purge the enclosure.

[0078] Method 600 is also similar to method 300, except that method 600 includes additional steps 612 and 614, and steps 610 and 614 may include providing inert and / or non-inert gases. As shown, method 600 includes the steps of providing a battery cell assembly (step 602), compressing the battery cell assembly (step 604), providing a non-inert gas (step 606), performing at least one charge / discharge cycle (step 608), replacing the formed gas with a gas (step 610), performing at least one additional charge / discharge cycle (step 612), and replacing the formed gas (during step 612) with a gas (step 614). In an alternative method, step 606 may include providing an inert gas.

[0079] Steps 602-608 may be the same or similar to steps 302-308 described above. During step 610, an inert and / or non-inert gas may be provided to the enclosure to displace the gas formed during step 608. The inert and / or non-inert gas may be as described herein.

[0080] Step 612 may be the same or similar to step 608. For example, step 612 may include a current density greater than 0 and less than 0.1 mA / cm 2 The charging / discharging may be performed repeatedly as described herein.

[0081] Finally, during step 614, the enclosure may be purged with a gas comprising a non-inert or inert gas as described herein. Step 614 may, for example, be the same or similar to step 310 or 510. The gases used in steps 610 and 614 may be the same or different. For example, the gas used during step 610 may be a non-inert gas, and the gas used during step 614 may be an inert gas.

[0082] Fig.14Another method 1400 according to an example of the present disclosure is shown. The method 1400 includes the following steps: providing a housing (step 1402), providing a first electrode in the housing (step 1404), providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and located in the housing (step 1406), providing a first gas to the housing (step 1408), sealing the housing (step 1410), applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell under the first gas (step 1412), and after the applying step, removing at least 90% by mass (e.g., based on the original mass) of the gas present in the housing (step 1414).

[0083] Steps 1402-1406 may be the same as or similar to steps 202-206 described above.

[0084] Step 1408 includes providing a first gas to the housing to displace ambient gas within the housing. According to an example of the present disclosure, the gas provided during step 1408 does not form part of the electrode to a significant extent. According to an example of the method, the battery cell does not generate a large amount of gas during operation. When the first gas includes a non-inert gas, step 1408 can be the same or similar to step 210 described above.

[0085] Step 1410 may be the same as or similar to step 212 .

[0086] During step 1412, one or more of a current and a voltage are applied to the electrochemical cell under the first gas (e.g., across the electrode or the corresponding current collector). After step 1412, a portion of the gas in the housing (e.g., greater than 90% by mass, greater than 95% by mass, greater than 97% by mass, greater than 99% by mass, greater than 99.9% by mass) may be removed from the housing during step 1414. Similar to the above, the mass percentage of the gas removed may be based on the mass of the gas before the step of removing the gas. For example, after step 1412, the gas present in the housing may be removed using a second gas and / or using a vacuum source. According to an example of the present disclosure, the battery or battery cell does not generate a large amount of gas during operation. Therefore, the battery can be maintained at a reduced stacking pressure. The second gas may be different from the first gas, for example, an inert gas or another non-inert gas. The first gas may contain oxygen atoms and / or sulfur atoms, as described herein in conjunction with the first and / or non-inert gas.

[0087] According to an example of the present disclosure, method 1400 may additionally include a step of forming a solid layer on the surface of the electrolyte and on one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode and / or between the two electrodes and / or between the electrolyte during the applying step. The exemplary method may include at least one additional step of applying a voltage and / or current to the electrochemical cell to form a solid layer before the removing step. In addition, method 1400 may include a step of electrospraying a solution using the techniques described herein to form one or more of the first electrode, the electrolyte, and the second electrode. Method 1400 may also include a step of compressing a battery cell assembly including a first electrode and a solid electrolyte at a reduced stacking pressure of less than 100 MPa, preferably less than 50 MPa, and more preferably less than 10 MPa.

