Electron accelerating apparatus using antimatter and method for operating

Abstract

There is provided an apparatus 300 for converting one or more photons that are input and / or generated within the apparatus into accelerated electrons. The apparatus includes at least one substrate 11

Description

Technical field The present disclosure relates to electron accelerating apparatus for accelerating electrons using antimatter. Moreover, the present disclosure relates to methods for operating the aforesaid electron accelerating apparatus. Furthermore, the present disclosure relates to methods of manufacturing aforesaid electron accelerating apparatus. In particular, the antimatter may include positrons, for example generated by causing spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons in non-linear optical materials that exhibit in use an optical Kerr effect, wherein the corresponding electrons and positrons result in corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles to be formed. Background It is well known in vacuum systems to use electric fields to accelerate electrons that are ejected from an exposed surface of an electron-emitting material, for example a heated tungsten filament in a magnetron, an indirectly-heated lanthanum hexaboride (LaBe) source with accelerator anode in an e-beam welder, or a finely-pointed metal tip subject to an intense electric field applied from an accelerator anode in a scanning electron microscope. For example, electron guns have earlier been used in cathode ray tubes (CRT). Moreover, it will be appreciated that electrons have mass and may have associated kinetic energy, for example that enables electrons to be used in e-beam welding systems; electrons constitute an example of "ordinary" matter. In modern physics, there occur "ordinary" matter and corresponding antimatter. Antimatter may be conventionally thought of as being matter with reversed charge, parity and time, known as CPT reversal. Properties of antimatter were first proposed by Paul Dirac, expressed by his famous equation, namely Equation 1 (Eq. 1): -E = -mv (c4 + v2c2) Eq. 1 Antimatter occurs in natural processes, for example in cosmic ray collisions occurring in the Earth's upper atmosphere and also as a component generated during radioactive decay, for example from radioactive decay giving rise to beta particles (^-particles) being emitted. On Earth, antimatter tends to annihilate with ordinary matter to generate corresponding electromagnetic radiation, for example photons. However, it is known to store antimatter under vacuum conditions in at least one of strong electrostatic fields and magnetic fields for periods of up to circa 1000 hours. For example, the ALPHA project at CERN is concerned with generating positrons for research purposes, wherein the ALPHA project makes use of a high-energy particle accelerator to generate high-energy "ordinary" matter particles at an energy of GeV that are applied to a high atomic weight ("high-Z"') target to generate a range of secondary particles, wherein a portion of the secondary particles are positrons at high energy; a decelerator is then used to decelerate the high energy positrons to provide corresponding lower-energy positrons, and a vacuum storage ring arrangement is then used to store the lower-energy positrons for use in various experiments and research, for example antigravity research. Equipment for the ALPHA project is housed in a large warehousestyle building that consumes considerable energy when operating. As described in a published PCT patent application PCT / IB2022 / 057745 ("System and method for generating power", inventor Ian Clague), it is shown that a given photon may be considered to be a composite particle comprising an electron and a positron orbiting around each other; as the electron has a positive mass and the positron has a negative mass, their corresponding photon has zero mass, enabling the photon to propagate at "the speed c of light", namely 299,792,458 metres per second, in vacuum. An energy of the photon (namely E = hf wherein h is Plank's constant, E is the energy of the photon and f is the frequency of the photon) is determined by parameters of a precession orbit of the electron in relation to its corresponding positron in the photon; for example, lower energy infra-red photons have a larger precession orbit and therefore a longer corresponding wavelength than, example, a gamma ray photon. Such orbits are, for example, manifest in interference fringes generated using photons, for example in optical diffraction gratings. Referring to FIG. 1, there is shown a pair of "ordinary" matter masses indicated generally by 10, wherein the pair of masses 10 includes a first "ordinary matter mass Mi and a second "ordinary matter mass M2 separated by a distance R. In an absence of other external gravitational forces acting on the masses Mi, M2, the masses Mi, M2 mutually attract with forces Fi, F2 mutually directed towards each other. The forces Fi, F2 each have a magnitude as given by Equation 2 (Eq. 2), pursuant to classical Newtonian mechanics: pitF2 = Eq. 2 wherein G is a universal gravitational constant. The forces Fi, F2 are equal and directionally opposite such that the masses Mi, M2 in aggregate provide a net zero force. Such a net zero force is referred to as being "Newtonian symmetry". In an event that the mass Mi is antimatter, the mass Mi has a negative sign in Equation 2, for reasons of Equation 1, wherein the force Fi is directed away from the mass M2, such that the mass M2 appears to "chase" the mass Mi, and the mass Mi seeks to "escape" from the mass M2. The masses Mi, M2 in such a situation become an antimatter-matter dipole indicated generally by 20 in FIG. 1, which is not normally encountered on Earth, because the antimatter mass Mi would normally annihilate with air molecules to generate annihilation energy, unless the mass Mi were held within a vacuum vessel. Creating vacuum conditions on the Earth's surface for storing antimatter often requires ancillary equipment such as a vacuum chamber and vacuum pumps that consume considerable power when in operation. Antimatter particles such as positrons have been known about for many years through the use of cloud chambers. More recently, in an article published in Nature Physics, Wimmer, Regensburger et al. October 2013, "Optical diametric drive acceleration through action-reaction symmetry breaking”, a hypothetical arrangement is analytically considered in which two interacting particles constantly accelerate each other in a same direction through a violation of the action-reaction symmetry. Experimental results are reported that support that reversal of action-reaction symmetry is achievable in practice. Conventionally, antimatter is very difficult and costly to generate on Earth. Positrons are an example of an antimatter particle that are generated, as aforementioned, by directing high-energy GeV particles beams at high atomic number, namely "high-Z", targets, wherein a myriad of secondary particles are thereby generated of which a portion are positrons. Alternatively, positrons are generated when certain radioactive isotopes decay by giving rise to beta-particles (namely ft-particles). Such beta-particles are effectively high-energy electrons; thus, radioactive beta-particle-emitting sources are used as positron generators in positron tomography apparatus. In view of aforesaid, antimatter has so far only been used in research studies and in specialist scientific equipment. However, astronomers are aware of examples of large quantities