Apparatus and method for the production of hydrogen

Abstract

An apparatus (100) for pyrolyzing a hydrocarbon fuel into a plurality of products, the apparatus comprising a reaction chamber (102) and an electrically conductive coil (104) surrounding the reaction chamber (102). The reaction chamber (102) has an inlet for supplying the hydrocarbon fuel to the reaction chamber (102) and an outlet for the products of pyrolysis, the electrically conductive coil (104) surrounding the reaction chamber (102) between the inlet and the outlet. The electrically conductive coil (102) receives an alternating current to heat the reaction chamber (102) by electromagnetic induction.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] The present invention relates to an apparatus and method for pyrolyzing hydrocarbon fuels in which hydrogen is a product. [Background technology]

[0002] Hydrogen is an attractive fuel source because it is light, offers a high energy return for its mass (120,000 kJ / kg), and produces harmless combustion products (water vapour). However, hydrogen does not occur in large quantities in the atmosphere and therefore needs to be produced.

[0003] In the present invention, hydrogen is produced by the thermal or pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, which can be represented by the following reaction: JPEG2024535137000002.jpg1566

[0004] The process is attractive because it provides the products hydrogen (a non-toxic fuel) and carbon black (a carbonaceous product), which has numerous industrial uses, including as a pigment and reinforcement in automobile tires, as an additive in coatings and plastics, and as a pigment in inks.

[0005] WO 2018 / 015564 describes a process for hydrogen production via pyrolysis of a hydrocarbon fuel using an electrical heating source that heats a reaction chamber via conduction of heat from the heating source to thermally conductive reaction chamber walls, which then radiate heat to hydrocarbon gases flowing through the reaction chamber. Summary of the Invention

[0006] It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved method and apparatus for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels having improved thermal and conversion efficiency.

[0007] Viewed from a first aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus for pyrolyzing a hydrocarbon fuel into a plurality of products, said apparatus comprising: A reaction chamber comprising: an inlet for supplying the hydrocarbon fuel to the reaction chamber; an outlet for products of pyrolysis; and a conductive coil surrounding the reaction chamber between the inlet and the outlet of the reaction chamber; The conductive coil is a device that is positioned to receive an alternating current and heat the reaction chamber by electromagnetic induction.

[0008] Thus, the present invention provides an apparatus for pyrolyzing hydrocarbon fuels by electrically heating at least a portion of a reaction chamber via electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction heating works by passing an alternating current through a conductive material (e.g., the conductive coil of the present invention), generating an alternating magnetic field. When a conductive material is placed in the alternating magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in the conductive material, which results in localized heating of the conductive material (i.e., at the surface or wall) via the skin effect. The heat generated in the conductive material can then be conducted through a thermally conductive material and / or radiated from the material to the surrounding environment. For example, the heat generated in the conductive material can be transferred to the hydrocarbon fuel flowing therethrough, allowing the heat to be transferred along the radiant chamber and by thermal convection.

[0009] In the present invention, a conductive coil is disposed between the reaction chamber inlet and the reaction chamber outlet, and is disposed to surround the reaction chamber such that when an alternating current is passed through the conductive coil, the reaction chamber is heated via electromagnetic induction. Heat generated by the generated alternating magnetic field penetrating the reaction chamber can be conducted through the reaction chamber such that at least a portion of the heat generated at the reaction chamber wall can be radiated toward the hydrocarbon fuel flowing therethrough (i.e., from the inlet to the outlet) to a temperature at which pyrolysis can occur.

[0010] Thus, in a further aspect of the present invention there is provided a method for pyrolyzing a hydrocarbon fuel into a plurality of products, said method comprising: introducing the hydrocarbon fuel into a reaction chamber; passing an alternating current through a conductive coil surrounding the reaction chamber to generate an alternating magnetic field to inductively heat the reaction chamber; The method further comprises heating the hydrocarbon fuel in the reaction chamber to effect pyrolysis of the hydrocarbon fuel.

[0011] Preferably, the method further comprises the use of an apparatus as described herein. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the apparatus used in the method of the present invention can, and preferably does, include any one or more, or all of the preferred and optional features of the apparatus described herein, as appropriate.

[0012] Thus, the present invention provides methods (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) and apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels using a non-polluting heat source that does not require direct contact between the heat source and the reaction chamber.

[0013] As discussed herein, the present invention provides methods and apparatus that may enable heating of a reaction chamber (which in turn heats the hydrocarbon fuel in the reaction chamber) to higher temperatures than conventional methods of plasma pyrolytic cracking using conductive heating, such that improved thermal efficiency may be achieved. Thus, the present invention helps provide improved conversion and conversion efficiency of hydrocarbon fuel to multiple products, including carbonaceous products and hydrogen. The present invention may also help provide improved thermal efficiency as well as improved quality and size distribution of the carbonaceous products.

[0014] Achieving higher temperatures can decrease reaction times (by increasing reaction rates), which in turn can increase throughput, as well as the kinetic viscosity of the gas providing improved laminar flow. Laminar flow helps the hydrocarbon fuel to flow in a non-turbulent manner, thus allowing for an effective and even distribution of heat transferred to the hydrocarbon fuel so that all of the hydrocarbon fuel entering the device is effectively cracked into the desired reaction products.

[0015] An apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) preferably comprises a hydrocarbon fuel supply source in fluid communication with and upstream of the reaction chamber inlet, and is positioned to supply a flow of hydrocarbon fuel to the reaction chamber.

[0016] The reaction chamber preferably comprises a cavity (e.g., extending through the reaction chamber) and at least one wall (e.g., defining the cavity), and the hydrocarbon fuel is arranged to flow (be input) from an inlet into the reaction chamber cavity (towards an outlet of the cavity). At least one wall preferably extends from the inlet to the outlet and surrounds the cavity (away from the inlet and outlet openings).

[0017] In these embodiments, the conductive coil preferably surrounds the walls of the reaction chamber such that the alternating magnetic field generated by the conductive coil penetrates the walls of the reaction chamber, thus heating the walls of the reaction chamber. It will be appreciated that heat generated at the walls (e.g., at the surfaces of the walls) is conducted through the reaction chamber walls towards the cavity (e.g., the cavity through which the hydrocarbon fuel flows), and at least a portion of the heat generated at the reaction chamber walls is radiated into the cavity to heat the hydrocarbon fuel flowing therethrough (i.e., from the inlet to the outlet) to a temperature at which pyrolysis occurs. The heat generated at the walls may be transferred to the hydrocarbon fuel flowing therethrough, allowing heat to be transferred along the reaction chamber and by thermal convection.

[0018] The reaction chamber may comprise any suitable and desired number of walls, for example, to form any suitable and desired cross-sectional shape. The reaction chamber may comprise n walls defining any circular, oval, or n-sided polygonal cross-sectional shape. For example, the reaction chamber may comprise one wall (n=1) defining a circular or oval cross-sectional shape. In some embodiments, n=3 (e.g., triangle), for example n=4 (e.g., square, rectangle, diamond or rhombus), for example n=5 (e.g., regular or irregular pentagon), for example n=6 (e.g., regular or irregular hexagon), for example n>6 (e.g., regular or irregular heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon, etc.).

[0019] The reaction chamber inlet and outlet can define a long axis, e.g., extending between the inlet (e.g., center of the inlet) and the outlet (e.g., center of the outlet). In some embodiments, the reaction chamber extends along or parallel to the long axis. The reaction chamber can be considered to extend along the long axis when the long axis intersects the center of the cross-section of the reaction chamber (e.g., in a plane perpendicular to the long axis). Similarly, the reaction chamber can be considered to extend parallel to the long axis when the long axis does not intersect the center of the cross-section of the reaction chamber (e.g., in a plane perpendicular to the long axis), such that the reaction chamber is offset from the long axis but extends parallel to the long axis.

[0020] In a preferred embodiment, the reaction chamber has a prismatic shape (i.e., the three-dimensional shape is a prism) and has any suitable desired polygonal cross-sectional shape perpendicular to the long axis. In a preferred embodiment, the reaction chamber comprises, for example, a cylindrical conduit (e.g., a pipe) that extends from an inlet to an outlet along or parallel to the long axis.

[0021] In preferred embodiments, the walls of the reaction chamber extend linearly along or parallel to the longitudinal axis, e.g., the conduit is straight. However, in some embodiments, the reaction chamber may extend non-linearly along or parallel to the longitudinal axis, e.g., the conduit itself may be shaped as a spiral or coil wrapped around the longitudinal axis and extending from the inlet to the outlet. Non-linear designs may be used, for example, to increase the effective length over which the hydrocarbon fuel is heated (and thus the reaction chamber volume) without extending the length (and thus the energy requirements) of the coil used to heat the reaction chamber.

[0022] In a preferred embodiment, the reaction chamber (e.g., the cavity of said reaction chamber) is empty (e.g., prior to introducing the hydrocarbon fuel therein via the inlet) and has no solid particulate material located therein (e.g., removable). Thus, in use, the reaction chamber (e.g., of the cavity) preferably contains only the hydrocarbon fuel and the products of pyrolysis flowing therethrough. For example, the reaction chamber does not contain any catalytic material and preferably the method of pyrolysis defined herein is not catalyzed (i.e., is not mediated by the presence of a catalytic material).

