Flow-through electrochemical cell

Abstract

To provide a flow-through electrochemical cell.SOLUTION: A flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell includes a container housing a cathode and an anode, a closed loop fluidly connected to the container, a fluid electrolyte within the container and the closed loop and including working ions, and a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the closed loop, the porous cathode, and the porous anode in a first direction during discharge of the electrochemical cell. The present disclosure further includes a flow-through rechargeable battery including a plurality of electrochemical cells, the closed loop, and the pump.SELECTED DRAWING: None

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] (CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS) This application is based upon the following U.S. provisional applications: U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 813,132, filed March 3, 2019, entitled "FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL", which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 823,547, filed March 25, 2019, entitled "3-D PRINTED ELECTRODE FOR FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL", which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 878,733, filed July 25, 2019, entitled "EXPANDABLE ELECTRODE FOR FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL", which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 878,733, filed February 3, 2020, entitled "POROUS ELECTRODE FOR FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL", which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 969,620, entitled "BATTERY USING FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL," and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 970,156, filed February 4, 2020, entitled "BATTERY USING FLOW-THROUGH ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS," which are incorporated by reference in their entireties.

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to rechargeable electrochemical cells, and more particularly to flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cells, flow-through rechargeable batteries containing flow-through electrochemical cells, and devices including flow-through rechargeable batteries. [Background technology]

[0003] An electrochemical cell has two electrodes, an anode and a cathode, and an electrolyte. The electrodes contain materials, referred to as active materials, that are both electronically and chemically active. The active materials in the anode and cathode can gain and lose ions, typically the same ions, which are cations (positive ions), referred to as the working ions of the electrochemical cell. The electrolyte conducts the working ions but is an electronic insulator. As a result, any transfer of electrons between the anode and cathode working materials must occur through an external circuit that is in electronic contact with both the anode and cathode. Typically, the anode active material, the cathode active material, or both, contain working ions prior to cycling the electrochemical cell.

[0004] Rechargeable electrochemical cells or batteries are typically identified by their type based on their working ions, leading to identifications such as "lithium ion battery", "hydrogen ion battery", etc.

[0005] During cycling, the electrolyte conducts working ions inside the electrochemical cell while electrons move through an external circuit. During discharge, electrons tend to flow without requiring external energy input, allowing energy stored within the electrochemical cell to power, for example, a device. During charging, an external energy supply is typically used to store energy from the energy supply within the electrochemical cell to cause the electrons to flow in the opposite direction. Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0006] The present disclosure provides a flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell including a container housing a cathode and an anode, a closed loop fluidly connected to the container, a fluid electrolyte within the container and the closed loop and including working ions, and a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte in a first direction through the closed loop, the porous cathode, and the porous anode during discharge of the electrochemical cell.

[0007] The electrochemical cell may further include the following features, which may be combined with each other and with other features disclosed herein in any combination, unless expressly mutually exclusive: i) the pump may be configured to cause flow of the fluid electrolyte in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the electrochemical cell. ii) The cathode, anode, or both may comprise a highly porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. iii) Both the cathode and the anode may comprise a highly porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. iv) The cathode, anode, or both, comprise a highly porosity base material that is coated with the active material and may have a porosity between 5% and 50%. v) Both the cathode and anode comprise a highly porosity base material that is coated with an active material and may have a porosity between 5% and 50%. vi) The pump may be a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane type pump, or a progressive cavity pump. vii) The pump may be configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. viii) The cathode, anode, or both, comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. ix) The cathode, anode, or both may comprise a highly porosity material, containing cells with octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroidal, or circular cross-sections and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 1.0 mm. x) The cells may form pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. xi) The cells may form pores having a length of 2 cm to 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cells. xii) The cells may form pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross-section of the cell, and at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the electrode are continuously open along their respective lengths. xiii) The electrode may comprise 10-100 layers of high porosity material that are stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cells. xiv) The cathode, anode, or both may be wound electrodes comprising a wound sheet of a highly porosity material. xv) The high porosity material may include metal foam or carbon foam. xvi) The cathode, anode, or both may be woven wire mesh (WWM) electrodes comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. xvii) The working ions may include alkali metal ions. xviii) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl ion (OH - ). xvix) The anode may comprise a metal operable to form a solid solution of hydrogen ions. xx) The electrochemical cell may further include a separator including an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to allow passage of working ions and flow of fluid electrolyte through the membrane.

[0008] The present disclosure further provides a flow-through rechargeable battery including a plurality of electrochemical cells, each including a container housing a cathode and an anode, and a fluid electrolyte including working ions; a closed loop fluidly connected to the container of the electrochemical cells and containing the fluid electrolyte; and a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the closed loop and the electrochemical cells in a first direction during discharge of the battery.

