Process for producing alkali metal hydroxides or alkaline earth metal oxides using weak acid intermediates

Abstract

The present application relates to a process for producing oxides using weak acid intermediates. In one embodiment, a material comprising calcium carbonate is reacted with a solution comprising an aqueous carboxylic acid to form a gas comprising carbon dioxide and a solution comprising aqueous calcium carboxylate. The solution comprising aqueous calcium carboxylate is reacted with sodium sulfate to form a solution comprising aqueous sodium carboxylate and a solid comprising calcium sulfate. The solution comprising the aqueous sodium carboxylate is reacted with sulfur dioxide to form sodium sulfite and an aqueous carboxylic acid. The sodium sulfite is separated from the aqueous carboxylic acid and reacted to form a solid comprising calcium sulfite, which is decomposed to form calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] For PCT purposes, this application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 342,870, filed May 17, 2022, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0002] For U.S. purposes, this application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 342,870, filed May 17, 2022, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] For U.S. purposes, this application also claims priority to pending U.S. Serial No. 18 / 087,432, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Serial No. 17 / 744,161, filed on May 13, 2022, and issued as U.S. Patent No. 11,542,219 on January 3, 2023. U.S. Serial No. 17 / 744,161 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Serial No. 17 / 732,808, filed on April 29, 2022, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Serial No. 17 / 590,483, filed on February 1, 2022, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Serial No. 17 / 243,714, filed on April 29, 2021, and issued as U.S. Patent No. 11,236,033. Serial No. 17 / 243,714 is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Application Serial No. 16 / 944,850, filed on July 31, 2020, which issued as U.S. Patent No. 11,034,619, and which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 895,557, filed on September 4, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 042,397, filed on June 22, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 890,254, filed on August 22, 2019. This application also claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 188,275, filed on May 13, 2021.

[0004] The above-mentioned continuation application (which is U.S. application serial number 17 / 590,483 filed on February 1, 2022) also claims priority to the following: U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 147,286 filed on February 9, 2021; U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 153,461 filed on February 25, 2021; U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 157,847 filed on March 8, 2021; U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 163,993 filed on March 22, 2021; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 179,822 filed on April 26, 2021. All of the above applications are incorporated herein by reference. Background and Summary of the Invention

[0005] Sodium hydroxide is typically produced using the chlor-alkali process, which is energy intensive, requires rare metal anodes and cathodes, and produces hydrochloric acid, which has a limited market and cannot be discharged into the environment. The production of sodium hydroxide in the prior art is energy intensive, CO2 emission intensive, and expensive. Furthermore, the sodium hydroxide production of the prior art cannot be used for CO2 removal, or cannot be added to the sea for deacidification or CO2 removal, because they are energy intensive, CO2 emission intensive, expensive, and harmful to the environment. Commercial applications of hydrochloric acid typically involve using hydrochloric acid in a reaction with carbonates, which may result in the release of CO2 and may offset any benefit of CO2 emission reduction. Furthermore, if hydrochloric acid is released into the environment, it will react with carbonates or bicarbonates present in the environment, emitting carbon dioxide and acidifying bodies of water (such as the ocean). Sodium hydroxide is an essential chemical used in a wide range of applications, including, for example, pulp and paper production, lithium processing, soap production, rayon production, aluminum refining, to name a few. The production of sodium hydroxide in the prior art is energy intensive, CO2 emission intensive, and expensive. Reducing the energy, costs, and emissions associated with sodium hydroxide production would greatly benefit the economy and the environment. There is a significant need for low-energy, low-CO2-emission, environmentally friendly methods for producing sodium hydroxide.

[0006] The production of calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or cement clinker in the prior art produces CO2 emissions, which may be difficult or expensive to capture. It would be highly desirable to develop a calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or cement clinker production process that does not produce CO2 emissions and / or that inherently produces high-purity captured CO2.

[0007] Some embodiments of the present invention may involve low-carbon, low-energy, or carbon-negative production of sodium hydroxide, or sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium sulfite, or sodium bisulfite, or gypsum, or alkaline earth metal sulfates, or alkali metal hydroxides, or alkali metal carbonates, or alkali metal bicarbonates, or alkali metal sulfites. Some embodiments of the present invention may enable ultra-low CO2 emission production of sodium hydroxide with calcium sulfate as a byproduct. Calcium sulfate comprises a solid, minimally soluble in water, is non-toxic, is not hazardous to the environment, and has a multi-billion metric ton annual market for gypsum wallboard, concrete aggregate, fireproofing, stucco, building materials, and other applications. Some embodiments of the present invention may be scalable to CO2 emission reductions, or carbon removal, or a combination thereof, greater than 1 billion tons per year. Some embodiments of the present invention may enable highly scalable, environmentally beneficial systems and methods for ocean deacidification that can be scaled up to significantly increase ocean pH, restore marine ecosystems, and permanently sequester carbon dioxide. Additionally, some embodiments can reduce the cost and energy consumption of alkali metal hydroxides, alkali metal carbonates, and alkali metal bicarbonates.Some embodiments can utilize equipment that includes abundant and recyclable materials.

[0008] Some embodiments of the present invention may relate to the low carbon emission, low energy consumption, or carbon negative production of calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or calcium carbonate, or magnesium oxide, or magnesium hydroxide, or cement, or cement clinker, or Portland cement, or magnesium carbonate, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or alkaline earth metal carbonates, or any combination thereof. Some embodiments of the present invention may enable ultra-low CO2 emission production of calcium oxide, or magnesium oxide, or cement. Some embodiments may include a CO2 capture process, or a CO2 air capture process, or a CO2 removal process, or a CO2 conversion process, or a CO2 separation process, or a process for recovering or separating CO2 from a solution containing carbonates, or bicarbonates, or any combination thereof. Some embodiments of the present invention may enable calcium oxide or cement production where the process inherently produces high purity, high pressure carbon dioxide, which may reduce the cost and energy required to produce low or zero emission calcium oxide or cement. Some embodiments may employ equipment containing abundant and recyclable materials.

[0009] Advantages of some embodiments include lower energy consumption, lower cost, or lower CO2 emissions, negative CO2 emissions, or applications in carbon dioxide removal, or no strong acid products, or abundant materials, or global scalability. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0010] Figure 1 : A method for producing calcium oxide and captured carbon dioxide using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0011] Figure 2A : A method for producing calcium oxide and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0012] Figure 2B : A method for producing calcium oxide and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0013] Figure 3A : A method for producing magnesium oxide and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0014] Figure 3B : A method for producing magnesium oxide and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0015] Figure 4A : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and captured carbon dioxide using carboxylic acids, bases, and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0016] Figure 4B : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and captured carbon dioxide using carboxylic acids, bases, and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0017] Figure 4C : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and captured carbon dioxide using carboxylic acids, bases, and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0018] Figure 5A : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid, base and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0019] Figure 5B : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0020] Figure 5C : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0021] Figure 5D : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid, base and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0022] Figure 5E : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid, base and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0023] Figure 5F : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0024] Figure 6A : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid, base and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0025] Figure 6B : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acid, base and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0026] Figure 7A : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates, wherein a membrane separates at least a portion of the alkali metal sulfite.

[0027] Figure 7B : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates, wherein a membrane separates at least a portion of the alkali metal sulfite.

[0028] Figure 8 : A process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases and sulfur dioxide intermediates, wherein a membrane separates at least a portion of the alkali metal sulfite.

[0029] Figure 9A : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0030] Figure 9B : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0031] Figure 9C : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0032] Figure 9D : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0033] Figure 10A : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0034] Figure 10B : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0035] Figure 10C : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0036] Figure 10D : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0037] Figure 10E : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0038] Figure 10F : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0039] Figure 11A : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0040] Figure 11B : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0041] Figure 11C : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0042] Figure 12A : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0043] Figure 12B : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0044] Figure 12C : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0045] Figure 13A : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0046] Figure 13B : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0047] Figure 13C : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0048] Figure 13D : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0049] Figure 13E : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0050] Figure 13F : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates and removing or capturing or converting CO2 using an acid such as a carboxylic acid and a sulfur dioxide intermediate.

[0051] Figure 14A : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and removing or capturing or converting CO2.

[0052] Figure 14B : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and removing or capturing or converting CO2.

[0053] Figure 14C : A method for producing alkali metal carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and removing or capturing or converting CO2.

[0054] Figure 15A : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0055] Figure 15B : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0056] Figure 15C : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0057] Figure 16A : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0058] Figure 16B : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0059] Figure 16C : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0060] Figure 17A : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0061] Figure 17B : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0062] Figure 17C : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0063] Figure 18: A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0064] Figure 19 : A method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides and weak acid derivatives using carboxylic acids, bases (such as ammonia or ammonium) and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0065] Figure 20A : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0066] Figure 20B : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0067] Figure 20C : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0068] Figure 21A : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0069] Figure 21B : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0070] Figure 21C : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0071] Figure 22A : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0072] Figure 22B : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0073] Figure 22C : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0074] Figure 23A : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0075] Figure 23B : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0076] Figure 23C : Method for producing or recovering ammonia from ammonium sulfate

[0077] Figure 24 Method for thermally decomposing or calcining alkaline earth metal sulfites using a recirculating carrier gas to form alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide and / or absorb sulfur dioxide, for example to achieve zero emission heat and / or to achieve low diatomic oxygen concentrations

[0078] Figure 25 : Method for thermally decomposing or calcining alkaline earth metal sulfites to form alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide and / or absorbing sulfur dioxide using a recycled carrier gas

[0079] Figure 26A: A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal chlorides using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0080] Figure 26B : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal chlorides using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0081] Figure 26C : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal chlorides using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0082] Figure 26D : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal chlorides using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0083] Figure 27 : A process for producing alkali metal sulfate from alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0084] Figure 28A : A process for producing alkali metal sulfate from alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0085] Figure 28B : A process for producing alkali metal sulfate from alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0086] Figure 28C : A process for producing alkali metal sulfate from alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0087] Figure 29 : Method for producing alkali metal sulfate and capturing CO2 using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates, using alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate

[0088] Figure 30 : Method for producing alkali metal sulfate, capturing CO2 and / or producing urea using alkali metal chloride and alkaline earth metal sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide

[0089] Figure 31A : Process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfites using acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates

[0090] Figure 31B : Process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfites using acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates

[0091] Figure 31C : Process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfites using acid and sulfur dioxide intermediates

[0092] Figure 32A: A process for absorbing or reacting sulfur dioxide in an alkali metal acid anion (such as an alkali metal carboxylate) in a manner that minimizes or reduces potential residual vapors in the residual gas.

[0093] Figure 32B : A process for absorbing or reacting sulfur dioxide in an alkali metal acid anion (such as an alkali metal carboxylate) in a manner that minimizes or reduces potential residual vapors in the residual gas.

[0094] Figure 33 : A process for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates.

[0095] Figure 34 : A method for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates.

[0096] Figure 35 : A method for producing alkali metal hydroxides from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates.

[0097] Figure 36A : A process for producing alkali metal bicarbonates or carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and carbon dioxide input and intermediates.

[0098] Figure 37 : A method for producing alkali metal hydroxide from alkali metal sulfate using carboxylic acid, magnesium, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates.

[0099] Figure 38 : A method for producing alkali metal hydroxide from alkali metal sulfate using carboxylic acid, magnesium, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates.

[0100] Figure 39A : A process for producing alkali metal bicarbonates or carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and carbon dioxide input and intermediates.

[0101] Figure 39B : A process for producing alkali metal bicarbonates or carbonates from alkali metal sulfates using carboxylic acids and sulfur dioxide intermediates and carbon dioxide input and intermediates. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Example Chemistry

[0102] Example 1: Method for producing calcium oxide, cement or clinker

[0103] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid, which may include (but is not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0104] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0105] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0106] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0107] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0108] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0109] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0110] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the remaining gas after absorption or reaction of at least a portion of SO2(g) may contain a portion of acetic acid vapor. In some embodiments, the remaining gas after absorption or reaction of at least a portion of SO2(g) may contain at least a portion of acetic acid vapor, which may include acetic acid evaporated from the product of reaction step '(2)'. In some embodiments, the remaining gas containing at least a portion of acetic acid vapor may be contacted with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) before reacting with SO2(g), which may enable at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor to be absorbed in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) and / or removed from the remaining gas. In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor can be removed from the residual gas using, for example, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxide-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal hydroxide-water suspensions, or alkaline earth metal hydroxide-aqueous solutions, or water, or alkali metal carbonates, or alkali metal bicarbonates, or alkali metal hydroxides.

[0111] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in '2CH3COOH(aq)' transferred from, for example, reaction '(2)' to reaction '(1)'. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in the '2CH3COOH(aq)' solution transferred from reaction '(2)' / to reaction '(1)'. Additional magnesium sulfite in solution that exceeds the solubility limit of magnesium sulfite may precipitate or co-precipitate during the reaction of Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) or Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g or aq), or a sulfite, or a bisulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0112] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, a portion of the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be concentrated and / or separated using, but not limited to, one or more of the following, or any combination thereof: heating, cooling, reverse osmosis, membrane-based methods, precipitation, electrodialysis, forward osmosis, or any combination thereof. For example, the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be separated by concentrating the magnesium sulfite using reverse osmosis or nanofiltration, wherein the pore size or properties of the membrane are such that at least a portion of the acetic acid is permeable and at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite is retained, and / or cooling the resulting concentrated magnesium sulfite solution to produce at least a portion of a magnesium sulfite precipitate.

[0113] (3)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0114] NOTE: '(3)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0115] Note: Before or during '(3)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0116] Example 2: Method for producing magnesium oxide, cement or slag

[0117] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0118] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0119] Note: In some embodiments, 2CH3COOH(aq) may contain at least a portion of MgSO3(aq), which may be referred to as residual MgSO3(aq).

[0120] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→MgSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0121] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0122] Note: Residual MgSO3(aq) may be present in the 2CH3COOH(aq) solution.

[0123] (3)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0124] Note: '(3)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0125] Note: Before or during '(3)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0126] Example 3: Method for producing calcium oxide, cement or slag using alkaline intermediates

[0127] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0128] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0129] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0130] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0131] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0132] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) can include a solid comprising sodium sulfite, which can be added to or dissolved in a solution comprising calcium acetate.

[0133] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) can include an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite and acetic acid.

[0134] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0135] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0136] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq or l)+Na2SO3(s)

[0137] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0138] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0139] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0140] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0141] Note: In some embodiments, a feed solution comprising sodium sulfite and acetic acid can be evaporated, wherein a portion of the acetic acid and water vapor evaporate and / or condense to form a separated acetic acid solution, and / or the remaining solution comprises aqueous acetic acid and a higher concentration of sodium sulfite than the sodium sulfite concentration in the feed solution.

[0142] (5)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0143] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0144] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0145] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be preferred or desirable to react SO2(g) with NaCH3COO(aq) to form Na2SO3(aq), and then react Na2SO3 with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) to form CaSO3(s), for example, including, but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following potential benefits: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column. Precipitate formation in an absorption column may be problematic due to, for example, but not limited to, precipitates clogging packing materials, or plates, or interfering with gas flow, or interfering with liquid flow, or forming scale, or any combination thereof. The reaction of Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g) may form a precipitate comprising CaSO3(s), which may be challenging in some absorption columns or gas absorption processes. If desired, the reaction of NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g) may be such that the salt may remain largely in the aqueous or liquid phase throughout the reaction, since, for example, Na2SO3 may be soluble in water, which may be desirable in an absorption column. In some embodiments, if SO2(g) contains gases in addition to SO2(g), acetic acid vapor may be present in the remaining gas during or after the reaction of SO2(g) with acetate. If SO2(g) contacts NaCH3COO(aq), which can form aqueous Na2SO3(aq) and / or acetic acid, the reactor or absorption column can be configured such that the NaCH3COO(aq) entering the reactor or absorption column absorbs or recovers at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the remaining gas. If SO2(g) contacts NaCH3COO(aq), which can form aqueous Na2SO3(aq) and / or acetic acid, the reactor or absorption column can be configured such that the NaCH3COO(aq) entering the reactor or absorption column absorbs or recovers at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the remaining gas (before or simultaneously with the significant reaction of NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g)). The use of NaCH3COO(aq) can react with residual SO2(g) potentially present in the remaining gas, which can avoid solid formation or solid handling problems that may occur if Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) reacts with residual SO2(g). ●For example, in some embodiments, the ability of the reaction product to contain an aqueous phase or a pumpable phase can enable the design or configuration of an absorption column, or absorber, or reactor, or any combination thereof (which can facilitate the recovery of acetic acid vapor and / or can reduce the potential amount or concentration of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas). For example, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column (because SO2(g) may be at a dilute concentration or low partial pressure, or may comprise a gas mixture), or to improve absorption efficiency, or to facilitate recovery or removal of any acid vapor from the remaining gas, or to facilitate recovery or removal of acetic acid vapor from the remaining gas, or to prevent, minimize, or reduce the concentration or partial pressure of acetic acid vapor in the remaining gas, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, a process for decomposing calcium sulfite into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide may form a gas mixture comprising sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the partial pressure of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 1 atm, or 0.9 atm, or 0.8 atm, or 0.7 atm, or 0.6 atm, or 0.5 atm, or 0.4 atm, or 0.3 atm, or 0.2 atm, or 0.1 atm, or 0.05 atm, or any combination thereof, and / or the volume percentage concentration of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 100%, or 90%, or 80%, or 70%, or 60%, or 50%, or 40%, or 30%, or 20%, or 10%, or 5%, or any combination thereof. ●Greater absorption rate or absorption efficiency. Solid-liquid separation can be easier or simpler or higher yielding. For example, in some embodiments, if the precipitation rate depends on the mixing of two liquids, rather than the precipitation reaction from a gas and a liquid, the formation and / or separation of the precipitate can be more controllable.

[0146] Example 4: Method for producing magnesium oxide, cement or slag using alkaline intermediates

[0147] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0148] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0149] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0150] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0151] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0152] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0153] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq or l)+Na2SO3(s)

[0154] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0155] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) can be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, can be precipitated or crystallized before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, can be precipitated or crystallized before Na2SO3, which can allow at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite to be separated from Na2SO3.