[0023] In some systems known in the art, catalytic materials can be provided to lower the temperature required to activate a reaction such as decomposition (i.e., lower the activation energy to products along the reaction pathway) and achieve higher conversion efficiency. This may be considered desirable when the temperatures required for a particular process are very high and therefore difficult to obtain and / or unpredictable. However, at least preferred embodiments of the present invention aim to provide an apparatus and method for the decomposition of hydrocarbon fuels that can both achieve high temperatures with uniform and / or predictable temperature gradients across the reaction chamber using electromagnetic induction heating. This may render the need for catalytic materials obsolete.

[0024] An apparatus of the invention (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes a (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber and introducing a hydrocarbon fuel into the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber (e.g., using an apparatus described herein). In some embodiments, the apparatus can introduce a hydrocarbon fuel into one or more reaction chambers, e.g., a two-chamber, three-chamber, four-chamber, five-chamber, six-chamber, or seven-chamber reaction chamber, e.g., a plurality of reaction chambers. In embodiments including a plurality (e.g., multiple) reaction chambers, the reaction chambers may be arranged parallel to one another, e.g., all of the reaction chambers extend along or parallel to a longitudinal axis.

[0025] In preferred embodiments, the multiple reaction chambers are arranged side-by-side (and e.g., on the long axis) with respect to one another in any suitable and desired configuration. For example, three reaction chambers arranged to form a triangle (e.g., with the cross section of each reaction chamber centered, e.g., each reaction chamber extending along the triangle, a square, rhombus, or diamond (e.g., with the cross section of each reaction chamber centered, e.g., each reaction chamber extending along an apex or corner), five reaction chambers (e.g., with the cross section of each reaction chamber centered, e.g., each reaction chamber extending along an apex or corner), or a square arrangement with one reaction chamber in the center (e.g., four reaction chambers arranged with each reaction chamber centered). The cross sections can be arranged to form a centrally located, e.g., a square with each reaction chamber centrally located, a rectangle and one centrally located), six reaction chambers can be arranged to form a hexagon (e.g., a cross section located in the center of each reaction chamber, e.g., a cross section located in the center of each reaction chamber extends along an apex or corner, cross sections located in the centers of the reaction chambers (e.g., a cross section of five reaction chambers located in the center of each reaction chamber) extend along an apex or corner, e.g., a cross section of one reaction chamber centrally located, e.g., extends along the center of a pentagon), etc.

[0026] The (e.g., at least one) conductive coil is arranged to surround the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the device (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes the same number of conductive coils as the number of reaction chambers. For example, in some embodiments, the device comprises two or more (e.g., three, e.g., four, e.g., five, e.g., six, e.g., seven or more) reaction chambers, each surrounded by a respective conductive coil. In these embodiments, the reaction chambers are preferably arranged in parallel (e.g., in any suitable and desired shape or configuration, as described above), but preferably do not directly contact each other. This helps to provide sufficient space between the reaction chambers for the conductive coils to surround each reaction chamber.

[0027] In some embodiments, a single conductive coil can surround two or more reaction chambers. For example, a single conductive coil may be disposed to surround multiple reaction chambers. In these embodiments, multiple reaction chambers may be disposed on a single conductive coil such that the magnetic field generated by the single coil acts to heat at least a portion of the reaction chambers that the coil simultaneously surrounds.

[0028] In these embodiments, the reaction chambers are preferably arranged in parallel (e.g., in any suitable and desired shape or configuration, as described above) and may or may not be in direct contact with one another. For example, all of the reaction chambers may be in direct contact such that the multiple reaction chambers may transfer heat to one another via conduction. In some embodiments, the multiple reaction chambers may not be in direct contact, for example, such a configuration may provide a more even distribution across the alternating magnetic field (and thus more isotropic heating).

[0029] Providing multiple reaction chambers helps to allow larger volumes of hydrocarbon gas to be heated simultaneously, with only a minimal degradation in the quality (e.g., isotropy) of the cross-sectional thermal profile (e.g., in an axis perpendicular to the long axis of the reaction chambers), thus improving the thermal efficiency of the cracking process and increasing the rate of hydrogen output.

[0030] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes a number of conductive coils that is greater than the number of reaction chambers. For example, an apparatus may include one reaction chamber and two or more conductive coils. In such embodiments, the conductive coils are preferably arranged adjacent to one another (e.g., in series), with each conductive coil inductively heating (e.g., sequentially) adjacent regions of the reaction chamber to provide continuous heating along the length of the reaction chamber that is greater than the length of a single (or pair) conductive coil.

[0031] The reaction chamber may comprise at least one wall having any suitable and desired thickness, for example, the thickness of the at least one wall may be between 0.1 cm and 100 cm, such as between 0.5 cm and 50 cm, such as between 0.5 cm and 20 cm, such as between 0.5 cm and 10 cm, such as between 0.5 cm and 5 cm, such as between 0.5 cm and 3 cm, such as about 1 cm.

[0032] As outlined above, the reaction chamber may comprise a cavity (e.g., extending through the reaction chamber) into which the hydrocarbon fuel flows from an inlet to an outlet. The cavity may have a width (or diameter, if the reaction chamber is cylindrical) of 5 mm to 100 mm, e.g., 10 mm to 80 mm, e.g., 20 mm to 60 mm, e.g., 20 mm to 40 mm. In some embodiments, the cavity may have a constant (e.g., cross-sectional) size and shape along the length of the heated reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the cavity may have a variable (e.g., cross-sectional) size and shape along the length of the heated reaction chamber.

[0033] The ratio between the diameter (or width) of the cavity and the length of the reaction chamber (e.g. in embodiments where the reaction chamber is cylindrical (or prismatic)) is preferably in the range of 1:5 to 1:80, such as 1:5 to 1:60, such as 1:10 to 1:40, such as 1:10 to 1:20.

[0034] The conductive coil includes a length (i.e., a dimension horizontal to the long axis (e.g., of the overall shape of the conductive coil)) such that the conductive coil heats a portion of the reaction chamber of substantially the same length. The length of the reaction chamber to be heated (corresponding to the length of the conductive coil) may be any suitable and desired length. For example, the length of the reaction chamber to be heated (or the length of the conductive coil) may be in the range of 10 cm to 10 m, such as 10 cm to 5 m, such as 20 cm to 1 m, such as 20 cm to 50 cm, such as 20 cm to 40 cm, such as 30 cm.

[0035] In a preferred embodiment, the reaction chamber has a cavity diameter of 2.5 cm, reaction chamber walls of 0.8 cm (resulting in a total reaction chamber diameter of 3.3 cm), and a length of 30 cm over which the reaction chamber is heated, resulting in a cavity volume of approximately 94 cm2 in which pyrolysis occurs. 3 It is.

[0036] The apparatus is preferably arranged to heat the reaction chamber to a temperature of more than 1500°C, preferably more than 1800°C, for example 1900-2500°C, for example 2,000-2,400°C. This serves to effect pyrolysis of the hydrocarbon fuel. Thus, the reaction chamber preferably comprises or consists (substantially formed) of an electrically conductive material, for example a material capable of withstanding temperatures of more than 2500°C, preferably more than 3000°C, preferably without undergoing a phase transition (e.g. melting). For example, the reaction chamber may comprise or consist (substantially formed) of a suitable refractory metal (i.e. a metal having a melting point of more than 2200°C), such as tungsten, rhenium, tantalum, molybdenum, osmium and iridium. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber is made of tungsten, for example a tungsten cylinder or tube.

[0037] The coil is preferably formed as a continuous length of (i.e., conductive) material wound to comprise a plurality of turns. For example, the conductive material may be wound in a sequence of loops (i.e., non-circular turns) or rings (i.e., circular turns), with each turn of the coil sharing a common axis.

[0038] An apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes a (e.g., at least one) conductive coil surrounding a (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber and arranged to receive an alternating current, e.g., the conductive coil is connected to an alternating current generator arranged to supply an alternating current to the conductive coil.

[0039] The method includes passing an alternating current through a (e.g., at least one) conductive coil arranged to surround the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber, such that an alternating magnetic field is generated to inductively heat the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber. For example, the method includes a conductive coil receiving an alternating current from an alternating current generator, and thus, preferably, the alternating current generator generates an alternating current and supplies the alternating current to the conductive coil. The frequency of the alternating current may be 500 Hz to 100 MHz, such as 1 kHz to 500 kHz, such as 10 kHz to 100 kHz, such as 20 kHz to 90 kHz, such as 30 kHz to 70 kHz, such as about 50 kHz.