of antimatter present in the Universe, by inference of galaxy formations and from gravitational characteristics of black holes. The inference supports the aforementioned properties of the antimatter-matter dipole 20. However, as elucidated in the aforesaid patent application PCT / IB2022 / 057745, it will be appreciated that antimatter may be used to accelerate ordinary matter on account of the matter being attracted to the antimatter, and the antimatter being repelled by the "ordinary" matter. Thus, a given electron of a matter-antimatter dipole may be accelerated if its corresponding positron accelerates. Summary The present disclosure seeks to provide an electron accelerating apparatus, wherein a given photon is spatially separated into a corresponding electron and positron, wherein the positron and its electron may be accelerated by forces acting on the electron and the positron that are directed in a mutually similar direction as illustrated in FIG. 1, indicated by 20. Beneficially, the given photon is spatially separated in a photon-guiding structure that exhibits a non-linear optical property, for example an optical Kerr effect, wherein the photon-guiding structure is configured to allow the photon to remain coherent and propagate within the photon-guiding structure, while its corresponding electron and positron are configured to mutually accelerate, thereby accelerating the electron. The electron may be beneficially collected after undergoing acceleration to extract energy gain therefrom, or may be guided to a vacuum environment, for example to form an electron beam; the positron remains in the photon-guiding structure for reuse or for dissipating to generate heat. The photon-guiding structure may be a waveguide arrangement including one or more waveguides, for example: (i) a single waveguide that efficiently coherently constrains a given photon propagating therealong; (ii) at least two elongate waveguides that are closely spaced together by a separation distance that allows for a given photon wavefunction to be coherently sustained across the at least two waveguides; (iii) at least three elongate waveguides arranged in a symmetrical manner around an elongate axis of the waveguides, for example wherein outer elongate waveguides are smaller in lateral width in comparison to a central waveguide defining an axis of symmetry; and (iv) many substantially linear or curved waveguides that are parallel in a general waveguide region, wherein the waveguides are spaced apart by a distance that maintains photon coherence. Other implementations of the waveguide arrangement are feasible within the scope of the present disclosure. According to a first aspect, there is provided an electron accelerating apparatus for generating accelerated electrons using antimatter, as defined in the appended claim 1. The apparatus is of advantage in that the apparatus is susceptible to being implemented in a compact form, for example fabricated onto a substrate using lithographic techniques. There is provided an electron accelerating apparatus for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into accelerated electrons, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus includes at least one substrate including an operating region in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus further includes an accelerated electron collection arrangement for collecting accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles. Optionally, the electron accelerating apparatus is configured for the at least one substrate to support the operating region configured as a loop region, wherein the loop region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating around the loop region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region. Optionally, the electron accelerating apparatus is configured for the at least one substrate to support the operating region configured as a linear region, wherein the linear region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating along the linear region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region. More optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. More optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the one or more optical materials include at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. More optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. Yet more optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. Optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, wherein the at least one substrate includes a dielectric material. More optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire, ceramic. More optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate. Opionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the operating region includes at least two waveguides that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region. Optionally, in the electron accelerating apparatus, the accelerated electron collection arrangement for collecting accelerated electrons includes one or more electrodes configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region. Optionally, the electron accelerating apparatus is included in a plurality configured in an array formation. More optionally, for the electron accelerating apparatus, the array formation is implemented as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method as defined in the appended claim 15. There is provided a method for operating an electron accelerating apparatus to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into accelerated electrons, wherein the method includes: (i) configuring the electron accelerating apparatus to include at least one substrate including an operating region in which the one or more photons are able to propagate; (ii) spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation; and (iii) using an electron collection arrangement of the electron accelerating apparatus to collected accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles. Optionally, the method includes configuring the electron accelerating apparatus to include the at least one planar substrate to support the operating region configured as a loop region, wherein the loop region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matterantimatter dipoles that propagating around the loop region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the electron accelerating apparatus to include the at least one substrate to support the operating region implemented as a linear region, wherein the linear region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate along the linear region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region. Optionally, in the method, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. More optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. More optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. Yet more optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. Optionally, in the method, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric material. More optionally, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire, ceramic. Optionally, in the method, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the silicon substrate. Optionally, the method further includes configuring the operating region to include at least two waveguides that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the electron collection arrangement for extracting accelerated electrons to include one or more electrodes to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimattermatter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to