[0156] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0157] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor to form a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0158] (5)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0159] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0160] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0161] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be preferred to react SO2(g) with NaCH3COO(aq) to form Na2SO3(aq), and then react Na2SO3 with Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) to form MgSO3(s), for example, including, but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following potential benefits: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column. Precipitate formation in an absorption column may be problematic due to, for example, but not limited to, precipitates clogging packing materials, or plates, or interfering with gas flow, or interfering with liquid flow, or forming scale, or any combination thereof. The reaction of Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g) may form a precipitate comprising MgSO3(s), which may be problematic in some absorption columns or gas absorption processes. If desired, the reaction of NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g) may remain an aqueous or liquid solution throughout the reaction, since, for example, Na2SO3 is soluble in water, which may be desirable in an absorption column. For example, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column (because SO2(g) may be at a dilute concentration or low partial pressure, or may comprise a gas mixture), or to improve absorption efficiency, or to facilitate recovery or removal of any acid vapors from the remaining gas, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, a process for decomposing calcium sulfite into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide may form a gas mixture comprising sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the partial pressure of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 1 atm, or 0.9 atm, or 0.8 atm, or 0.7 atm, or 0.6 atm, or 0.5 atm, or 0.4 atm, or 0.3 atm, or 0.2 atm, or 0.1 atm, or 0.05 atm, or any combination thereof, and / or the volume percentage concentration of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 100%, or 90%, or 80%, or 70%, or 60%, or 50%, or 40%, or 30%, or 20%, or 10%, or 5%, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, if SO2(g) contains gases in addition to SO2(g), acetic acid vapor may be present in the remaining gas during or after the reaction of SO2(g) with acetate. If SO2(g) contacts NaCH3COO(aq), which can form aqueous Na2SO3(aq) and / or acetic acid, the reactor or absorption column can be configured such that the NaCH3COO(aq) entering the reactor or absorption column absorbs or recovers at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the remaining gas. If SO2(g) contacts NaCH3COO(aq), which can form aqueous Na2SO3(aq) and / or acetic acid, the reactor or absorption column can be configured such that the NaCH3COO(aq) entering the reactor or absorption column absorbs or recovers at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the remaining gas (before or simultaneously with the significant reaction of NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g)). The use of NaCH3COO(aq) can react with residual SO2(g) potentially present in the remaining gas, which can avoid solid formation or solid handling problems that may occur if Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) reacts with residual SO2(g). ●Greater absorption rate or absorption efficiency. • Solid-liquid separation may be easier or simpler or higher yielding. For example, if the precipitation rate depends on two liquids rather than a mixture of a gas and a liquid, the formation and / or separation of the precipitate may be better controlled.

[0162] Example 5: Process for producing calcium oxide, cement or slag from alkaline intermediates using a recycling separation process

[0163] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0164] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0165] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)+CH3COOH(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CH3COOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0166] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0167] Note: CH3COOH(aq) may be present due to its presence in the retentate solution containing Na2SO3(aq) from the membrane-based separation of CH3COOH(aq) and Na2SO3(aq).

[0168] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0169] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq) separated from Na2SO3(aq)

[0170] Note: A portion of CH3COOH(aq) can be separated from Na2SO3(aq) using a separation method, such as a membrane-based method such as reverse osmosis. In some embodiments, CH3COOH(aq) can have a hydration radius or molar mass small enough to permeate through a membrane, while the membrane can retain Na2SO3(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) can be separated into a permeate solution comprising 2CH3COOH(aq) and a retentate solution comprising Na2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq).

[0171] (5)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0172] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0173] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0174] Example 6: Process for producing magnesium oxide, cement or slag from basic intermediates using a recycling separation process

[0175] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0176] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0177] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)+CH3COOH(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CH3COOH(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0178] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0179] Note: CH3COOH(aq) may be present due to its presence in the retentate solution containing Na2SO3(aq) from the membrane-based separation of CH3COOH(aq) and Na2SO3(aq).

[0180] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0181] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq) separated from Na2SO3(aq)

[0182] Note: A portion of CH3COOH(aq) can be separated from Na2SO3(aq) using a separation method, such as a membrane-based method such as reverse osmosis. In some embodiments, CH3COOH(aq) can have a hydration radius or molar mass small enough to permeate through a membrane, while the membrane can retain Na2SO3(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) can be separated into a permeate solution comprising 2CH3COOH(aq) and a retentate solution comprising Na2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq).

[0183] (5)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0184] Note: '(5)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0185] Note: Before or during '(5)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0186] Example 7: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0187] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l or aq) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (l or aq) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g)+H2O(l or aq) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O (l or aq)

[0188] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0189] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0190] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0191] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0192] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0193] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0194] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0195] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[0196] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0197] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0198] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0199] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0200] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0201] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0202] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0203] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0204] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0205] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0206] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0207] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0208] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0209] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0210] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0211] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide, which may include combining step '(5)' and step '(7)'.

[0212] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0213] (8) 2NaOH (aq or s) → 2NaOH (aq or s) + water

[0214] Note: In some embodiments, NaOH(aq) can be concentrated to form an aqueous solution containing a greater mass percent concentration of NaOH.

[0215] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0216] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0217] Example 8: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using alkaline earth metal precipitation and acid intermediates

[0218] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0219] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0220] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+MgSO4(s or aq)

[0221] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0222] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0223] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0224] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0225] (5)Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+MgSO3(s)

[0226] NOTE: Mg(OH)2(s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0227] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0228] (6)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0229] Note: '(6)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0230] Note: Before or during '(6)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0231] (7)MgO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0232] NOTE: MgO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of MgSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of MgSO3(s) to MgO(s).

[0233] (8) 2NaOH(aq or s) → 2NaOH(s) + water

[0234] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0235] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0236] Example 9: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0237] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0238] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0239] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0240] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0241] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0242] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0243] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0244] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+MgSO3(s or aq)

[0245] NOTE: Mg(OH)2(s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0246] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0247] (6)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0248] Note: '(6)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0249] Note: Before or during '(6)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0250] (7)MgO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0251] NOTE: MgO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of MgSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of MgSO3(s) to MgO(s).

[0252] (8) 2NaOH(aq or s) → 2NaOH(s) + water or 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq - more concentrated) + water

[0253] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0254] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0255] Note: Residual MgSO3(aq) may be present in or dissolved in the solution containing NaOH(aq). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the residual MgSO3 may precipitate or may be separated or recovered during the concentration of NaOH(aq) or the removal of at least a portion of the water from NaOH(aq). For example, in some embodiments, MgSO3(aq) may be less soluble in water than NaOH(aq). The separated or recovered MgSO3 may be transferred, for example, to step '(6)'.

[0256] Example 10: Production of sodium carbonate from sodium sulfate using alkaline earth metal precipitation and acid intermediates

[0257] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0258] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0259] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0260] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0261] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0262] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0263] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0264] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0265] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0266] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0267] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) can be dissolved in water to form Na2SO3(aq) prior to step '(5)'. In some embodiments, water can be provided internally within the process, or water can be provided from an external source, or any combination thereof. For example, if purified water is consumed, or water is in the sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate product, or water is in the product, or any combination thereof, it may be desirable that a portion of the water come from an external source.

[0268] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0269] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0270] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0271] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0272] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0273] Note: In some embodiments, CaO can be reacted directly with Na2SO3 (s or aq) or an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite. For example, in some embodiments, step '(5)' can be combined with step '(7)'

[0274] Note: In some embodiments, water can be provided internally within the process, or water can be provided from an external source, or any combination thereof. For example, if clean water is consumed, or water is in the sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate product, or water is in the product, or any combination thereof, it may be desirable for a portion of the water to come from an external source.

[0275] (8) 2NaOH (aq or s) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (s or aq) + H2O (l or aq or g)

[0276] Note: In some embodiments, CO2 may include a gas having a dilute concentration of carbon dioxide, which may include, but is not limited to, a CO2 source or CO2 sources described herein. In some embodiments, NaOH(aq) may be capable of reacting with a wide range of CO2(g) concentrations, including, for example, very low CO2(g) concentrations such as CO2(g) in air.

[0277] Note: In some embodiments, NaOH (aq or s) can be added to the ocean or sea where it can react with CO2 or CO2 derivative ions or chemicals in the ocean or air and / or increase the ocean pH.

[0278] Note: Na2CO3(s or aq) can further react with carbon dioxide and / or water to form sodium bicarbonate.

[0279] Note: Na2CO3(s) may be precipitated and / or separated from the remaining solution. After precipitation, NaOH(s) may be added to and / or dissolved in the remaining solution to, for example, compensate for sodium lost during precipitation and separation of Na2CO3(s).

[0280] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3(aq) (which may include the 'feed' solution to the concentration process) may be concentrated at elevated temperatures using energy-efficient concentration methods (e.g., reverse osmosis or electrodialysis or heat recovery distillation) and / or the resulting concentrate or retentate may be cooled to precipitate a portion of the Na2CO3(s). In some embodiments, the remaining solution after precipitation and separation of the Na2CO3(s) may be mixed with the Na2CO3(aq) feed solution, and the combined solution may then be heated and / or concentrated using energy-efficient concentration methods. In some embodiments, water recovered during concentration (e.g., water permeate, or dilution, or condensate) may be one or more or any combination of (including, but not limited to): used to dissolve sodium sulfite and form aqueous sodium sulfite, or transferred to the reaction of calcium oxide with water to produce calcium hydroxide, or transferred to dissolve sodium sulfate.

[0281] Note: SO2(g) from calcined CaSO3 can be further concentrated, or pressurized, or purified.

[0282] Note: SO2(g) from calcining CaSO3 can be absorbed into water or an aqueous solution to form sulfurous acid or aqueous sulfur dioxide.

[0283] Note: Weak acids or weak acid anions may include acids or acid anions having an acid strength lower than that of formic acid, or acetic acid, or propionic acid, or butyric acid, or citric acid, or lactic acid, or valeric acid, or hexanoic acid, or heptanoic acid, or octanoic acid, or nonanoic acid, or decanoic acid, or carboxylic acid, or sulfurous acid.

[0284] Note: Weak acids or weak acid anions may include acids or acid anions having a higher pKa than acetic acid, or carboxylic acid, or sulfurous acid.

[0285] Note: Acetic acid can be provided as an example acid having an acid strength greater than 'weak acid' and a lower acid strength than sulfurous acid or aqueous sulfur dioxide.

[0286] Note: Acetic acid can be provided as an example acid having a pKa lower than that of a 'weak acid' and greater than that of sulfurous acid or aqueous sulfur dioxide.

[0287] Note: Calcium can be provided as an example alkaline earth metal. Other alkaline earth metals (which may include beryllium (Be), or magnesium (Mg), or calcium (Ca), or strontium (Sr), or barium (Ba), or radium (Ra)) or any combination thereof can be used in place of or in addition to calcium.

[0288] Example 11: Method for producing calcium oxide, cement or slag using ammonia intermediate

[0289] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0290] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0291] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0292] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s or aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0293] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0294] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0295] (4)(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s)

[0296] NOTE: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or (NH4)2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a zero liquid discharge method described in the art, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0297] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to separate at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite from the (NH4)2SO3.

[0298] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0299] (5)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0300] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0301] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0302] Note: In some embodiments, it may be preferred to react SO2(g) with NH4CH3COO(aq) to form (NH4)2SO3(aq) and then react (NH4)2SO3 with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) to form CaSO3(s) due to, for example, but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following potential benefits: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column. Precipitate formation in an absorption column may be problematic due to, for example, but not limited to, precipitates clogging packing materials, or plates, or interfering with gas flow, or interfering with liquid flow, or forming scale, or any combination thereof. The reaction of Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g) may form a precipitate comprising CaSO3(s), which may be problematic in some absorption columns or gas absorption processes. If desired, the reaction of NH4CH3COO(aq) with SO2(g) may remain an aqueous or liquid solution throughout the reaction, as, for example, (NH4)2SO3 is soluble in water, which may be desirable in an absorption column. For example, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column (because SO2(g) can be at a dilute concentration or low partial pressure, or can comprise a gas mixture), or to improve absorption efficiency, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the method for decomposing calcium sulfite into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide can form a gas mixture comprising sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the partial pressure of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 1 atm, or 0.9 atm, or 0.8 atm, or 0.7 atm, or 0.6 atm, or 0.5 atm, or 0.4 atm, or 0.3 atm, or 0.2 atm, or 0.1 atm, or 0.05 atm, or any combination thereof, and / or the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 100%, or 90%, or 80%, or 70%, or 60%, or 50%, or 40%, or 30%, or 20%, or 10%, or 5%, or any combination thereof by volume. ●Greater absorption rate or absorption efficiency. • Solid-liquid separation may be easier or simpler or higher yielding. For example, if the precipitation rate depends on two liquids rather than a mixture of a gas and a liquid, the formation and / or separation of the precipitate may be better controlled.

[0303] Example 12: Method for producing alkaline earth metal oxides, cement or slag using ammonia intermediate

[0304] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0305] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0306] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0307] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s or aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0308] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0309] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0310] (4)(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s)

[0311] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or (NH4)2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0312] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before (NH4)2SO3.

[0313] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0314] (5)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0315] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0316] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0317] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be preferred to react SO2(g) with NH4CH3COO(aq) to form (NH4)2SO3(aq) and then react (NH4)2SO3 with Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) to form MgSO3(s) due to, for example, but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following potential benefits: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column. Precipitate formation in an absorption column may be problematic due to, for example, but not limited to, precipitates clogging packing materials, or plates, or interfering with gas flow, or interfering with liquid flow, or forming scale, or any combination thereof. The reaction of Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g) may form a precipitate comprising MgSO3(s), which may be problematic in some absorption columns or gas absorption processes. If desired, the reaction of NH4CH3COO(aq) with SO2(g) may remain an aqueous or liquid solution throughout the reaction, as, for example, Na2SO3 is soluble in water, which may be desirable in an absorption column. For example, it may be desirable to absorb SO2(g) in an absorption column (because SO2(g) can be at a dilute concentration or low partial pressure, or can comprise a gas mixture), or to improve absorption efficiency, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the method for decomposing calcium sulfite into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide can form a gas mixture comprising sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the partial pressure of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 1 atm, or 0.9 atm, or 0.8 atm, or 0.7 atm, or 0.6 atm, or 0.5 atm, or 0.4 atm, or 0.3 atm, or 0.2 atm, or 0.1 atm, or 0.05 atm, or any combination thereof, and / or the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the gas mixture can be less than 100%, or 90%, or 80%, or 70%, or 60%, or 50%, or 40%, or 30%, or 20%, or 10%, or 5%, or any combination thereof by volume. ●Greater absorption rate or absorption efficiency. • Solid-liquid separation may be easier or simpler or higher yielding. For example, if the precipitation rate depends on two liquids rather than a mixture of a gas and a liquid, the formation and / or separation of the precipitate may be better controlled.

[0318] Example 13: Process for producing calcium oxide, cement or slag using recycled separated ammonia intermediate

[0319] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0320] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0321] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s or aq)+CH3COOH(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CH3COOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0322] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0323] Note: CH3COOH(aq) may be present due to its presence in the retentate solution containing (NH4)2SO3(aq) from the membrane-based separation of CH3COOH(aq) and (NH4)2SO3(aq).

[0324] (3)2(NH4)CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0325] (4) (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → 2CH3COOH(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) separated from (NH4)2SO3(aq)

[0326] Note: A portion of CH3COOH(aq) can be separated from (NH4)2SO3(aq) using a separation method, such as a membrane-based method such as reverse osmosis. In some embodiments, CH3COOH(aq) can have a hydration radius or molar mass small enough to permeate through a membrane, while the membrane can retain (NH4)2SO3(aq). In some embodiments, (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) can be separated into a permeate solution comprising 2CH3COOH(aq) and a retentate solution comprising (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq).

[0327] (5)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0328] Note: '(5)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0329] Note: Before or during '(5)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0330] Example 14: Process for producing alkaline earth metal oxides, cement or slag using recycled separated ammonia intermediate

[0331] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0332] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0333] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s or aq)+CH3COOH(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CH3COOH(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0334] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0335] Note: CH3COOH(aq) may be present due to its presence in the retentate solution containing (NH4)2SO3(aq) from the membrane-based separation of CH3COOH(aq) and (NH4)2SO3(aq).

[0336] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0337] (4) (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → 2CH3COOH(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) separated from (NH4)2SO3(aq)

[0338] Note: A portion of CH3COOH(aq) can be separated from (NH4)2SO3(aq) using a separation method, such as a membrane-based method such as reverse osmosis. In some embodiments, CH3COOH(aq) can have a hydration radius or molar mass small enough to permeate through a membrane, while the membrane can retain (NH4)2SO3(aq). In some embodiments, (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) can be separated into a permeate solution comprising 2CH3COOH(aq) and a retentate solution comprising (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq).

[0339] (5)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0340] Note: '(6)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0341] Note: Before or during '(6)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0342] Example 15: Production of ammonia from ammonium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0343] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0344] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0345] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0346] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0347] (4) (NH4)2SO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → 2CH3COOH(aq or l) + (NH4)2SO3(s) + water

[0348] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or (NH4)2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0349] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0350] (5) (NH4)2SO3(s or aq) + Ca(OH)2(s or aq) → [2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq)] + CaSO3(s)

[0351] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0352] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0353] Note: If desired, 2NH3(aq) can be separated into ammonia and water.

[0354] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0355] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0356] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0357] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0358] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0359] (8) 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) → 2NH3(g or l or aq) + water

[0360] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia gas or liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia water or ammonium hydroxide solution at a high or greater concentration.

[0361] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable for 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) to comprise an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable to maintain aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide in the aqueous phase.

[0362] Example 16: Production of ammonia from ammonium sulfate using alkaline earth metal precipitation and acid intermediates

[0363] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Magnesium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Mg (CH3COO) 2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●MgS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Magnesium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0364] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0365] (2)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+MgSO4(s or aq)

[0366] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0367] (4)(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s)

[0368] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or (NH4)2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0369] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0370] (5) (NH4)2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→[2NH4OH(aq or 2NH3(aq)]+MgSO3(s)

[0371] NOTE: Mg(OH)2(s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0372] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0373] Note: If desired, 2NH3(aq) can be separated into ammonia and water.

[0374] (6)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0375] Note: '(6)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0376] Note: Before or during '(6)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0377] (7)MgO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0378] NOTE: MgO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of MgSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of MgSO3(s) to MgO(s).

[0379] (8) 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) → 2NH3(g or l or aq) + water

[0380] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia gas or liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia water or ammonium hydroxide solution at a high or greater concentration.

[0381] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable for 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) to comprise an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable to maintain aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide in the aqueous phase.

[0382] Example 17: Production of ammonia from ammonium sulfate using alkaline earth metal precipitation and acid intermediates

[0383] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0384] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0385] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0386] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0387] (4)(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s)

[0388] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than (NH4)2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or (NH4)2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0389] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0390] (5) (NH4)2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→[2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq)]+MgSO3(s or aq)

[0391] NOTE: Mg(OH)2(s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0392] Note: MgSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0393] Note: If desired, 2NH3(aq) can be separated into ammonia and water.

[0394] (6)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0395] Note: '(6)' may include calcining MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0396] Note: Before or during '(6)', the MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0397] (7)MgO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0398] NOTE: MgO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of MgSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of MgSO3(s) to MgO(s).

[0399] (8) 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) → 2NH3(g or l or aq) + water

[0400] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia gas or liquid ammonia. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to produce ammonia water or ammonium hydroxide solution at a high or greater concentration.

[0401] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable for 2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq) to comprise an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable to maintain aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide in the aqueous phase.