[0040] In some embodiments, the (e.g., at least one) conductive coil surrounds the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber such that the length of the conductive coil extends along or parallel to the longitudinal axis. In some embodiments, the center of the conductive coil and the center of the cross-sectional shape of the reaction chamber intersect such that they share a common axis (e.g., the conductive coil and the (e.g., each) reaction chamber are coaxial). In embodiments including multiple reaction chambers surrounded by a single coil, the reaction chambers may be disposed in the conductive coil such that the center of the arrangement of the multiple reaction chambers (e.g., the shape formed thereby) intersects the center of the coil such that the arrangement of the reaction chambers and the length of the conductive coil share a common axis extending along it.

[0041] In some embodiments, the apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) can include multiple conductive coils, e.g., two or more conductive coils, e.g., three or more conductive coils, e.g., multiple conductive coils. As described above, in some embodiments, there may be as many conductive coils as there are reaction chambers, such that each reaction chamber is surrounded by a respective conductive coil. In other embodiments, there may be fewer conductive coils as there are reaction chambers, such that multiple reaction chambers are surrounded by a common coil. In other embodiments, there may be more conductive coils than there are reaction chambers, such that each reaction chamber is surrounded by multiple conductive coils, and the multiple conductive coils may be arranged adjacent to or in series with each other along or parallel to the long axis. In some embodiments, one or more reaction chambers are surrounded by two or more common conductive coils, e.g., multiple reaction chambers are surrounded by at least two common conductive coils.

[0042] The shape of a conductive coil may be described by a first cross-sectional shape (i.e., defining the shape of the turns of a continuous length of material) and a second cross-sectional shape (i.e., defining the cross-sectional shape of the continuous length of material that is wound to form the coil). For example, a continuous length of solid square pipe wound to have circular turns (e.g., wound around a round cylinder) will form a coil having a circular first cross-sectional shape and a square second cross-sectional shape.

[0043] The first cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil may include any suitable and desired shape, such as, for example, circular, oval, square, or rectangular. Of course, when the conductive coil surrounds the reaction chamber, the first cross-sectional shape is hollow, thus defining a cavity in which the reaction chamber is positioned. The multiple turns of the conductive coil may thus be considered to form a perimeter of the first cross-sectional shape.

[0044] As the conductive coil surrounds the reaction chamber, the inner dimensions of the first cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil (e.g., the width and height of the hollow region of the first cross-sectional shape) may not be smaller than the outer dimensions of the reaction chamber defined by the reaction chamber wall (e.g., the outer width and height). In some embodiments, the inner dimensions of the first cross-sectional shape are equal to the outer dimensions of the reaction chamber, such that the conductive coil is in direct contact with the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the inner dimensions of the first cross-sectional shape are larger than the outer dimensions of the reaction chamber, such that the conductive coil is not in direct contact with (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber.

[0045] The first cross-sectional shape of the coil relative to the reaction chamber can affect the heat profile electromagnetically induced in the walls of the reaction chamber when an alternating current is passed through the conductive coil. It may be desirable to minimize thermal variations across the width of the reaction chamber to help provide uniform (or isotropic) heating of the hydrocarbon fuel passing therethrough. In some embodiments, the first cross-sectional shape (e.g., shape of the turns) of the conductive coil corresponds to the shape of the reaction chamber it surrounds. For example, in an embodiment comprising a single cylindrical reaction chamber, the reaction chamber may be surrounded by a conductive coil having a circular first cross-section, and thus comprising circular turns (e.g., a ring). A cubic reaction chamber may be surrounded by a coil comprising turns in the shape of a square, for example.

[0046] In embodiments including multiple reaction chambers, the first cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil (e.g., the shape of the turns) may correspond to the overall shape of the arrangement of reaction chambers in the coil. For example, in an embodiment including three reaction chambers arranged parallel to the long axis in a triangle (e.g., each of the three reaction chambers at the apexes of a triangle with the long axis at the center of the triangle), the coil includes three reaction chambers located at the (e.g., hollow) center. The first cross-sectional shape of the coil may be substantially triangular (or triangular with rounded corners).

[0047] In some embodiments, the first cross-sectional shape may not correspond to the shape of the reaction chamber it surrounds. For example, the conductive coil may have a circular first cross-sectional shape, for example, for ease of manufacture or commercial availability, regardless of the shape of the reaction chamber, the number of reaction chambers, or the shape of the arrangement of multiple reaction chambers in the center of the conductive coil.

[0048] The second cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil may comprise any suitable and desired cross-sectional shape, such as, for example, circular, oval, square, rectangular, flattened oval, D-shaped, trapezoidal, etc. For example, in one embodiment, the conductive coil has a circular second cross-sectional shape such that the conductive coil comprises a continuous length of circular pipe or tubing that is wound into the first cross-sectional shape to surround the reaction chamber.

[0049] The second cross-sectional shape may have any suitable and desired dimensions (e.g., width and height). In some embodiments, the width of the second cross-sectional shape (i.e., the dimension parallel to the surface of at least one wall) is in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm, such as 5 mm to 50 mm, such as 6 mm to 40 mm, such as 7 mm to 30 mm, such as 8 mm to 25 mm, such as 9 mm to 20 mm, such as 10 mm to 15 mm, such as 10 mm to 12 mm.

[0050] The continuous length of material may be either solid (e.g., the second cross-sectional shape is continuously filled) or hollow (e.g., the conductive material forms only the perimeter or walls of the cross-sectional shape). In some embodiments, the conductive coil comprises a high frequency (HF) cable that includes a solid (e.g., continuously filled second cross-sectional shape) length of metallic (e.g., copper) material. In some such embodiments, the conductive coil may be disposed in a conduit that can provide cooling for the conductive coil.

[0051] Thus, the apparatus may include a fluid supply connected to the conduit such that the fluid is supplied to a cavity of the conduit to surround the conductive coil (e.g., radio frequency cable) and provide cooling via heat transfer and thermal convection. For example, the conduit may be provided with a coil shape that substantially matches the first and second cross-sectional shapes of the conductive coil (having a dimension (e.g., width) greater than that of the conductive coil), such that the conductive coil may be positioned in the conduit without touching the walls of the conduit. Of course, the fluid may be any suitable and desired fluid, such as, for example, a liquid (e.g., water, liquid nitrogen) or a gas.

[0052] In preferred embodiments, the conductive coil comprises a hollow cavity, e.g., a length of conductive material is hollow. In some such embodiments, the apparatus comprises a fluid supply connected to the conductive coil for supplying fluid to the hollow cavity of the conductive coil to provide cooling for the conductive coil. Of course, the fluid may be any suitable and desired fluid, such as, for example, a liquid (e.g., water, liquid nitrogen) or a gas.

[0053] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a cooling conduit in thermal contact with the conductive coil (e.g., separate from the conductive coil) and a fluid source for supplying fluid to the cooling conduit to provide cooling for the conductive coil. The cooling conduit may be in thermal contact with the conductive coil, for example, along the length of the conductive material that forms the conductive coil. Thus, for example, the cooling conduit may follow substantially the same path as the conductive coil.

[0054] The fluid supply may be connected to the conductive coil or cooling conduit at any suitable and desired point along the conductive coil or cooling conduit. In some embodiments, the fluid supply is connected such that the fluid flows through the conductive coil or cooling conduit in a direction parallel and / or equal to the direction of the hydrocarbon fuel flowing from the inlet to the outlet. In some embodiments, the fluid supply is connected such that the fluid flows through the conductive coil or cooling conduit in a direction parallel to but opposite to the flow of the hydrocarbon fuel passing from the inlet to the outlet. In some embodiments, the fluid supply is connected to the conductive coil or cooling conduit at a midpoint between the beginning and end of the coil such that the fluid flows through the conductive coil or cooling conduit in more than one direction relative to the flow of the hydrocarbon fuel.

[0055] When the conductive coil surrounds the reaction chamber, some of the heat generated in the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber may radiate outward from the reaction chamber toward the conductive coil, resulting in an increase in temperature of the conductive coil. As such, cooling the conductive coil by passing a fluid through the center of the coil or cooling conduit mitigates the increased thermal environment, thus preventing the material of the conductive coil from undergoing an undesirable phase transition, e.g., melting. In some embodiments, the method (e.g., using an apparatus described herein) includes passing a fluid through the (e.g., at least one) conductive coil or cooling conduit to cool the conductive coil.

[0056] The thickness of the material forming the periphery or wall of the second cross-sectional shape may be any suitable and desired thickness, for example, the thickness may be in the range of 500 μm to 50 mm, such as 1 mm to 30 mm, for example 1 mm to 20 mm, for example 1 mm to 10 mm, for example 1 mm to 5 mm, for example 1 mm to 34 mm, for example 1 mm to 3 mm.

[0057] In some embodiments, each turn of the multiple turns forming the conductive coil may have the same dimensions or may have different dimensions along the length of the conductive coil. For example, in some embodiments, the turns of the conductive coil may form a spiral (e.g., the turns may be successively increasing (or decreasing) in size around a common center point or axis, such that each successive turn has an increasing or decreasing internal dimension (i.e., width, height or radius) relative to the previous turn). It will be understood that the shape of the spiral corresponds to the first cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil. For example, a conductive coil having a circular first cross-sectional shape may be wound into a circular spiral (e.g., a sequence of successive and increasing curved turns). For example, a conductive coil having a square first cross-sectional shape may be wound into a square spiral (e.g., a sequence of successive and increasing 90° turns).