[0009] The battery may further include the following features, which may be combined in any combination with each other and with other features disclosed herein, unless expressly mutually exclusive. i) The battery may include between 2 and 500 electrochemical cells. ii) The pump may be configured to cause the fluid electrolyte to flow in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the battery. iii) the battery may include at least one internal loop fluidly connected between the containers of the electrochemical cells and containing a fluid electrolyte, the pump also being configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in a first direction during discharge of the battery. iv) the battery may include at least one internal loop fluidly connected between the containers of the electrochemical cells and containing a fluid electrolyte, the pump also being configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in a second direction during charging of the battery. v) The battery may include at least one internal circuit that electronically connects at least two of the electrochemical cells. vi) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may comprise a highly porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. vii) Both the cathode and the anode of the electrochemical cell may comprise a highly porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. viii) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may comprise a highly porosity base material that is coated with an active material and may have a porosity between 5% and 50%. ix) The cathode and anode of the electrochemical cell both comprise a highly porosity base material that is coated with an active material and may have a porosity between 5% and 50%. x) The pump may be a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. xi) The pump may be configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. xii) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. xiii) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may comprise a highly porosity material, including cells with octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroidal, or circular cross-sections and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 10 mm. xiv) The cells may define pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. xv) The cells may form pores having a length of 2 cm to 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cells. xvi) The cells may form pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross-section of the cell, with at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the anode or cathode being continuously open along their respective lengths. xvii) The electrode may comprise 10-100 layers of high porosity material that are stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cells. xviii) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may be wound electrodes comprising a wound sheet of a highly porosity material. xix) The high porosity material may include metal foam or carbon foam. xx) The cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell may be a woven wire mesh (WWM) electrode comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. xxi) the working ions may include alkali metal ions xxii) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl ion (OH - ). xxiii) The anode of the electrochemical cell may comprise a metal operable to form a solid solution of hydrogen ions. xxiv) The electrochemical cell may further include a separator including an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to allow passage of working ions and flow of fluid electrolyte through the membrane. The present invention provides, for example, the following: (Item 1) 1. A flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell comprising: a container housing a porous cathode comprising a highly porosity cathode base material coated with a cathode active material to form a cathode active material surface, and a porous anode comprising a highly porosity anode base material coated with an anode active material to form an anode active material surface; a closed loop fluidly connected to the container; a fluid electrolyte, the fluid electrolyte being within the container and the closed loop and including working ions; a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the closed loop, the porous cathode, and the porous anode in a first direction during discharge of the electrochemical cell, the flow of the electrolyte in the first direction being parallel to the cathode active material surface and the anode active material surface; 1. A flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell comprising: (Item 2) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the pump is configured to cause the fluid electrolyte to flow in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the electrochemical cell. (Item 3) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 4) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode and the anode both comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 5) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a high porosity base material that is coated with an active material and has a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 6) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode and the anode both comprise a high porosity base material coated with an active material and have a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 7) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the pump is a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. (Item 8) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the pump is configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. (Item 9) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. (Item 10) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both comprise a high porosity material, with cells having an octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroidal, or circular cross-section and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 1.0 mm. (Item 11) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 10, wherein the cell defines pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. (Item 12) Item 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell according to item 10, wherein the cell forms pores having a length between 2 cm and 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to a cross section of the cell. (Item 13) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 10, wherein the cell defines pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to a cross-section of the cell, and at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the electrode are continuously open along their respective lengths. (Item 14) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell according to item 10, wherein the electrode comprises 10 to 100 layers of high porosity material stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cell. Item 15) Item 14. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both are wound electrodes comprising a wound sheet of a high porosity material. (Item 16) Item 16. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 15, wherein the high porosity material comprises a metal foam or a carbon foam. (Item 17) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both are woven wire mesh (WWM) electrodes comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. (Item 18) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the working ions comprise alkali metal ions. (Item 19) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl (OH - 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, comprising: (Item 20) 20. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 19, wherein the anode comprises a metal operable to form a solid solution of the hydrogen ions. (Item 21) Item 14. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, further comprising a separator comprising an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to permit passage of the working ions and flow of the fluid electrolyte through the membrane. (Item 22) 1. A flow-through rechargeable battery comprising: A plurality of electrochemical cells, each of which comprises: a container housing a porous cathode comprising a highly porosity cathode base material coated with a cathode active material to form a cathode active material surface, and a porous anode comprising a highly porosity anode base material coated with an anode active material to form an anode active material surface; A fluid electrolyte containing working ions; A plurality of electrochemical cells comprising: a closed loop fluidly connected to a container of the electrochemical cell and containing the fluid electrolyte; a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the closed loop and the electrochemical cell in a first direction during discharge of the battery, the flow of the electrolyte in the first direction being parallel to the cathode active material surface and the anode active material surface; 1. A flow-through rechargeable battery comprising: (Item 23) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, comprising 2 to 500 electrochemical cells. (Item 24) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is configured to cause the fluid electrolyte to flow in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the battery. (Item 25) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal loop fluidly connected between containers of the electrochemical cells and containing the fluid electrolyte, the pump also configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in the first direction during discharge of the battery. (Item 26) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal loop fluidly connected between containers of the electrochemical cells and containing the fluid electrolyte, the pump also configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in the second direction during charging of the battery. (Item 27) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal circuit electronically connecting at least two of the electrochemical cells. (Item 28) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 29) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode and anode of the electrochemical cell both comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 30) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprises a high porosity base material coated with an active material and has a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 31) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode and anode of the electrochemical cell both comprise a high porosity base material coated with an active material and have a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 32) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. (Item 33) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. (Item 34) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. (Item 35) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cells comprise a high porosity material, with cells having an octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroid, or circular cross-section and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 10 mm. (Item 36) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the cell forms pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. (Item 37) Item 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 35, wherein the cells form pores having a length of 2 cm to 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell. (Item 38) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the cell forms pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to a cross-section of the cell, and at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the anode or cathode are persistently open along their respective lengths. (Item 39) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the electrode comprises 10 to 100 layers of high porosity material stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cells. (Item 40) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell are wound electrodes comprising wound sheets of a high porosity material. (Item 41) Item 41. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 40, wherein the high porosity material comprises a metal foam or a carbon foam. (Item 42) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell are woven wire mesh (WWM) electrodes comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. (Item 43) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the working ions include alkali metal ions. (Item 44) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl (OH - 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, comprising: (Item 45) 44. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 43, wherein the anode of the electrochemical cell comprises a metal operable to form a solid solution of hydrogen ions. (Item 46) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the electrochemical cell further comprises a separator comprising an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to permit passage of the working ions and flow of the fluid electrolyte through the membrane. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0010] Embodiments of the present disclosure will now be described in more detail, and by way of example, with reference to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily to scale.

[0011] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1A is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell during discharge. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of the flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of FIG. 1A during charging. [Figure 1C] FIG. 1C is a photographic image of a portion of a nickel metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable electrochemical cell according to FIGS. 1A and 1B. [Figure 1D] FIG. 1D is a photographic image of the electrode of FIG. 1D. [Diagram 2] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a cross-sectional view of an electrode. [Figure 3A] FIG. 3A is a schematic diagram of a side view of a rolled foam sheet electrode. [Figure 3B] FIG. 3B is a schematic diagram of a top view of the rolled foam sheet electrode of FIG. 3A. [Figure 3C]FIG. 3C is a photographic image of a rolled foam sheet electrode of the type used in the electrochemical cells of FIGS. 1C and 1D according to FIGS. 3A and 3B. [Figure 4A] FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram of a side view of a woven wire mesh (WWM) electrode. [Figure 4B] FIG. 4B is a schematic diagram of a top view of the WWM used in the electrode of FIG. 4 before folding into the electrode. [Figure 4C] FIG. 4C is a top view of a cell electrode of the type illustrated in FIG. 2, modified for use with the WWM electrode of FIGS. 4A and 4B. [Diagram 5] FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a flow-through rechargeable battery containing a plurality of the electrochemical cells of FIGS. 1A and 1B. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a graph of battery charging current versus linear flow rate in the electrochemical cell of FIGS. 1A and 1B. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0012] The present disclosure relates to flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cells, flow-through rechargeable batteries containing flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cells, and devices including flow-through rechargeable batteries, as well as associated methods of making and using such electrochemical cells, batteries, and devices.

[0013] A rechargeable electrochemical cell is a device that can undergo at least one charge / discharge cycle. The terms "battery" and "electrochemical cell" are sometimes used synonymously or given specific meanings in different contexts. The term "electrochemical cell" is used in this disclosure to describe a device that includes an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The term "battery" is used in this disclosure to describe a device that contains multiple electrochemical cells.

[0014] The electrochemical cells of the present disclosure may have porous cathodes and anodes, separators that allow for fluid flow, and a pump for circulating the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell. The working ions are lithium ions (Li + ), sodium ion (Na + ), or potassium ion (K + ), alkali metal ions such as hydrogen ions (H + ), or hydroxyl ion (OH - ) may also be used.

[0015] 1A and 1B, electrochemical cell 100 includes a cathode 102, an anode 104 (collectively, electrodes), an electrolyte 106, and an electronically insulating separator 108 housed in a container 110. To facilitate the flow of electrolyte 106 through the cathode 102 and anode 104, the container 110 is fluidly connected to a closed loop 114 that includes a pump 112.

[0016] 1A and 1B, the electrochemical cell is configured such that the electrodes and separators are arranged in a stack with a separator 108 located between the anode 104 and the cathode 102 to help prevent electronic contact between the anode 104 and the cathode 102 other than through an external circuit 136. A closed loop 114 is connected to the container 110 such that a fluid electrolyte enters the container 110 from the closed loop 114, flows through the stack of the anode 104, the separator 108, and the cathode 102, and then exits the container 110 and re-enters the closed loop 114. As illustrated in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the closed loop 114 is simply connected to the container 110 on the opposite side of the stack, although other configurations are possible so long as fluid flows through the stack.

[0017] 1A and 1B includes a separator 108, alternative electrochemical cells may lack a separator. For example, the cathode 102 and anode 104 may be held in place by attachment to a container 110 or another non-separator structure within the electrochemical cell 100 such that they are not in electronic contact. Although such a configuration lacking a separator may not work in many conventional electrochemical cells due to the formation of dendrites that are blocked by the separator, the flow of fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell 100 is not a flow-through cell and may prevent or substantially reduce dendrite formation compared to similar electrochemical cells making a separator unnecessary.

[0018] Although the electrochemical cell 100 is illustrated with a cylindrical container 110, other container shapes, such as a rectangular, cubic, or coin-shaped, are possible. The container 100 may comprise any suitable material capable of resisting degradation by the fluid electrolyte or other chemicals found within the electrochemical cell 100, including chemicals formed during cycling of the electrochemical cell 100. Suitable materials may also be capable of maintaining the shape of the electrochemical cell 100 during charging and discharging or over the expected life of the electrochemical cell 100. Suitable materials include steel, glass, bituminous compounds, ceramic materials, and polymers. The container 110 may comprise multiple materials, such as, for example, a metal outer layer with a degradation-resistant inner layer or coating.