[0402] Example 18: Production of ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbamate, or urea using an acid intermediate

[0403] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0404] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0405] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)→2NH4CH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0406] (3)2NH4CH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0407] (4)(NH4)2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+(NH4)2SO3(s)

[0408] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0409] Note: (NH4)2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0410] (5) (NH4)2SO3(s or aq) + Ca(OH)2(s or aq) → [2NH4OH(aq) or 2NH3(aq)] + CaSO3(s)

[0411] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0412] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0413] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0414] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0415] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0416] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0417] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0418] (8) 2NH4OH(aq)+CO2(g)→(NH4)2CO3(s or aq)+H2O(l or aq or g)

[0419] Note: In some embodiments, (NH4)2CO3(s or aq) can be further reacted with carbon dioxide and / or water to form sodium bicarbonate.

[0420] Note: In some embodiments, the aqueous solution may include a mixture of ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium carbamate, ammonium sesquicarbonate, free ammonia, aqueous ammonia, ammonium hydroxide, or any combination thereof.

[0421] Example 19: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from the air, or using alkaline earth metals, sulfur dioxide, and acid capture CO2

[0422] (1) Reaction of alkaline earth metal oxides or alkaline earth metal hydroxides or any combination thereof with carbon dioxide. CaO(s)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s) and / or Ca(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(g or l)

[0423] (2) CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g)

[0424] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0425] (3)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0426] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may include a gas containing a dilute concentration of SO2(g).

[0427] (4)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0428] (5) CaO(s) + H2O(l or g) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0429] Example 20: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from air, or using alkaline earth metals, sulfur dioxide, and acid capture CO2

[0430] (1) Reaction of alkaline earth metal oxides or alkaline earth metal hydroxides or any combination thereof with carbon dioxide. MgO(s)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s) ● and / or Mg(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(g or l)

[0431] (2)MgCO3(s or aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g)

[0432] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0433] (3)Mg(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g)→MgSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0434] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may include a gas containing a dilute concentration of SO2(g).

[0435] (4)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0436] (5)MgO(s)+H2O(l or g)→Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0437] Example 21: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from air, or using alkali, alkaline earth metals and sulfur dioxide CO2

[0438] (1) 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq or s) + H2O (g or l)

[0439] (2) Na2CO3(aq or s)+SO2(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+CO2(g)

[0440] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0441] (3) Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0442] (4)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0443] (5) CaO(s) + H2O(l or g) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0444] Example 22: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from air, or using alkali, alkaline earth metals and sulfur dioxide CO2

[0445] (1) 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq or s) + H2O (g or l)

[0446] (2) Na2CO3(aq or s)+SO2(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+CO2(g)

[0447] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0448] (3) Na2SO3(aq or s)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0449] (4)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0450] (5)MgO(s)+H2O(l or g)→Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0451] Example 23: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from air, or using alkali, alkaline earth metals and sulfur dioxide CO2

[0452] (1) 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq or s) + H2O (g or l)

[0453] (2) Na2CO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(l or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CO2(g)

[0454] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0455] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0456] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may include a gas containing a dilute concentration of SO2(g).

[0457] (4) Separation of Na2SO3 and 2CH3COOH

[0458] (5) Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0459] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0460] (7) CaO(s) + H2O(l or g) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0461] Example 24: Direct air capture, or capturing CO2 from air, or using alkali, alkaline earth metals and sulfur dioxide CO2

[0462] (1) 2NaOH (aq) + CO2 (g) → Na2CO3 (aq or s) + H2O (g or l)

[0463] (2) Na2CO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(l or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CO2(g)

[0464] Note: CO2(g) in '(2)' may include captured CO2(g).

[0465] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0466] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may include a gas containing a dilute concentration of SO2(g).

[0467] (4) Separation of Na2SO3 and 2CH3COOH

[0468] (5)Na2SO3(aq or s)+Mg(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0469] (6)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0470] (7)MgO(s)+H2O(l or g)→Mg(OH)2(s or aq)

[0471] Example 25: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0472] (1) CO2 absorption: CO2 can be absorbed or adsorbed in calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension (such as lime milk), or any combination thereof to produce calcium carbonate solid or suspension.

[0473] Ca(OH)2(s or aq)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)+H2O(l or g)

[0474] NOTE: The calcium hydroxide suspension may be transported to the absorption site and / or stored at or near the absorption site.

[0475] NOTE: Calcium carbonate solids may be separated by sedimentation, or solid-liquid separation, or any combination thereof.

[0476] NOTE: Calcium carbonate can be stored at or near the absorption or adsorption site. The calcium carbonate can be transported to the application where the calcium carbonate is used. The calcium carbonate can be transferred to a CO2 desorption or displacement site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or displacement site can be the same as the CO2 absorption or adsorption site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or displacement site can be different from the CO2 absorption or adsorption site. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable for CO2 absorption or adsorption to be located at multiple distributed sites, while regeneration can be performed at a larger and / or more centralized facility or site.

[0477] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Calcium carbonate can react with acetic acid to produce calcium acetate and carbon dioxide.

[0478] CaCO3(s)+2CH3COOH→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g) ●Note: Calcium carbonate can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or displacement site. ●Note: Acetic acid can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or displacement site. ● Note: CO2 desorption or displacement can be located at an application requiring carbon dioxide, or high purity carbon dioxide, or high pressure carbon dioxide, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof. For example, CO2 desorption or displacement can be located at a site requiring CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR). ● Note: Calcium acetate may include an aqueous solution of calcium acetate, or solid calcium acetate, or any combination thereof. Note: Calcium acetate can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or exchange site. Calcium acetate can be transported to applications where it is used. Calcium acetate can be transferred to or near the regeneration site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or exchange site can be the same as the regeneration site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or exchange site can be different from the regeneration site. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable for CO2 desorption or exchange to be located at multiple distributed sites, while regeneration can be performed at a larger and / or more centralized facility or site. ● Note: Acetic acid vapor may be present in CO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be at least partially removed from CO2(g) by, for example, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with CaCO3, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with sodium carbonate, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with an alkali metal carbonate, or compression, or cooling, or condensation, or cryogenic separation, or cryogenic separation.

[0479] (3) Regeneration: Calcium acetate can react with sulfur dioxide to produce calcium sulfite. Calcium sulfite can be converted into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. Calcium oxide can react with water to form a calcium hydroxide suspension, such as milk of lime.

[0480] Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0481] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0482] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0483] Note: Calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide can be transported to the CO2 absorption or adsorption site.

[0484] Comment: Acetic acid can be transported to a CO2 desorption or displacement site.

[0485] Comment: It may be desirable for regeneration to include centralized facilities, or facilities that can benefit from economies of scale, or any combination thereof.

[0486] Example 26: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0487] (1) CO2 absorption: CO2 can be absorbed or adsorbed in calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension (such as lime milk), or any combination thereof to produce calcium carbonate solid or suspension.

[0488] Ca(OH)2(s or aq)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)+H2O(l or g)

[0489] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Calcium carbonate can react with aqueous sulfurous acid to produce calcium sulfite and carbon dioxide.

[0490] CaCO3(s)+SO2(aq)→CaSO3(s)+CO2(g) ● Note: SO2(g) vapor may be present in CO2(g). In some embodiments, SO2(g) may be at least partially removed from CO2(g) by, for example, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with CaCO3, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with sodium carbonate, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with an alkali metal carbonate, or compression, or cooling, or condensation, or cryogenic separation, or cryogenic separation.

[0491] (3) Regeneration: Calcium sulfite is converted into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide is reacted with water to form a calcium hydroxide suspension, such as milk of lime.

[0492] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0493] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0494] Example 27: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0495] (1) CO2 adsorption: CO2 is adsorbed or absorbed in calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide to produce calcium carbonate solid

[0496] CaO(s)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)

[0497] Ca(OH)2(s or aq)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)+H2O(l or g)

[0498] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Calcium carbonate can react with acetic acid to produce calcium acetate and carbon dioxide.

[0499] CaCO3(s)+2CH3COOH→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g)

[0500] (3) Regeneration: Calcium acetate can react with sulfur dioxide to produce calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite is converted into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can react with water to form calcium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the calcium hydroxide may be formed by the reaction of calcium oxide with water vapor.

[0501] Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0502] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0503] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0504] Example 28: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0505] (1) CO2 adsorption: CO2 is adsorbed or absorbed in calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide to produce calcium carbonate solid.

[0506] CaO(s)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)

[0507] Ca(OH)2(s or aq)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s)+H2O(l or g)

[0508] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Calcium carbonate can react with sulfurous acid to produce calcium sulfite and carbon dioxide.

[0509] CaCO3(s)+2CH3COOH→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+CO2(g)

[0510] (3) Regeneration: Calcium sulfite can be converted into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can react with water to form calcium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium hydroxide may be formed by the reaction of calcium oxide with water vapor.

[0511] Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0512] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0513] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0514] Example 29: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0515] (1) CO2 absorption: CO2 is absorbed in a sodium hydroxide solution to produce a sodium carbonate solution or a sodium carbonate precipitate. If a sodium carbonate precipitate is formed, the sodium carbonate precipitate can be separated using, for example, a solid-liquid separation method.

[0516] 2NaOH(aq or s)+CO2(g)→Na2CO3(aq or s)+H2O(l or aq or g)

[0517] NOTE: Sodium hydroxide solid or solution may be transported to the absorption location and / or stored at or near the absorption location.

[0518] Note: Sodium carbonate can be stored at or near the absorption or adsorption site. Sodium carbonate can be transported to applications where calcium carbonate is used. Sodium carbonate can be transferred to a CO2 desorption or displacement site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or displacement site can be the same as the CO2 absorption or adsorption site. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or displacement site can be different from the CO2 absorption or adsorption site. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable for CO2 absorption or adsorption to be located at multiple distributed sites, while regeneration can be performed at a larger and / or more centralized facility or site.

[0519] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Sodium carbonate can react with acetic acid to produce sodium acetate and carbon dioxide.

[0520] Na2CO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH→2NaCH3COO+CO2(g) ●Note: Sodium carbonate can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or displacement site. ●Note: Acetic acid can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or displacement site. ● Note: CO2 desorption or displacement can be located at an application requiring carbon dioxide, or high purity carbon dioxide, or high pressure carbon dioxide, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof. For example, CO2 desorption or displacement can be located at a site requiring CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR). ● Note: Sodium acetate can include an aqueous solution of calcium acetate, or solid sodium acetate, or any combination thereof. ● Note: Sodium acetate can be stored at or near the CO2 desorption or exchange site. Sodium acetate can be transported to applications where sodium acetate is used. Sodium acetate can be transferred to or near the regeneration location. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or exchange location can be the same as the regeneration location. In some embodiments, the CO2 desorption or exchange location can be different from the regeneration location. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable for CO2 desorption or exchange to be located at multiple distributed locations, while regeneration can be performed at a larger and / or more centralized facility or location. ● Note: Acetic acid vapor may be present in CO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be at least partially removed from CO2(g) by, for example, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with CaCO3, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with sodium carbonate, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of the acetic acid vapor with an alkali metal carbonate, or compression, or cooling, or condensation, or cryogenic separation, or cryogenic separation.

[0521] (3) Regeneration: Sodium acetate can be reacted with sulfur dioxide to produce sodium sulfite and acetic acid. The sodium sulfite can be separated from the acetic acid. The sodium sulfite can be reacted with calcium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite solid can be separated from the sodium hydroxide solution. The calcium sulfite solid can be converted to calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can be reacted with water to produce calcium hydroxide or a calcium hydroxide suspension.

[0522] 2NaCH3COO+SO2(g or aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0523] Separation of Na2SO3 and 2CH3COOH

[0524] Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2NaOH

[0525] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0526] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq) ●Note: Sodium hydroxide can be transported to a CO2 absorption or adsorption site. ● Comment: Acetic acid can be transported to a CO2 desorption or displacement site. ● Comment: It may be desirable for regeneration to include centralized facilities, or facilities that can benefit from economies of scale, or any combination thereof.

[0527] Example 30: CO2 capture using decoupled CO2 absorption or adsorption, CO2 desorption or displacement, and reagent regeneration

[0528] (1) CO2 absorption: CO2 is absorbed in a sodium hydroxide solution to produce a sodium carbonate solution, or a solid precipitate, or any combination thereof.

[0529] 2NaOH(aq or s)+CO2(g)→Na2CO3(aq or s)+H2O(l or aq or g)

[0530] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Sodium carbonate can react with aqueous sulfurous acid or aqueous sulfur dioxide to produce sodium sulfite and carbon dioxide.

[0531] Na2CO3(aq or s)+SO2(aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+CO2(g) ● Note: SO2(g) vapor may be present in CO2(g). In some embodiments, SO2(g) may be at least partially removed from CO2(g) by, for example, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with CaCO3, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with sodium carbonate, or contacting CO2(g) containing a portion of SO2(g) with an alkali metal carbonate, or compression, or cooling, or condensation, or cryogenic separation, or cryogenic separation.

[0532] (3) Regeneration: Sodium sulfite can be reacted with calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite solid is separated from the sodium hydroxide solution. The calcium sulfite solid is converted into calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can be reacted with water to produce calcium hydroxide or a calcium hydroxide suspension.

[0533] Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2NaOH(aq or s)

[0534] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0535] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0536] Example 31: CO2 production and sodium hydroxide production

[0537] (1) CO2 desorption or displacement: Sodium bicarbonate, which may contain nahcolite, can react with aqueous sulfurous acid or aqueous sulfur dioxide to produce sodium sulfite and carbon dioxide.

[0538] 2NaHCO3(aq or s)+SO2(aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+H2O+2CO2(g) or 2NaHCO3(aq or s)+2SO2(aq)→NaHSO3(aq or s)+2CO2(g)

[0539] (2) Sodium hydroxide production: Sodium sulfite can be reacted with calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite solid is separated from the sodium hydroxide solution. The calcium sulfite solid is converted to calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can be reacted with water to produce calcium hydroxide or a calcium hydroxide suspension.

[0540] Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2NaOH(aq or s)

[0541] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0542] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0543] Example 31: CO2 production and sodium hydroxide production

[0544] (2) CO2 desorption or displacement: Sodium bicarbonate, which may contain nahcolite, can react with acetic acid to produce sodium acetate and carbon dioxide.

[0545] 2NaHCO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH→2NaCH3COO+2CO2(g)

[0546] (3) Regeneration: Sodium acetate can be reacted with sulfur dioxide to produce sodium sulfite and acetic acid. The sodium sulfite is separated from the acetic acid. The sodium sulfite can be reacted with calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide, or a calcium hydroxide suspension, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium sulfite. The calcium sulfite solid is separated from the sodium hydroxide solution. The calcium sulfite solid is converted to calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide. The calcium oxide can be reacted with water to produce calcium hydroxide or a calcium hydroxide suspension.

[0547] 2NaCH3COO+SO2(g or aq)→Na2SO3(aq or s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0548] Separation of Na2SO3 and 2CH3COOH

[0549] Na2SO3(aq or s)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2NaOH

[0550] CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0551] CaO(s)+H2O(g or l)→Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0552] Example 32: Production of lithium hydroxide from lithium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0553] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0554] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0555] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Li2SO4(aq)→2LiCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0556] (3)2LiCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Li2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0557] (4) Li2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq or l)+Li2SO3(s)+water

[0558] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Li2SO3. In some embodiments, water can be removed and / or Li2SO3 can be separated or precipitated by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0559] Note: Li2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0560] (5) Li2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2LiOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0561] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0562] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0563] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0564] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0565] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0566] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0567] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0568] (8) 2LiOH(aq or s) → 2LiOH(s) + water

[0569] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or LiOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0570] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include the LiOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0571] Example 33: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium chloride using calcium precipitate, acid intermediate and production of sodium hydroxide from calcium sulfate and sodium chloride Method for producing sodium sulfate and calcium chloride

[0572] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0573] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0574] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0575] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 (s or aq) can be transferred from step '(10)'.

[0576] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0577] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq or l)+Na2SO3(s)+water

[0578] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, water and / or Na2SO3 can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0579] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq or l) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0580] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0581] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0582] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0583] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0584] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0585] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0586] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0587] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0588] (8) 2NaOH(aq or s) → 2NaOH(s) + water

[0589] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0590] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0591] (9)CaSO4(s or aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→CaCO3(s or aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)

[0592] Note: CaSO4 (s or aq) can be transferred from step '(2)'.

[0593] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated from a solution containing (NH4)2SO4(aq) by solid-liquid separation.

[0594] (10)(NH4)2SO4(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)

[0595] Note: In some embodiments, a portion of the Na2SO4(s) can be precipitated by cooling precipitation because, for example, the solubility of Na2SO4 in water decreases as the temperature drops below about 32 degrees Celsius or as the temperature of the solution approaches 0°C, compared to NH4Cl.

[0596] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 can be separated from 2NH4Cl by evaporation, crystallization, cooling precipitation, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s), water, 2NH4Cl(aq), 2NH4Cl(s), or any combination thereof can be produced or formed.

[0597] (11) One or more or any combination of the following: ●2NH4Cl(s)→2NH3(g)+2HCl(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●CaCO3(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g)

[0598] Note: CaCO3(s) can be transferred from step '(9)'.

[0599] NOTE: One or more or any combination of the above reactions may require heat input.

[0600] Note: In some embodiments, heat can be recovered from one or more reactions or any combination of reactions. For example, calcium carbonate and hydrogen chloride can be exothermic.

[0601] Note: In some embodiments, 2NH4Cl(s) can be precipitated or crystallized from an aqueous solution in the presence of calcium carbonate, for example, to produce a distributed mixture of calcium carbonate and ammonium chloride.

[0602] Note: Calcium chloride can include output. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can be sold or used. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can include a waste product.

[0603] (12) 2NH3(g)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→(NH4)2CO3(s or aq)

[0604] Note: (NH4)2CO3(s or aq) can be transferred to step '(9)'.

[0605] Note: 2NH3(g), or H2O(g), or CO2(g), or any combination thereof can be recycled or recirculated in the process. In some embodiments, there may be losses and / or compensation of 2NH3, or H2O, or CO2, or any combination thereof, can be added.

[0606] Example 34: Process for producing sodium sulfate, ammonia and calcium chloride from ammonium sulfate, sodium chloride and calcium-weak acid

[0607] (1)(NH4)2SO4(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)

[0608] Note: In some embodiments, a portion of the Na2SO4(s) can be precipitated by cooling precipitation because, for example, the solubility of Na2SO4 in water decreases as the temperature drops below about 32 degrees Celsius or as the temperature of the solution approaches 0°C, compared to NH4Cl.

[0609] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 can be separated from 2NH4Cl by evaporation, crystallization, cooling precipitation, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s), water, 2NH4Cl(aq), 2NH4Cl(s), or any combination thereof can be produced or formed.

[0610] (2) One or more or any combination of the following: ●2NH4Cl(s)→2NH3(g)+2HCl(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●CaCO3(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+Ca(WA)(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+WA(s or g or l)+2NH3(g) ●Ca(WA)(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+WA(s or g or l)+2NH3(g)

[0611] NOTE: One or more or any combination of the above reactions may require heat input.