be configured in plurality in an array formation. More optionally, the method includes implementing the array formation as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft. According to a third aspect, there is provided a software product as claimed in claim 29. There is provided a software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware for implementing the method of the second aspect. According to a fourth aspect, there is provided a method as defined in the appended claim 30. There is provided a method for (namely, a method of) manufacturing an electron accelerating apparatus for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into accelerated electrons, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus includes at least one substrate including an operating region in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus further includes an accelerated electron collection arrangement for collecting accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the method includes: (i) providing the at least one substrate including an upper planar surface and a lower planar surface; (ii) optionally adding a first dielectric layer onto the upper planar surface; (iii) adding a non-linear optical layer onto the upper planar surface or, when present, an exposed surface of the dielectric layer; (iv) lithographically forming one or more waveguide structures to provide the operating region by selectively removing portions of the non-linear optical layer; (v) optionally adding a second dielectric layer onto the one or more waveguide structures; (vi) optionally adding a conductive layer onto the one or more waveguide structures or, when present, onto the second dielectric layer; and (vii) lithographically forming one or more electrodes of the accelerated electron collection arrangement into the conductive layer. Beneficially, the one or more non-linear optical effects include an optical Kerr effect. The optical Kerr effect results in a refractive index change that causes the substrate electrons to group with other electrons, and likewise substrate positrons to group with other positrons, resulting in an enhanced positron-electron dipole, and thereby enhanced acceleration experienced by the electrons and the positrons within the apparatus. Description of diagrams Embodiments of the invention will be described with reference to the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of mutual gravitation forces acting on masses of various types; FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of an apparatus of the present disclosure for generating accelerated electrons; FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of a practical implementation of the apparatus of FIG.2; FIG. 4 is a schematic cross-sectional view of various implementations of a waveguide arrangement for use in the apparatus of FIG. 3, wherein waveguides are separated by a distance "x", a thickness height "h” above a substrate, wherein each waveguide has a width "w”; FIG. 5 is a flow chart depicting steps of a method for operating the apparatus of FIG. 3 to accelerate electrons; and FIG. 6 is a flow chart depicting steps of a method for manufacturing the apparatus of FIG. 3 to accelerate electrons. Description of embodiments From first principles in mechanics, it will be appreciated that 1 Joule of work is done in moving a force a 1 Newton through a distance of 1 metre, as defined by Equation 2 (Eq. 2): E = Fd Eq. 2 wherein E = work done by a force F; d = distance through which the force Fis moved corresponding to the work done. Conveniently, as illustrated in FIG. 1 and indicated generally by 30, the distance d may be constrained to a circular path 40 so that a resulting force Facts along the circular path 40 having a radius K, allowing the force F to do work in a conveniently compact spatial region. Conveniently, as will be described in greater detail later, the spatial region may be confined to an optical substrate, wherein the circular path 40 is formed using a looped waveguide structure, for example a circular waveguide structure, fabricated on the substrate. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 1 and indicated generally by 50, the distance d may be constrained along a substantially linear path 60, wherein the substantially linear path 60 is formed using a linear waveguide structure, for example a linear waveguide structure, fabricated on a substrate. Beneficially, the substrate is planar and made from a dielectric material (for example, quartz, silica, sapphire, diamond); alternatively, the substrate is planar and made from a layer of dielectric material (for example silicon dioxide) formed onto a supporting base (for example silicon). Optionally, the substrate is in a range of 0.2 mm to 3 mm thick, and the layer of dielectric material has a thickness in a range of 200 nm to 2 pirn. Moreover, the looped waveguide structure and the linear waveguide structure are beneficially fabricated from one or more optically-transmissive non-linear optical materials, for example a non-linear optical material that exhibits an optical Kerr effect when in use, for example lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material, a zero band-gap material, a superconducting polymer, bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafuivaiene. The force F in Equation 1 is conveniently generated by creating at least one matter-antimatter dipole in the looped waveguide structure or the linear waveguide structure, wherein photons are separated into their respective electrons and positrons to generate corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles by using an optical Kerr effect. The matter-antimatter dipoles are self-accelerating as indicated by 20 in FIG. 1. Optionally, the matter-antimatter dipoles propagate around the circular path 40 as indicated by 30 to generate energy that may be extracted from the substrate using pickup electrodes (not shown in FIG. 1) formed onto the substrate to generate electrical energy; alternatively, optionally, the matter-antimatter dipoles propagates, as indicated generally by 50, along the linear path 60 to generate energy that may be extracted from the substrate using pickup electrodes (not shown in FIG. 1) formed onto the substrate to generate electrical energy. A looped waveguide structure, likewise a linear waveguide structure, may be fabricated so that a given photon wavefunction is coherently maintained when its matter-antimatter dipole is circulating around the circular path 40 or along the linear path 60, thereby avoiding annihilation of its positron with matter constituting the waveguide structure. The waveguide structure is beneficially implemented by using at least two optical waveguides, for example three optical waveguides as illustrated, that are formed spatially sufficiently closely together on the substrate so that a given photon wavefunction is able to spatially encompass the at least two waveguides without causing decoherence of the photon wavefunction. Typically, the at least two waveguides are spatially separated by a distance which is comparable to, or less than, a wavelength of the photon wavefunction. Conveniently, electrodes formed in the substrate that are configured alongside the waveguide structure are used to collect energy from the matter-antimatter dipoles circulating around the circular path 40 or along the linear path 60, wherein bunching of the matter-antimatter dipoles is caused by using appropriate control signal applied to electrodes (not shown in FIG. 1) that are disposed orthogonally to the waveguide structure. Thus, the matterantimatter dipoles are accelerated, wherefrom accelerated electrons may be obtained for generating an electron beam or harvesting energy from the accelerated electrons. It will be appreciated that the aforesaid optical Kerr effect causes photons to be separated spatially into their corresponding electrons and photons, thereby causing spatial segregation of electrons with other electrons, and positrons with other positrons to occur in the waveguide structure. Conveniently, the substrate is fabricated from a dielectric material, for example from silica, quartz, sapphire or similar; the waveguide structure is fabricated from an optically transmissive material that exhibits the aforesaid optical Kerr effect, for example at least one of lithium niobate, barium titanate, graphene, doped graphene, or a zero band-gap material. More optionally, the optically transmissive material includes one or more superconducting polymers, for example bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. The substrate and its corresponding components parts as described in the foregoing may be configured in plural form in arrays to deliver larger amounts of accelerated electrons, for example extractable as electrical energy; optionally, the arrays are configured as solar panels that are exposed to incident solar radiation when in operation to provide photons from which matter-antimatter dipoles are generated, from which accelerated electrons may be obtained. Such arrays with their corresponding photon sources, namely an apparatus pursuant to the present disclosure, may thus be used as an alternative to nuclear power stations, diesel generators and similar. Optionally, collected solar photons may be used to provide the photon sources. Optionally, a portion of accelerated electrons, for example electrical energy generated by the arrays, may be fed back into their photon sources, for example when the photon sources are implemented using one or more lasers, for example one or more pulse-mode lasers. The one or more lasers are optionally integrated into a same package as the substrate. Moreover, beneficially, such arrays with their corresponding photon sources, may be retrofitted to existing power plants to function as energy generators to extend a useful service operating life of the power plants, as will be described in greater detail with reference to FIGs. 2 and 3. Referring to FIG. 2, there is shown an apparatus indicated generally by 100. The apparatus 100 includes a substrate 110 having a loop waveguide structure 140 having two straight regions 150 and two curved end regions 160. The substrate 110 includes a polished upper surface 120A, and a lower rear surface 120B for mechanically supporting the substrate 110. Moreover, the substrate 110 is optionally manufactured from a dielectric material, for example glass, quartz, silica, diamond, ceramic; the loop waveguide structure 140 is formed onto the polished upper surface 120A. Alternatively, the substrate 110 is optionally manufactured from a heat-conductive substrate, for example crystalline Silicon, onto which is formed, in the upper surface 120A, a dielectric layer (not shown in FIG. 2), wherein the dielectric layer is optionally formed by vapour-phase deposition onto the upper surface 120A; the loop waveguide structure 140 is then fabricated onto the dielectric layer. The loop waveguide structure 140 is fabricated using microfabrication processes such as vapour phase deposition, reactive ion etching (RIE), wet chemical etching and microlithography using etching masks. Moreover, the loop waveguide structure 140 includes a non-linear optical material; for example, the non-linear optical material may optionally include at least one: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene or any other material that exhibits a non-linear optical effect. More optionally, the optically transmissive material includes one or more superconducting polymers, for exampie bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. The loop waveguide structure 140 optionally includes two waveguides 195A, 195B that each have a height "h", a width "w" and a gap "x" therebetween, as illustrated in FIG. 4 (top diagram), as indicated by 142. The dimensions "h", "w" and "x" are chosen depending on a wavelength of photons to be propagated around the loop waveguide structure 140. Optionally, the width "w" is in a range of 50 nm to 3000 nm, the height "h" is in a range of 30 nm to 2000 nm, and the gap "x" is in a range of 20 nm to 1000 nm, depending on photon wavelength to be used. Alternatively, as illustrated in FIG. 4 (bottom diagram) as indicated by 144, the loop waveguide structure 140 includes three waveguides, namely a central waveguide 195A having a width "w2" flanked by two side waveguides 195B having a width "wl”, with a gap "x" between the central waveguide 195A and the two side waveguides 195B. Optionally, the width "w2" is greater than the width "wi". Optionally, the widths "wi" and "w2" are in a range of 50 nm to 3000 nm, the height "h" is in a range of 30 nm to 2000 nm, and the gap "x" is in a range of 20 nm to 1000 nm, depending on photon wavelength to be used. Optionally, the height "h" of the two side waveguides 195B is different to a height "h" of the central waveguide 195A, to assist coherent propagation of photons along the waveguide 195A, 195B. It will be appreciated that other configurations of waveguides may be used for manufacturing the loop waveguide structure 140, for example just a single waveguide, or more than two or three waveguides in close proximity to enable photon coherence to be maintained when photons propagate along the waveguides. Such a range of implementations of the loop waveguide structure 140 is used so that spatial separation of the photons propagating along the waveguides into corresponding electrons and positrons may be achieved using non-linear optical properties, for example the optical Kerr effect, of material used to fabricate the waveguides, while maintaining coherence of the photons during their propagation around the loop waveguide structure 140. Beneficially, as aforementioned, the waveguide structure 140 is fabricated from an optically transmissive material that exhibits the aforesaid optical Kerr effect, for example at least one of lithium niobate, barium titanate, graphene, doped graphene, or a zero band-gap material. More optionally, the optically transmissive material includes one or more superconducting polymers, for example bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. Referring back again to FIG. 2, the apparatus 1OO also includes an input waveguide 130 that connects at its proximate end to the loop waveguide structure 140, for example wherein the input waveguide 130 is implemented as a waveguide also fabricated onto the upper surface 120A of the substrate 110, alternatively onto the dielectric layer formed on the upper surface 120A of the substrate 110 when the dielectric layer is present. Moreover, the apparatus 100 is provided with a laser arrangement 145, for example one or more solid-state lasers, for example one or more solid-state lasers that are configured to function is a pulse mode. Optionally, the laser arrangement 145 is mounted onto the substrate 110, or onto the dielectric layer if included, so that the apparatus 100 becomes a compact unitary assembly. When the apparatus 100 is in operation, the laser arrangement 145 injects pulses of photons into the input waveguide 130. The photons