[0058] The conductive coil can form any suitable and desired (e.g., three-dimensional) shape. The (three-dimensional) shape may be described by the first cross-sectional shape of the conductive coil and the length parallel to the long axis (i.e., the dimension of the overall shape of the conductive coil), which corresponds, for example, to the length of a reaction coil that is heated by the surrounding conductive coil when an alternating current is passed through the conductive coil. The (e.g., three-dimensional) shape can be considered to be the overall shape around which the conductive coil can be considered to be wound. For example, the (three-dimensional) shape corresponds to the (three-dimensional) shape of the volume of the cavity enclosed by the conductive coil (e.g., the interior in which the reaction chamber is positioned).

[0059] In some embodiments, the conductive material of the conductive coil may form a continuous wall of the (e.g., three-dimensional) shape. For example, when successive turns of the conductive coil are wound such that they are in direct contact, there are substantially no spaces between the turns of the conductive coil, and the coil forms a substantially solid wall around the cavity volume. In some embodiments, the conductive material forms a discontinuous wall of the (e.g., three-dimensional) shape, for example, when successive turns of the conductive coil are wound such that they are not in direct contact.

[0060] For example, the conductive coil may form a toroid (e.g., a donut), a (e.g., a hollow) cylinder, a (truncated) prism (e.g., a prism of any polygonal base, e.g., a prism of a triangular base, e.g., a prism of a square base, etc.), a (truncated) pyramid (e.g., a triangular pyramid, a square pyramid, etc.), a pyramidal shape of any suitable polygonal base, a (truncated) cone shape, etc.

[0061] For example, a conductive coil having a helical turn (as described above) can have successive turns (e.g., successively increasing (or decreasing) in size) in substantially the same plane, e.g., a plane substantially perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, such that the conductive coil forms a toroid or donut of conductive material. Preferably, the center of the toroid intersects the longitudinal axis.

[0062] For example, a conductive coil having helical windings (as described above) can form a (truncated) pyramid or cone shape, where the length of the pyramid (e.g., the height of the pyramid, e.g., the distance from the two parallel bases of a truncated pyramid or cone) is parallel to (e.g., coaxial with) the long axis.

[0063] For example, a conductive coil having multiple turns all having substantially the same internal dimensions (i.e., width, height or radius) may form a cylinder or any polygon-based prismatic shape (e.g., having a consistently sized cross section), with the length of the cylinder or prism (e.g., the distance between the two parallel polygon bases) parallel to (e.g., coaxial with) the long axis. For example, the conductive coil may be a uniformly sized spring coil having a substantially constant cylindrical volume along (e.g., coaxial with) the longitudinal axis.

[0064] (e.g., the three-dimensional shape of the conductive coil) may have any suitable and desired length in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis. The length of the reaction chamber surrounded by the conductive coil can be considered to substantially correspond to the length of the reaction chamber that is directly heated by electromagnetic induction, e.g., by a heating portion.

[0065] It will be appreciated that the length of the heated portion (e.g., corresponding to the length of the conductive coil) should be such that the reaction chamber is heated to a temperature sufficient for the hydrocarbon fuel to undergo pyrolysis. The heated portion of the reaction chamber may be of any suitable and desired length.

[0066] The length of the conductive coil (e.g. three-dimensional) shape may be in the range of 5mm to 10m, such as 1cm to 10m, such as 5cm to 5m, such as 10cm to 5m, such as 20cm to 1m, such as 20cm to 50cm, such as 20cm to 40cm, such as 30cm. Naturally, the overall length of the coil will depend on parameters including the width of the first cross-sectional shape, the number of turns and coil pitch, and / or the spacing between turns.

[0067] It will also be appreciated that the overall length of the coil will depend on the scale, size and implementation of the apparatus. For example, in some embodiments, the apparatus may be implemented on an industrial scale (e.g., intended for use in an industrial plant for pyrolysis of large volumes of hydrocarbon fuels on an industrial scale) and thus may include a conductive coil (and reaction chamber) having a length greater than 1 m, e.g., 1 m to 10 m (or greater). In other embodiments, the apparatus may be implemented on a smaller scale (e.g., pyrolysis of domestic volumes of hydrocarbon gases, etc.), such that a more appropriate length of the conductive coil would be 10 cm to 50 cm.

[0068] In some embodiments, adjacent turns of the conductive coil are in direct contact such that the spacing between the conductive material of adjacent turns is negligible (e.g., substantially zero) and the coil pitch (i.e., the distance between the turns) is substantially equal to the width of the second cross-sectional shape. In preferred embodiments, the turns of the conductive coil are not in direct contact such that the coil pitch is greater than the width of the second cross-sectional shape and there is a (non-zero) spacing between each turn of the conductive material.

[0069] In some embodiments, the spacing between adjacent turns of the conductive coil ranges between 0.01 mm and 1 m, such as between 0.5 mm and 50 cm, such as between 1 mm and 25 cm, such as between 1 mm and 10 cm, depending on the scale, size and implementation of the device. For example, devices implemented on a small scale (e.g., for home use) may include a spacing between adjacent turns of the conductive coil of 0.01 mm to 50 mm, such as between 0.5 mm and 40 mm, such as between 1 mm and 30 mm, such as between 1 mm and 20 mm, such as between 1 mm and 15 mm, such as between 1 mm and 10 mm, such as about 5 mm.

[0070] Devices implemented on a large scale (eg industrial) may have a spacing between adjacent turns of the conductive coil of 10 mm to 1 m, such as 50 mm to 50 cm, such as 1 cm to 25 cm, such as 5 cm to 20 cm, for example about 10 cm.

[0071] In some embodiments, the coil pitch (i.e., the distance between turns) is between 5 mm and 5 m, such as between 10 mm and 1 m, such as between 1 cm and 50 cm. Of course, the coil pitch depends on a number of parameters, including the width of the first cross-sectional shape, the number of turns, the spacing between the turns, and the size, scale, and implementation of the device. For example, in one set of embodiments (e.g., where the device is implemented on a small scale), the coil pitch is between 5 mm and 30 mm, such as between 6 mm and 25 mm, such as between 7 mm and 20 mm, such as between 8 mm and 15 mm, such as between 10 mm and 15 mm, such as between 12 mm and 14 mm, such as about 13 mm. In one set of embodiments (e.g., where the device is implemented on a large and / or industrial scale), the coil pitch may be between 10 cm and 5 m, such as between 50 cm and 5 m, such as between 1 m and 5 m.

[0072] In some embodiments, the conductive coil comprises or consists of a metal or metal alloy, including, but not limited to, copper, silver, gold, aluminum, steel, brass, zinc, iron, nickel, tin, or bronze.

[0073] The conductive coil may include any suitable and desired number of turns, for example, between 2 and 1000 turns, for example, between 5 and 500 turns, for example, between 10 and 400 turns, for example, between 10 and 300 turns, for example, between 10 and 200 turns, for example, between 10 and 100 turns, for example, between 10 and 50 turns, for example, between about 20 turns. It will be understood that the number of turns will depend on parameters including spacing between turns, coil pitch, and device size, scale, and implementation.

[0074] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) comprises multiple conductive coils arranged adjacent to one another, e.g., along a longitudinal axis or parallel to one another (e.g., in series), which serves to provide improved thermal efficiency over a single conductive coil having the same total number of turns as the multiple conductive coils.

[0075] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) comprises a (e.g., at least one) pair of conductive coils, where each pair of conductive coils comprises two conductive coils arranged to receive an alternating current (e.g., the same, e.g., different). In some embodiments, both conductive coils of a pair of conductive coils comprise the same number of turns. In some embodiments, both conductive coils of a pair of conductive coils comprise a different number of turns, and in some embodiments, both conductive coils of a pair of conductive coils comprise a different number of turns. Each pair of conductive coils comprises one coil that is left-handed and one coil that is right-handed, and these two coils may branch off from a common component and bend outward from said branching point to extend in opposite directions parallel to a surface of the reaction chamber.

[0076] The pair of conductive coils may include a common line (e.g., of conductive material) such that both conductive coils may receive alternating current and / or fluid supply input through the common line. The common line may split at a branch point (e.g., at the center of the reaction chamber) to form the pair of conductive coils. For example, the conductive coils may extend outward from the branch point to form each conductive coil of the pair. In such an embodiment, the pair of conductive coils may be fluid-cooled, and preferably a fluid supply is connected to the center of the reaction chamber (and thus between the pair of conductive coils). This helps to create optimized thermal conditions in the center of the reaction chamber (e.g., it will be appreciated that water cooling may not be as effective after a fluid has passed through a length of the hot conductive coil).

[0077] In some embodiments, the device (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes an insulating layer (e.g., thermal) surrounding the reaction chamber. In some implementations, the insulating layer is between the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber and the conductive coil. In some implementations, the conductive coil is embedded (at least partially) in the insulating layer.