[0612] Note: In some embodiments, heat can be recovered from one or more reactions or any combination of reactions. For example, calcium carbonate and hydrogen chloride can be exothermic.

[0613] Note: In some embodiments, 2NH4Cl(s) can be precipitated or crystallized from an aqueous solution in the presence of a calcium-weak acid, for example, to produce a distributed mixture of the calcium-weak acid and ammonium chloride.

[0614] Note: Calcium chloride can include output. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can be sold or used. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can include a waste product.

[0615] Note: In some embodiments, the produced carbon dioxide may include captured carbon dioxide. For example, ammonia and / or water may be separated from the carbon dioxide using aqueous solutions and / or high pressure and / or elevated temperatures.

[0616] Example 35: Process for producing sodium sulfate and calcium chloride from sodium chloride and calcium sulfate using ammonia and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0617] (1)CaSO4(s or aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→CaCO3(s or aq)+(NH4)2SO4(aq)

[0618] Note: CaSO4(s or aq) can include inputs. For example, CaSO4(s) can be a product or by-product from a process. For example, CaSO4(s) can be mined. For example, CaSO4(s) can include phosphogypsum.

[0619] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated from a solution containing (NH4)2SO4(aq) by solid-liquid separation.

[0620] (2)(NH4)2SO4(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)

[0621] Note: In some embodiments, a portion of the Na2SO4(s) can be precipitated by cooling precipitation because, for example, the solubility of Na2SO4 in water decreases as the temperature drops below about 32 degrees Celsius or as the temperature of the solution approaches 0°C, compared to NH4Cl.

[0622] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 can be separated from 2NH4Cl by evaporation, crystallization, cooling precipitation, or separation methods described herein, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s), water, 2NH4Cl(aq), 2NH4Cl(s), or any combination thereof can be produced or formed.

[0623] (3) One or more or any combination of the following: ●2NH4Cl(s)→2NH3(g)+2HCl(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●CaCO3(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g)

[0624] Note: CaCO3(s) can be transferred from step '(1)'.

[0625] NOTE: One or more or any combination of the above reactions may require heat input.

[0626] Note: In some embodiments, heat can be recovered from one or more reactions or any combination of reactions. For example, calcium carbonate and hydrogen chloride can be exothermic.

[0627] Note: In some embodiments, 2NH4Cl(s) can be precipitated or crystallized from an aqueous solution in the presence of calcium carbonate, for example, to produce a distributed mixture of calcium carbonate and ammonium chloride.

[0628] Note: Calcium chloride can include output. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can be sold or used. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can include a waste product.

[0629] (4) 2NH3(g)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→(NH4)2CO3(s or aq)

[0630] Note: (NH4)2CO3(s or aq) can be transferred to step '(1)'.

[0631] Note: 2NH3(g), or H2O(g), or CO2(g), or any combination thereof can be recycled or recirculated in the process. In some embodiments, there may be losses and / or compensation of 2NH3, or H2O, or CO2, or any combination thereof, can be added.

[0632] Example 36: Method for producing sodium sulfate and calcium chloride from sodium chloride and calcium sulfate while capturing carbon dioxide

[0633] (1) 2NH3(aq)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→(NH4)2CO3(s or aq)

[0634] Note: CO2(g) may include a gas comprising CO2(g). In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include a gas comprising a dilute concentration of carbon dioxide, which may include, but is not limited to, flue gas, exhaust gas, acid gas, air, or other CO2 sources described herein, or other CO2 sources known in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0635] (2) CaSO4(s or aq) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s or aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq)

[0636] Note: CaSO4(s or aq) can include inputs. For example, CaSO4(s) can be a product or by-product from a process. For example, CaSO4(s) can be mined. For example, CaSO4(s) can include phosphogypsum.

[0637] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated from a solution containing (NH4)2SO4(aq) by solid-liquid separation.

[0638] (3)(NH4)2SO4(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)

[0639] Note: In some embodiments, a portion of the Na2SO4(s) can be precipitated by cooling precipitation because, for example, the solubility of Na2SO4 in water decreases as the temperature drops below about 32 degrees Celsius or as the temperature of the solution approaches 0°C, compared to NH4Cl.

[0640] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 can be separated from 2NH4Cl by evaporation, crystallization, cooling precipitation, or separation methods described herein, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s), water, 2NH4Cl(aq), 2NH4Cl(s), or any combination thereof can be produced or formed.

[0641] (4) One or more or any combination of the following: ●2NH4Cl(s)→2NH3(g)+2HCl(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●CaCO3(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g)

[0642] Note: CaCO3(s) can be transferred from step '(1)'.

[0643] NOTE: One or more or any combination of the above reactions may require heat input.

[0644] Note: In some embodiments, heat can be recovered from one or more reactions or any combination of reactions. For example, calcium carbonate and hydrogen chloride can be exothermic.

[0645] Note: In some embodiments, 2NH4Cl(s) can be precipitated or crystallized from an aqueous solution in the presence of calcium carbonate, for example, to produce a distributed mixture of calcium carbonate and ammonium chloride.

[0646] Note: Calcium chloride can include output. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can be sold or used. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can include a waste product.

[0647] (5)2NH3(g)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)

[0648] Note: 2NH3(aq) can be transferred to step '(1)'.

[0649] Note: If carried out in the presence of liquid water at a pressure greater than 0.9 atm, or 1 atm, or 1.2 atm, or 1.4 atm, or 1.6 atm, or 1.8 atm, or 2 atm, or 2.5 atm, or 3 atm, or 4 atm, or 5 atm, or any combination thereof and / or at a temperature greater than 50°C, 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 100°C, or 110°C, or 120°C, or 130°C, or any combination thereof, the ammonia may be mostly transferred to the aqueous phase, while the carbon dioxide may remain mostly in the gas phase.

[0650] Note: In some embodiments, CO2 can be further purified to remove residual ammonia. For example, CO2(g) containing residual ammonia can be cooled, which can result in the removal of at least a portion of the residual ammonia by forming an ammonia-CO2 derivative salt (such as ammonium carbamate, ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof). For example, CO2(g) containing residual ammonia can be cooled and / or contacted with water, which can result in the removal of at least a portion of the residual ammonia by forming ammonia water, or an ammonia-CO2 derivative salt (such as ammonium carbamate, ammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof).

[0651] Example 37: Process for producing sodium sulfate, calcium chloride and urea from sodium chloride, calcium sulfate, ammonia and carbon dioxide

[0652] (1) 2NH3(g or aq) + water + CO2(g) → (NH4)2CO3(s or aq)

[0653] Note: CO2(g) may include a gas comprising CO2(g). In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include a gas comprising a dilute concentration of carbon dioxide, which may include, but is not limited to, flue gas, exhaust gas, acid gas, air, or other CO2 sources described herein, or other CO2 sources known in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0654] (2) CaSO4(s or aq) + (NH4)2CO3(aq) → CaCO3(s or aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq)

[0655] Note: CaSO4(s or aq) can include inputs. For example, CaSO4(s) can be a product or by-product from a process. For example, CaSO4(s) can be mined. For example, CaSO4(s) can include phosphogypsum.

[0656] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated from a solution containing (NH4)2SO4(aq) by solid-liquid separation.

[0657] (3)(NH4)2SO4(aq)+2NaCl(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)

[0658] Note: In some embodiments, a portion of the Na2SO4(s) can be precipitated by cooling precipitation because, for example, the solubility of Na2SO4 in water decreases as the temperature drops below about 32 degrees Celsius or as the temperature of the solution approaches 0°C, compared to NH4Cl.

[0659] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4 can be separated from 2NH4Cl by evaporation, crystallization, cooling precipitation, or separation methods described herein, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s), water, 2NH4Cl(aq), 2NH4Cl(s), or any combination thereof can be produced or formed.

[0660] (4) One or more or any combination of the following: ●2NH4Cl(s)→2NH3(g)+2HCl(g) ●2NH3(g)+2HCl(g)+CaCO3(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g) ●CaCO3(s)+2NH4Cl(s)→CaCl2(s)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)+2NH3(g)

[0661] Note: CaCO3(s) can be transferred from step '(1)'.

[0662] NOTE: One or more or any combination of the above reactions may require heat input.

[0663] Note: In some embodiments, heat can be recovered from one or more reactions or any combination of reactions. For example, calcium carbonate and hydrogen chloride can be exothermic.

[0664] Note: In some embodiments, 2NH4Cl(s) can be precipitated or crystallized from an aqueous solution in the presence of calcium carbonate, for example, to produce a distributed mixture of calcium carbonate and ammonium chloride.

[0665] Note: Calcium chloride can include output. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can be sold or used. In some embodiments, the calcium chloride can include a waste product.

[0666] (5)2NH3(g)+H2O(g)+CO2(g)→2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)

[0667] Note: If carried out in the presence of liquid water at a pressure greater than 0.9 atm, or 1 atm, or 1.2 atm, or 1.4 atm, or 1.6 atm, or 1.8 atm, or 2 atm, or 2.5 atm, or 3 atm, or 4 atm, or 5 atm, or any combination thereof and / or at a temperature greater than 50°C, 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 100°C, or 110°C, or 120°C, or 130°C, or any combination thereof, the ammonia may be mostly transferred to the aqueous phase, while the carbon dioxide may remain mostly in the gas phase.

[0668] (6) 2NH3(aq)→2NH3(g)+water

[0669] (7) 2NH3(g)+CO2(g)→2(NH2)2CO(s)+H2O(g or l)

[0670] NOTE: This method may produce urea and / or water.

[0671] NOTE: It may be desirable to further dry the ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or both before use in urea production.

[0672] Example 38: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0673] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0674] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0675] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0676] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0677] (4) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq-alone)+Na2SO3(aq-alone)

[0678] Note: The aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfite and acetic acid can be separated into a separate aqueous solution comprising acetic acid and a separate aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfite using, for example, electrodialysis, or reverse electrodialysis, or selective electrodialysis.

[0679] NOTE: For example, some embodiments may use electrodialysis that is selective for monovalent or divalent or trivalent or tetravalent cations, or monovalent or divalent or trivalent or tetravalent anions, or any combination thereof.

[0680] Note: An aqueous solution containing acetic acid may be used as the aqueous acetic acid in step '(1)'.

[0681] (5)Na2SO3(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0682] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0683] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0684] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0685] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0686] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0687] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0688] Note: CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or to facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during the decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0689] (8) 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq or s) + water

[0690] Note: In some embodiments, it may be desirable for NaOH to include an aqueous solution or a concentrated aqueous solution. In some embodiments, one or more or any combination of separation methods or water removal methods may be used to concentrate or further concentrate NaOH(aq).

[0691] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0692] Note: Water or distillate from the concentration or further concentration can be used in the process. For example, water or distillate from the concentration or further concentration can be used for one or more or any combination of, for example, including but not limited to, dissolving sodium sulfate, or absorbing acetic acid vapor, or diluting or mixing an aqueous solution comprising sodium acetate, or diluting or mixing an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfite and acetic acid, or any combination thereof.

[0693] Example 39: Production of sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide from sodium sulfate and calcium carbonate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediates

[0694] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0695] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0696] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0697] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0698] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0699] (5) CaCO3(s or aq)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

[0700] Note: In some embodiments, the process may be performed at high CO2 partial pressures and / or elevated temperatures. For example, some embodiments may use a CO2 partial pressure greater than 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or any combination thereof, and / or a temperature greater than 0°C, or 20°C, or 40°C, or 50°C, or 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 95°C, or 100°C.

[0701] Note: CO2 can be derived from one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the decomposition of sodium bicarbonate, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof.

[0702] (6)Na2SO3(s)+water→Na2SO3(aq)

[0703] (7)Na2SO3(aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0704] (8)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0705] (9)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0706] (10)Na2CO3(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[0707] (11) 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq or s) + water

[0708] (12)CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2(g)

[0709] Note: In some embodiments, calcium carbonate can be decomposed into calcium oxide in a manner that produces high purity or captured carbon dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, calcium carbonate can be calcined or decomposed by indirect calcination or indirect heating, which can result in the production of high purity or captured carbon dioxide.

[0710] Note: The captured CO2 may be sequestered or used in one or more applications or any combination of applications.

[0711] (13) CaO(s) + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0712] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0713] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium carbonate to produce calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, step '(10)' can be combined with step '(13)'.

[0714] Example 40: Production of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0715] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0716] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0717] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0718] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0719] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0720] (5) CaCO3(s or aq)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

[0721] Note: In some embodiments, the process may be performed at high CO2 partial pressures and / or elevated temperatures. For example, some embodiments may use a CO2 partial pressure greater than 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or any combination thereof, and / or a temperature greater than 0°C, or 20°C, or 40°C, or 50°C, or 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 95°C, or 100°C.

[0722] Note: CO2 can be derived from one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the decomposition of sodium bicarbonate, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof.

[0723] (6)Na2SO3(s)+water→Na2SO3(aq)

[0724] (7)Na2SO3(aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0725] (8)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0726] (9)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0727] (10)Na2CO3(aq)→Na2CO3(s)+water

[0728] Example 41: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate, acid intermediate, and calcium carbonate intermediate

[0729] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0730] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0731] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0732] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0733] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0734] (5) CaCO3(s or aq)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

[0735] Note: In some embodiments, the process may be performed at high CO2 partial pressures and / or elevated temperatures. For example, some embodiments may use a CO2 partial pressure greater than 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or 11 bar, or 12 bar, or 13 bar, or 14 bar, or 15 bar, or any combination thereof, and / or a temperature greater than 0°C, or 20°C, or 40°C, or 50°C, or 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 95°C, or 100°C.

[0736] Note: CO2 can be derived from one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the decomposition of sodium bicarbonate, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof.

[0737] (6)Na2SO3(s)+water→Na2SO3(aq)

[0738] (7)Na2SO3(aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0739] (8)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0740] Note: CaO(s) can be transferred to step '(9)' or step '(11)'.

[0741] Note: SO2(g) can be transferred to step '(3)'.

[0742] (9) CaO(s) + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0743] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0744] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium carbonate to produce calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium carbonate to produce calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide, which may include combining step '(9)' and step '(11)'.

[0745] (10)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0746] Note: CO2 can be transferred to step '(5)'.

[0747] (11)Na2CO3(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[0748] Note: The aqueous solution containing sodium hydroxide can be separated from calcium carbonate by solid-liquid separation.

[0749] Note: Calcium carbonate can be transferred to '(5)'.

[0750] (12) 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq or s) + water

[0751] NOTE: The solution comprising sodium hydroxide may be further concentrated, or at least a portion of the water may be removed from the solution comprising sodium hydroxide, or any combination thereof.

[0752] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the water removed or recovered from the solution comprising aqueous sodium hydroxide may be transferred to step '(6)'.

[0753] Example 42: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate and calcium carbonate using calcium precipitate and carbon dioxide intermediate

[0754] (1) CaCO3(s or aq)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

[0755] Note: In some embodiments, the process may be performed at high CO2 partial pressures and / or elevated temperatures. For example, some embodiments may use a CO2 partial pressure greater than 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or 11 bar, or 12 bar, or 13 bar, or 14 bar, or 15 bar, or any combination thereof, and / or a temperature greater than 0°C, or 20°C, or 40°C, or 50°C, or 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 95°C, or 100°C.

[0756] Note: CO2 can be derived from one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the decomposition of sodium bicarbonate, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof.

[0757] (2)Na2SO4(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0758] (3)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0759] Note: CO2 can be transferred to step '(1)'.

[0760] (4)Na2CO3(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[0761] Note: The aqueous solution containing sodium hydroxide can be separated from calcium carbonate by solid-liquid separation.

[0762] Note: Calcium carbonate can be transferred to '(5)'.

[0763] (5) 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq or s) + water

[0764] NOTE: The solution comprising sodium hydroxide may be further concentrated, or at least a portion of the water may be removed from the solution comprising sodium hydroxide, or any combination thereof.

[0765] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the water removed or recovered from the solution comprising aqueous sodium hydroxide may be transferred to step '(1)' or step '(2)'.

[0766] (6) CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2(g)

[0767] Note: In some embodiments, calcium carbonate can be decomposed into calcium oxide in a manner that produces high purity or captured carbon dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, calcium carbonate can be calcined or decomposed by indirect calcination or indirect heating, which can result in the production of high purity or captured carbon dioxide.

[0768] Note: The captured CO2 may be sequestered or used in one or more applications or any combination of applications.

[0769] (7) CaO(s) + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0770] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0771] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium carbonate to produce calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, step '(4)' can be combined with step '(7)'.

[0772] Example 43: Production of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate from sodium sulfate and calcium carbonate

[0773] (1) CaCO3(s or aq)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

[0774] Note: In some embodiments, the process may be performed at high CO2 partial pressures and / or elevated temperatures. For example, some embodiments may use a CO2 partial pressure greater than 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or 11 bar, or 12 bar, or 13 bar, or 14 bar, or 15 bar, or any combination thereof, and / or a temperature greater than 0°C, or 20°C, or 40°C, or 50°C, or 60°C, or 70°C, or 80°C, or 90°C, or 95°C, or 100°C.

[0775] Note: CO2 can be derived from one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the decomposition of sodium bicarbonate, or captured carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof.

[0776] (2)Na2SO4(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0777] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3(aq) or NaHCO3(s) may include products that can be sold or used.

[0778] Note: 2NaHCO3(aq) can be separated from at least a portion of CaSO4(s) by solid-liquid separation.

[0779] (3)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0780] Note: CO2 can be transferred to step '(1)'.

[0781] Example 44: Method for producing sodium hydroxide and calcium sulfate from sodium sulfate and calcium weak acid

[0782] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0783] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0784] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0785] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0786] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0787] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0788] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in '2CH3COOH(aq)' that is transferred from reaction '(1)' to reaction '(2)'. In some embodiments, aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in '2CH3COOH(aq)' that is transferred from reaction '(2)' to reaction '(1)' because, for example, additional magnesium sulfite or accumulated magnesium sulfite that exceeds the solubility limit of magnesium sulfite in solution may precipitate or co-precipitate during the reaction of Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) or Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g or aq) or sulfite or bisulfite.

[0789] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, a portion of the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be concentrated and / or separated using, but not limited to, one or more of the following, or any combination thereof: heating, cooling, reverse osmosis, membrane-based methods, precipitation, electrodialysis, forward osmosis, or any combination thereof. For example, the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be separated by concentrating the magnesium sulfite using reverse osmosis or nanofiltration, wherein the pore size or properties of the membrane are such that at least a portion of the acetic acid is permeable and at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite is retained, and / or cooling the resulting concentrated magnesium sulfite solution to produce at least a portion of a magnesium sulfite precipitate.

[0790] (3) CaSO3(s) + SO2(g or aq) + H2O(aq) + water → Ca(HSO3)2(aq)

[0791] (4)Na2SO4(s or aq)+Ca(HSO3)2(aq)→2NaHSO3(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0792] Note: '(4)' may be performed at elevated temperatures to reduce the solubility of CaSO4(s) or to dissolve or reduce the potential formation of CaSO4(aq).