propagate along the input waveguide 130 and into the loop waveguide structure 140 where the photons experience non-linear optics effects, for example the optical Kerr effect. Beneficially, the one or more non-linear optical effects include an optical Kerr effect. The optical Kerr effect results in a refractive index change that causes the substrate electrons to group with other electrons, and likewise substrate positrons to group with other positrons, resulting in an enhanced positron-electron dipole, and thereby enhanced acceleration experienced by the electrons and the positrons within the apparatus 100. The photons propagating around the loop waveguide structure 140 maintain their coherence while their respective electrons and positrons become spatially separated and are amenable to being guided and extracted using electrodes (not shown in FIG. 2) that are configured parallel-to, alternatively orthogonally-to, the waveguides of the loop waveguide structure 140. In particular, accelerated electrons may be extracted from the loop waveguide structure 140. The apparatus 100 may be configured in arrays when more accelerated electrons are to be provided. Optionally, the laser arrangement 145 may be implemented using optically-chopped solar radiation when the apparatus 100 is used as a component in solar panel arrays associated with renewable energy systems. Such optical chopping may, for example, be achieved using a Mach-Zender interferometer or similar arrangement. Although the apparatus 100 is implemented with the loop waveguide structure 140, it will be appreciated that other configurations are feasible, pursuant to the present disclosure. Referring again to FIG. 2, there is shown an apparatus indicated generally by 200. The apparatus 200 includes the aforesaid substrate 110, for example fabricated from a dielectric material without the dielectric layer, alternatively fabricated from a material such as Silicon with the dielectric layer. The apparatus 200 includes waveguide structures fabricated onto its upper surface 120A; for example, the waveguide structures are fabricated using microfabrication processes such as vapour phase deposition, reactive ion etching and microlithography using etching masks. Moreover, the waveguide structures include a non-linear optical material, for example as described in the foregoing for the apparatus 100; for example, the non-linear optical material may optionally include at least one: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene or any other material that exhibits a non-linear optical effect. More optionally, the optically transmissive material includes one or more superconducting polymers, for example bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. The waveguide structures include at least one linear waveguide structure as shown, although the at least linear waveguide structure may be curved along at least a part of its length, if required. A first such linear waveguide structure includes an input waveguide 220 for received photons from the laser arrangement 145, wherein the input waveguide 220 is optically coupled to a waveguide splitter 230 which, in turn, is coupled to two waveguides 210A, 210B that optionally extend to a peripheral edge of the substrate 110. The waveguides 210A, 210B are beneficially configured as indicated by 142 in FIG. 4, with reference to associated description in the foregoing. Optionally, when the substrate 110 is operated in a vacuum environment, the apparatus 200 is further provided with an extraction electrode 270, for example an electron-focusing annular electrode, that forms accelerated electrons extracted from at least one of the waveguides 210A, 210B into an electron beam. Alternatively, or additionally, electrodes (not shown in FIG. 2) are included on the upper surface 120 parallel to one or more of the waveguides 210A, 210B, alternatively orthogonally to one or more of the waveguides 210A, 210B, for assisting spatial segregation of the electrons and positrons of the photons, and for extracted accelerated electrons from the waveguides 210A, 210B. Beneficially, the electrodes are disposed spatially within a Schrodinger spatial envelope of the photons that propagate along the waveguides 210A, 210B. A second such linear waveguide structure includes an input waveguide 250 for received photons from the laser arrangement 145, wherein the input waveguide 220 is optically coupled to a waveguide splitter 260 which, in turn, is coupled to three waveguide 240A, 240B that optionally extend to a peripheral edge of the substrate 110. The waveguides 240A, 240B are beneficially configured as indicated by 144 in FIG. 4, with reference to associated description in the foregoing. Optionally, when the substrate 110 is operated in a vacuum environment, the apparatus 200 is further provided with an extraction electrode 270, for example an electron-focusing annular electrode, that forms accelerated electrons extracted from at least one of the waveguides 240A, 240B into an electron beam. Alternatively, or additionally, electrodes (not shown in FIG. 2) are included on the upper surface 120 parallel to one or more of the waveguides 240A, 240B, alternatively orthogonally to one or more of the waveguides 240A, 240B, for assisting spatial segregation of the electrons and positrons of the photons, and for extracted accelerated electrons from the waveguides 240A, 240B. Beneficially, the electrodes are disposed spatially within a Schrodinger spatial envelope of the photons that propagate along the waveguides 240A, 240B. The aforesaid electrodes will now be described in greater with reference to FIG. 3. The electrodes may be fabricated from one or more metals, alternatively from doped semiconductor material, yet alternatively from graphene. Referring next to FIG. 3, there is shown an alternative implementation of the apparatus 100, wherein the alternative implementation is indicated generally by 300. The apparatus 300 includes the substrate 110 with its various structures coupled to one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145, alternatively fed from an alternative photon source, for example solar radiation collectors. The various structures include a layer 310 of non-linear optical material, for example at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped-graphene, n-type doped non-linear optically-transmissive material, p-type doped non-linear optical material. More optionally, the optically transmissive material includes one or more superconducting polymers, for example bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene. The non-linear optically-transmissive material is beneficially arranged to exhibit the optical Kerr effect that causes photons propagating in the non-linear optically-transmissive material to spatially separate into respective electrons and positrons. A dielectric material layer 320 is formed onto the layer 310, wherein the dielectric material includes, for example, vapour-phase grown or deposited silicon dioxide or a polymeric insulator such as polyamide. The layer 310 is photolithographically formed into an input waveguide 330, a bifurcated-waveguide bridge region 335 and at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B; optionally, at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B are slightly curved but maintain a small gap "x"therebetween. The at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B are optionally differentially doped with n-type and p-type dopants. The waveguides 340A, 340 are dimensioned in cross-section in a similar manner to the