[0078] The (e.g., thermal) insulating layer may be in direct contact with the reaction chamber. The (e.g., thermal) insulating layer may be in direct contact with both the reaction chamber and the (e.g., at least one) conductive coil. In embodiments comprising multiple reaction chambers, each of the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber may have a (thermal) insulating layer in direct contact with and surrounding the reaction chamber such that the (e.g., thermal) insulating layer has the same cross-sectional shape as the reaction chamber. In some embodiments comprising multiple reaction chambers surrounded by a common conductive coil (or pair of conductive coils), the (e.g., thermal) insulating layer may be disposed to surround the multiple reaction chambers (e.g., multiple reaction chambers have a common insulating layer) in addition to or instead of surrounding each individual reaction chamber with a (e.g., different) insulating layer.

[0079] The (i.e., thermal) insulating layer is preferably positioned to thermally insulate the reaction chamber, thereby inhibiting heat generated in the reaction chamber by electromagnetic induction from radiating outward from the reaction chamber towards the conductive coil surrounding the conductive coil and the insulating layer. By providing an insulating layer between the conductive coil and the reaction chamber, the thermal efficiency of the device can be improved since the radiation of heat is focused towards the center of the reaction chamber (i.e., the cavity containing the hydrocarbon gas). In a preferred embodiment, the insulating layer allows penetration of an alternating magnetic field into the reaction chamber wall so that electromagnetic induction heating occurs substantially unimpeded.

[0080] In embodiments that include a reaction chamber made of or containing a material (e.g., a metal) that can undergo oxidation, providing an (i.e., thermal) insulating layer can help inhibit oxidation of the material when heated to the temperatures used for pyrolysis, and thus inhibit the formation of oxides on the surface of the wall(s) of the reaction chamber. For example, tungsten will undergo oxidation to form tungsten oxide on the surface at the temperatures required for pyrolysis. Providing an insulating layer therefore helps to mitigate this effect.

[0081] In some embodiments, the insulating layer serves to improve the heating efficiency of the device (e.g., the amount of heat transferred to the hydrocarbon fuel divided by the amount of heat generated by the conductive coil in the wall of the reaction chamber) by at least 80% (e.g., for every 10 kW of heat energy generated in the wall of the reaction chamber by electromagnetic induction, 2 kW of energy is radiated towards the insulating layer and the conductive coil). Preferably, the insulating layer improves the heating efficiency of the device by at least 85%, such as at least 90%, e.g., at least 95%.

[0082] The insulating layer may include any suitable and desired thermal insulating material. For example, the insulating layer may include any thermal insulating ceramic material, such as any mineral wool (e.g., asbestos wool) and / or ultra-high temperature ceramic, including, but not limited to, tantalum carbide TaC, hafnium carbide HfC, zirconium boride ZrBr2, hafnium boride, hafnium diboride HfBr2, and zirconium oxide, including composites with silicon carbide.

[0083] In some embodiments, the insulating layer comprises multiple layers, for example, at least one layer of ultra-high temperature ceramic and at least one layer of ceramic fiber felt. For example, the insulating layer can comprise a first layer of ceramic fiber felt and a second layer of ultra-high temperature ceramic, the second layer being on the outside of the first layer (e.g., closer to the conductive coil), for example, the second layer being on the outermost edge of the insulating layer forming the surface of the insulating layer. In some embodiments, the insulating layer comprises a first region of ceramic fiber felt composite (e.g., alternating layers of ceramic fiber felt with layers of ultra-high temperature ceramic disposed therebetween) and a second region of layers of ultra-high temperature ceramic, the second layer being on the outside of the first layer (e.g., closer to the conductive coil), for example, the second layer being on the outermost edge of the insulating layer.

[0084] In some embodiments, the insulating layer can include multiple layers of ceramic fiber felt and multiple layers of ultra-high temperature ceramic, where each ceramic fiber felt layer is sandwiched between (e.g., two) ultra-high temperature ceramic layers. For example, in a preferred embodiment, the insulating layer includes multiple layers of ceramic fiber felt with layers of zirconium oxide having ZrO2 disposed therebetween, and an outer layer of the insulating layer includes a layer of ZrO2.

[0085] The insulating layer can have any suitable and desired thickness. For example, the insulating layer may have a total thickness of 0.1 mm to 50 mm, such as 0.5 mm to 30 mm, such as 1 mm to 20 mm, such as 1 mm to 150 mm, such as 1 mm to 5 mm. In embodiments where the insulating layer includes at least one layer of ceramic fiber felt, each layer of ceramic fiber felt may have a thickness between 1 mm and 10 mm, such as between 1 mm and 5 mm. In some embodiments, the outermost layer of the insulating layer is a layer of ultra-high temperature ceramic (e.g., ZrO2) preferably having a thickness of 0.1 mm to 5 mm, such as a thickness of 0.5 mm to 3 mm, such as a thickness of 0.5 mm to 2 mm.

[0086] In some embodiments, the conductive coil (or pair of conductive coils) may be in direct contact with the insulating layer, e.g., a turn of the coil is wound on the insulating layer. In some embodiments, the conductive coil is embedded (at least partially) in the insulating layer (i.e., the insulating layer surrounds the conductive coil). In some embodiments, the conductive coil is not in direct contact with the insulating layer (e.g., is spaced apart). In such embodiments, the lack of direct contact between the insulating layer and the conductive coil may help prevent or reduce electrical conduction through the insulating layer.

[0087] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) comprises a housing enclosing a (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber and conductive coil(s). Preferably, the housing includes an inlet that supplies a hydrocarbon fuel to the inlet of the reaction chamber, and an outlet in fluid communication with and downstream from the outlet of the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the inlet and outlet of the housing are continuous or continuous with the inlet and outlet of the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, a continuous conduit (e.g., a pipe) is provided through the reaction chamber, where the continuous conduit includes the outlet and outlet of the housing, the inlet and outlet of the reaction chamber, and the reaction chamber.

[0088] The housing can be arranged to provide atmospheric conditions, i.e., an environment surrounding the (e.g., at least one) reaction chamber that is modified with respect to a non-ambient environment. For example, the apparatus can include a vacuum line (e.g., connected to a vacuum pump) connected to the housing, the vacuum line arranged to reduce the pressure in the housing (i.e., around the reaction chamber and conductive coil) below atmospheric pressure, e.g., to establish at least a partial vacuum environment.

[0089] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a pump connected to the housing and arranged to maintain a pressure within the housing above atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a gas source connected to the housing (e.g., via a gas inlet line), the gas source configured to provide a flow of gas to the housing to reduce the oxygen content of a gaseous environment within the housing (and surrounding the reaction chamber), e.g., to make the environment within the housing substantially oxygen-free.

[0090] In some embodiments, the gas supply is arranged to supply a (e.g., substantially constant) flow of gas to the housing to replace gas (e.g., oxygen) surrounding the housing and the reaction chamber. In some preferred embodiments, the gas supply comprises, for example, a nitrogen gas supply surrounding the reaction chamber and arranged to supply a substantially constant flow of nitrogen to the housing to replace any oxygen present in the housing and provide a substantially oxygen-free environment.

[0091] In embodiments that include a reaction chamber made of or containing a material capable of undergoing oxidation (e.g., a metal), providing a substantially oxygen-free environment can inhibit oxidation (e.g., formation of metal oxides) of the reaction chamber surfaces when heated to temperatures used for pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. For example, in the presence of oxygen at temperatures used for pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, a reaction chamber made of or containing tungsten can undergo oxidation to form tungsten oxide on the surfaces of the reaction chamber.

[0092] The method (e.g., using an apparatus described herein) can thus include providing a non-atmospheric environment (e.g., an environment modified with respect to at least one atmospheric condition, such as atmospheric pressure and / or gas composition of air) around the reaction chamber (e.g., a housing surrounding the reaction chamber). In some embodiments, the method includes providing a low pressure environment around the reaction chamber, for example, by connecting the housing surrounding the reaction chamber to a vacuum line.

[0093] In some embodiments, the method includes providing a high pressure environment around the reaction chamber, for example, by connecting a housing surrounding the reaction chamber to a pressure pump. In some embodiments, the method includes providing an oxygen-poor (e.g., substantially oxygen-free) environment around the reaction chamber, for example, by introducing a (e.g., inert, e.g., N2) gas into the housing around the reaction chamber (e.g., such that oxygen around the reaction chamber is displaced by the (e.g., inert, e.g., N2) gas). In such embodiments, the gas introduced into the housing can be argon, helium, krypton, xenon, neon, or nitrogen gas.

[0094] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) further comprises a thermal sensor (e.g., a thermal camera) positioned to measure the temperature of the reaction chamber, e.g., at a location between the reaction chamber inlet and the reaction chamber outlet. Preferably, the apparatus comprises two or more thermal sensors.