[0088] Figure 7 7 is a flow chart of a method of manufacturing an electrochemical battery cell 700 according to another exemplary embodiment. The method 700 includes the steps of providing a substrate (step 702), forming a solution (step 703), electrospraying the solution onto the substrate (step 706), drying the solution (step 708), providing a battery cell assembly (step 710), and compressing the battery cell assembly (step 712). The method 700 can be used to form a battery cell including a separate electrolyte.

[0089] Step 702 includes providing a substrate onto which the solution is electrosprayed. Exemplary substrates may include a current collector, an electrode, an electrolyte, or any combination thereof. For example, a substrate may include an electrolyte and optionally an electrode and / or a current collector.

[0090] During step 704, a solution comprising a polymeric material is formed. The solution may comprise a polymeric material and a suitable solvent. Exemplary solvents include, in any combination, one or more of methanol, ethanol, chloroform, toluene, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, n-propanol, acetone, N,N-dimethylformamide, isopropanol, 1,4-dioxane, dimethyl sulfoxide, N,N-dimethylacetamide, tetrahydrofuran, 1,1,1,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol, 1,2-dimethoxyethane, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, N-methylimidazole, carbon disulfide, ethyl formate, 3-methoxypropionitrile, oxalic acid, trichloroacetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid, acetic acid, cyclohexane, ether, nitromethane, pyridine, and water. The polymeric material may be non- or low-ion conductive (e.g., greater than 0 and less than 10 -7S / cm conductivity), and may form part of an electrolyte and / or an electrode. The polymeric material may include, for example, one or more of polycaprolactone, polyacrylic acid, polymethyl methacrylate, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyacrylonitrile, polyethylene terephthalate, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, and poly(4-vinyl pyridine) in any combination. The concentration of the polymeric material in the solution may be between about 0.01% by weight and about 10% by weight or between about 0.1% by weight and about 5% by weight.

[0091] During step 706 , the solution formed during step 704 may be electrosprayed onto the substrate provided during step 702 .

[0092] During step 706, one or more electrospraying parameters may be adjusted, such as flow rate, applied voltage, applied current, nozzle size, nozzle type, distance between nozzle tip and current collector, etc. The electrospraying process may advantageously allow for the extension and thinning of (e.g., non- or low-ion conductive) polymeric materials, which may not only firmly bond to the electrolyte material to produce a micron-thick freestanding film (e.g., greater than 5 μm) without cracking, but may also allow for the use of a relatively small amount of non- or low-ion conductive polymeric material to cover the surface of the electrolyte material compared to conventional coating techniques. The benefit of having an extended thin non- or low-ion conductive polymeric material (e.g., a nanolayer) on the surface of the electrolyte material is its effect of chemically inhibiting anode dendrite growth while maintaining the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte. The freestanding electrolyte may include greater than 70 weight percent, preferably greater than 80 weight percent, and more preferably greater than 90 weight percent of solid electrolyte material.

[0093] In step 708, the solution applied in step 706 is dried. Step 708 may be performed at a relatively low pressure (eg, about 0.1 MPa to about 10 MPa) and / or in an inert gas atmosphere.

[0094] During step 710, battery cell components, such as current collectors, one or more electrodes, and electrolyte, are provided within a housing. Step 710 may be the same as or similar to step 302.

[0095] In step 712, the battery cell assembly is compressed. Step 712 may be the same or similar to step 304. Thereafter, the method of forming the battery may include additional steps, such as steps 306-310, 406-410, 506-510, or 606-614. The use of an electrospray process may be used in conjunction with any of the methods discussed in conjunction with any of methods 300-600.

[0096] Figure 8A solid (also referred to herein as a solid state) electrolyte 800 according to an exemplary embodiment is shown. The solid electrolyte 800 may include solid electrolyte particles 802 at least partially coated with a polymeric material 804. The solid electrolyte may be located in the anode and cathode and between the anode and cathode. The solid electrolyte 800 may also be in contact with a non-inert gas 806, which may, for example, contain at least one oxygen atom. The thickness of the polymeric material on the surface of the solid electrolyte may be greater than 0 and less than 100 nm, or between about 1 and about 50 nm. When the solid electrolyte is in contact with the electrode material, the polymeric material may not be present.