[0793] (5) One or more of the following or any combination thereof: 2NaHSO3(aq)→Na2SO3(s or aq)+SO2(g)+H2O(g or l) ●2NaHSO3(aq)→Na2S2O5(s)+H2O+water ●Na2S2O5(s)→Na2SO3(s)+SO2(g)

[0794] (6) SO2(g or aq) + water → SO2(aq)

[0795] (7)Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0796] (8)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0797] (9) CaO(s) + H2O + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0798] Example 45: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0799] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0800] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0801] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0802] (3) 2NaCH3COO(aq) + citric acid(aq) → sodium citrate(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq)

[0803] Note: In some embodiments, carboxylic acids other than citric acid may be used, such as carboxylic acids that form soluble sodium salts and relatively low-solubility calcium salts.

[0804] (4) Sodium citrate (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Sodium citrate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq)

[0805] Note: '(4)' may include separating sodium citrate from acetic acid. For example, sodium citrate may be separated from an aqueous solution containing acetic acid or acetic acid by distillation.

[0806] (5) Sodium citrate (aq) + Ca(OH)2(s or aq) → Calcium citrate (s) + 2NaOH(aq)

[0807] Note: The aqueous solution containing sodium hydroxide can be separated from the solid containing calcium citrate by solid-liquid separation.

[0808] (6) 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaOH(aq or s) + water

[0809] Note: In some embodiments, the aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide can be further concentrated, or water can be removed from the solution comprising sodium hydroxide, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide can undergo further processing. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide can include a product and / or can be prepared for sale or use.

[0810] (7) Calcium citrate (s) + SO2 (aq) → Citric acid (aq) + CaSO3 (s)

[0811] (8)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0812] (9) SO2(g) + water → SO2(aq)

[0813] (10) CaO(s) + H2O + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0814] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) can be reacted with water. In some embodiments, CaO(s) can be reacted with sodium citrate to produce calcium citrate and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, for example, step '(5)' and step '(10)' can be combined.

[0815] Example 46: Method for producing calcium oxide, cement or slag using ascorbic acid intermediate

[0816] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ascorbic acid, which may include (but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: CaCO3 (s or aq) + ascorbic acid (aq) → calcium ascorbate (aq) + CO2 (g) Calcium silicate (s) + ascorbic acid (aq) → calcium ascorbate (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) CaS(s) + ascorbic acid(aq) → calcium ascorbate(aq) + H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + ascorbic acid (aq) → calcium ascorbate (aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0817] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0818] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0819] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0820] (2) Calcium ascorbate (aq) + SO2 (g or aq) + H2O (l or aq) → CaSO3 (s) + ascorbic acid (aq)

[0821] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0822] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in '2CH3COOH(aq)' that is transferred from reaction '(1)' to reaction '(2)'. In some embodiments, aqueous magnesium sulfite may remain in '2CH3COOH(aq)' that is transferred from reaction '(2)' to reaction '(1)' because, for example, additional magnesium sulfite or accumulated magnesium sulfite that exceeds the solubility limit of magnesium sulfite in solution may precipitate or co-precipitate during the reaction of Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) or Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) with SO2(g or aq) or sulfite or bisulfite.

[0823] Note: In some embodiments, residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be present in '2CH3COOH(aq)'. In some embodiments, a portion of the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be concentrated and / or separated using, but not limited to, one or more of the following, or any combination thereof: heating, cooling, reverse osmosis, membrane-based methods, precipitation, electrodialysis, forward osmosis, or any combination thereof. For example, the residual aqueous magnesium sulfite may be separated by concentrating the magnesium sulfite using reverse osmosis or nanofiltration, wherein the pore size or properties of the membrane are such that at least a portion of the acetic acid is permeable and at least a portion of the magnesium sulfite is retained, and / or cooling the resulting concentrated magnesium sulfite solution to produce at least a portion of a magnesium sulfite precipitate.

[0824] NOTE: In some embodiments, the use of ascorbic acid may be desirable because ascorbic acid may be non-volatile, or may contain minimal or no vapor phase, or any combination thereof, which may mean that the ascorbic acid may remain substantially in the aqueous phase, or that the ascorbic acid may not substantially evaporate into the residual gas, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, other acids may be used in place of or in addition to ascorbic acid that have a stronger acid strength than 'WA' or 'weak acid' and weaker acidity than sulfurous acid, or that form water-soluble calcium or magnesium or alkaline earth metal salts, or that are non-volatile or have a lower vapor pressure or higher boiling point than water, or any combination thereof.

[0825] (3)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0826] NOTE: '(3)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0827] Note: Before or during '(3)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0828] Example 47: Production of sodium hydroxide from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0829] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0830] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0831] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0832] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0833] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Na2SO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0834] (5) Na2SO3(s)+H2O(g)→2NaOH(s or l)+SO2(g)

[0835] Note: In some embodiments, the reactions of the present invention can be carried out at elevated temperatures or temperatures greater than 100°C, or 200°C, or 300°C, or 400°C, or 500°C, or 600°C, or any combination thereof.

[0836] Example 48: Production of sodium carbonate from sodium sulfate using calcium precipitation and acid intermediates

[0837] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0838] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0839] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0840] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0841] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Na2SO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0842] (5) Na2SO3(s)+CO2(g)→Na2CO3(s or l)+SO2(g)

[0843] Note: In some embodiments, the reactions of the present invention can be carried out at elevated temperatures or temperatures greater than 100°C, or 200°C, or 300°C, or 400°C, or 500°C, or 600°C, or any combination thereof.

[0844] Example 49: Direct Air Capture Method Using Basic Intermediates

[0845] (1) One or more of the following or any combination thereof: CaO (s or aq) + CO2 (g or aq) → CaCO3 (s or aq) Ca(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g or aq) → CaCO3(s or aq) + H2O(aq)

[0846] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0847] (2) CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g)

[0848] Note: It may be desirable to produce CO2(g) as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[0849] (3)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[0850] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0851] (4)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0852] (5)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0853] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0854] (7) CaO(s) + water → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0855] Example 50: Method for producing precipitated calcium carbonate

[0856] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid, which may include (but is not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0857] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→CaSO3(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0858] (3)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0859] (4) One or more of the following or any combination thereof: CaO(s)+CO2→CaCO3(s) CaO(S) + water → Ca(OH)2(S or Aq) Ca(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2 → CaCO3(s or aq)

[0860] Example 51: → Production of sodium hydroxide and precipitated calcium carbonate from sodium bicarbonate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0861] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0862] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0863] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0864] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0865] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0866] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+2NaHCO3(aq or s)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[0867] Note: In some examples, NaHCO3(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0868] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 (aq or s) may include minerals, or may include nahcolite, or any combination thereof.

[0869] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form NaHCO3(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0870] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2(g).

[0871] Note: Some embodiments may form dissolved calcium bicarbonate. In some embodiments, the dissolved calcium bicarbonate may decompose into calcium carbonate, and the carbon dioxide may heat the solution, or depressurize the solution, or any combination thereof.

[0872] Note: CaCO3(s) may include precipitated calcium carbonate.

[0873] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[0874] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0875] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0876] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0877] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0878] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0879] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0880] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0881] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0882] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0883] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0884] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0885] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0886] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0887] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0888] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0889] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide, which may include combining step '(5)' and step '(7)'.

[0890] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0891] (8) 2NaOH (aq or s) → 2NaOH (aq or s) + water

[0892] Note: In some embodiments, NaOH(aq) can be concentrated to form an aqueous solution containing a greater mass percent concentration of NaOH.

[0893] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0894] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0895] Example 52: Production of sodium hydroxide and precipitated calcium carbonate from sodium carbonate using calcium precipitate and acid intermediate

[0896] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[0897] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0898] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0899] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0900] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0901] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2CO3(aq or s)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[0902] Note: In some examples, Na2CO3(aq or s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0903] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3(aq or s) may include minerals, or may include decomposed nahcolite, or any combination thereof.

[0904] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3(aq or s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form NaHCO3(aq) and then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0905] Note: Some embodiments may form dissolved calcium bicarbonate. In some embodiments, the dissolved calcium bicarbonate may decompose into calcium carbonate, and the carbon dioxide may heat the solution, or depressurize the solution, or any combination thereof.

[0906] Note: CaCO3(s) may include precipitated calcium carbonate.

[0907] Note: CaCO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[0908] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0909] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0910] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0911] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0912] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0913] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0914] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0915] (5) Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[0916] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[0917] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[0918] (6)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[0919] Note: '(6)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0920] Note: Before or during '(6)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[0921] (7) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[0922] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[0923] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide, which may include combining step '(5)' and step '(7)'.

[0924] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[0925] (8) 2NaOH (aq or s) → 2NaOH (aq or s) + water

[0926] Note: In some embodiments, NaOH(aq) can be concentrated to form an aqueous solution containing a greater mass percent concentration of NaOH.

[0927] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0928] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[0929] Example 53: Method for producing sodium hydroxide using sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0930] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[0931] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0932] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0933] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0934] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0935] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(1)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(4)'.

[0936] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0937] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0938] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0939] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[0940] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(1)'.

[0941] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0942] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0943] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(2)'.

[0944] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(9)'.

[0945] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[0946] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0947] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[0948] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[0949] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[0950] (5) reacting an alkaline earth metal-weak acid (such as an alkaline earth metal carbonate) with carbon dioxide and / or water to form an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate ●CaCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ●MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[0951] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[0952] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) from step '(10)'.

[0953] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(1)' or step '(8)' or any combination thereof.

[0954] (6) reacting an alkali metal sulfite with an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate to form an alkali metal bicarbonate and an alkaline earth metal sulfite ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s) ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[0955] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or may include an aqueous solution prior to mixing with an aqueous solution containing Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[0956] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[0957] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[0958] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) may include Na2SO3 from step '(4)'.

[0959] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) may include Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) from step '(5)'.

[0960] (7) 2NaHCO3(aq)→2NaHCO3(s)+water

[0961] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[0962] Note: In some embodiments, step '(7)' may be combined with step '(8)'.

[0963] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) can be decomposed into Na2CO3(aq) and CO2(g) and water in an aqueous and / or reduced or pressurized environment, which can avoid or prevent the need to crystallize or precipitate NaHCO3(s).

[0964] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) may include NaHCO3(aq) from step '(6)'.

[0965] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the residual dissolved MgSO 3 or magnesium sulfite (if any) may be separated or precipitated during this step.

[0966] NOTE: Water can be separated from sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate using the systems and methods for water separation described herein.

[0967] Note: In some embodiments, steps 8 and 9 can be combined in a single step, where, for example, sodium bicarbonate in the aqueous phase can be decomposed into aqueous sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide, which can include captured carbon dioxide. • In some embodiments, the aqueous sodium carbonate may react with calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or magnesium oxide, or magnesium hydroxide, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate. ●In some embodiments, the aqueous sodium carbonate can be separated from water to produce solid sodium carbonate and / or the solid sodium carbonate can be dissolved in water and / or the sodium carbonate can be reacted with calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or magnesium oxide, or magnesium hydroxide, or any combination thereof to produce sodium hydroxide and calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

[0968] (8) 2NaHCO3(s)→Na2CO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[0969] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0970] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[0971] Note: In some embodiments, step '(7)' may be combined with step '(8)'.

[0972] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) can be decomposed into Na2CO3(aq) and CO2(g) and water in an aqueous and / or reduced or pressurized environment, which can avoid or prevent the need to crystallize or precipitate NaHCO3(s).

[0973] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(s) may include NaHCO3 from step '(6)' or step '(7)'.

[0974] (9) Calcination or decomposition of alkaline earth metal sulfites into alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g) MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[0975] NOTE: May include calcining CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[0976] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both, before or during calcination.

[0977] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may include CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) from step '(6)'.

[0978] (10) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with an alkali metal carbonate to produce an alkaline earth metal carbonate and an alkali metal hydroxide CaO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) MgO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + MgCO3(s)

[0979] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of CaO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water or MgO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water can be performed in multiple steps. For example, in some embodiments, CaO or MgO can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension containing calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, Na2CO3 can include an aqueous solution or can be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, a solution or solid-liquid mixture or suspension containing Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or milk of lime, or Mg(OH)2, or milk of magnesia can be mixed with an aqueous solution containing Na2CO3(aq), which can result in the formation of a solution containing aqueous sodium hydroxide and a solid containing calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

[0980] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate can be separated from at least a portion of the sodium hydroxide using, for example, solid-liquid separation.

[0981] Note: CaO(s) or MgO(s) may include CaO(s) or MgO(s) from step '(9)'.

[0982] Note: Na2CO3(s or aq) may include Na2CO3(s or aq) from step '(7)' or step '(8)'.

[0983] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can be transferred to step 5.

[0984] Example 54: Method for producing sodium hydroxide using sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide intermediates

[0985] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[0986] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[0987] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[0988] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[0989] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[0990] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(1)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(4)'.

[0991] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[0992] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0993] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[0994] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[0995] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(1)'.

[0996] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[0997] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[0998] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(2)'.

[0999] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(9)'.

[1000] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1001] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1002] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1003] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1004] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1005] (5) reacting an alkaline earth metal-weak acid (such as an alkaline earth metal carbonate) with carbon dioxide and / or water to form an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate ●CaCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ●MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1006] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1007] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) from step '(9)'.

[1008] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(1)' or step '(8)' or any combination thereof.

[1009] (6) reacting an alkali metal sulfite with an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate to form an alkali metal bicarbonate and an alkaline earth metal sulfite ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s) ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1010] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or may include an aqueous solution prior to mixing with an aqueous solution containing Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1011] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1012] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1013] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) may include Na2SO3 from step '(4)'.

[1014] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) may include Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) from step '(5)'.

[1015] (7) 2NaHCO3(aq or s) → Na2CO3(aq or s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g or l)

[1016] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1017] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1018] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be precipitated or separated into 2NaHCO3(s) and / or 2NaHCO3(s) can decompose into Na2CO3(s), CO2, and H2O (g or l).

[1019] Note: In some embodiments, for example, Na2CO3(s) can be dissolved in water prior to reacting with calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide, for example in step 8.

[1020] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) can be decomposed into Na2CO3(aq) and CO2(g) and water in an aqueous and / or reduced or pressurized environment, which can avoid or prevent the need to crystallize or precipitate NaHCO3(s) and / or minimize or reduce water evaporation during, for example, CO2 desorption.

[1021] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) may include NaHCO3 from step '(6)'.

[1022] (8) Calcination or decomposition of alkaline earth metal sulfites into alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g) MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1023] NOTE: May include calcining CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1024] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both, before or during calcination.

[1025] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may include CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) from step '(6)'.

[1026] (9) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with an alkali metal carbonate to produce an alkaline earth metal carbonate and an alkali metal hydroxide CaO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) MgO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + MgCO3(s)

[1027] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of CaO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water or MgO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water can be performed in multiple steps. For example, in some embodiments, CaO or MgO can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension containing calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, Na2CO3 can include an aqueous solution or can be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, a solution or solid-liquid mixture or suspension containing Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or milk of lime, or Mg(OH)2, or milk of magnesia can be mixed with an aqueous solution containing Na2CO3(aq), which can result in the formation of a solution containing aqueous sodium hydroxide and a solid containing calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

[1028] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate can be separated from at least a portion of the sodium hydroxide using, for example, solid-liquid separation.

[1029] Note: CaO(s) or MgO(s) may include CaO(s) or MgO(s) from step '(8)'.

[1030] Note: Na2CO3(aq) may include Na2CO3(aq) from step '(6)' or step '(7)'.

[1031] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can be transferred to step 5.

[1032] Note: In some embodiments, the NaOH(aq) can be concentrated, or at least a portion of the water can be removed. The separated or recovered water can be transferred to, for example, step '5' or used as a solvent or input in that step. In some embodiments, one or more or any combination of water separation systems and / or methods can be used to concentrate the NaOH(aq) into a concentrated solution, a 33 wt% solution, a 50 wt% solution, or solid NaOH, or any combination thereof.

[1033] Example 55: Method for producing sodium bicarbonate and / or calcium oxide or calcium carbonate

[1034] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[1035] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1036] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1037] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used internally or in other steps. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used in step '(5)'.

[1038] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold or include a product. For example, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold to a CO2 sequestration site or a CO2 EOR application or an external application.

[1039] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1040] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1041] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(1)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(4)'.

[1042] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1043] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1044] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1045] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[1046] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(1)'.

[1047] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1048] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1049] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(2)'.

[1050] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(7)'.

[1051] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1052] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1053] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1054] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1055] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1056] (5) reacting an alkaline earth metal-weak acid (such as an alkaline earth metal carbonate) with carbon dioxide and / or water to form an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate ●CaCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ●MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1057] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1058] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) from step '(8)'.

[1059] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include inputs such as limestone or dolomite.

[1060] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(1)'.

[1061] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from an emission source or another CO2 source, or captured CO2, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the following: CO2 from a blue hydrogen or blue ammonia facility, or an ammonia facility, or an ethanol facility, or a carbon capture facility.

[1062] (6) reacting an alkali metal sulfite with an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate to form an alkali metal bicarbonate and an alkaline earth metal sulfite ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s) ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1063] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or the aqueous solution may be included before or during mixing with an aqueous solution containing Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1064] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1065] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1066] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be condensed and / or crystallized into a solid, such as, for example, solid sodium bicarbonate or solid sodium carbonate.

[1067] (7) Decomposition of alkaline earth metal sulfites into alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g) MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1068] NOTE: May include calcining CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1069] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both, before or during calcination.

[1070] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may include CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) from step '(6)'.

[1071] Note: If desired, CaO or MgO can include valuable products. For example, CaO or MgO can include ultra-low carbon emission CaO or MgO products. In some embodiments, calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, or any combination thereof can include products or can be sold or can be sold. In some embodiments, calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, or any combination thereof can include products from this example embodiment or can be sold or can be sold.

[1072] (8) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with carbon dioxide to form an alkaline earth metal carbonate CaO(s)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s) MgO(s)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s) CaO(s) + H2O → Ca(OH)2(s or aq) MgO(s)+H2O→Mg(OH)2(s or aq) Ca(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O Mg(OH)2(s or aq)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s)+H2O

[1073] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) or MgO(s) can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), or any combination thereof, which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension comprising calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, Ca(OH)2 or Mg(OH)2 can react with a carbonate (such as sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) to form CaCO3 or MgCO3, or can react with CO2 to form CaCO3 or MgCO3. For example, the sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate can include sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate, or potassium carbonate, or potassium bicarbonate, or an alkali metal carbonate, or an alkali metal bicarbonate, or any combination thereof (for use in or as a CO2 absorption solution).

[1074] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from a point source CO2 emission source. For example, CO2(g) can include flue gas, or diluted CO2, or high purity CO2, or captured CO2.