[0019] The closed loop 114 may comprise the same or a different material as the container 100. The closed loop 114 may comprise any suitable material capable of resisting degradation by the fluid electrolyte or other chemicals found within the electrochemical cell 100, including chemicals formed during cycling of the electrochemical cell 100. Suitable materials may also be capable of maintaining a shape, such as a cross-sectional shape, without collapsing over the expected life of the electrochemical cell 100. Suitable materials include steel, glass, bituminous compounds, ceramic materials, and polymers. The closed loop 114 may comprise multiple materials, such as, for example, a metal outer layer with a degradation-resistant inner layer. The closed loop 114 may be flexible or rigid.

[0020] The pump 112 in the closed loop 114 may be any pump sufficient to flow the fluid electrolyte 106 through the closed loop 114 and the electrodes in the container 110, and reversibly to cause flow in one direction during charging and in the opposite direction during discharging. The pump 112 may be a positive displacement pump as shown, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. The pump 112 may be located within the fluid flow path of the closed loop 114, as shown, or may be an external pump, such as a peristaltic pump. The pump 112 may operate at a fixed flow rate or a variable flow rate.

[0021] The flow rate in the closed loop 114 may be measured as the linear flow rate through the electrodes or the volumetric flow rate through the electrodes. If the theoretical linear flow rate is different between the two electrodes, the lower linear flow rate will dictate the actual linear flow rate through the electrodes. The linear flow rate may be dictated by several factors such as the pump 112 and the permeability of the electrodes and separator (if present) to the fluid electrolyte 106. A suitable linear flow rate may cause an increase in ion mobility of the working ions of 2 to 20, 5 to 15, 8 to 12, or 10 times compared to the same electrochemical cell without flow. A suitable linear flow rate may range from 0.01 cm / s to 100 cm / s, 0.01 cm / s to 50 cm / s, 1 cm / s to 100 cm / s, or 1 cm / s to 50 cm / s.

[0022] The volumetric flow rate reflects the linear flow rate and the electrode volume. A suitable volumetric flow rate will result in an increase in ion mobility of the working ions of 2-20, 5-15, 8-12, or 10 times compared to the same electrochemical cell without flow.

[0023] Generally, peristaltic or rotary vane pumps can provide low or moderate flow rates with moderate power requirements. Progressive cavity pumps can provide higher flow rates with higher power requirements. Due to their higher power requirements, progressive cavity pumps may be more suitable for use in flow-through electrochemical cells in large stationary batteries, such as in grid storage and other electric utility applications, or in marine batteries.

[0024] The pump 112 may be powered by an external power source during charging, discharging, or both of the electrochemical cell 100. In particular, the pump 112 may be powered by the same external energy supply, such as the charger 144, during charging. The pump 112 may be powered by the electrochemical cell 100 itself during discharging. The pump 112 may include electronic isolation components, particularly when in the closed loop 114, such that the electrochemical cell 100 cannot discharge except through the external circuit 136. The pump 112 may also be a positive displacement pump, such as a peristaltic pump, that physically isolates a short section of electrolyte, thereby physically disrupting a possible electronic circuit along the closed loop 114.

[0025] If the pump 112 is located within the fluid flow path of the closed loop 114, the pump 112 may include or be coated with a material capable of resisting decomposition by the fluid electrolyte or other chemicals found within the electrochemical cell 100, including chemicals formed during circulation of the electrochemical cell 100.

[0026] 1A, 1B, and 5 are illustrated with a single pump 112, multiple pumps may be present. For example, a battery containing multiple electrochemical cells may contain pumps between the electrochemical cells or sets of electrochemical cells to maintain fluid electrolyte flow, especially if there are a large number of electrochemical cells or if each cell is not highly permeable. Multiple pumps 112 may be driven by one motor or by multiple motors to help them remain synchronized.

[0027] The separator 108 may be a permeable membrane that allows the passage of working ions and the flow of the fluid electrolyte 106 through the membrane. The separator 108 may include woven fibers, nonwoven fibers, polymeric films, ceramics, and naturally occurring materials. Nonwoven fibers may include cotton, nylon, polyester fibers, paper, and glass fibers. Polyester films may include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(tetrafluoroethylene), poly(ethylene terephthalate), and polyvinyl chloride films. Naturally occurring materials may include rubber, asbestos, and wood. The separator 108 may be 10 μm to 5,000 μm thick, 10 μm to 1,000 μm thick, 10 μm to 500 μm thick, 10 μm to 100 μm thick, or 20 μm to 70 μm thick, with thinner separators being most useful in many electrochemical cells 100.

[0028] The cathode 102 may be a porous cathode. For example, the cathode 102 may include a high porosity cathode base material, such as a high porosity metal or carbon foam, that is permeable to the fluid electrolyte. Suitable high porosity metal foams include Ni, Fe, Cu, and Al foams. The porosity of the high porosity cathode base material may be greater than 40%, such as 40%-90% or 40%-99%. In particular, the porosity may be 80%-90%. The porous nature also allows the fluid electrolyte 106 to flow through the cathode 102.

[0029] The high porosity cathode base material may be coated with a cathode active material. In particular, the pore surfaces of the high porosity cathode base material may be coated with the cathode active material. After coating with the cathode active material, the cathode 102 may still maintain a porosity of at least 5%, at least 10%, or at least 20%, such as 5%-50%, 10%-50%, and 20%-50%, or sufficient porosity to allow the flow of the fluid electrolyte 106 at a set linear or volumetric flow rate.

[0030] The porous nature of the high porosity cathode base material provides a high internal surface area to volume ratio. For example, the internal surface area to volume ratio may be 1 / d to 6 / d or 2 / d to 4 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores, such as the average diameter of a spherical pore. This ratio depends on the pore size and shape. For example, if the pores are spherical, uniformly sized, and filled into a simple cubic array, each pore will be in contact with six other pores. With very small intersections of the spheres, which can be ignored in theoretical calculations, channels will open between all of the pores. If the pore diameter is d, then the internal surface area of ​​the pores is πd 2 and d 3 The surface area / volume ratio of the set of pores is therefore π / d. As a result, smaller pore diameters produce the desired higher ratios. However, the need to coat each pore with cathodically active material having a thickness t and still allow flow through the pores imposes an asymptotic lower limit on the pore diameter. To allow suitable fluid flow and maintain a suitable porosity, typically d is at least 3t. d may also be at least 4t, or at least 5t, 3t to 5t, or 3t to 10t.

[0031] The volume of active material coating the inner surface area of ​​the pores is [πd 3 / 6-π(d-2t) 3 / 6], and if d=3t, the active material volume is 27t 3 Within a unit volume of π(27-1)t 3 / 6=13.61t 3Therefore, the approximate ratio of active material volume to total electrode volume is 13.61 / 27=0.504 or about 50%. Suitable ratios may range from 5% to 60% or 5% to 55%.

[0032] The ideal pore size may therefore be set by the thickness t of the active material. The ideal thickness t may also be set by the distance over which working ions may be able to diffuse into the active material. These theoretical calculations represent a lower limit, as actual high porosity cathode base materials with randomly shaped pores and inherent porosity of 80-90% would exhibit higher surface area / volume ratios than in the theoretical calculations above. For example, in practice, ratios closer to 5 / d are achievable.