waveguides 195A, 195B as illustrated in FIG. 4 and indicated by 142. In operation, the aforesaid non-linear optically-transmissive material causes different concentrations of electrons and positrons to propagate in the waveguides 340A, 350B by causing a distortion in wavefunctions of photons propagating from the input waveguide 330 to the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B; such separation results in the formation of matter-antimatter dipoles. The waveguides 340A, 340B are provided with wire bonding pads 360 that are connected elongate electrodes 370 whose orientation is substantially orthogonal to elongate axes of the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B. As shown, the electrodes 390 either overlay both the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B, or only one of the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B to assist control of separating out electrons and positrons of photons into their respect waveguides 340A, 350B. As aforementioned, the waveguides 340A, 340B are separated by a distance "x” that is sufficiently small to enable photons to propagate along the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B, but without their positrons annihilating with matter constituting the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B. Moreover, wire-bonding pads 380 are coupled to one or more electronpickoff-electrodes 390 that are disposed with their elongate axes substantially parallel to elongate axes of the at least two electrodes 340A, 340B. The electrodes 390 are sufficiently close to at least one of the at least two electrodes 340A, 340B, such that the wavefunction of the photons propagating along the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B includes the one or more electrodes 390 within spatial envelopes of their wavefunctions. In operation, optionally, it will be appreciated that when electrons are extracted from the pads 380, corresponding positrons may be harvested from ends of the waveguides 340A, 340B extended to an edge of the substrate 110 by mounting the apparatus 300 within a vacuum enclosure and applying an electric field to an edge of the substrate 110 at which the ends of the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B are exposed; the positrons may be reused or annihilated with matter of a target (not shown) to generate additional heat energy using the apparatus 300. Optionally, for the aforesaid apparatus 100, 200, 300, the substrate 110 is mounted on a major plane of a magnet arrangement, for example a flat planar neodymium magnet, whose magnetic field lines are arranged to be orthogonal to a plane of the substrate 110. Beneficially, the magnetic field lines assist the nonlinear characteristics of the apparatus 100, 200, 300 to cause separation of the photons into their respective electrons and positrons in the at least two waveguides 195A, 195B, 340A, 340B of the apparatus 100, 200, 300. Optionally, the electrodes 390 are coupled to a capacitor arrangement 395, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is optionally implemented as one or more chip capacitors mounted to the substrate 110. Moreover, for a cycle of operation, the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 are beneficially operated in a given pulse mode, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is set to a starting potential prior to the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 being pulsed; photons provided from the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 being pulsed propagate to the waveguides 340A, 340B, wherein the photons are spatially separated into corresponding electrons and positrons on account of the optical Kerr effect, hereby forming corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate around the waveguides 340A, 340B, wherein the matterantimatter dipoles accelerate; accelerated electrons of the matter-antimatter dipoles are coupled to the electrodes 390 and charge the capacitor arrangement 395. After the pulses of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 have ceased, the capacitor arrangement 395 is discharged to extract energy therefrom to provide energy output from the apparatus 300, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is returned to the starting potential. Optionally, the cycle is repeated, for example at a repetition rate in excess of 100 MHz. Optionally, variable frequency operation of pulses provided from the laser arrangement 145 may be used. A manner of operation of the apparatus 300 will next be described in more detail; the manner of operation is referred to as being an "electron accelerator". The apparatus 100 beneficially functions by using an initial priming cycle followed thereafter by one or more operating cycles, during which the apparatus 300 continuously generates accelerated electrons from which energy may be produced. The priming cycle is started by a laser pulse being provided from the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145, wherein the laser pulse pushes photons into the waveguides 340A, 340B. These pushed photons separate into positrons, which are beneficially retained to retain inside non-linear optical material of the waveguides 340A, 340B, as well as electrons which are available for acceleration. After the initial priming cycle, one or more operating cycles are performed that feed electrons into the waveguide 340A, 340B. In each of the one or more operating cycles, a repeat laser pulse provided from the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 continues to supply positrons into the waveguides 340A, 340B. Electrons generated by the laser pulse first slow down naturally as they encounter impediments of the crystalline structure of non-linear material of the waveguides 340A, 340B. The electrons are then accelerated. However, in an example situation, there will be no net energy gain resulting from this acceleration since these electrons left the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 as photons travelling at the speed of light. In the apparatus 300, they electrons effectively slowed down and then speeded up back to their starting velocity. Optionally, during the operating cycle, the capacitor arrangement 395 provides a source of slow electrons that may be accelerated to achieve a gain in energy. Referring next to FIG. 5, there is shown steps of an algorithm, also referred to as being a method, indicated generally by 500. The algorithm 500 is beneficially implemented using a computing device 550 that is configured to execute a software product recorded on a machine-readable data storage medium. Such control includes operation of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145, and voltages applied to the electrodes 370; it will be appreciated that the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 may be operated in a continuous mode, alternatively a pulsed mode, or switchable therebetween. Moreover, potentials applied to the 370 may be constant voltages or varied in a pulsed manner, or switchable therebetween, for example in coordination with pulsing of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145. The algorithm 500 is used to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus 100, 200, 300 into accelerated electrons, for example for generating electrical energy. Beneficially, the algorithm 500 includes steps 510 to 540. In the step 510, the algorithm 500 includes configuring the apparatus 100, 200, 300 to include at least one substrate 110 including an operating region, for example including the loop waveguide