[1075] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from air. For example, CO2(g) can include air that can include at least a portion of CO2, even if the concentration is very dilute. For example, calcium oxide can be capable of reacting with very low or very dilute concentrations of CO2, if desired. For example, CO2(g) can include carbonates, such as sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate, where the carbonates can include carbonates derived from the reaction of carbon dioxide in air with sodium or potassium or other alkali metal salts (such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to form alkali metal carbonates, and / or where the reaction of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide with alkali metal carbonates can result in the regeneration or formation of alkali metal hydroxides or alkali metal oxides or other alkali metal salts (which can be used to absorb carbon dioxide from air, regenerate or reform alkali metal carbonates).

[1076] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include valuable products. In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include precipitated calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include carbon sequestration media.

[1077] Note: In some embodiments, for example, including but not limited to, Example 53, or Example 54, or Example 55, or Example 61, or Example 62, or any combination thereof, may include processes that operate separately and / or simultaneously. For example, in some embodiments, the CO2 produced in step '(1)' of Example 53 or Example 54 may include an input to Example 55.

[1078] Example 56: Process for producing calcium carbonate from Ca(WA) using ammonium chloride intermediate

[1079] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ammonium chloride Ca(WA)(s) + 2NH4Cl(s or g or aq) → CaCl2(s or aq) + 2NH3(g or aq) + H2O(g or aq)

[1080] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in the solid phase or in a solid-gas mixture phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(s) and Ca(WA)(s) can be heated, which can cause the NH4Cl to vaporize into NH3(g) and HCl(g), wherein the HCl(g) can react with the Ca(WA)(s) to form, for example, CaCl2(s) and / or (WA) and / or water.

[1081] Note: In some embodiments, WA may include (for example, including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: silicon oxide, or iron oxide, or aluminum oxide, or hydroxide, or oxide.

[1082] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in a solid-liquid phase or a solid-water phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(aq) and Ca(WA)(s) can be mixed and / or reacted to form, for example, CaCl2(aq) and 2NH3(aq or g).

[1083] (2) CaCl2(s) + water → CaCl2(aq)

[1084] Note: In some embodiments, the CaCl2 from step 1 may include a solid and / or may be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution.

[1085] (3) Ammonia or a weak base can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form aqueous ammonia, and / or ammonia can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(g)→CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq) 2NH3(g) + water → NH3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+2CO2(g)+2H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq) ●(NH4)2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq)

[1086] Note: In some embodiments, the NH3 from step 1 may comprise a gas and / or may be dissolved in CaCl2(aq).

[1087] Note: In some embodiments, NH3 can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with CO2 separately from CaCl2.

[1088] (4) Calcium chloride can react with ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or ammonium carbonate, or ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof to form ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g) ●CaCl2(aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH4HCO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1089] Note: In some embodiments, if excess CO2 is present in the product or CO2 is in the product, in some embodiments, the excess CO2 can be transferred to the input or reactant of step 4 and / or the input or reactant of step 3.

[1090] Note: In some embodiments, a CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) solution can be generated in step 1 and / or can be transferred to step 4, potentially skipping steps 2 and 3.

[1091] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include captured CO2 from another embodiment described herein. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from the reaction of calcium carbonate with acetic acid.

[1092] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) can be transferred to, or can include an input to, one or more or any combination of the embodiments described herein. For example, CaCO3(s) can be an input to a process for producing sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof.

[1093] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or an external source, or any combination thereof.

[1094] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1095] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be carried forward to step 5.

[1096] (5) 2NH4Cl(aq)→2NH4Cl(s)+water

[1097] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(s) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1098] Note: In some embodiments, water may be transferred to step 3 and / or step 4.

[1099] NOTE: In some embodiments, this example embodiment can be integrated with other embodiments described herein to further increase CO2 conversion or CO2 removal potential, or enable the production of chemicals without requiring a CO2 output to leave the process, or enable the use of other Ca(WA) inputs or less reactive Ca(WA) inputs, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, CaCO3 can be transferred from the present embodiment to the second embodiment, and then captured CO2 from the second embodiment can be transferred to the present embodiment. For example, in some embodiments, the CO2 transferred between the present embodiment and the second embodiment can include intermediates in producing chemicals such as, for example, but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof. ●For example, in some embodiments, the CO2 in the production of CaCO3 can come from an emission source or air, and / or the produced CaCO3 can be transferred from this embodiment to a second embodiment, such as an embodiment for producing sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate, which can increase the net CO2 conversion rate or CO2 removal potential of the second embodiment.

[1100] Example 57: Process for producing alkali metal hydroxide using carbon dioxide and / or sulfur dioxide intermediates

[1101] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ammonium chloride Ca(WA)(s) + 2NH4Cl(s or g or aq) → CaCl2(s or aq) + 2NH3(g or aq) + H2O(g or aq)

[1102] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in the solid phase or in a solid-gas mixture phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(s) and Ca(WA)(s) can be heated, which can cause the NH4Cl to vaporize into NH3(g) and HCl(g), wherein the HCl(g) can react with the Ca(WA)(s) to form, for example, CaCl2(s) and / or (WA) and / or water.

[1103] Note: In some embodiments, WA may include (for example, including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: silicon oxide, or iron oxide, or aluminum oxide, or hydroxide, or oxide.

[1104] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in a solid-liquid phase or a solid-water phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(aq) and Ca(WA)(s) can be mixed and / or reacted to form, for example, CaCl2(aq) and 2NH3(aq or g).

[1105] (2) CaCl2(s) + water → CaCl2(aq)

[1106] Note: In some embodiments, the CaCl2 from step 1 may include a solid and / or may be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution.

[1107] (3) Ammonia or a weak base can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form aqueous ammonia, and / or ammonia can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(g)→CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq) 2NH3(g) + water → NH3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+2CO2(g)+2H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq) ●(NH4)2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq)

[1108] Note: In some embodiments, the NH3 from step 1 may comprise a gas and / or may be dissolved in CaCl2(aq).

[1109] Note: In some embodiments, NH3 can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with CO2 separately from CaCl2.

[1110] (4) Calcium chloride can react with ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or ammonium carbonate, or ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof to form ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g) ●CaCl2(aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH4HCO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1111] Note: In some embodiments, if excess CO2 is present in the product or CO2 is in the product, in some embodiments, the excess CO2 can be transferred to the input or reactant of step 4 and / or the input or reactant of step 3.

[1112] Note: In some embodiments, a CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) solution can be generated in step 1 and / or can be transferred to step 4, potentially skipping steps 2 and 3.

[1113] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include captured CO2 from another embodiment described herein. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from the reaction of calcium carbonate with acetic acid.

[1114] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) can be transferred to or included as an input to one or more embodiments or any combination of embodiments described herein. For example, CaCO3(s) can be an input to a process for producing sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof.

[1115] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or an external source, or any combination thereof.

[1116] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1117] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be carried forward to step 5.

[1118] (5) 2NH4Cl(aq)→2NH4Cl(s)+water

[1119] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(s) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1120] Note: In some embodiments, water may be transferred to step 3 and / or step 4.

[1121] (6) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l or aq) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (l or aq) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g)+H2O(l or aq) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O (l or aq)

[1122] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1123] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1124] Note: In some embodiments, CO2 can be transferred to step 4.

[1125] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1126] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1127] (7)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1128] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1129] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1130] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[1131] (8)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1132] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1133] (9)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1134] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1135] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1136] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(9)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1137] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1138] (10)Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(OH)2(s or aq)→2NaOH(aq or s)+CaSO3(s)

[1139] NOTE: Ca(OH)2 (s or aq) may include solid-liquid suspensions such as milk of lime.

[1140] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[1141] (11)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[1142] Note: '(11)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1143] Note: Before or during '(11)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[1144] (12) CaO(s) + water (g or l or aq) → Ca(OH)2(s or aq)

[1145] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) may be used to remove water vapor or facilitate drying of CaSO3(s) before or during decomposition of CaSO3(s) to CaO(s).

[1146] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide. In some embodiments, calcium oxide may be reacted directly with an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite to produce calcium sulfite and sodium hydroxide, which may include combining step '(10)' and step '(12)'.

[1147] Note: In some embodiments, calcium oxide can react with water to produce an aqueous solution, or a solid-liquid suspension, or milk of lime, or a solid, or any combination thereof, comprising calcium hydroxide.

[1148] (13) 2NaOH (aq or s) → 2NaOH (aq or s) + water

[1149] Note: In some embodiments, NaOH(aq) can be concentrated to form an aqueous solution containing a greater mass percent concentration of NaOH.

[1150] NOTE: In some embodiments, water and / or NaOH can be removed by separation or precipitation, for example, including but not limited to evaporation, or distillation, or crystallization, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1151] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to include NaOH as a concentrated aqueous solution.

[1152] Example 58: Production of alkali metal hydroxide using carbon dioxide, alkali metal carbonate and / or sulfur dioxide intermediates method

[1153] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ammonium chloride Ca(WA)(s) + 2NH4Cl(s or g or aq) → CaCl2(s or aq) + 2NH3(g or aq) + H2O(g or aq)

[1154] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in the solid phase or in a solid-gas mixture phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(s) and Ca(WA)(s) can be heated, which can cause the NH4Cl to vaporize into NH3(g) and HCl(g), wherein the HCl(g) can react with the Ca(WA)(s) to form, for example, CaCl2(s) and / or (WA) and / or water.

[1155] Note: In some embodiments, WA may include (for example, including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: silicon oxide, or iron oxide, or aluminum oxide, or hydroxide, or oxide.

[1156] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in a solid-liquid phase or a solid-water phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(aq) and Ca(WA)(s) can be mixed and / or reacted to form, for example, CaCl2(aq) and 2NH3(aq or g).

[1157] (2) CaCl2(s) + water → CaCl2(aq)

[1158] Note: In some embodiments, the CaCl2 from step 1 may include a solid and / or may be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution.

[1159] (3) Ammonia or a weak base can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form aqueous ammonia, and / or ammonia can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(g)→CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq) 2NH3(g) + water → NH3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+2CO2(g)+2H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq) ●(NH4)2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq)

[1160] Note: In some embodiments, the NH3 from step 1 may comprise a gas and / or may be dissolved in CaCl2(aq).

[1161] Note: In some embodiments, NH3 can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with CO2 separately from CaCl2.

[1162] (4) Calcium chloride can react with ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or ammonium carbonate, or ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof to form ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g) ●CaCl2(aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH4HCO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1163] Note: In some embodiments, if excess CO2 is present in the product or CO2 is in the product, in some embodiments, the excess CO2 can be transferred to the input or reactant of step 4 and / or the input or reactant of step 3.

[1164] Note: In some embodiments, a CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) solution can be generated in step 1 and / or can be transferred to step 4, potentially skipping steps 2 and 3.

[1165] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include captured CO2 from another embodiment described herein. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from the reaction of calcium carbonate with acetic acid.

[1166] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) can be transferred to, or can include an input to, one or more or any combination of the embodiments described herein. For example, CaCO3(s) can be an input to a process for producing sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof.

[1167] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or an external source, or any combination thereof.

[1168] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1169] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be carried forward to step 5.

[1170] (5) 2NH4Cl(aq)→2NH4Cl(s)+water

[1171] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(s) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1172] Note: In some embodiments, water may be transferred to step 3 and / or step 4.

[1173] (6) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[1174] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1175] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1176] Note: In some embodiments, CO2 can be transferred to step 4.

[1177] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1178] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1179] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(6)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(9)'.

[1180] (7)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1181] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1182] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1183] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[1184] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(6)'.

[1185] (8)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1186] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1187] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(7)'.

[1188] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(14)'.

[1189] (9)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1190] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1191] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1192] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(9)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1193] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1194] (10) reacting an alkaline earth metal-weak acid (such as an alkaline earth metal carbonate) with carbon dioxide and / or water to form an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate ●CaCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ●MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1195] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1196] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) from step '(14)'.

[1197] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(6)' or step '(13)' or any combination thereof.

[1198] (11) reacting an alkali metal sulfite with an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate to form an alkali metal bicarbonate and an alkaline earth metal sulfite ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s) ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1199] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or may include an aqueous solution prior to mixing with an aqueous solution containing Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1200] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1201] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1202] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) may include Na2SO3 from step '(4)'.

[1203] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) may include Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq) from step '(5)'.

[1204] (12)2NaHCO3(aq)→Na2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[1205] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1206] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1207] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) can be decomposed into Na2CO3(aq) and CO2(g) and water in an aqueous and / or reduced or pressurized environment, which can avoid or prevent the need to crystallize or precipitate NaHCO3(s) and / or minimize or reduce water evaporation during, for example, CO2 desorption.

[1208] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) may include NaHCO3 from step '(11)'.

[1209] (13) Calcination or decomposition of alkaline earth metal sulfites into alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g) MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1210] NOTE: May include calcining CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1211] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both, before or during calcination.

[1212] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may include CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) from step '(11)'.

[1213] (14) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with an alkali metal carbonate to produce an alkaline earth metal carbonate and an alkali metal hydroxide CaO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) MgO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → NaOH(aq) + MgCO3(s)

[1214] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of CaO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water or MgO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water can be performed in multiple steps. For example, in some embodiments, CaO or MgO can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension containing calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, Na2CO3 can include an aqueous solution or can be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, a solution or solid-liquid mixture or suspension containing Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or milk of lime, or Mg(OH)2, or milk of magnesia can be mixed with an aqueous solution containing Na2CO3(aq), which can result in the formation of a solution containing aqueous sodium hydroxide and a solid containing calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

[1215] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate can be separated from at least a portion of the sodium hydroxide using, for example, solid-liquid separation.

[1216] Note: CaO(s) or MgO(s) may include CaO(s) or MgO(s) from step '(13)'.

[1217] Note: Na2CO3(aq) may include Na2CO3(aq) from step '(11)' or step '(12)'.

[1218] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can be transferred to step 10.

[1219] Note: In some embodiments, the NaOH(aq) can be concentrated, or at least a portion of the water can be removed. The separated or recovered water can be transferred to, for example, step '10' or used as a solvent or input in that step. In some embodiments, one or more or any combination of water separation systems and / or methods can be used to concentrate the NaOH(aq) into a concentrated solution, a 33 wt% solution, a 50 wt% solution, or solid NaOH, or any combination thereof.

[1220] Example 59: Production of alkaline earth metal oxides or alkaline earth metal hydrogen using carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and / or alkali intermediates Oxide method

[1221] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ammonium chloride Ca(WA)(s) + 2NH4Cl(s or g or aq) → CaCl2(s or aq) + 2NH3(g or aq) + H2O(g or aq)

[1222] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in the solid phase or in a solid-gas mixture phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(s) and Ca(WA)(s) can be heated, which can cause the NH4Cl to vaporize into NH3(g) and HCl(g), wherein the HCl(g) can react with the Ca(WA)(s) to form, for example, CaCl2(s) and / or (WA) and / or water.

[1223] Note: In some embodiments, WA may include (for example, including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: silicon oxide, or iron oxide, or aluminum oxide, or hydroxide, or oxide.

[1224] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in a solid-liquid phase or a solid-water phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(aq) and Ca(WA)(s) can be mixed and / or reacted to form, for example, CaCl2(aq) and 2NH3(aq or g).

[1225] (2) CaCl2(s) + water → CaCl2(aq)

[1226] Note: In some embodiments, the CaCl2 from step 1 may include a solid and / or may be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution.

[1227] (3) Ammonia or a weak base can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form aqueous ammonia, and / or ammonia can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(g)→CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq) 2NH3(g) + water → NH3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+2CO2(g)+2H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq) ●(NH4)2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq)

[1228] Note: In some embodiments, the NH3 from step 1 may comprise a gas and / or may be dissolved in CaCl2(aq).

[1229] Note: In some embodiments, NH3 can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with CO2 separately from CaCl2.

[1230] (4) Calcium chloride can react with ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or ammonium carbonate, or ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof to form ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate.

[1231] CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[1232] CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1233] CaCl2(aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)

[1234] CaCl2(aq)+2NH4HCO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1235] Note: In some embodiments, if excess CO2 is present in the product or CO2 is in the product, in some embodiments, the excess CO2 can be transferred to the input or reactant of step 4 and / or the input or reactant of step 3.

[1236] Note: In some embodiments, a CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) solution can be generated in step 1 and / or can be transferred to step 4, potentially skipping steps 2 and 3.

[1237] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include captured CO2 from another embodiment described herein. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from the reaction of calcium carbonate with acetic acid.

[1238] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) can be transferred to, or can include an input to, one or more or any combination of the embodiments described herein. For example, CaCO3(s) can be an input to a process for producing sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof.

[1239] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or an external source, or any combination thereof.

[1240] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1241] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be carried forward to step 5.

[1242] (5) 2NH4Cl(aq)→2NH4Cl(s)+water

[1243] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(s) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1244] Note: In some embodiments, water may be transferred to step 3 and / or step 4.

[1245] (6) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq)

[1246] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1247] Note: If CO2(g) is produced, it may be desirable for the CO2(g) to be produced as high partial pressure CO2(g) or pure CO2(g), or to include captured CO2(g).

[1248] Note: CaCO3 can come from step '4'.

[1249] Note: CO2 can be transferred to step '3' or step '4'.

[1250] (7)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO3(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO3(s)

[1251] Note: CaSO3(s) can be separated using solid-liquid separation.

[1252] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) can include a solid comprising sodium sulfite, which can be added to or dissolved in a solution comprising calcium acetate.

[1253] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) can include an aqueous solution containing sodium sulfite and acetic acid.

[1254] (8)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1255] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) prior to or concurrently with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1256] (9) Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq or l)+Na2SO3(s)

[1257] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1258] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1259] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(9)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1260] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1261] Note: In some embodiments, a feed solution comprising sodium sulfite and acetic acid can be evaporated, wherein a portion of the acetic acid and water vapor evaporate and / or condense to form a separated acetic acid solution, and / or the remaining solution comprises aqueous acetic acid and a higher concentration of sodium sulfite than the sodium sulfite concentration in the feed solution.

[1262] (10)CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g)

[1263] Note: '(10)' may include calcining CaSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1264] Note: Before or during '(10)', the CaSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both.

[1265] Example 60: Production of alkali metal carbonates or alkali metal carbonates using carbon dioxide, alkali metal carbonates and / or sulfur dioxide intermediates Metal bicarbonate method

[1266] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with ammonium chloride Ca(WA)(s) + 2NH4Cl(s or g or aq) → CaCl2(s or aq) + 2NH3(g or aq) + H2O(g or aq)

[1267] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in the solid phase or in a solid-gas mixture phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(s) and Ca(WA)(s) can be heated, which can cause the NH4Cl to vaporize into NH3(g) and HCl(g), wherein the HCl(g) can react with the Ca(WA)(s) to form, for example, CaCl2(s) and / or (WA) and / or water.

[1268] Note: In some embodiments, WA may include (for example, including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of the following: silicon oxide, or iron oxide, or aluminum oxide, or hydroxide, or oxide.

[1269] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of Ca(WA) with ammonium chloride can be carried out in a solid-liquid phase or a solid-water phase. For example, 2NH4Cl(aq) and Ca(WA)(s) can be mixed and / or reacted to form, for example, CaCl2(aq) and 2NH3(aq or g).