[0095] In some embodiments, the thermal sensor is positioned to measure the temperature of the reaction chamber at a location that is heated by the surrounding conductive coil, e.g., a location along the length of the heated portion of the reaction chamber, i.e., the portion of the reaction chamber that is surrounded by the conductive coil and thus receives direct heating by electromagnetic induction. In some embodiments, the thermal sensor comprises a pyrometer or thermal camera positioned to detect radiation (e.g., emitted or reflected from the reaction chamber) (i.e., infrared) to measure the temperature of a surface from which the radiation is emitted (e.g., a surface of the reaction chamber).

[0096] In some embodiments, a pyrometer or thermal camera may be positioned to detect thermal (i.e., infrared) radiation emitted from the reaction chamber surface as a result of electromagnetic induction heating. In some embodiments, the pyrometer is positioned to output a (i.e., infrared) radiation beam toward a target surface (e.g., reaction chamber surface) and use (e.g., detect and measure) the reflected beam to determine the temperature of the target surface. In such embodiments, the (i.e., infrared) radiation beam may be aligned to pass through a space between two turns of a conductive coil and reach the reaction chamber surface without contacting (and thus being partially reflected from) the coil.

[0097] When the device includes an insulating layer, the insulating layer preferably includes (e.g., at least one) via. The via serves to provide a means by which the (i.e., infrared) radiation beam can contact the reaction chamber surface instead of the insulating layer surface. Similarly, in embodiments in which temperature measurements are made using radiant (i.e., infrared) radiation emitted from the reaction chamber surface as a result of electromagnetic induction heating, it will be appreciated that a via through the insulating layer allows accurate reading of the radiation emitted from the reaction chamber surface without interference of the measurement from the insulating layer.

[0098] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) comprises (e.g., at least) two thermal sensors positioned to measure temperature at two different locations along the length of the reaction chamber. For example, in one embodiment, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) includes two pyrometers positioned to measure the temperature of the reaction chamber at approximately the center of the length of the reaction chamber (by one thermal sensor) and at a location downstream from the center of the length of the reaction chamber (by a second thermal sensor).

[0099] It will be appreciated that measuring the temperature of the reaction chamber at (e.g., at least) one location (preferably at two or more locations) can provide a number of improvements. In particular, temperature measurement provides an indirect measure of electromagnetic induction heating efficiency and effectiveness. For example, by measuring the temperature of the heated portion of the reaction chamber at (e.g., at least) one location, it can be identified that the AC current needs to be modified, e.g., the temperature is too low and therefore the current needs to be increased, or vice versa.

[0100] In some embodiments, an apparatus (e.g., for use in the methods described herein) comprises a control unit configured to receive temperature measurements from the thermal sensor and output a control signal (e.g., to an alternating current generator) to vary the current of the alternating current supplied to the conductive coil. It will be appreciated that by varying the current of the alternating current, the magnitude of the magnetic field generated by the conductive coil can be increased or decreased, and thus the heat generated in the reaction chamber can be increased or decreased in response to the measured temperature of the reaction chamber.

[0101] In this manner, the method further includes measuring the temperature of the reaction chamber at a position along the reaction chamber that is heated, i.e., at a position surrounded by the conductive coil. The temperature of the reaction chamber can thus be compared to a preset desired temperature range, e.g., a preferred range at which pyrolysis occurs. The desired temperature range preferably includes an upper limit (i.e., defining the highest acceptable temperature, e.g., the temperature at which the reaction chamber walls begin to melt) and a lower limit (i.e., defining the lowest acceptable temperature, e.g., the temperature at which pyrolysis has a conversion efficiency of less than 80%, e.g., less than 85%, e.g., less than 90%). In some embodiments, the desired temperature range is between 1800°C (lower limit) and 2400°C (upper limit), e.g., between 1900°C and 2300°C, e.g., between 2,000°C and 2,200°C.

[0102] In some embodiments, the method further includes determining when the temperature of the reaction chamber falls below a lower limit of a desired temperature range and varying the current of the alternating current passing through the conductive coil to increase heat generated in the reaction chamber, e.g., by sending a control signal to an alternating current generator.

[0103] In some embodiments, the method further includes determining when the temperature of the reaction chamber exceeds an upper limit of a desired temperature range and varying the current of the alternating current passing through the conductive coil to reduce heat generated in the reaction chamber, for example by sending a control signal to an alternating current generator.

[0104] Measuring the temperature of the reaction chamber at (e.g., at least) two locations helps determine how efficiently the pyrolysis process is occurring. For example, it will be appreciated that the process of pyrolysis is endothermic and thus involves the absorption of heat energy to break bonds in the hydrocarbon fuel. As a result, it will be appreciated that pyrolysis involves the loss of heat (e.g., cooling) of the cracking hydrocarbon fuel stream.

[0105] By measuring the temperature of the heated portion of the reaction chamber as well as at a location downstream from the center of the reaction chamber (e.g., a location downstream from the center that is still surrounded by the conductive coil and / or a location in the reaction chamber downstream from the center that is not surrounded by the conductive coil and therefore not directly heated), the extent of heat dissipation can be measured and therefore the thermal efficiency can be calculated as well as the efficiency at which the hydrocarbon fuel is converted to pyrolysis products.

[0106] In some embodiments, the control unit is configured to receive multiple temperature measurements from multiple thermal sensors and output a control signal (e.g., to an alternating current generator) in response to the measurements to vary the current of the alternating current received by the conductive coil.

[0107] In this manner, the method further includes measuring the temperature of the reaction chamber at (e.g., at least) two different locations along the reaction chamber. In this manner, the temperature at each location along the reaction chamber can be compared to a preset desired temperature range for that location, e.g., a preferred range for pyrolysis to occur at the center location of the reaction chamber, e.g., a desired range for the downstream product after quenching. As noted above, the desired temperature range at each location preferably includes an upper and lower limit.

[0108] The upper and lower limits for each position may vary depending on the process being monitored. For example, as described above, the temperature at the heated portion of the reaction chamber may have an upper limit defined as the temperature at which the reaction chamber wall(s) may begin to melt, and a lower limit defined by the temperature below which pyrolysis has a conversion efficiency of less than 80%, e.g., less than 85%, e.g., less than 90%.

[0109] In contrast, the desired temperature range (e.g., measuring the degree of heat dissipation) at a location downstream of the heated portion of the reaction chamber has an upper limit defined by the minimum temperature exhibiting at least 80% conversion efficiency and therefore 80% auto-dissipation (e.g., 85% conversion efficiency, e.g., 90% conversion efficiency), and a lower limit defined by the temperature at which the hydrocarbon fuel is at least 90% converted (e.g., 95% converted, e.g., 100% conversion) and therefore has at least 90% heat dissipation (e.g., 95% heat dissipation, e.g., 100% heat dissipation), where 100% heat dissipation corresponds to 100% conversion of the hydrocarbon fuel to multiple products and therefore the maximum temperature loss due to heat dissipation will be observed.

[0110] In some embodiments, the method includes determining when a temperature of the reaction chamber at the set location falls below a lower limit of a desired temperature range for the location, and in some embodiments, the method further includes sending a control signal (e.g., to an alternating current generator) to vary the current of alternating current passing through a conductive coil, e.g., to vary heat generated in the reaction chamber, when the temperature is determined to be below the lower limit.

[0111] In some embodiments, the method further includes determining when the temperature of the reaction chamber at the set location exceeds an upper limit of a desired temperature range for the location. In some embodiments, the method further includes sending a control signal (e.g., to an alternating current generator) to vary the current of the alternating current passing through the conductive coil, e.g., to vary the heat generated in the reaction chamber, when the temperature is determined to exceed the upper limit.

[0112] In some embodiments, the housing comprises a housing unit for (e.g. at least) one thermal temperature sensor (e.g. a pyrometer). The housing unit preferably comprises an alignment mechanism for adjusting the position and / or orientation of the temperature sensor (or output radiation beam) to align the sensor with respect to a desired target location in the reaction chamber (e.g. a location passing through the coil windings and vias in the thermal insulation layer, if present). In some embodiments, the housing may comprise an observation window or port through which visual inspection of the alignment of the temperature sensor may be obtained.

[0113] The invention also extends to a system including an apparatus according to any of the aspects described herein, and any or all of their embodiments, and a (e.g., at least one) downstream filter chamber including a filter for recovering and separating products of pyrolytic decomposition, the filter being in fluid communication and downstream of the (e.g., at least one) outlet of the apparatus. The filter may be positioned to separate solid (e.g., carbonaceous products) from gaseous (e.g., hydrogen) products.

[0114] In this manner, the method may further include recovering a plurality of products from the pyrolytic decomposition of the hydrocarbon fuel. For example, the method may include separating gaseous products (e.g., hydrogen gas) from solid (e.g., carbonaceous) products, such as by passing the products of the pyrolytic decomposition of the hydrocarbon fuel through (e.g., at least one) filter.