structure 140 or the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B, in which the one or more photons are able to propagate. In the step 520, the algorithm 500 includes spatially separating the one or more photons into corresponding electrons and positrons while preserving coherence of the photons, to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation. In the step 530, the algorithm 500 includes using an electron collection arrangement, for example implemented using the electrodes 390, of the apparatus 100, 200, 300 to extract accelerated electrons, for example as electrical energy from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles. Such collection of accelerated electrons may optionally occur via use of one or more capacitors 395 that assist to define a stable operating voltage for the electrodes 390. Beneficially, the one or more capacitors 395 are mounted onto the substrate 110 to be an integral part of the apparatus 100, 200, 300. In the optional step 540, for example that may be implemented initially in the algorithm 500, the algorithm 500 includes configuring the apparatus 100, 200, 300 to be included in plurality in an array formation. Optionally, the array formation may be used as a functional part of a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft, for example as described in the foregoing. The algorithm 500, for example implemented using the computing device 550, may be highly effective when the apparatus 100, 200, 300 is included, for example, in consumer electronic apparatus, for example in mobile telephones, laptop computers, portable virtual reality (VR) equipment, artificial intelligence (AI) personal-assistance apparatus and such like. For example, the algorithm 500 may be configured to control a frequency of pulsing of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 145 so as to provide the apparatus 100, 200, 300 with a constant voltage output, a constant current output, a constant power output for power transferred via the capacitor arrangement 395, for example comprising one or more capacitors mounted integrally onto the substrate 110. Such control provided by the algorithm 500 enables the apparatus 100, 200, 300 to function in a highly efficient manner, thereby reducing energy dissipation occurring in the apparatus 100, 200, 300. Referring next to FIG. 6, there is shown a flow chart of steps 610 to 700 of a method indicated generally by 600. At the step 610, the substrate 110 is cleaned and prepared with the upper surface 120A being polished for receiving microfabrication processes. At the step 620, for example when the substrate 110 is bulk material such as a ceramic or monocrystalline silicon, there is optionally grown a first dielectric layer onto the supper surface 120A. Optionally, the first dielectric layer has a thickness in a range of 50 nm to 3000 nm. The first dielectric layer is beneficially grown by using vapour phase deposition. At the step 630, a layer of non-linear optical material is grown, for example via use of vapour-phase deposition, onto the upper surface 120A; alternatively, when the first dielectric layer is present, the layer of non-linear optical material if grown onto the first dielectric layer, the non-linear optical material includes at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material, a zero band-gap material, one or more superconducting polymers bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathia fulvalene. At the step 640, one or more waveguide structures, for example waveguides 210A, 210B, 220, 230, 240A, 240B, 330, 335, 340A, 340, are lithographically defined in the layer of non-linear optical material of the step 630; for example, such lithographic definition required use of photoetch ask and reactive ion etching (RIE). It will be appreciated that the layer of non-linear optical material has a refractive index that is different to material that surround it, for example the substrate 110 or, if present, the first dielectric layer of the step 620; thereby, the one or more waveguide structures, in use, are able to guide photons therealong. The layer of non-linear optical material beneficially has a thickness in a range of 30 nm to 2000 nm, depending on the range of photon wavelengths to be used in the one or more waveguide structures, At the step 650, there is optionally grown a second dielectric layer onto the one or more waveguide structures of the step 640. Optionally, the second dielectric layer has a thickness in a range of 50 nm to 3000 nm. The second dielectric layer is beneficially grown by using vapour phase deposition. At the step 660, there is formed an electrode layer onto or near the waveguide structures or, when the second dielectric layer is included, onto the second dielectric layer. The electrode layer may be a metallic layer, for example including at least one of: titanium, aluminium, silver, gold, indium; alternatively, the electrode layer may be provided by using a doped semiconductor, graphene, doped graphene or similar. At the step 670, the electrode layer is lithographically defined into various electrodes, for example the electrodes 370, 390, by using lithographic masks and etching, for example wet etching or reactive ion etching (RIE). The electrodes are configured, for example as illustrated in FIG. 3, closely to the waveguide structures to be within a coherence distance of photons propagating along the waveguide structures. The electrodes may be configured at least one of parallel to the waveguide structures, obliquely to the waveguide structure, orthogonally to the waveguide structures, partially overlapping the waveguide structures, fully overlapping the waveguide structures, underneath the waveguide structures. The electrodes have a function to assist spatial separation electrons and positrons of photons that propagate with the waveguide structures. Moreover, the electrodes also have a function to extract or collect accelerated electrons from the waveguide structures. At the step 680, optionally one or more capacitors, for example the capacitors 395 are connected to aforesaid one or more electrodes that are configured on the substrate 110 to collect accelerated electrons. Optionally the one or more capacitors are flip-mounted to the substrate 110, so that the one or more capacitors are unitary to the apparatus 100, 200, 300. At the step 690, the substrate 110 and its associated component parts from the step 680 is mounted onto a header of an integrated circuit package, for example an integrated circuit package with cavity therein which may be sealed with a sealing cap that may be applied to the integrate circuit package. At the step 700, wire ponding from pins of the header to bonding pads of the substrate 110 are made, wherein the integrated circuit package is then filled with inert gas or vacuum (with trace-gas getter) and then the sealing cap of the integrated circuit added. The method 600 is susceptible to being implemented using standard semiconductor manufacturing facilities, for example using a production line configured to manufacture electro-optical integrated circuits for the telecoms industry. It is to be understood that arrangements of components illustrated in the aforesaid diagrams and described above are exemplary and that other arrangements may be possible within the scope of the claims as appended herewith. Although the disclosure and its advantages have been described in detail, it is to be understood that various changes, substitutions, and alterations may be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