[1270] (2) CaCl2(s) + water → CaCl2(aq)

[1271] Note: In some embodiments, the CaCl2 from step 1 may include a solid and / or may be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution.

[1272] (3) Ammonia or a weak base can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form aqueous ammonia, and / or ammonia can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with carbon dioxide to form ammonium carbonate or ammonium bicarbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(g)→CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq) 2NH3(g) + water → NH3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→(NH4)2CO3(aq) 2NH3(g or aq)+2CO2(g)+2H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq) ●(NH4)2CO3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O(l or aq)→2NH4HCO3(aq)

[1273] Note: In some embodiments, the NH3 from step 1 may comprise a gas and / or may be dissolved in CaCl2(aq).

[1274] Note: In some embodiments, NH3 can be dissolved in water and / or reacted with CO2 separately from CaCl2.

[1275] (4) Calcium chloride can react with ammonia, or carbon dioxide, or ammonium carbonate, or ammonium bicarbonate, or any combination thereof to form ammonium chloride and calcium carbonate. ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH3(aq)+2CO2(g)+H2O→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g) ●CaCl2(aq)+(NH4)2CO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s) ●CaCl2(aq)+2NH4HCO3(aq)→2NH4Cl(aq)+CaCO3(s)+CO2(g)

[1276] Note: In some embodiments, if excess CO2 is present in the product or CO2 is in the product, in some embodiments, the excess CO2 can be transferred to the input or reactant of step 4 and / or the input or reactant of step 3.

[1277] Note: In some embodiments, a CaCl2(aq) + NH3(aq) solution can be generated in step 1 and / or can be transferred to step 4, potentially skipping steps 2 and 3.

[1278] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include captured CO2 from another embodiment described herein. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from the reaction of calcium carbonate with acetic acid.

[1279] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) can be transferred to, or can include an input to, one or more or any combination of the embodiments described herein. For example, CaCO3(s) can be an input to a process for producing sodium hydroxide, or calcium oxide, or calcium hydroxide, or sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, or any combination thereof.

[1280] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2 from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or an external source, or any combination thereof.

[1281] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1282] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(aq) can be carried forward to step 5.

[1283] (5) 2NH4Cl(aq)→2NH4Cl(s)+water

[1284] Note: In some examples, 2NH4Cl(s) can be transferred to Step 1.

[1285] Note: In some embodiments, water may be transferred to step 3 and / or step 4.

[1286] (6) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[1287] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1288] Note: CaCO3 can come from step '4'.

[1289] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1290] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used internally or in other steps. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used in step '(10)'.

[1291] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold or included in a product. For example, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold to a CO2 sequestration site or a CO2 EOR application or an external application.

[1292] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1293] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1294] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(6)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(9)'.

[1295] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1296] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1297] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1298] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[1299] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(6)'.

[1300] (8)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1301] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1302] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(7)'.

[1303] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(12)'.

[1304] (9)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1305] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1306] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1307] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(9)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1308] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1309] (10) reacting an alkaline earth metal-weak acid (such as an alkaline earth metal carbonate) with carbon dioxide and / or water to form an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate ●CaCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ●MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1310] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1311] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) from step '(13)'.

[1312] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3(s) or MgCO3(s) may include inputs such as limestone or dolomite.

[1313] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(6)'.

[1314] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from an emission source or another CO2 source, or captured CO2, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include one or more or any combination of (including but not limited to) the following: CO2 from a blue hydrogen or blue ammonia facility, or an ammonia facility, or an ethanol facility, or a carbon capture facility.

[1315] (11) reacting an alkali metal sulfite with an alkaline earth metal bicarbonate to form an alkali metal bicarbonate and an alkaline earth metal sulfite ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Ca(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+CaSO3(s) ●Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1316] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or the aqueous solution may be included before or during mixing with an aqueous solution containing Ca(HCO3)2(aq) or Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1317] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1318] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1319] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be condensed and / or crystallized into a solid, such as, for example, solid sodium bicarbonate or solid sodium carbonate.

[1320] (12) Decomposition of alkaline earth metal sulfites into alkaline earth metal oxides and sulfur dioxide CaSO3(s)→CaO(s)+SO2(g) MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1321] NOTE: May include calcining CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s), which may use a kiln.

[1322] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may be dried or dehydrated, or both, before or during calcination.

[1323] Note: CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) may include CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) from step '(11)'.

[1324] Note: If desired, the CaO or MgO may include valuable products. For example, the CaO or MgO may include an ultra-low carbon emission CaO or MgO product.

[1325] (13) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with carbon dioxide to form an alkaline earth metal carbonate CaO(s)+CO2(g)→CaCO3(s) MgO(s)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s)

[1326] Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) or MgO(s) can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), or any combination thereof, which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension comprising calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, Ca(OH)2 or Mg(OH)2 can react with a carbonate (such as sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) to form CaCO3 or MgCO3, or can react with CO2 to form CaCO3 or MgCO3. For example, the sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate can include sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate, or potassium carbonate, or potassium bicarbonate, or an alkali metal carbonate, or an alkali metal bicarbonate, or any combination thereof (for use in or as a CO2 absorption solution).

[1327] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from a point source CO2 emission source. For example, CO2(g) can include flue gas, or diluted CO2, or high purity CO2, or captured CO2.

[1328] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from air. For example, CO2(g) can include air that can include at least a portion of CO2, even if the concentration is very dilute. For example, calcium oxide can be capable of reacting with very low or very dilute concentrations of CO2, if desired. For example, CO2(g) can include carbonates, such as sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate, where the carbonates can include carbonates derived from the reaction of carbon dioxide in air with sodium or potassium or other alkali metal salts (such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to form alkali metal carbonates, and / or where the reaction of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide with alkali metal carbonates can result in the regeneration or formation of alkali metal hydroxides or alkali metal oxides or other alkali metal salts (which can be used to absorb carbon dioxide from air, regenerate or reform alkali metal carbonates).

[1329] Note: In some embodiments, CaCO 3 or MgCO 3 may include valuable products. In some embodiments, CaCO 3 or MgCO 3 may comprise a carbon sequestering medium.

[1330] Example 61: Process for producing sodium hydroxide using sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carboxylic acid and magnesium intermediates

[1331] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[1332] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1333] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1334] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1335] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1336] Note: In some embodiments, the acetic acid used in step '(1)' may include aqueous acetic acid produced or regenerated in step '(4)'.

[1337] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1338] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1339] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1340] (5)MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1341] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 0.5 bar, or 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1342] Note: In some embodiments, MgCO3(s) may include MgCO3(s) from the reaction of MgO or Mg(OH)2 with CO2.

[1343] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(1)' or step '(9)' or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the reaction of MgO or Mg(OH)2 with CO2 may include capturing CO2 from the calcination or decomposition of calcium carbonate and / or may enable the calcium carbonate calciner to produce dilute carbon dioxide or flue gas carbon dioxide, as the carbon dioxide in the dilute or flue gas carbon dioxide may be captured by reaction with magnesium oxide and / or magnesium hydroxide.

[1344] (6)Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1345] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution may be included prior to mixing with the aqueous solution containing Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1346] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1347] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1348] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) may include Na2SO3 from step '(4)'.

[1349] Note: In some embodiments, Mg(HCO3)2(aq) may include Mg(HCO3)2(aq) from step '(5)'.

[1350] Note: In some embodiments, residual MgSO3 can be present in a solution comprising sodium bicarbonate as, for example, MgSO3(aq). In some embodiments, it may be desirable to separate at least a portion of the residual MgSO3 from at least a portion of the sodium bicarbonate. For example, in some embodiments, the separation can include, but is not limited to, one or more of the following or any combination: electrodialysis, or selective electrodialysis, or monovalent selective electrodialysis (MSED), or divalent selective electrodialysis (DSED), or concentration, or cold precipitation, or reverse osmosis, or membrane-based methods, or nanofiltration.

[1351] (7)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1352] NOTE: The thermal decomposition of magnesium sulfite can be carried out with less energy and / or at lower temperatures than the thermal decomposition of calcium sulfite.

[1353] Remarks: The sulfur dioxide formed can be used, for example, in the reaction of alkali metal acetates or alkali metal carboxylates with sulfur dioxide.

[1354] (8) reacting magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide to form magnesium carbonate MgO(s)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s) MgO(s)+H2O(l or g or s)→Mg(OH)2(s or aq) Mg(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(l or g or s)

[1355] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2(g) from the decomposition of calcium carbonate.

[1356] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2(g) from an emission source, or a point source, or air.

[1357] Note: MgCO3(s) may include MgCO3(s) in the reaction MgCO3(s)+CO2+H2O.

[1358] (9) 2NaHCO3(aq)→2NaHCO3(s)+water

[1359] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3(s) can be formed by a process comprising concentration and cooling precipitation or recycling, or precipitation or crystallization methods, or any combination thereof.

[1360] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1361] Note: In some embodiments, 2NaHCO3(aq) can be decomposed into Na2CO3(aq) and CO2(g) and water in an aqueous and / or reduced or pressurized environment, which can avoid or prevent the need to crystallize or precipitate NaHCO3(s).

[1362] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the residual dissolved MgSO 3 or magnesium sulfite (if any) may be separated and / or precipitated.

[1363] NOTE: Water can be separated from sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate using systems and methods for water separation, or systems and methods for salt precipitation or crystallization, or any combination thereof.

[1364] (10) 2NaHCO3(s)→Na2CO3(s)+CO2(g)+H2O(g or l)

[1365] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1366] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3 can be sold as a product and / or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1367] Note: In some embodiments, Na2CO3(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution and / or Na2CO3(s) in a reaction involving Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3(s).

[1368] (11) Calcination or decomposition of alkaline earth metal carbonates to form alkaline earth metal oxides and carbon dioxide CaCO3(s)→CaO(s)+CO2(g) MgCO3(s)→MgO(s)+CO2(g)

[1369] NOTE: In some embodiments, it may be desirable to decompose the calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate in such a way that the carbon dioxide is highly pure, or in such a way that the carbon dioxide is captured, or in such a way that the carbon dioxide is diluted but then captured, or any combination thereof.

[1370] Note: In some embodiments, carbon dioxide from the decomposition of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate may include carbon dioxide from the reaction of magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide.

[1371] (12) reacting an alkaline earth metal oxide or hydroxide with an alkali metal carbonate to form an alkaline earth metal carbonate and an alkali metal hydroxide CaO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) MgO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + MgCO3(s) Ca(OH)2(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) → 2NaOH(aq) + CaCO3(s) MgO(s or aq) + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water → 2NaOH(aq) + MgCO3(s)

[1372] Note: In some embodiments, the reaction of CaO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water or MgO + Na2CO3(s or aq) + water can be performed in multiple steps. For example, in some embodiments, CaO or MgO can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(s), Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension containing calcium hydroxide or magnesium hydroxide. For example, in some embodiments, Na2CO3 can include an aqueous solution or can be dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, a solution or solid-liquid mixture or suspension containing Ca(OH)2(s or aq), milk of lime, or Mg(OH)2, or milk of magnesia can be mixed with an aqueous solution containing Na2CO3(aq), which can result in the formation of a solution containing aqueous sodium hydroxide and a solid containing calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate.

[1373] Note: In some embodiments, at least a portion of the calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate can be separated from at least a portion of the sodium hydroxide using, for example, solid-liquid separation.

[1374] Example 62: Method for producing sodium bicarbonate, or sodium carbonate, and / or calcium oxide or calcium carbonate

[1375] (1) reacting a material containing calcium, magnesium, or other alkaline earth metal-weak acid anions with acetic acid CaCO3(s or aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(aq or l) Calcium silicate (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + silicon dioxide (s) + H2O (aq or l) ●CaS(s)+2CH3COOH(aq)→Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+H2S(g) Calcium (weak acid anion) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + weak acid (s, g, l, or aq) + H2O(aq or l)

[1376] NOTE: Residual or undissolved solids, such as silica or other undissolved solids, can be separated from the liquid solution using solid-liquid separation.

[1377] Note: CO2(g) may include captured CO2.

[1378] Note: In some examples, CO2(g) may be used internally or in other steps.

[1379] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold or include a product. For example, CO2(g) can be used or sequestered or sold to a CO2 sequestration site or a CO2 EOR application or an external application.

[1380] Note: In some embodiments, some chemicals containing calcium may contain a portion of magnesium. In some embodiments, for example, the input chemical or input material may include a mixture of calcium and magnesium.

[1381] Note: In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor and / or water vapor can be separated or recovered from the CO2(g).

[1382] (2)Ca(CH3COO)2(aq)+Na2SO4(s or aq)→2NaCH3COO(aq)+CaSO4(s)

[1383] Note: In some examples, Na2SO4(s) can be added directly to or dissolved in Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1384] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO4(s) can be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution to form Na2SO4(aq), which is then mixed with Ca(CH3COO)2(aq).

[1385] Note: In some embodiments, water can be added to the process to compensate for water that may leave the process, for example, if NaOH(aq) is an output, or another aqueous solution is an output, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, water can be added to the process via Na2SO4 in the form of Na2SO4(aq) or an aqueous solution comprising sodium sulfate, wherein at least a portion of the water in the Na2SO4(aq) can comprise the water added to the process. In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided to the process in the form of Na2SO4(aq). In some embodiments, Na2SO4(aq) can be provided or obtained as a solid or Na2SO4(s) and then dissolved in water to form Na2SO4(aq).

[1386] Note: In some embodiments, Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) may include Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) from step '(1)'.

[1387] (3)2NaCH3COO(aq)+SO2(g or aq)+H2O(l or aq)→Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)

[1388] Note: In some embodiments, SO2(g) may contain other gases in addition to SO2(g). In some embodiments, the reaction of 2NaCH3COO(aq) + SO2(g) may produce at least a portion of acetic acid vapor in the residual gas during or after the reaction. In some embodiments, the NaCH3COO(aq) entering this step may be pre-contacted with at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor in the residual gas or may absorb at least a portion of the acetic acid vapor from the residual gas. In some embodiments, the reactor or absorption column may be configured to absorb acetic acid vapor in NaCH3COO(aq) before or simultaneously with reacting NaCH3COO(aq) with SO2(g). In some embodiments, acetic acid vapor may be removed from the residual gas using, for example, one or more or any combination of, including but not limited to, alkaline earth metal carbonates, or alkaline earth metal-weak acids, or alkaline earth metal carbonate-water slurries, or alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metals.

[1389] Note: In some embodiments, NaCH3COO(aq) may include NaCH3COO(aq) from step '(2)'.

[1390] Note: In some embodiments, SO2 may include SO2(g) from the calcination or decomposition of CaSO3(s) in step '(7)'.

[1391] (4)Na2SO3(aq)+2CH3COOH(aq)→2CH3COOH(aq)+Na2SO3(s)

[1392] Note: CH3COOH can be more soluble in water than Na2SO3. In some embodiments, Na2SO3 can be separated or precipitated from the solution by, for example, but not limited to, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, a separation system or method described herein, a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1393] Note: In some embodiments, CH3COOH and / or water can be separated from Na2SO3 by, for example, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, CH3COOH can be evaporated with water vapor and / or condensed with water vapor, which can produce a distillate or condensate comprising CH3COOH(aq).

[1394] Note: In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite (aq) may be present in Na2SO3 (aq) + 2CH3COOH (aq). In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite, if present, may begin to precipitate or crystallize before Na2SO3. In some embodiments, magnesium sulfite solid may be separated during step '(4)'. In some embodiments, the separated magnesium sulfite may decompose into magnesium oxide, or decompose separately from calcium sulfite, or decompose together with calcium sulfite, or any combination thereof.

[1395] Note: Na2SO3(s) can be separated from CH3COOH(aq) by solid-liquid separation, which solid-liquid separation can include but is not limited to a filter, or a centrifuge, or a decanter, or a separation system or method described herein, or a separation system or method described in the art, or any combination thereof.

[1396] (5)MgCO3(s)+CO2(g or aq)+H2O(aq)→Mg(HCO3)2(aq)

[1397] Note: The reaction can be carried out under a pressurized CO atmosphere or with concentrated carbonic acid or CO (aq). For example, the CO partial pressure during the reaction can be greater than, for example, 0.5 bar, or 1 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or 6 bar, or 7 bar, or 8 bar, or 9 bar, or 10 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1398] Note: In some embodiments, MgCO3(s) may include MgCO3(s) from the reaction of MgO or Mg(OH)2 with CO2.

[1399] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g or aq) may include CO2 from step '(1)' or step '(9)' or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the reaction of MgO or Mg(OH)2 with CO2 may include capturing CO2 from the calcination or decomposition of calcium carbonate and / or may enable the calcium carbonate calciner to produce dilute carbon dioxide or flue gas carbon dioxide, as the carbon dioxide in the dilute or flue gas carbon dioxide may be captured by reaction with magnesium oxide and / or magnesium hydroxide.

[1400] (6)Na2SO3(s or aq)+Mg(HCO3)2(aq)→2NaHCO3(aq)+MgSO3(s)

[1401] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s) may be dissolved in water or an aqueous solution may be included prior to mixing with the aqueous solution containing Mg(HCO3)2(aq).

[1402] Note: At least a portion of the CaSO3(s) or MgSO3(s) can be separated by solid-liquid separation.

[1403] Note: In some embodiments, NaHCO3 can be sold as a product or used as a carbon sequestration medium.

[1404] Note: In some embodiments, Na2SO3(s or aq) may include Na2SO3 from step '(4)'.

[1405] Note: In some embodiments, Mg(HCO3)2(aq) may include Mg(HCO3)2(aq) from step '(5)'.

[1406] Note: In some embodiments, residual MgSO3 can be present in a solution comprising sodium bicarbonate as, for example, MgSO3(aq). In some embodiments, it may be desirable to separate at least a portion of the residual MgSO3 from at least a portion of the sodium bicarbonate. For example, in some embodiments, the separation can include, but is not limited to, one or more of the following or any combination: electrodialysis, or selective electrodialysis, or monovalent selective electrodialysis (MSED), or divalent selective electrodialysis (DSED), or concentration, or cold precipitation, or reverse osmosis, or membrane-based methods, or nanofiltration.

[1407] (7)MgSO3(s)→MgO(s)+SO2(g)

[1408] NOTE: The thermal decomposition of magnesium sulfite can be carried out with less energy and / or at lower temperatures than the thermal decomposition of calcium sulfite.

[1409] Remarks: The sulfur dioxide formed can be used, for example, in the reaction of alkali metal acetates or alkali metal carboxylates with sulfur dioxide.

[1410] (8) reacting magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide to form magnesium carbonate MgO(s)+CO2(g)→MgCO3(s) MgO(s)+H2O(l or g or s)→Mg(OH)2(s or aq) Mg(OH)2(s or aq) + CO2(g) → MgCO3(s) + H2O(l or g or s)

[1411] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2(g) from the decomposition of calcium carbonate.

[1412] Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) may include CO2(g) from an emission source, or a point source, or air, or any combination thereof.