[0115] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the system may, and preferably does, include any one or more or all of the preferred and optional features of the invention described herein, as appropriate. For example, the reaction chamber preferably includes or consists of an electrically conductive material capable of withstanding temperatures in excess of 2500° C., and preferably in excess of 3000° C., without undergoing a phase transition (e.g., melting). For example, the reaction chamber may include or consist of suitable refractory metals (i.e., metals having a melting point in excess of 2200° C.), such as tungsten, rhenium, tantalum, molybdenum, osmium, and iridium.

[0116] As mentioned above, the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels is an endothermic process that results in auto-quenching (i.e., cooling) of the hydrocarbon fuel during the cracking reaction. However, it will be appreciated that the temperature of the products upon leaving the reaction chamber is very high (e.g., greater than 1800° C.). As such, it may be useful to quench (or cool) the cracked products prior to collecting or separating them for further use.

[0117] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a quench chamber downstream of the (e.g., at least one) outlet of the reaction chamber in fluid communication. The quench chamber may be arranged to cool the high-temperature pyrolysis product output by the reaction chamber in any suitable manner. For example, in some embodiments, the quench chamber comprises a heat exchanger, for example, containing a coolant, so that quenching occurs by heat exchange.

[0118] In some embodiments, the quench chamber comprises a jacket through which the product flows and which surrounds (e.g., a portion of) the quench chamber, the jacket comprising a coolant. In some embodiments, the quench chamber comprises a coolant supply for supplying coolant to the cooling jacket (e.g., liquid coolant) or to the quench chamber itself (e.g., gaseous coolant) to provide cooling. In some embodiments, the quench chamber comprises a pressure relief mechanism (e.g., a pressure relief valve) positioned to provide a reduction in pressure with respect to the pressure of the reaction chamber such that the product is cooled via polytropic or isentropic cooling.

[0119] Thus, the method can include a method step of cooling the products of the pyrolytic decomposition of the hydrocarbon fuel, for example, by introducing the products of pyrolysis into a quench chamber downstream of an outlet of the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the method can include introducing a coolant downstream of the cooling chamber (e.g., to mix with the products of pyrolysis) or into the surroundings of the quench chamber (e.g., into a surrounding jacket) such that the coolant cools the products. In some embodiments, the method can include reducing the pressure of the quench chamber relative to the pressure of the reaction chamber such that the products are cooled via polytrophic or isentropic cooling.

[0120] Preferred specific embodiments of the invention will now be described, by way of example only, with reference to the drawings in which: [Brief description of the drawings]

[0121] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 illustrates a system according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Diagram 2] FIG. 2 illustrates a housing according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Diagram 3] FIG. 3 shows a three-dimensional cross-sectional schematic diagram of an apparatus for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 shows a side view of an apparatus for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. [Diagram 5] FIG. 5 shows a cross-sectional view (plane perpendicular to the long axis) of a device according to an embodiment of the invention. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 shows a cross-sectional view (plane parallel to the long axis) of a device according to an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0122] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Embodiments of the present invention are described that provide improved methods and apparatus components for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuels.

[0123] 1 illustrates a system 1000 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The illustrated system 1000 includes an apparatus 100 (for pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuel) in communication with a number of gas cylinders 200 arranged to supply a hydrocarbon fuel to a reaction chamber and nitrogen gas to a housing 114 to provide an oxygen-poor environment in the housing 114, a quench chamber 300 downstream in communication with an outlet of the reaction chamber, a filter chamber 400 downstream in communication with the quench chamber for separating gaseous products (e.g., hydrogen gas) from solids (e.g., carbonaceous products), and a mixing chamber 500.

[0124] The apparatus 100 includes two lengths of conductive material 126 that extend into the housing 114 and are connected to a converter box (C-box) 600 that is in turn connected to an electrical supply and a fluid supply. The fluid supply supplies a cooling fluid (e.g., water) to the hollow cavity of the conductive coil through the input and output of the lengths of material 126 (i.e., to provide fluid cooling to the conductive coil). The two lengths of material 126 thus correspond to the input and output of the conductive coil that is positioned to surround a reaction chamber (not shown) of the housing 114. The C-box 600 is connected to an electromagnetic induction unit 700 that supplies electricity to the C-box.

[0125] 2, 3 and 4 show different views of the apparatus 100 shown in FIG. 1, with FIG. 2 showing the exterior of the housing 114 according to an embodiment of the invention. The housing 114 includes a conduit extending therethrough, the conduit including an input 132 and an output 133. The input 132 and output 133 of the conduit define a longitudinal axis 122 of the apparatus. The input 132 is disposed in communication with a source of hydrocarbon fuel (e.g., a gas cylinder 200, not shown in FIG. 2), and the input tube 132 introduces the hydrocarbon fuel into a reaction chamber enclosed by the housing 114.

[0126] The housing further includes two housing units, 132a, 132b (e.g., housing pyrometers used to measure the temperature of a reaction chamber enclosed by the housing units) and two corresponding observation ports 134a, 134b that can be used to align the pyrometers housed in the housing units 132a, 132b. As shown in FIG. 2, the two housing units 132a, 132b are longitudinally offset relative to one another (e.g., the housing units are positioned at two locations along the longitudinal axis such that the pyrometers housed therein can measure the reaction chamber at two different locations).

[0127] The viewing ports 134a, 134b are located at the same location along the longitudinal axis as their respective housing units 132a, 132b, such that the respective housing units 132a, 132b and viewing ports 134a, 134b define a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. Each viewing port 134a, 134b and housing unit 132a, 132b are positioned such that they are angularly offset about the periphery of the housing 114 such that an axis defined from the viewing ports 134a, 1342b to the longitudinal axis 122 intersects an axis defined from the housing units 132a, 132b to the longitudinal axis at the surface of the reaction chamber 102.

[0128] Figure 3 shows a three-dimensional representation of the apparatus 100 shown in Figure 2 with a cutaway portion showing the interior of the housing 114. The apparatus 100 shown comprises one reaction chamber 102 and a pair of conductive coils 104 that surround a portion of the reaction chamber 102. The reaction chamber 102 is provided as a conduit (e.g., a pipe) that connects the housing inputs 132 and 133 and is thus centrally located along the longitudinal axis 122.

[0129] An insulating layer 108 is provided between the reaction chamber 102 and the conductive coil 104. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating layer 108 extends further along the reaction chamber 102 than the conductive coil 104 (e.g., the insulating layer 108 is longer than the conductive coil 104) and provides insulation against residual heating that occurs downstream of the region of the reaction chamber that is directly heated by the conductive coil (e.g., the region of the reaction chamber that has a portion of the conductive coil positioned perpendicular to the reaction chamber) due to heat dissipation from the hydrocarbon fuel towards the walls of the reaction chamber 102.

[0130] FIG. 4 shows a side view of the device housed in the housing shown in FIG. 2 and FIG. 3. In the illustrated embodiment, a continuous conduit (e.g., a pipe) is provided through the reaction chamber to form a housing input 132, a housing output 133, and a reaction chamber portion 102 including a reaction chamber input 102a and a reaction chamber output 102b. The reaction chamber 102 is surrounded by a pair of conductive coils 104, both having a cylindrical shape (e.g., having a circular first cross-sectional shape and multiple turns with equal internal dimensions). The pair of conductive coils 104 includes one conductive coil having a left-handed winding 104a and one conductive coil having a right-handed winding 104b. Both conductive coils 104a, 104b branch off from a common configuration 106 and bend outward from said branching point 106 such that the lengths of the conductive coils extend in opposite directions parallel to the surface and longitudinal axis 122 of the reaction chamber 102.

[0131] In the embodiment shown in Figure 4, the pair of conductive coils 104 are hollow to allow for water cooling. Water is supplied to the coils through a common line 126a that splits at a junction 106 in the middle of the reaction chamber 102 and then flows outwardly from that center point (through each conductive coil 104a, 104b of the pair of coils 104). The ends of the two conductive coils 104a and 104b are then recombined at a junction 127 to provide a common output 126b for the water flowing through the conductive coils 104.

[0132] 5 and 6 show cross-sectional views in a plane perpendicular (FIG. 5) and parallel (FIG. 6) to the longitudinal axis 122 of an apparatus 100 shown in accordance with the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1-4.

[0133] Figure 5 illustrates one embodiment of the apparatus 100 in which the housing 114, insulating layer 108, reaction chamber 102, and conductive coil first cross-sectional shapes are all circular and centered about the major axis 122. Similarly, Figure 6 illustrates the conductive coil having a circular second cross-sectional shape. However, it will be understood that Figures 5 and 6 represent exemplary embodiments only, and that the component cross-sections discussed above may be any suitable and desired shape, without all components having to have the same or complementary cross-sectional shapes.

[0134] The apparatus 100 includes a conductive coil 104 that is positioned to receive an alternating current such that an alternating magnetic field is generated. The alternating magnetic field penetrates the reaction chamber 102 such that the material of the reaction chamber 102 is heated (primarily at the reaction chamber surface 102 via the skin effect) by electromagnetic induction. The heat is conducted through the reaction chamber material and then radiated (112) into a cavity 106 (defined by the walls of the reaction chamber 102) that contains a hydrocarbon fuel 124 flowing therethrough.