[0097] Fig. 9 900 is a schematic diagram of a structure according to an exemplary embodiment, including an electrode (e.g., an anode or a cathode) 902, a protective solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer 904 (e.g., electrochemically generated by a non-inert gas as described above), and a solid electrolyte 906. When a battery including an electrolyte, an electrode, and a non-inert gas is charged and / or discharged, a SEI layer may be formed between the solid electrolyte 906 and the electrode 902. The SEI layer may include a compound including at least one oxygen atom. The thickness of the SEI layer may be greater than 0 and less than 100 nm. The SEI layer may reduce the ionic resistance and the interface resistance between the electrode 902 and the electrolyte 906.

[0098] Fig.10 is a graph showing the stable cycling performance of a symmetric battery cell including a solid electrolyte preformed under a non-inert gas (e.g., carbon dioxide) compared to the stable cycling performance of a symmetric battery cell including a solid electrolyte preformed under an inert gas (e.g., argon). Batteries formed according to examples of the present disclosure (e.g., including lithium metal foil, solid electrolyte, and carbon dioxide gas) were tested after 2000 cycles and at 5 mA / cm 2 The solid electrolyte membrane is located between two lithium metal foils. Li 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7(PO4)3(LATP), a lithium superionic conductor (LiSICON) structure was selected as the solid electrolyte material. The solid electrolyte membrane was independent and prepared by electrostatic spraying of a solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide). The weight ratio of the electrolyte membrane comprising the solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide) was 95:1:4. The thickness of the electrolyte membrane was about 35 μm. The measured battery cell stacking pressure was about 9 MPa. Polycaprolactone was selected as a non- or low-ion conductive polymer material. Polycaprolactone was electrosprayed in the outer region of a coaxial nozzle, where the solid electrolyte and poly(ethylene oxide) mixture were electrosprayed in the core region in an attempt to coat the solid electrolyte and poly(ethylene oxide) mixture with an ultrathin nanofilm comprising polycaprolactone.

[0099] Fig.11 is a graph showing the improvement in interfacial ionic conductivity of a preformed battery comprising lithium metal foil and a solid electrolyte at different partial pressures of a non-inert gas. 2 The conductivity was measured after 10 charge and discharge cycles at a current density of . The solid electrolyte membrane is located between two lithium metal foils. 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7 (PO4)3(LATP), a lithium super ion conductor (LiSICON) structure is selected as a solid electrolyte material. The solid electrolyte membrane is independent and is prepared by electrospraying a solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide). The weight ratio of the electrolyte membrane comprising a solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide) is 95:1:4. The electrolyte or electrolyte membrane according to the present disclosure may contain at least 70 weight percent electrolyte material, up to 10 weight percent non-conductive or low-conductive polymeric material, such as polycaprolactone, and no more than 10 weight percent conductive polymeric material, such as poly(ethylene oxide). The thickness of the electrolyte membrane is about 35 μm. The measured battery cell stacking pressure is about 9 MPa. Polycaprolactone is selected as a non- or low-ion conductive polymeric material. Polycaprolactone is electrosprayed in the outer region of a coaxial nozzle, where a solid electrolyte and poly(ethylene oxide) mixture is electrosprayed in the core region. Nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide are selected as non-inert gases. The higher the partial pressure of the non-inert gas, the higher the conductivity of the electrolyte at 25°C. The conductivity at 25°C reached 10 -3 S / cm or more. At 25°C, the conductivity measured under argon is about 7×10 -6 S / cm.