[1413] Note: MgCO3(s) may include MgCO3(s) in the reaction MgCO3(s)+CO2+H2O. • Note: In some embodiments, carbon dioxide from the decomposition of calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate may include carbon dioxide from the reaction of magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide with carbon dioxide. Note: In some embodiments, CaO(s) or MgO(s) can react with water to form Ca(OH)2(aq), or Ca(OH)2(s or aq), or Mg(OH)2(aq), or Mg(OH)2(s or aq), or any combination thereof, which can include milk of lime or milk of magnesia, or a solid-liquid suspension comprising calcium hydroxide and / or magnesium hydroxide. In some embodiments, Ca(OH)2 or Mg(OH)2 can react with a carbonate (such as sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) to form CaCO3 or MgCO3, or can react with CO2 to form CaCO3 or MgCO3. For example, the sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate can include sodium carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate, or potassium carbonate, or potassium bicarbonate, or an alkali metal carbonate, or an alkali metal bicarbonate, or any combination thereof (for use in or as a CO2 absorption solution). Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from a point source CO2 emission source. For example, CO2(g) can include flue gas, or diluted CO2, or high purity CO2, or captured CO2. Note: In some embodiments, CO2(g) can include CO2 in or from air. For example, CO2(g) can include air that can include at least a portion of CO2, even if the concentration is very dilute. For example, calcium oxide can be capable of reacting with very low or very dilute concentrations of CO2, if desired. For example, CO2(g) can include carbonates, such as sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate, where the carbonates can include carbonates derived from the reaction of carbon dioxide in air with sodium or potassium or other alkali metal salts (such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to form alkali metal carbonates, and / or where the reaction of calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide with alkali metal carbonates can result in the regeneration or formation of alkali metal hydroxides or alkali metal oxides or other alkali metal salts (which can be used to absorb carbon dioxide from air, regenerate or reform alkali metal carbonates). Note: In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include valuable products. In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include precipitated calcium carbonate. In some embodiments, CaCO3 or MgCO3 can include carbon sequestration media. Illustrative Alkaline Earth Metal Oxide Production System and Method illustrate

[1414] Some embodiments of the present invention may be directed to systems and methods for producing alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or cement, or slag. Some embodiments of the present invention may be directed to producing alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or cement, or slag, which may include chemicals or materials containing calcium, or magnesium, or other alkaline earth metals.

[1415] Some embodiments may involve producing alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or cement, or slag using input materials comprising alkaline earth metal weak acid materials. For example, in some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include a carbonate, which may include, but is not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: calcium carbonate, or magnesium carbonate, or limestone, or calcium magnesium carbonate, or dolomite, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include a silicate material, which may include, but is not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: calcium silicate, or magnesium silicate, or orthosilicate, or fluorosilicate, or metasilicate, or pyrosilicate, or aluminosilicate, or silicon oxide, or silicon material, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include a sulfide material, which may include, but is not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: calcium sulfide, or magnesium sulfide, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include a metal oxide or metal oxide derivative anion material, which may include but is not limited to one or more or any combination of the following: aluminate, or ferrate, ferrate, or zincate, or manganate, or clay, or permanganate. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include an alkaline earth metal in a compound with an anion or acid derivative or any combination thereof, wherein the anion or acid derivative may include a derivative or may be derived from an acid having an acid strength lower than sulfur dioxide, or aqueous sulfur dioxide, or sulfurous acid, or sulfite, or any combination thereof or a weaker acid strength. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include a metal oxide or metal hydroxide, which may have a chemical or similar property that overlaps or is similar to calcium, or magnesium, or other alkaline earth metals. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include impurities. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may include (including but not limited to) one or more or any combination of any of the above-mentioned chemistries or properties.

[1416] In some embodiments of producing cement, or slag, or any combination thereof, it may be desirable to mix clay, or silicon material, or other cement raw mixture components with alkaline earth metals at one or more points or combinations of points in the process. For example, in some embodiments, the raw mixture components may be added to calcium sulfite or magnesium sulfite before or during the decomposition of the sulfite into sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the raw mixture components may be added to calcium oxide or magnesium oxide before or during sintering or melting to form cement or slag.

[1417] Some embodiments may involve producing alkaline earth metal oxides, or alkaline earth metal hydroxides, or cement, or slag, or any combination thereof using input materials comprising alkaline earth metal weak acid materials. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may be reacted or mixed with an acid having an acid strength greater than a 'weak acid' and weaker than the acid strength of sulfurous acid. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may be reacted or mixed with an acid having an acid strength greater than a 'weak acid' and weaker than the acid strength of sulfurous acid, which may result in the formation of an aqueous solution comprising a salt comprising the alkaline earth metal and an anion of the acid having an acid strength greater than a 'weak acid' and weaker than the acid strength of sulfurous acid. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may be reacted or mixed with an acid that displaces the weak acid from the alkaline earth metal or reacts with the alkaline earth metal. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid material may be reacted or mixed with an acid that displaces the weak acid from the alkaline earth metal or reacts with the alkaline earth metal, which may result in the formation of an aqueous solution comprising a salt comprising the alkaline earth metal and an anion of the acid that can displace the weak acid from the alkaline earth metal. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid solid comprises calcium carbonate, can react with the acid that comprises acetic acid, and it can cause the formation of the alkaline earth metal-carboxylate anion solution of the dissolving aqueous calcium acetate that comprises dissolving and the weak acid that comprises carbonic acid, or aqueous carbon dioxide, or gaseous carbon dioxide or its any combination. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid solid comprises calcium silicate, can react with the acid that comprises acetic acid, and it can cause the formation of the alkaline earth metal-carboxylate anion solution of the dissolving aqueous calcium acetate that comprises dissolving and the weak acid that comprises carbonic acid, or aqueous carbon dioxide, or gaseous carbon dioxide or its any combination. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal weak acid solid comprises calcium silicate, can react with the acid that comprises acetic acid, and it can cause the formation of the alkaline earth metal-carboxylate anion solution of the dissolving aqueous calcium acetate that comprises dissolving and the weak acid that comprises the replacement of silicon dioxide solid.

[1418] In certain embodiments, the reaction of alkaline earth metal weak acid and acid can be to generate gas or generate solid or generate liquid or generate aqueous solution or its any combination.In certain embodiments, ' weak acid ' can be replaced by acid, and this acid can be stronger and / or weaker than sulfite.In certain embodiments, weak acid can be replaced and can form gas or aqueous solution, and this gas or aqueous solution can include but not limited to one or more or any combination in following: carbon dioxide or carbonic acid or hydrogen sulfide or hydrosulfuric acid.In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to capture or separate the gas generated or the gas comprising the weak acid replaced.For example, the reaction of alkaline earth metal weak acid and acid can be carried out in environment or container so that the gas generated can be pressurized or accumulate or produce under the partial pressure greater than the partial pressure of the chemical in ambient air or the earth's atmosphere.For example, the reaction of alkaline earth metal weak acid and acid can be carried out in environment or container so that the gas generated can comprise the volume concentration greater than the volume concentration of gas in the earth's atmosphere or the ambient air. For example, a solid comprising calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate can be reacted with acetic acid to form calcium acetate and a gas comprising carbon dioxide, wherein the reactor can be configured to pressurize or accumulate the carbon dioxide gas so that the generated carbon dioxide gas is at a partial pressure of, for example, greater than 0.01 bar, or 0.1 bar, or 0.3 bar, or 0.5 bar, or 0.7 bar, or 1.0 bar, or 2 bar, or 3 bar, or 4 bar, or 5 bar, or any combination thereof, or at a concentration of, for example, greater than 1 vol%, or 5 vol%, or 10 vol%, or 20 vol%, or 30 vol%, or 40 vol%, or 50 vol%, or 60 vol%, or 70 vol%, or 80 vol%, or 90 vol%, or 95 vol%, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to conduct the generated gas reaction in a batch configuration due to, for example, fast reaction kinetics and / or the ability to achieve greater generated gas partial pressures. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to conduct the generated gas reaction in a semi-continuous or continuous manner or configuration. In some embodiments, it may be desirable to store, transfer, convert, transport, use, sequester, further compress, further process, or any combination thereof. For example, if carbon dioxide is produced, it may be desirable to convert the carbon dioxide into a valuable product, convert the carbon dioxide into a sequestered product, compress the carbon dioxide, liquefy the carbon dioxide, convert the carbon dioxide into a supercritical fluid, transfer the carbon dioxide to a use application, sequester the carbon dioxide, or use the carbon dioxide in enhanced oil recovery, or any combination thereof.For example, if hydrogen sulfide is produced, it may be desirable to, including but not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: conversion to sulfur, or use in a Claus process, or generate heat, or combustion, or generate sulfur dioxide, or generate sulfur dioxide supplement, or convert sulfate to sulfite or sulfide, or generate electricity, or generate steam, or generate sulfurous acid, or generate sulfuric acid, or use for applications, or transport, or store, or any combination thereof.

[1419] In some embodiments, the reaction of the alkaline earth metal weak acid with the acid can produce a gas, a solid, a liquid, an aqueous solution, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the 'weak acid' can be replaced by an acid that is stronger than the weak acid and / or weaker than sulfite. In some embodiments, the weak acid can be replaced and a solid can be formed, which can include, but is not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: silicon dioxide, silicon oxide, or a metal oxide. For example, calcium silicate can react with acetic acid to form aqueous calcium acetate, and the solid contains silicon dioxide. Solid silicon dioxide can be separated from aqueous calcium acetate by, for example, solid-liquid separation. In some embodiments, the solid can be used. For example, silicon dioxide can be used as an aggregate in concrete production. In some embodiments, the solid can be discarded. In some embodiments, a solid-forming reaction may be desirable because, for example, a solid-forming reaction can avoid, minimize, prevent, or reduce the potential generation and / or disposal of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide) or relatively toxic gases (such as hydrogen sulfide). A solid-forming reaction can enable the production of calcium oxide or cement while potentially reducing or preventing the co-production of carbon dioxide.

[1420] The alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt aqueous solution can react with sulfur dioxide gas, or sulfurous acid, or dissolved sulfur dioxide, or any combination thereof to produce, for example, an alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite anion salt and / or acid. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite can be produced primarily as a solid precipitate, while the acid can comprise an aqueous solution. For example, in some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite produced can comprise a solid that can be separated from the aqueous acid by a solid-liquid separation system or method. In some embodiments, residual dissolved alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite can be present in the aqueous acid. In some embodiments, the residual dissolved alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite can remain present in the aqueous acid, and, for example, the aqueous acid is recycled or reused in the method. In some embodiments, a portion of the residual dissolved alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite can be recovered or precipitated using, for example, (including but not limited to), one or more or any combination of the following: cooling, or reverse osmosis concentration, or nanofiltration concentration, or electrodialysis, or reverse electrodialysis, or precipitation, or evaporation. For example, in some embodiments using calcium sulfite, the calcium sulfite may be sufficiently insoluble that recovery of residual dissolved calcium sulfite from the aqueous acid solution may be less desirable or undesirable. For example, in some embodiments using magnesium sulfite, the magnesium sulfite may be sufficiently soluble that recovery of residual dissolved magnesium sulfite from the aqueous acid solution may be desirable.

[1421] In some embodiments, an alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt aqueous solution can react with a gas comprising sulfur dioxide to produce an alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite anion salt and an acid. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal cation-sulfite anion salt can comprise a solid. In some embodiments, the acid can comprise an aqueous solution. In some embodiments, the sulfur dioxide gas can be in a dilute concentration in the gas comprising sulfur dioxide. In some embodiments, if the sulfur dioxide gas is formed by the decomposition of calcium sulfite, it may be desirable that the concentration of the sulfur dioxide gas be dilute because, for example, the decomposition temperature and decomposition rate can be related to the concentration or partial pressure of the sulfur dioxide gas formed, wherein, for example, the lower the concentration or partial pressure of the sulfur dioxide gas formed, the higher the calcium sulfite decomposition rate and / or the lower the temperature required to decompose the calcium sulfite. For example, in some embodiments, the diluted concentration of sulfur dioxide gas can include a concentration of less than 1 vol%, or 5 vol%, or 10 vol%, or 20 vol%, or 30 vol%, or 40 vol%, or 50 vol%, or 60 vol%, or 70 vol%, or 80 vol%, or 90 vol%, or 100 vol%, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the diluted concentration of sulfur dioxide gas can include a sulfur dioxide gas partial pressure of less than 0.01 bar, or 0.05 bar, or 0.1 bar, or 0.2 bar, or 0.3 bar, or 0.4 bar, or 0.5 bar, or 0.6 bar, or 0.7 bar, or 0.8 bar, or 0.9 bar, or 1.0 bar, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, sulfur dioxide gas can be present in a high concentration in the gas comprising sulfur dioxide. For example, in some embodiments, the high concentration of sulfur dioxide gas may include a concentration greater than 1 vol%, or 5 vol%, or 10 vol%, or 20 vol%, or 30 vol%, or 40 vol%, or 50 vol%, or 60 vol%, or 70 vol%, or 80 vol%, or 90 vol%, or 100 vol%, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the high concentration of sulfur dioxide gas may include a sulfur dioxide gas partial pressure greater than 0.01 bar, or 0.05 bar, or 0.1 bar, or 0.2 bar, or 0.3 bar, or 0.4 bar, or 0.5 bar, or 0.6 bar, or 0.7 bar, or 0.8 bar, or 0.9 bar, or 1.0 bar, or 2.0 bar, or 3.0 bar, or 4.0 bar, or 5.0 bar, or any combination thereof.

[1422] In some embodiments, the reaction of the gas containing sulfur dioxide with a solid or aqueous alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt can be carried out in a gas-liquid contactor. For example, the reaction of the gas containing sulfur dioxide with an aqueous alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt can be carried out in a gas-liquid contactor, which may include, but is not limited to, one or more or any combination of the following: an absorption column, a spray tower, a bubbling column, a static mixer, a mixer, a spargers, a membrane contactor, a packed column, a plate column, a disc column, a column, or a precipitator. In some embodiments, it may be desirable that the reaction of the gas containing sulfur dioxide with an aqueous alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt be carried out in a reactor configured to process precipitates or solid formation. For example, in some embodiments, it may be desirable that the reaction of the gas containing sulfur dioxide with an aqueous alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt be carried out in a bubbling column or a spargers. In some embodiments, the alkaline earth metal sulfite formed (which may include solids) can be settled or can be separated from the aqueous acid solution by solid-liquid separation. In certain embodiments, the alkaline earth sulfite formed can be sedimented in the reactor.In certain embodiments, the alkaline earth sulfite formed can keep suspended in the reactor and / or can be separated with aqueous acid solution after mixture is transferred from the reactor.In certain embodiments, the reactor can comprise operation or the configuration in batches or semi-batch or continuously or its any combination.In certain embodiments, owing to for example lacking the accumulation of sulfurous dioxide or sulfite ion in water, solid phase formation reaction can realize fast reaction kinetics and / or high absorption or reaction efficiency.In certain embodiments, the calcium acetate aqueous solution can contact with the gas that comprises sulfurous dioxide, and this may cause forming solid calcium sulfite precipitate and the aqueous solution that comprises acetate.Can be separated with solid calcium sulfite precipitate by solid-liquid separation.

[1423] In some embodiments, the reaction of an alkaline earth metal cation-acid anion salt with sulfur dioxide can form an alkaline earth metal sulfite and an acid, wherein the formed acid can have a vapor pressure. For example, the reaction of calcium acetate with sulfur dioxide ...

Claims

1. A method comprising: reacting a material comprising calcium carbonate with a solution comprising an aqueous carboxylic acid to form a gas comprising carbon dioxide and a solution comprising an aqueous calcium carboxylate; reacting the solution comprising an aqueous calcium carboxylate with sodium sulfate to form a solution comprising an aqueous sodium carboxylate and a solid comprising calcium sulfate; reacting the solution comprising the aqueous sodium carboxylate with sulfur dioxide to form sodium sulfite and an aqueous carboxylic acid; separating the sodium sulfite from the aqueous carboxylic acid; reacting sodium sulfite to form a solid comprising calcium sulfite; as well as The calcium sulfite is decomposed to form calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein: The step of reacting sodium sulfite to form a solid comprising calcium sulfite comprises: The sodium sulfite is reacted with calcium hydroxide to form an aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide and a solid comprising calcium sulfite.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein: The step of reacting sodium sulfite to form a solid comprising calcium sulfite comprises: first reacting calcium carbonate with carbon dioxide and water to form a solution comprising aqueous calcium bicarbonate; and then The solution comprising aqueous calcium bicarbonate is reacted with sodium sulfite to form a solution comprising aqueous sodium bicarbonate and a solid comprising calcium sulfite.

4. The method of claim 3, further comprising: decomposing the sodium bicarbonate to form sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide; reacting the calcium oxide with water to form calcium hydroxide; as well as The sodium carbonate is reacted with the calcium hydroxide to form an aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide and a solid comprising calcium carbonate.

5. The method of claim 3, further comprising: The sodium bicarbonate is decomposed to form sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.

6. The method of claim 5, further comprising: The sodium carbonate is reacted with calcium hydroxide to form an aqueous solution comprising sodium hydroxide and a solid comprising calcium carbonate.

7. The method of any one of claims 1, 2 or 3, further comprising: Calcium oxide is reacted with water to form calcium hydroxide.

8. The method according to any one of claims 1, 2 or 3, wherein: The aqueous carboxylic acid is selected from formic acid or acetic acid or propionic acid or any mixture thereof.

9. The method according to any one of claims 1, 2 or 3, wherein: Said reacting the solution comprising aqueous sodium carboxylate with sulfur dioxide is carried out in an absorption column comprising a first stage and a second stage.

10. The method according to any one of claims 1, 2 or 3, wherein: At least a portion of the calcium oxide is reacted with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate.

11. A method comprising: reacting a material comprising calcium carbonate with a solution comprising an aqueous carboxylic acid to form a gas comprising carbon dioxide and a solution comprising an aqueous calcium carboxylate; reacting the solution comprising an aqueous calcium carboxylate with sodium sulfite to form a solution comprising an aqueous sodium carboxylate and a solid comprising calcium sulfite; decomposing the calcium sulfite to form calcium oxide and sulfur dioxide; reacting the solution comprising the aqueous sodium carboxylate with sulfur dioxide to form sodium sulfite and a carboxylic acid; At least a portion of the sodium sulfite is separated from the aqueous carboxylic acid.

12. The method of claim 11, further comprising: Calcium oxide is reacted with water to form calcium hydroxide.

13. The method of claim 11 or claim 12, further comprising: At least a portion of the carbon dioxide is captured.

14. The method of any one of claims 11, 12 or 13, wherein: The carboxylic acid is selected from formic acid or acetic acid or propionic acid, and the carboxylate is selected from formate or acetate or propionate.

15. The method of any one of claims 11, 12 or 13, wherein: Said reacting the solution comprising aqueous sodium carboxylate with sulfur dioxide is carried out in an absorption column comprising a first stage and a second stage.

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