[0033] Suitable cathode active materials may include crystalline compositions in which working ions may intercalate and deintercalate over multiple charge / discharge cycles. In particular, the cathode active material may include a transition metal oxide, phosphate, silicate, sulfate, or vanadate. Suitable transition metals include Co, Fe, Mn, V, Ni, Ti, and combinations thereof. The cathode active material may be LiCoO 2 , LiNiO 2 , LiFePO 4 , LiCoPO 4 , LiMnPO 4 , LiFeSO 4 , LiCoSO 4 , LiNiSO 4 , LiMnSO 4 F, Li 2 MnO 3 , LiMnO 2 , LiVO 2 , V 6 O 13 , LiFePO 4 F, LiVPO 4 F, LiTiPO 4 F, Li 2 CoPO 4 F, Li 2 NiPO 4 F, LiFeSO 4 F, LiCoSO 4F, LiNiSO 4 F, LiMnSO 4 F, and LiMn 2 O 4 The cathode active material may also include a single transition metal such as LiNiCoMnO 2 , LiNiCoAlO 2 , LiFeCoPO 4 , LiNi 1-y Co y O 2 , LiNi 1-y-z Co y Al z O 2 , LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.5 O 2 , LiNi 1-y-z Mn y Co z O 2 , Li x Na 0.5-x MnO 2 , LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 In addition, Ni(OH) 2 Na impregnated Ni foam etc. 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 2 F 3 Na, K, or other alkali metal equivalents of these cathode active materials may be used, such as specifically Na or K cathode active materials, such as LiFePO or H cathode active materials. The cathode active material is often LiFePO 4 The active material may include other materials that do not directly participate in the electrochemical reaction, such as a carbon coating, present on the surface. Another example is the H cathode active material Ni(OH). 2 The inclusion of nickel metal powder or nickel oxide in Co(OH) 2 The coating is Ni(OH) 2 may be used to improve the performance of

[0034] The anode 104 may be a porous anode. For example, the anode 104 may include a high porosity anode base material, such as a high porosity metal or carbon foam, that is permeable to the fluid electrolyte. Suitable high porosity metal foams include Ni, Fe, Cu, and Al foams. The porosity of the high porosity cathode base material may be greater than 40%, such as 40%-90% or 40%-99%. In particular, the porosity may be 80%-90%. The porous nature also allows the fluid electrolyte 106 to flow through the anode 104.

[0035] The highly porosity anode base material may be coated with the anode active material. In particular, the pore surfaces of the highly porosity anode base material may be coated with the anode active material. After coating with the anode active material, the anode 104 may still maintain a porosity of at least 5%, at least 10%, or at least 20%, such as 5%-50%, 10%-50%, and 20%-50%, or sufficient porosity to allow the flow of the fluid electrolyte 106 at a set linear or volumetric flow rate.

[0036] Alternatively, the high porosity anode base material may simply comprise the anode active material such that no coating is necessary.

[0037] The high porosity anode base material may have an internal surface area to volume ratio similar to that described above for the high porosity cathode base material, and the ratio may be subject to similar calculations.

[0038] Suitable anode active materials may include compositions with which the working ions may plate in their metallic form or with which the working ions may react, for example, by intercalating into the anode active material crystal structure. Suitable anode active material compositions include Li, C, Si, Sn, Pb, Ge, Ti, Cu, Ni, Co, Mn, and Zn compounds. For example, such materials include hard carbon materials, soft carbon materials, carbon nanotubes, graphene, Si nanowires, Si thin films, Li 15 Ge 4, Sn, Pb, TiO 2 , Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 , Ti-Nb oxide, GeO 2 , Sn oxide, Si oxide, CoO, NiO, CuO, MnO, Mn 2 Mo 3 O 8 , ZnCo 2 O 4 , ZnFe 2 O 4 , TiNi, and Ti 2 In addition, TiNi alloy, LaNi 5 , and La 0.8 Nd 0.2 Ni 2.5 Co 2.4 S 0.1 , FeTi, and Mg 2 Na, K, or other alkali metal equivalents of these anode active materials may be used, as may more complex alloys such as Ni, H anode active materials. The anode active material may integrally include other materials that do not directly participate in the electrochemical reaction, such as a carbon coating, to improve its electronic conductivity.

[0039] In conventional electrochemical cells and batteries, the expansion and physical distortion of the cathode and anode, particularly the cathode and anode active materials during cycling of the electrochemical cell, can cause physical damage to the electrochemical cell, such as discontinuities between the active materials and other electronically conductive materials present in the electrochemical cell. This causes performance degradation over multiple cycles. For example, the electrochemical cell can experience a decrease in capacity over multiple cycles.

[0040] The highly porosity cathode or anode metal foams of the present disclosure allow the cathode or anode active material coated onto the foam spaces to expand and physically distort during cycling in three dimensions without significantly changing the overall dimensions of the electrode, which minimizes physical damage caused by cycling and improves electrode and electrochemical cell life, allowing the electrochemical cell to be cycled for at least 500-1,000 cycles, at least 500-2,000 cycles, at least 1,000-2,000 cycles, or at least 500-5,000 cycles with a capacity loss of 5% or less, or less than 1% compared to the capacity at the 10th cycle.

[0041] Cathode 102 may have a surface area 140 that is measured by the dimensions of cathode 102 around the periphery of surface 140, thus excluding any surface area contributed by pores in surface 140. Surface area 140 of cathode 102 may be small compared to the internal surface area of ​​the pores in cathode 102 or the internal surface area of ​​the pores in cathode 102 that are coated by the cathode active material, such as 0.5% or less, 0.1% or less, or 0.08% or less, particularly 0.5% to 0.0001%, 0.1% to 0.0001%, and 0.08% to 0.0001%.

[0042] Similarly, the anode 104 may have a surface 142 that has a surface area measured by the dimensions of the anode 102 around the periphery of the surface 142, thus excluding any surface area contributed by pores in the surface 142. The surface area 142 of the anode 104 may be small compared to the interior surface area of ​​the pores in the anode 104 or the interior surface area of ​​the pores in the anode 104 that are coated with the anode active material, such as 0.5% or less, 0.1% or less, or 0.08% or less, particularly 0.5% to 0.0001%, 0.1% to 0.0001%, and 0.08% to 0.0001%.

[0043] A low ratio of surface area to internal surface area in the cathode 102 , the anode 104 , or both, may also prevent the formation of dendrites between the cathode 102 and the anode 104 within the electrochemical cell 100 .

[0044] The electrode 200 in FIG. 2 is illustrated in cross section in the xy-section. The electrode 200 may be used in an electrochemical cell, such as the electrochemical cell 100. The electrode 200, which may be a cathode or an anode, includes a highly porosity base material 206. The highly porosity base material 206 includes a plurality of hexagonal cells 202 including walls 210 that form a plurality of pores 208. The pores 208 allow for the flow of a fluid electrolyte, such as the fluid electrolyte 106, through the cathode or anode. The pores 208 may have an average maximum internal cross-sectional distance, measured from opposite apexes, of 0.01 mm to 1 mm. The pores 208 may have a length that matches the width of the electrode 200 in a direction perpendicular to the cross-section of the electrode 200, for example, 2 cm to 20 cm, or 5 cm to 10 cm. The walls 210 may have a maximum thickness of 1 μm to 5 μm.

[0045] The electrode 200 is placed such that, when placed in an electrochemical cell, the length of the pores 208 is in the direction of fluid electrolyte flow and promotes the flow of fluid electrolyte through the electrode 200 during cycling of the electrochemical cell. Ideally, the fluid electrolyte would be able to flow laminarly through the pores 208 with a given volume of fluid electrolyte remaining in the same pore 208 during its entire passage through the electrode 200. A blocked pore impedes electrolyte flow. Thus, at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores 208 in the electrode 200 may be persistently open along a length that matches the width of the electrode 200 in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the electrode 200.

[0046] The hexagonal cells 202 are coated with an active material coating 204. The coating can be continuous as shown, or discontinuous. In addition, all of the hexagonal cells 202 may be coated as shown, or only a portion of the hexagonal cells 202 may be coated. The active material coating can be thin enough so as not to impede the flow of electrolyte through the cathode or anode. For example, the average thickness of the active material coating 204 may be less than or equal to 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, or 2%, or between 0.0001% and 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, or 2% of the average maximum internal distance of the pores 208.

[0047] The high porosity base material 206 may be able to withstand damage caused by the expansion and distortion of the active material, especially since the walls of the hexagonal cells tend to experience similar forces from opposite directions.

[0048] Other high porosity base materials having cell geometric shapes are also possible. For example, octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, diamond, triangular, oval, oblate spheroidal, or circular cells may be used. Such cells may have similar maximum internal cross-sectional distances and similar relative maximum wall thicknesses, lengths, and active material coating thicknesses to the hexagonal cells discussed above. A similar percentage of such cells may be unobstructed.