Claims

1. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus (100; 200; 300) into accelerated electrons, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) includes at least one substrate (110) including an operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus (100; 200; 300) further includes an accelerated electron collection arrangement (270; 390, 395) for collecting accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles.

2. An electron accelerating apparatus (100) of claim 1, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus (100) is configured for the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (140) configured as a loop region (140), wherein the loop region (140) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating around the loop region (140), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region (140).

3. An electron accelerating apparatus (300) of claim 1, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus (300) is configured for the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (340A, 340B) configured as a linear region (340A, 340B), wherein the linear region (340A, 340B) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matterantimatter dipoles propagating along the linear region (340A, 340B), whilemaintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region (340A, 340B).

4. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

5. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

6. An electron accelerating apparatus (100, 200; 300) of claim 2, 3, 4 or 5, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

7. An electron accelerating apparatus (100, 200, 300) of claim 6, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally includebis(ethylenedithio)tetrathia fulvalene.

8. An electron accelerating apparatus (100, 200, 300) of one of the preceding claims, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric material.

9. An electron accelerating apparatus (100, 200, 300) of claim 8, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (110) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire, ceramic.

10. An electron accelerating apparatus (100, 200, 300) of claim 8, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the silicon substrate (110).

11. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B;340A, 340B) includes at least two waveguides (195A, 195B; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (110) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matterantimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B).

12. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the accelerated electron collection arrangement (390, 395) for collecting accelerated electrons includes one or more electrodes (390) configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes (390) are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B).

13. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) is included in plurality configured in an array formation.

14. An electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) of claim 13, wherein the array formation is implemented as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft.

15. A method (500) for operating an electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus (100; 200; 300) into accelerated electrons, wherein the method (500) includes:(i) configuring the electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) to include at least one substrate (110) including an operating region (140; 210A,210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) in which the one or more photons are able to propagate;(ii) spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation; and(iii) using an electron collection arrangement (270; 390, 395) of the electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) to collected accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles.

16. A method (500) of claim 15, wherein the method (500) includes configuring the electron accelerating apparatus (100) to include the at least one planar substrate (110) to support the operating region (140) configured as a loop region (140), wherein the loop region (140) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagating around the loop region (140), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region (140).

17. A method (500) of claim 15, wherein the method (500) includes configuring the electron accelerating apparatus (200; 300) to include the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) implemented as a linear region (210A,210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B), wherein the linear region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B, 340A, 340B) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate along the linear region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B, 340A, 340B), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B).

18. A method (500) of claim 16 or 17, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

19. A method (500) of claim 16, 17 or 18, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: lithium niobate, barium titanate, barium niobate, graphene, doped graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

20. A method (500) of claim 16, 17, 18 or 19, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

21. A method (500) of claim 20, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene.

22. A method (500) of claims 15 to 21, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric material.

23. A method (500) of claim 17, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (110) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire, ceramic.

24. A method (500) of claim 22, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the silicon substrate (110).

25. A method (500) of any one of claims 15 to 24, wherein the method (500) further includes configuring the operating region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) to include at least two waveguides (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (110) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving risethe one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B).

26. A method (500) of any one of claims 15 to 25, wherein the method (500) includes configuring the electron collection arrangement (390, 395) for extracting accelerated electrons to include one or more electrodes (390) to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240b; 340A, 340B) to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes (390) are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region (210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B).

27. A method (500) of any one of claims 15 to 26, wherein the method (500) includes configuring the apparatus (100; 200; 300) to be configured in plurality in an array formation.

28. A method (500) of claim 27, wherein the method (500) includes implementing the array formation as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft.

29. A software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware (650) for implementing a method (500) of any one of claims 15 to 28.

30. A method (600) for manufacturing an electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus (100; 200; 300) into accelerated electrons, wherein the electron accelerating apparatus (100; 200; 300) includes at least one substrate (110) including an operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound ortherealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus (100; 200; 300) further includes an accelerated electron collection arrangement (270; 390, 395) for collecting accelerated electrons from the propagating one or more matterantimatter dipoles, wherein the method (600) includes:(I) providing the at least one substrate (110) including an upper planar surface (120A) and a lower planar surface (120B);(ii) optionally adding a first dielectric layer onto the upper planar surface (120A);(iii) adding a non-linear optical layer onto the upper planar surface (120A) or, when present, an exposed surface of the dielectric layer;(iv) lithographically forming one or more waveguide structures (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) to provide the operating region (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) by selectively removing portions of the non-linear optical layer;(v) optionally adding a second dielectric layer onto the one or more waveguide structures (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B);(vi) optionally adding a conductive layer onto the one or more waveguide structures (140; 210A, 210B, 240A, 240B; 340A, 340B) or, when present, onto the second dielectric layer; and(vii) lithographically forming one or more electrodes (370, 390) of the accelerated electron collection arrangement (270; 390, 395) into the conductive layer.

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