[0100] Fig.12 is a graph showing the improvement in interfacial ionic conductivity of a battery comprising a lithium metal foil and a solid electrolyte with respect to cycle number at a carbon dioxide partial pressure of 0.2 bar. 2The conductivity of the battery was measured after each cycle of operation at a current density of 1.5 Å. The solid electrolyte membrane is located between two lithium metal foils. 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7 (PO4)3(LATP), a lithium superionic conductor (LiSICON) structure was selected as the solid electrolyte material. The solid electrolyte membrane is independent and is manufactured by electrostatically spraying solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide). The weight ratio of the electrolyte membrane comprising solid electrolyte, polycaprolactone and poly(ethylene oxide) is 95:1:4. The thickness of the electrolyte membrane is about 35 μm. The measured battery stack pressure is about 9 MPa. Polycaprolactone is selected as a non- or low-ion conductive polymer material. Polycaprolactone is electrosprayed in the outer region of a coaxial nozzle, where the solid electrolyte and poly(ethylene oxide) mixture is electrosprayed in the core region. Carbon dioxide is selected as a non-inert gas. At a carbon dioxide partial pressure of 0.2 bar, the conductivity at 25°C reaches nearly 10 after the 100th cycle. -3 S / cm. At 25°C, the conductivity measured under argon is about 7×10 -6 S / cm.

[0101] The present disclosure describes the use of various features and methods for producing batteries and battery cells. It should be understood that any combination of these features and methods are within the scope of the present disclosure. For example, an embodiment describing the use of organic materials for cathode active materials can be modified to be produced under a non-inert gas atmosphere, and the modification is intended to fall within the scope of the present disclosure. Other arrangements and combinations utilizing one or more of the features / methods described herein are also possible, and such arrangements and combinations are also considered part of the present disclosure without specific enumeration.

[0102]

[0066] While there are embodiments described above and shown in the accompanying drawings, various modifications and inclusions to these embodiments are within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0103] Unless otherwise indicated, as used herein with respect to numerical ranges, the terms "substantially," "approximately," "substantially," and similar terms generally refer to + / - 10% of the disclosed values. As used herein with respect to structural features (e.g., describing shape, size, orientation, direction, relative position, etc.), the terms "substantially," "approximately," "substantially," and similar terms are intended to encompass minor variations in structure that may result from, for example, manufacturing or assembly processes, and are intended to have a broad meaning consistent with generally accepted usage by those of ordinary skill in the art to which the disclosed subject matter belongs. Accordingly, these terms should be interpreted as indicating that insubstantial or inconsequential modifications or alterations to the described and claimed subject matter are considered to be within the scope of the disclosure described in the appended claims.

[0104] It should be noted that the term "exemplary" and variations thereof, used herein to describe various embodiments, is intended to indicate that the embodiment is a possible example, representation, or illustration of possible embodiments (and the term does not imply that such embodiments are necessarily the most or most advanced examples).

[0105] The element positions (e.g., "top", "bottom", "above", "below") mentioned herein are only used to describe the orientation of the various elements in the figures. It should be noted that according to other exemplary embodiments, the orientation of the various elements may be different, and these variations are intended to be covered by the present disclosure.

[0106] As mentioned above, although the drawings and description may illustrate a specific order of method steps, the order of these steps may be different from the order depicted and described, unless otherwise specified above. In addition, two or more steps may be performed simultaneously or partially simultaneously, unless otherwise specified above. In addition, one or more steps may be repeated before the next step.

[0107] It is noteworthy that any element disclosed in one embodiment can be combined or used with any other embodiment disclosed herein. Although only one example of an element that can be combined or used in another embodiment is described above, it should be understood that other elements of each embodiment can be combined or used with any other embodiment disclosed herein.

Claims

1. A method of forming an electrochemical cell, wherein the cell does not generate significant amounts of gas during operation, the method comprising the steps of: Provide a housing; providing a first electrode within the housing; providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and within the housing; providing a first gas to the housing to displace ambient gas within the housing, wherein the gas is not an electrode; Sealed housing; applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell under a first gas, wherein the cell does not generate a significant amount of gas during the step of applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell; and After the applying step, at least 90% by mass of the gas present in the enclosure is removed.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of forming a solid layer on a surface of the electrolyte and on one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode during the applying step.