[0049] The high porosity base material 206 may be formed using any suitable method, such as 3D printing or laser cutting, including computer numerically controlled (CNC) laser cutting. The active material may be coated onto the high porosity base material 206 using any suitable method, such as electroplating, powder impregnation, or electrodeposition of a layer.

[0050] FIG. 3A is a side view of a wound electrode 300. FIG. 3B is a top view of the same electrode. Such a wound electrode may be used in an electrochemical cell having the format of electrochemical cell 100, but it is also suitable for other formats, such as variations of the jelly roll format. The wound electrode 300 includes a high porosity material 302. For example, the high porosity material 302 may include a metal foam, such as Ni, Fe, Cu, or Al foam, or a carbon foam. The high porosity material 302 may be in the form of at least one thin sheet. The thin sheet may have a thickness of 0.5 mm to 3 mm, in particular 1.0 to 2.0 mm. The high porosity material 302 may have an average maximum pore internal distance of 0.01 mm to 1.0 mm. The high porosity material 302 includes an active material coated within its pores. The pores may be fully or partially coated, or all or only a portion of the pores may be coated. The active material may be coated using any suitable method, such as electroplating, powder impregnation, or electrodeposition of a layer.

[0051] The wound electrode 300 may have a diameter that is adjustable depending on the number of times the high porosity material 302 is wound.

[0052] The wound electrode 300 may include an internal rod 304 to facilitate winding of the high porosity material 302. The internal rod 304 may be electronically insulating or it may be electronically conductive. The internal rod 304 may be resistant to degradation during cycling of the electrochemical cell. For example, it may be acrylic.

[0053] The wound electrode may further include a conductive strip 306, which may include a metal such as Ni, Fe, Cu, or Al, or C. If the conductive strip 306 and the high porosity material 302 are both metals, the conductive strip 306 may be welded to the high porosity material 302 at one or more weld points 308.

[0054] Electrode 300 may be positioned within an electrochemical cell, such as electrochemical cell 100, such that a fluid electrolyte flows through electrode 300 in direction 410 during cycling of the electrochemical cell.

[0055] The following formula can provide the helical turn length: L=πN.(D-Do)(Do+h.(N-1)) where Do = inner diameter of the turn, which may be the diameter of the inner rod 304, if present; h=thickness of the high porosity material 302, active material, and any separators; N = number of spiral turns = (D-Do) / 2h.

[0056] The surface area of ​​the active material in such an electrode 300 is the length of the high porosity material multiplied by its width, and the volume of the active material in such an electrode 300 is the surface area of ​​the active material multiplied by the active material thickness. Electrode 300 thus has an active material volume that may exceed that of a rolled foil electrode with the same overall dimensions but without the high porosity material by at least three times, at least four times, at least five times, two to six times, or two to five times. This translates into a comparable increase in energy density for an electrochemical cell containing electrode 300.

[0057] FIG 4A is a side view of a woven wire mesh (WWM) electrode 400. The electrode may include at least one WWM as shown, folded at folding points 406 to form layer 402, or it may contain multiple unfolded WWM sheets. The WWM may be laser cut to facilitate folding. FIG 4B illustrates the folded WWM prior to folding at folding points 406.

[0058] The WWM contains pores. For example, it may be a highly porous material. The WWM electrode 400 may further include conductive connectors 404 to allow electronic connection to an external circuit. The electrode 400 may contain 10-100 layers, or more specifically, 20-50 layers 402. The layers 402 may contain internal conductive connectors between the layers 402, especially if not formed from a folded WWM. The WWM 402 may have an average maximum internal pore distance of 0.01 mm to 1.0 mm, such as an average pore diameter of 2.5 mm. The WWM 402 includes an active material coated within its pores. The pores may be fully or partially coated, or only all or a portion of the pores may be coated. The active material may be coated using any suitable method, such as electroplating, powder impregnation, or electrodeposition of a layer.

[0059] WWM 402 may have spaces between layers, as illustrated in Figure 4. These spaces may further accommodate expansion and distortion of the active material in lateral direction 408 during cycling. Electrode 400 may be positioned within an electrochemical cell, such as electrochemical cell 100, such that a fluid electrolyte flows through electrode 400 in direction 410 during charging and in the opposite direction during discharging.

[0060] The material in electrode 200 may also be folded in a manner identical to the WWM of electrode 400, for example, at fold points 406 as illustrated in FIG. 4B, or simply as a detached layer. In such an embodiment, pores 208 may have a length equal to the width of each layer, rather than the entire electrode.

[0061] The fluid electrolyte 106 may be in the form of a liquid. A fluid electrolyte may include a solvent, which typically does not contain or contribute working ions to the electrochemical reaction of the electrochemical cell 100, and a solute, which contributes working ions to the electrochemical reaction of the electrochemical cell 100. Mixtures of solvents and solutes are common in electrolytes. Some electrolytes may also have more complex forms that are not essentially solvent-solute. For example, such electrolytes may include miscible materials. The flow-through nature of the electrochemical cell 100 may be particularly well suited to such electrolytes or to electrolytes where the solute does not readily remain in solution due to the mixing provided by the flow.

[0062] The electrolyte may include aqueous or non-aqueous solvents. Aqueous electrolytes may include alkali metal hydroxides such as KOH, LiOH, or NaOH, or mixtures of these hydroxides. Non-aqueous electrolytes may include organic carbonates, organic esters, organic ethers, ionic liquids, and polymer solvents. Organic carbonates and organic esters may include ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, γ-butylene carbonate, γ-valerolactone, N-methyl-2-oxazolidinone, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, ethyl methyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, methyl butyrate, or ethyl butyrate. Organic ethers may include 2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran, dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran, 1,3-dioxolane, 4-methyl-1,3-dioxolane, or 2-methyl-1,3-dioxolane. As yet another example, the polymer electrolyte used as the electrolyte solvent may include poly(ethylene oxide), polyacrylonitrile, poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(vinylidene fluoride), poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene), polyethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol dimethacrylate, polyethylene glycol diacrylate, or poly(ethylene terephthalate).

[0063] Suitable solvents or other sources of working ions include working ion salts, such as LiPF 6 , LiBF 4 , or LiClO 4 Lithium salts such as sodium difluoro(oxalato)borate (C 2 O 4 BF 2 Na), NaPF 6 , or NaClO 4 Sodium salts such as KPF may exist when the working ion is sodium. 6 Or a potassium salt such as potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide may be present when the working ion is sodium.

[0064] For electrochemical cells where the working ion is hydrogen, a solvent-solute electrolyte or other complex electrolyte is often not required. For example, KOH may simply function as the electrolyte in a hydrogen ion electrochemical cell and is often the most cost-effective option.

[0065] The viscosity of a fluid electrolyte directly affects the resistance of the fluid electrolyte to flow through a porous medium such as an electrode. As a result, the fluid electrolyte pressure drop across an electrode, or across both electrodes, of an electrochemical cell is affected by the viscosity of the fluid electrolyte, with more viscous fluid electrolytes exhibiting more pressure drop in either case. A more powerful pump may be required to achieve an appropriate or set flow rate of a more viscous fluid electrolyte in an electrochemical cell if a less viscous fluid electrolyte is used.

[0066] Aqueous fluid electrolytes, such as alkali metal hydroxide electrolytes, may exhibit a viscosity close to that of water at room temperature (20° C.). For example, aqueous alkali metal hydroxide electrolytes, such as KOH, may exhibit a viscosity of 1-3 mPa / sec at room temperature. Organic liquid electrolytes may have a viscosity of 0.5-1 mPa / sec, while emulsions may have a viscosity of 2-20 mPa / sec.

[0067] The viscosity of all fluid electrolytes will vary with temperature, sometimes substantially. In general, the viscosity of a given fluid electrolyte will increase with decreasing temperature and decrease with increasing temperature. Different solutes or other materials present in the fluid electrolyte may affect the viscosity and change with temperature differently for a given solvent or volumetrically largest component of the fluid electrolyte. Thus, a given fluid electrolyte, including any solute or other volumetrically insignificant component of the fluid electrolyte, may be used in the electrochemical cells of the present disclosure to provide an optimal or set fluid electrolyte flow rate in a given temperature range, or to enable the electrochemical cell to function even at extreme temperatures.