[0135] The insulating layer 108 includes a composite layer 108a having a layer of ultra-high ceramic ZrO2 layer 108b thereon, the composite layer 108a including multiple ceramic fiber felt layers and multiple ZrO2 layers disposed therebetween. The insulating layer 108 helps to prevent heat from radiating outward from the reaction chamber 102, thus improving the thermal efficiency of the apparatus 100.

[0136] 5 and 6 is comprised of tungsten metal and thus an insulating layer 108 which, in addition to improving thermal efficiency, helps to minimize oxidation of the tungsten metal from tungsten metal to tungsten oxide. Preventing oxidation of the tungsten reaction chamber 102 is further aided by providing a nitrogen environment 116 in the housing 114 such that the reaction chamber 102 is surrounded by an oxygen-deficient environment (thus reducing oxidation of the tungsten surface).

[0137] 1-4, the housing 114 shown in FIGS. 5 and 6 includes a housing unit 132 and an observation port 134. (The observation port 134 is not visible in FIG. 6 in the embodiment shown, which is positioned in the same plane as the housing unit 132, perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 122, and therefore obscured entirely when the device is viewed from the side.) The housing unit includes a pyrometer 120 arranged to output an infrared radiation beam 118 that contacts the reaction chamber 102 by passing between two turns of a conductive coil (see FIG. 6) and through a via 123 in the insulating layer 108. In this manner, the pyrometer 120 can measure the temperature of the reaction chamber 102 at the point of contact.

[0138] As shown in FIG. 5, the observation port 134 provides a line of sight 121 that intersects the output radiation beam at an angle α at the surface, such that a user 134 can use the observation port 134 to align the output radiation beam 118 with the via 123 to optimize the quality of the temperature measurement.

[0139] For example, it can be expected that poor alignment of the output radiation beam 118 such that only a portion of the beam cross section is in contact with the reaction chamber surface with the remaining portion in contact with either the insulating layer 108 or the conductive coil material will result in a temperature reading that corresponds to a weighted average of the temperatures of all surfaces in contact (e.g., the insulating layer 108 and / or the conductive coil and the reaction chamber 102) and therefore does not provide an accurate measurement of the temperature of the desired reaction surface.

[0140] The operation of the system 1000 and the apparatus 100 will now be described with reference to Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

[0141] It may be preferable in some circumstances for various operations to be performed before the hydrocarbon fuel is flowed through the apparatus 100. For example, to optimize the efficiency of pyrolysis, it may be preferable to preheat the reaction chamber prior to the introduction of the hydrocarbon fuel. Similarly, it may be preferable to modify the environment of the housing 114, such as a supply gas (via a gas input line connecting to a source such as cylinder 200) or reduce the pressure (via a vacuum supply line) before heating the reaction chamber 102, to help minimize undesirable side reactions (such as oxidation) in the reaction chamber 102 upon heating.

[0142] Also, water is preferably input to the conductive coil 104 along with an alternating current to allow for temperature regulation of the conductive coil 104 and minimize the effects of heat radiating from the reaction chamber 102 towards the surrounding conductive coil 104.

[0143] As described above, the alternating current generator provides an alternating current input (via an electrical connection to the conductive material 126) to the conductive coil 104 that surrounds the reaction chamber 102. The alternating current passing through the conductive coil 104 generates an alternating magnetic field that penetrates the conductive material of the reaction chamber and creates eddy currents at the surfaces of the reaction chamber 102 that generate heat (mainly at the reaction chamber wall surfaces due to the skin effect). The heat is conducted through the walls of the reaction chamber 102 and radiated into the reaction chamber cavity, heating the hydrocarbon fuel flowing therethrough.

[0144] Hydrocarbon fuel enters the apparatus via a line that connects a hydrocarbon fuel supply (e.g., gas supply cylinder 200) to the reaction chamber 102 via the housing input 133. As it flows through the reaction chamber 102, the hydrocarbon fuel is heated and pyrolyzed to yield carbonaceous solid products as well as gaseous products including hydrogen gas. To monitor the efficiency of the process, two pyrometers (housed in housing units 132a, 132b) allow in situ temperature measurement of the reaction chamber surfaces such that the control unit, upon receiving a thermal reading, can output a control signal to an alternating current generator to vary the current input to the conductive coil and therefore the temperature generated in the reaction chamber 102.

[0145] The pyrolyzed products are output from the reaction chamber 102 (via the housing output 133) to the quench chamber 300. The products flow through the quench chamber 300 and are rapidly cooled (e.g., by the addition of a coolant or polytropic or isentropic cooling) so that the products can be provided to a downstream unit, such as a filter chamber 400.

[0146] Upon passing through the filter chamber 400, the cooled solid carbonaceous product is separated from the cooled gaseous product. The solid product is collected while the gaseous product may pass directly to a mixing chamber 500 that is in fluid communication with the outlet of the filter chamber 400.

Claims

1. An apparatus for thermally decomposing a hydrocarbon fuel into a plurality of products, the apparatus comprising: a reaction chamber, an inlet for supplying the hydrocarbon fuel to the reaction chamber, a reaction chamber including an outlet for products of thermal decomposition, a conductive coil surrounding the reaction chamber between the inlet and the outlet of the reaction chamber, The conductive coil is arranged to receive an alternating current and heat the reaction chamber by electromagnetic induction.

2. The reaction chamber comprises at least one wall, the at least one wall comprising at least one of tungsten, rhenium, tantalum, molybdenum, osmium, and iridium. The apparatus according to claim 1.

3. The reaction chamber does not have solid particulate material located therein. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

4. The conductive coil and the reaction chamber are not in direct contact. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

5. The conductive coil has a length such that the conductive coil heats a portion of the reaction chamber of substantially the same length, The length is from 5 mm to 10 m. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

6. The conductive coil includes a hollow cavity, and the apparatus further comprises a fluid supply source connected to the conductive coil for supplying fluid to the hollow cavity of the conductive coil. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

7. The conductive coil includes a plurality of turns between 2 turns and 100 turns, the conductive coil includes a spacing between adjacent turns of the plurality of turns, and the spacing ranges from 0.01 mm to 1 m. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

8. The apparatus comprises one or more reaction chambers surrounded by two or more common conductive coils. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

9. The apparatus comprises a pair of conductive coils, The pair of conductive coils includes a common line, The common line is split at a branch point to form the two conductive coils in the pair of conductive coils, The common line is arranged to receive the alternating current. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2.

10. The apparatus further comprises an insulating layer between the reaction chamber and the conductive coil. The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the insulating layer directly contacts and surrounds the reaction chamber. **Claim 11**: The insulating layer directly contacts and surrounds the reaction chamber, The apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the insulating layer contains ultra-high temperature ceramic. **Claim 12**: The apparatus according to claim 10, wherein the insulating layer includes at least one layer of ultra-high temperature ceramic and at least one layer of ceramic fiber felt. **Claim 13**: The apparatus further comprises a housing surrounding the reaction chamber and the conductive coil, The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2, further comprising a gas supply line connected to the housing for supplying the gas to the housing such that the gas surrounds the reaction chamber and is disposed inside the housing. **Claim 14**: The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2, further comprising at least one thermal sensor arranged to measure the temperature of the reaction chamber at at least one position along the reaction chamber heated by the surrounding conductive coil. **Claim 15**: The apparatus further comprises an insulating layer between the reaction chamber and the conductive coil, The insulating layer includes at least one via, The apparatus according to claim 14, wherein the thermal sensor outputs a radiation beam that contacts the reaction chamber by passing through the at least one via. **Claim 16**: The apparatus according to claim 15, further comprising a control unit in communication with the thermal sensor, the control unit being configured to receive a temperature measurement value from the thermal sensor. **Claim 17**: The apparatus according to claim 1 or 2, and A quench chamber in fluid communication with the output of the reaction chamber and arranged to cool a plurality of products of pyrolysis, and And a filter chamber for recovering and separating the products of the pyrolysis, the filter being in fluid communication with the outlet of the apparatus and downstream of the outlet of the apparatus, the filter chamber. A system comprising. **Claim 18**: A method for the pyrolysis of hydrocarbon fuel into a plurality of products, the method comprising: Introducing the hydrocarbon fuel into a reaction chamber, Passing an alternating current through a conductive coil surrounding the reaction chamber to generate an alternating magnetic field to inductively heat the reaction chamber. A method of heating the hydrocarbon fuel in the reaction chamber to pyrolyze the hydrocarbon fuel. **Claim 19**: The method according to claim 18, further comprising receiving a temperature measurement value at a position along the reaction chamber and comparing the temperature measurement value with a preset desired temperature range, wherein the preset desired temperature range includes an upper limit and a lower limit. **Claim 20**: Determining that the temperature at a position along the reaction chamber is higher than the upper limit or lower than the lower limit, **Claim 19**: The method according to claim 19, further comprising transmitting a control signal for changing an alternating current passing through an electrically conductive coil when it is determined that the temperature is lower than the lower limit or higher than the upper limit.

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