3. The method of claim 1 further comprising, prior to the removing step, the step of providing a second gas to the enclosure to displace at least a portion of the first gas within the enclosure and purge at least a portion of the gas formed during the applying step.

4. The method of claim 3, further comprising, prior to the removing step, performing at least one additional step of applying one or more of a voltage and a current to the electrochemical cell to form a solid layer between the solid electrolyte and one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode. The method of claim 3 , wherein the second gas is different from the first gas. The method of claim 1 , wherein the first gas comprises at least one oxygen atom.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein the first gas comprises one or more of CO2, CO, O2, N2O, NO2, and SO2.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the first gas comprises at least one sulfur atom.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the first gas comprises one or more of S8, COS, CS2, SF6, H2S, SO2, CH4S and C2H6S.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the solid electrolyte comprises at least one oxygen atom or at least one sulfur atom.

11. The method of claim 2, wherein the solid layer comprises at least one oxygen atom or at least one sulfur atom.

12. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of electrospraying a solution to form one or more of the first electrode, the electrolyte, and the second electrode.

13. The method of claim 1, further comprising the step of compressing the battery cell assembly including the first electrode and the solid electrolyte at a stacking pressure of less than 100 MPa.

14. An electrochemical cell formed according to the method of claim 1.

15. The electrochemical cell of claim 14, wherein the first electrode comprises a first current collector and the second electrode comprises a second current collector, wherein one or more of the first current collector and the second current collector comprises a metal alloy having at least one material selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and combinations thereof.

16. The electrochemical cell of claim 14, being substantially free of liquid electrolyte.

17. A method of forming an electrochemical cell, the method comprising the steps of: Provide a housing; providing a first electrode within the housing; providing a solid electrolyte in contact with the first electrode and within the housing; providing a first gas to the enclosure to displace ambient gas within the enclosure; Sealing housing; performing at least one charging and discharging operation of the electrochemical cell under the first gas; as well as providing a second gas to the enclosure to displace at least a portion of the first gas within the enclosure and to purge at least a portion of the gas formed during the steps of performing at least one charge and discharge operation of the electrochemical cell, The second gas is different from the first gas.

18. The method of claim 17, further comprising the step of forming a solid electrolyte interphase between the solid electrolyte and one or more of the first electrode and the second electrode during the step of performing at least one charging and discharging operation of the electrochemical cell.

19. The method of claim 17, further comprising performing at least one additional step of charging the electrochemical cell and discharging the electrochemical cell to form a solid electrolyte interphase.

20. The method of claim 17, wherein the solid electrolyte comprises at least one oxygen atom.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein the solid electrolyte comprises one or more of SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Y2O3, Mg2B2O5, Li2O, Li2O2, Li2CO3, LiOH, P2O5, GeO2, AlPO4, Li2Ti3O7, Li3OBr, Li3OCl, Li2OHBr and Li2OHCl.

22. The method of claim 17, further comprising the step of electrospraying the solution to form one or more of the first electrode, the electrolyte, and the second electrode.

23. An electrochemical cell formed according to the method of claim 17.

24. The electrochemical cell of claim 23, wherein the first electrode and the second electrode each comprise a current collector, wherein each current collector comprises a metal alloy having at least one material selected from the group consisting of molybdenum, titanium, zirconium, and combinations thereof.

25. The method of claim 17, wherein the solid state electrolyte comprises sulfur.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the solid electrolyte comprises Li6PS5Cl, Li 9.54 Si 1.74 P 1.44 S 11.7 Cl 0.3 , Li 10 GeP2S 12 , Li7PS6, Li7P3S 11 and Li 3.25 P 0.95 One or more of S4.

27. The method of claim 17, further comprising the step of compressing the battery cell assembly including the first electrode and the solid electrolyte at a reduced stacking pressure of less than 100 MPa.

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