[0068] The combination of the cathode active material, anode active material, and electrolyte may be based on known electrochemical cell principles such that the working ions may participate in electrochemical reactions that allow the electrochemical cell to function. For example, the anode and cathode may produce a given theoretical voltage, and the electrolyte may be an electrolyte that is expected to be stable at that given voltage.

[0069] Although Figures 1A and 1B show a single electrochemical cell, the present disclosure also includes flow-through rechargeable batteries that include multiple electrochemical cells with continuous fluid electrolyte flow. Figure 5 illustrates such a flow-through rechargeable battery 500. Although the battery 500 is illustrated with five electrochemical cells 100 in a stack, a flow-through rechargeable battery may include 2-1,000, 2-500, 2-100, 2-50, 2-20, 2-5, or 2-10 electrochemical cells 100. The number of electrochemical cells 100 in a stack is limited only by the increase in mechanical force required to overcome the pressure drop in passing the fluid electrolyte through the porous electrodes. The mechanical force required scales linearly with the total battery power, however, the relative efficiency of the battery remains the same.

[0070] The electrochemical cells 100 at the ends of the stack are connected in a closed loop 114, with the electrochemical cells 100 connected internally within the stack by an internal loop 502 to allow for flow of the fluid electrolyte 106 through the stack of electrochemical cells 100. Similarly, the electrochemical cells 100 at the ends of the stack are connected to an external circuit 136, with the electrochemical cells 100 connected internally within the stack by an internal circuit 504 to allow for electronic conduction between the electrochemical cells 100 and an external element, such as an electrical load 138.

[0071] 5 illustrates electrochemical cells 100 connected electronically in series such that the cathode 102 of one electrochemical cell 100 is connected to the anode 104 of the next electrochemical cell 100 in the stack by an internal circuit 504, although other electronic connections, such as parallel connections, are possible depending on the installation of the internal circuit 504. The path of flow of the fluid electrolyte 106 through the stack of electrochemical cells 100 does not necessarily have to match the path of the electronic circuit 504.

[0072] When the flow-through electrochemical cells 100 are connected in a flow-through rechargeable battery 500, they are at the same potential, so it does not matter if the fluid electrolyte 106 passes directly from one cathode to the next anode along the stack.

[0073] 5 also typically includes an external reservoir 508 in which the electrolyte 106 may be stored when not flowing through the electrochemical cell 100. The closed loop 114 may include one or more valves 506 that may be opened or closed to direct the electrolyte 106 in circuit through the closed loop 114 or into the external reservoir 508 using the pump 112. The external reservoir may be insulated, heated, cooled, or any combination thereof to protect the electrolyte 106 against extreme temperatures. Although the external reservoir 508 and valves 506 are shown in FIG. 5 in the context of a battery 500 containing multiple electrochemical cells 100, they may also be used in other contexts, such as with the electrochemical cells of FIGS. 1A and 1B.

[0074] An electrochemical cell or battery according to the present disclosure may also contain or be connected to battery safety and control components. For example, an electrochemical cell or battery may contain or be connected to an external temperature controller that may monitor and control the temperature of the fluid electrolyte, for example, using a thermostat and an external heat exchanger. Alternatively, an electrolyte heater or cooler may be disposed in or around a closed loop. Temperature monitoring and control may prevent the electrochemical cell or battery from operating at destructive temperatures. A temperature monitoring system, including a thermostat and a charge controller, may be capable of, for example, stopping charging if the battery overheats during charging. The temperature monitoring system may also prevent discharging, charging, or both if the battery temperature is too low. For example, both charging and discharging may be prevented at temperatures where the fluid electrolyte is too viscous for proper flow.

[0075] The temperature monitoring system may monitor the electrochemical cell or battery temperature, the external temperature, or both, and may control pumps and valves in a closed loop to direct electrolyte into an external reservoir when the electrochemical cell or battery is not operating and extreme temperatures are present.

[0076] As another example, an electrochemical cell or battery may contain a flow rate monitor that may be coupled to a pump in such a way that the flow rate may be adjusted. The flow rate monitor may also be capable of preventing charging or discharging if the flow rate drops below a set rate.

[0077] As yet another example, an electrochemical cell or battery may contain a pump switch that automatically directs the flow of fluid electrolyte in the appropriate direction. For example, the battery may contain a component capable of detecting whether a charging current is being applied, for example, using an ammeter or voltmeter. The pump switch may be automatically switched to cause the pump to direct the flow of fluid electrolyte in the appropriate direction for charging when a charging current is detected. The battery may also contain a component capable of detecting whether a load is applied to an external circuit or whether an external circuit is completed without a charging current, for example, using an ammeter or voltmeter. The component capable of detecting whether a load is applied or whether an external circuit is completed may be the same as the component capable of detecting whether a charging current is being applied. The pump switch may be automatically switched to cause the pump to direct the flow of fluid electrolyte in the appropriate direction for discharging when a complete external circuit without a load or charging current is detected. The pump switch may also be capable of detecting whether the external circuit is broken and stopping the flow of fluid electrolyte when this occurs, for example, immediately or after a set period of time.

[0078] Battery safety and control components may be simple physical devices such as heat exchangers, or they may include or be managed by a processor and memory that monitors or controls battery parameters such as temperature and electrolyte flow rate as the processor executes instructions stored in the memory.

[0079] 1A illustrates an electrochemical cell 100 during discharge when the active material is an alkali metal ion active material. A fluid electrolyte 106 is pumped in direction 118 by a positive displacement pump 112 rotating in direction 120. Electrons are conducted in direction 122 along an external circuit 136 through an electrical load 138, such as a device powered by the electrochemical cell 100. Working ions, in this example lithium ions, are conducted in direction 124 between the anode 104 and the cathode 102. An electrochemical reaction in the anode 104 liberates lithium ions from the anode active material, while an electrochemical reaction in the cathode 102 captures lithium ions in the cathode active material.

[0080] 1B illustrates the electrochemical cell 100 during charging when the active material is an alkali metal ion active material. The fluid electrolyte 106 is pumped in direction 128, which is the opposite direction 118, by a positive displacement pump 112 rotating in direction 126. Electrons are conducted in direction 130 along an external circuit 136 through a charger 144, which may be connected to an external power source. Working ions, in this example lithium ions, are conducted in direction 134, which is the opposite direction 124, between the anode 104 and the cathode 102. The electrochemical reaction in the cathode 102 liberates lithium ions from the cathode active material, while the electrochemical reaction in the cathode 104 captures lithium ions in the anode active material.

[0081] The flow of fluid electrolyte 106 through the anode 104 and cathode 102 in direction 124, or through the cathode 102 and anode 104 in direction 134, magnifies the effective ionic mobility of the working ions in the anode 104, cathode 102, or typically both, with the flow at a higher rate having an additional effect. Higher working ion mobility in one or both electrodes can reduce resistive losses in the electrolyte during charging, discharging, or typically both.

[0082] For hydrogen ion electrochemical cells, the mobility of hydroxyl ions in the opposite direction to that of hydrogen ions often controls charge and discharge such that the flow may need to be in the opposite direction than if the electrochemical cell contained an alkali metal ion based active material.

[0083] The flow rate of the fluid electrolyte 106 through the anode 104 and cathode 102 may be fixed or it may vary. For example, the flow rate may vary depending on whether the electrochemical cell 100 is being charged or discharged. In particular, a faster flow rate may be used during charging to facilitate faster charging, to utilize an external power source, or both. The flow rate may also vary depending on battery parameters such as the number of cycles the battery has undergone. It is well known that electrochemical cells often behave differently during the first cycle, or even the first two or first five cycles, as the electrodes undergo use-induced changes. Different flow rates may be used during electrode conditioning periods to help the electrodes reach a more effective state for subsequent electrochemical cell performance or to avoid damage to the electrodes. Similarly, as the electrochemical cell ages and suffers performance loss, the flow rate may be adjusted to compensate for the rate of performance loss or to slow down.

[0084] The flow of fluid electrolyte 106 may occur at times other than when the electrochemical cell is being charged or discharged to power the electrical load 138. For example, the pump 112 may continue to operate and the fluid electrolyte 106 may continue to flow as long as the charger 144 is connected to the electrochemical cell 100, even if charging is complete. In another embodiment, the pump 112 may continue to operate for a period of time after discharging has stopped.

[0085] During extreme temperatures, such as temperatures between -40° C. and 100° C., between -40° C. and 90° C., or temperatures other than -20° C. and 90° C., the electrochemical cell or battery may be damaged by charging or discharging. Control components, including temperature sensors, may cause the external circuitry 136 to be disrupted during extreme temperatures to prevent the electrochemical cell or battery from being charged or discharged, or both.

[0086] When the electrochemical cell 100 is not charging or discharging, the pump 112 may pump the fluid electrolyte 106 into an external reservoir, such as the external reservoir 508 shown in FIG. 5. A valve, such as the valve 506 shown in FIG. 5, may be opened or closed to allow the fluid electrolyte 106 to flow into the external reservoir. The change in flow direction may occur automatically when the electrochemical cell 100 is no longer connected to the charger 144 or electrical load 138, or in response to an external signal. Similarly, when the electrochemical cell 100 is later connected to the charger 144 or electrical load 138, or in response to an external signal, the pump 112 may pump the fluid electrolyte 106 from the external reservoir 508 into the closed loop 114, with the valve 506 appropriately opened or closed. In some cases, the fluid electrolyte 106 may be pumped into or out of the external reservoir 508 in response to the temperature of the electrochemical cell 100 or battery 500, or the external temperature, so that the electrochemical cell 100 or battery 500 is less likely to be damaged by extreme temperatures. This may be particularly useful if the external reservoir 508 is insulated, heated, cooled, or any combination thereof. Pumping the fluid electrolyte 106 into the external reservoir 508 when charging is complete may also be an effective way to prevent self-discharge of the electrochemical cell or battery.

[0087] It is possible that the electrochemical cell or battery of the present disclosure may undergo some migration of solid materials out of the cathode or anode during initial cycles, such as during the first cycle, the first two cycles, or the first five cycles. For example, solid fragments of the active material coating or high porosity base material may be released in response to electrolyte flow. It may be advantageous to remove these materials from the electrochemical cell or battery. Filters in the closed loop, between the electrodes, or both may remove these materials. The electrodes may also be pretreated with a flowing fluid, such as a fluid electrolyte or similar material, prior to assembly into the electrochemical cell to help avoid this problem, which is typically not faced by conventional electrochemical cells using static electrolytes.

[0088] Once the working ions are transported inside the pores of the electrode, the local electric field is negligible and will not cause further movement of the working ions, but the flow of the fluid electrolyte through the pores continues to move the working ions. This moves the working ions away from the surface of the electrode to the active material located farther away, allowing for more efficient and complete use of the active material. In the flow-through electrochemical cell of the present disclosure, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99%, or at least 99.9% of the active material in the cathode, anode, or both is available for reaction with the working ions during charging or discharging or both. This allows the electrochemical cell to have an actual capacity that is at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 99%, or at least 99.9% of its theoretical capacity when measured after 10 cycles.

[0089] The batteries and methods of the present disclosure may be used in any device where a rechargeable battery is suitable, including cars, trucks, motorcycles, delivery vehicles, assisted bicycles, scooters, military ground vehicles, forklifts, construction equipment, industrial equipment, ships, ferry boats, submarines, aircraft, autonomous vehicles, wheelchairs, personal mobility devices, robotic assistance devices, medical devices, home storage devices, and grid storage devices. EXAMPLES

[0090] The following examples are provided to further illustrate the principles and specific aspects of the present invention, but they are not intended, and should not be construed, as being all-inclusive of all aspects of the invention.

[0091] Example 1 Lithium-Ion Flow-Through Electrochemical Cell A flow-through electrochemical cell may be constructed and operated as illustrated in Figures 1A and 1B.

[0092] The ionic mobility of lithium ions in water at 300 K (room temperature) is 4×10 -8 m 2 If the anode and cathode are selected such that the discharge voltage of the electrochemical cell is 3.6 V and a typical separator has a thickness of 50 μm, the electric field in the electrochemical cell is 3.6 V / (50×10 -6 m) = 7.2 × 10 4 V / m. The ion drift velocity is then 4×10 -8 m 2 / (Vs)×7.2x10 4 V / m=2.9×10 -3 m / sec=2.9 mm / sec. When a fluid electrolyte flows through an electrochemical cell at a linear fluid flow rate of 2.9 cm / sec, the effective ion mobility in the form of ion current will be increased by a factor of 10. Since ion mobility controls the current, the discharge current will also be multiplied by a factor of 10. A similar effect will be seen during charging, since the charge voltage is similar or the same as the discharge voltage.

[0093] The transit time across the separator is 50 μm / 2.9×10 in the absence of any flow. -3 m / sec=17.2 ms, but only 1.72 ms at a flow rate of 2.9 cm / sec. This may enable the electrochemical cell to respond more quickly to changes in load current than a similar cell without a flow-through fluid electrolyte.

[0094] This means that the cell can respond much faster to changes in load current, which can be very important in some applications.

[0095] A typical flow-through cell for automotive applications may have electrodes with an overall diameter of 12.7 cm. The surface area of ​​the electrode facing the electrolyte flow is 127 cm. 2 A linear flow rate of 2.9 cm / sec requires a volumetric flow rate of 127 x 2.9 / 1000 = 0.37 L / sec.

[0096] In current Li-ion cells, the typical thickness of the active material is t = 0.005 cm. This makes the effective area / volume ratio of the porous electrode π / 2d = π / 6t = 105 cm. -1 If the electrode contains a highly porosity base material, such as a cylindrical metal foam material with diameter D=12.7 cm and width W=12.7 cm, the electrode will have a volume of π(12.7) 3 / 6=1,073cm 3 The active material surface area would be 105 x 1,073 = 112,630 cm 2 Multiplying by the thickness gives us 563cm. 3 of the total active material volume or 52% of the total electrode volume.

[0097] If a wound foam sheet electrode is used with D=12.7 cm, Do=1.7 cm, and h=0.023 cm, then applying the formula L=πN.(D-Do)(Do+h.(N-1)), L=2,700 cm.

[0098] The area of ​​the active material is its length multiplied by its width W, totalling 34,290 cm 2 The volume of the active material is the area times the active material thickness of 0.005 cm. This gives a volume of 172 cm. 3 This results in a total volume of active material.

[0099] Example 2 Ni Foam Flow-Through Battery Nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and nickel cadmium (NiCd) electrochemical cells may use a Ni metal foam cathode base material impregnated with NiMH cathode active material. An example of such a material, prepared using electroplating, is provided in FIG. 3C, which has a structure as illustrated in FIGS. 3A and 3B. In such electrodes, Ni(OH) 2 A suitable amount of is 0.01 g / cm per unit volume of foam. 3 ~2.4g / cm 3 Weight of Ni(OH) 2 The electrode portion of an electrochemical cell containing this cathode is illustrated in Figures 1C and 1D.

[0100] The anode may include a high porosity titanium / nickel alloy, such as a metal foam, that reacts electrochemically with hydrogen ions. The anode may also include a small amount, typically less than 1%, less than 0.5%, less than 0.1%, or 0.0001% to 1%, 0.5%, or 0.1%, of a rare earth metal to create a more open crystal lattice for improved hydrogen storage. Suitable rare earth metals include lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, vanadium, and praseodymium. In the case of NiMH cells, the anode may include a low porosity metal rather than a high porosity material, since the metal acts as the anode active material. Specifically, sintered metal powders with 20% to 30% net porosity may be used to maximize the amount of metal alloy and therefore store more hydrogen ions. Any porosity that promotes sufficient permeability to allow electrolyte flow at a set rate is sufficient. The electrode portion of an electrochemical cell containing a highly porosity titanium / nickel alloy anode is illustrated in Figures 1C and 1D.

[0101] The hydrogen ions actually dissolve in the anode metal, forming a metal hydride solid solution. The hydrogen density in the solid metal can be two times higher than in liquid hydrogen. This high volumetric efficiency is achieved because there can be several times more hydrogen ions than metal atoms in the solid solution, allowing metal hydride cells to potentially have one of the highest energy densities of all possible battery chemistries. For example, LaNi 5 In alloys of the type, there can be six hydrogen atoms incorporated into the metal for every nickel atom.

[0102] The electrolyte in a NiMH cell may be concentrated aqueous KOH. The mobile species is likely to be 20.64 x 10 -8 m 2 The primary charge is the hydroxyl ion, with an aqueous mobility of 1.0 V / V×sec, which travels between the anode and cathode during charging and combines with nickel hydroxide in the cathode to form nickel oxyhydride and water. The water splits into hydrogen and hydroxyl ions at the anode. Because the hydroxyl ion mobility is about five times that of lithium, nickel-hydrogen flow-through cells have higher electrolyte flux rates and can achieve improved current and power ratings comparable to those of lithium-ion versions.

[0103] The metal foam used in the present electrochemical cells may be in the form of a wound electrode, where the sheet has a thickness in the range of 0.2-2 mm with a porosity of 80-90% and an average pore maximum inter-pore distance of 0.22 mm, corresponding to a typical specification of 110 PPI (pores per inch). Such a metal foam was used in the electrode portion of the electrochemical cell illustrated in Figures 1C and 1D.

[0104] The electrode portion of the electrochemical cell illustrated in Figures 1C and 1D, containing the anode and cathode described in this Example 2, and containing the separator 146, was connected to a closed loop and pump and filled with KOH electrolyte. A constant potential difference of +1.4V was applied between the anode and cathode, and the charging power was measured continuously. The electrodes were charged while the pump was operated at the linear flow rate shown in Figure 6 to provide either cathode to anode flow or anode to cathode flow. As Figure 6 shows, the charging current varies depending on the direction of flow and the linear flow rate, indicating that the flow of the fluid electrolyte affects the operating parameters of the electrochemical cell. After charging the cell, the open circuit potential was measured to be +1.2V.

[0105] The subject matter disclosed above is to be regarded as illustrative and not restrictive, and the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications, improvements, and other embodiments that fall within the true spirit and scope of the present disclosure. Accordingly, to the maximum extent permitted by law, the scope of the present disclosure shall be determined by the broadest permissible interpretation of the following claims and their equivalents, and shall not be limited or restricted by the foregoing detailed description. (Item 1) 1. A flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell comprising: a container for housing the cathode and the anode; a closed loop fluidly connected to the container; a fluid electrolyte within the container and the closed loop, the fluid electrolyte including working ions; a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte in a first direction through the closed loop, the porous cathode, and the porous anode during discharge of the electrochemical cell; 1. A flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell comprising: (Item 2) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the pump is configured to cause the fluid electrolyte to flow in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the electrochemical cell. (Item 3) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 4) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode and the anode both comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 5) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a high porosity base material that is coated with an active material and has a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 6) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode and the anode both comprise a high porosity base material coated with an active material and have a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 7) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the pump is a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. (Item 8) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the pump is configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. (Item 9) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both, comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. (Item 10) Item 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both comprise a high porosity material, with cells having an octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroidal, or circular cross-section and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 1.0 mm. (Item 11) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 10, wherein the cell defines pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. (Item 12) Item 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell according to item 10, wherein the cell forms pores having a length between 2 cm and 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to a cross section of the cell. (Item 13) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 10, wherein the cell defines pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to a cross-section of the cell, and at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the electrode are continuously open along their respective lengths. (Item 14) 11. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell according to item 10, wherein the electrode comprises 10 to 100 layers of high porosity material stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cell. (Item 15) Item 14. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both are wound electrodes comprising a wound sheet of a high porosity material. (Item 16) Item 16. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 15, wherein the high porosity material comprises a metal foam or a carbon foam. (Item 17) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, wherein the cathode, the anode, or both are woven wire mesh (WWM) electrodes comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. (Item 18) 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the working ions comprise alkali metal ions. (Item 19) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl (OH - 2. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, comprising: (Item 20) 20. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of claim 19, wherein the anode comprises a metal operable to form a solid solution of the hydrogen ions. (Item 21) Item 14. The flow-through rechargeable electrochemical cell of item 1, further comprising a separator comprising an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to permit passage of the working ions and flow of the fluid electrolyte through the membrane. (Item 22) 1. A flow-through rechargeable battery comprising: A plurality of electrochemical cells, each of which comprises: a container for housing the cathode and the anode; A fluid electrolyte containing working ions; A plurality of electrochemical cells comprising: a closed loop fluidly connected to a container of the electrochemical cell and containing the fluid electrolyte; a pump configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the closed loop and the electrochemical cell in a first direction during discharge of the battery; and 1. A flow-through rechargeable battery comprising: (Item 23) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, comprising 2 to 500 electrochemical cells. (Item 24) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is configured to cause the fluid electrolyte to flow in a second direction opposite to the first direction during charging of the battery. (Item 25) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal loop fluidly connected between containers of the electrochemical cells and containing the fluid electrolyte, the pump also configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in the first direction during discharge of the battery. (Item 26) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal loop fluidly connected between containers of the electrochemical cells and containing the fluid electrolyte, the pump also configured to flow the fluid electrolyte through the internal loop in the second direction during charging of the battery. (Item 27) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, comprising at least one internal circuit electronically connecting at least two of the electrochemical cells. (Item 28) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 29) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode and anode of the electrochemical cell both comprise a high porosity base material having a porosity between 40% and 99%. (Item 30) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprises a high porosity base material coated with an active material and has a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 31) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode and anode of the electrochemical cell both comprise a high porosity base material coated with an active material and have a porosity between 5% and 50%. (Item 32) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is a positive displacement pump, a peristaltic pump, a rotary vane pump, or a progressive cavity pump. (Item 33) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the pump is configured to pump the fluid electrolyte through the electrochemical cell at a linear flow rate of between 0.01 cm / sec and 100 cm / sec. (Item 34) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell comprise a highly porosity material having an internal surface area to volume ratio of 1 / d to 6 / d, where d is the average maximum internal distance within the pores. (Item 35) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cells comprise a high porosity material, with cells having an octagonal, hexagonal, square, rectangular, rhomboidal, triangular, oval, oblate spheroid, or circular cross-section and having an average cross-sectional maximum internal distance of 0.01 mm to 10 mm. (Item 36) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the cell forms pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell equal to the width of the electrode. (Item 37) Item 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 35, wherein the cells form pores having a length of 2 cm to 20 cm in a direction perpendicular to the cross section of the cell. (Item 38) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the cell forms pores having a length in a direction perpendicular to a cross-section of the cell, and at least 60%, at least 80%, or at least 90% of all pores in the anode or cathode are persistently open along their respective lengths. (Item 39) 36. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 35, wherein the electrode comprises 10 to 100 layers of high porosity material stacked, folded, or stacked and folded with the cells. (Item 40) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell are wound electrodes comprising wound sheets of a high porosity material. (Item 41) Item 41. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 40, wherein the high porosity material comprises a metal foam or a carbon foam. (Item 42) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, wherein the cathode, anode, or both of the electrochemical cell are woven wire mesh (WWM) electrodes comprising 10-100 layers of stacked, folded, or stacked and folded woven wire mesh. (Item 43) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the working ions include alkali metal ions. (Item 44) The working ion is a hydrogen ion (H + ) or hydroxyl (OH - 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of item 22, comprising: (Item 45) 44. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 43, wherein the anode of the electrochemical cell comprises a metal operable to form a solid solution of hydrogen ions. (Item 46) 23. The flow-through rechargeable battery of claim 22, wherein the electrochemical cell further comprises a separator comprising an electronically insulating and permeable membrane configured to permit passage of the working ions and flow of the fluid electrolyte through the membrane.

Claims

[Claim 1] The invention described in this specification.

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