Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Generator

Abstract

A power converter is described that includes: (i) at least one reaction cell for a reaction that includes an atomic hydrogen generating species distinguishable by unique analytical and spectroscopic characteristics; (ii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, that supplies a molten metal stream to the reaction cell and at least one reservoir that receives the molten metal stream; and (iii) an ignition system comprising a power source that supplies low voltage, high current electrical energy to at least one molten metal vapor to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics, and a generator that supplies at least one of electrical and thermal power. And (iv) an ignition system comprising a power source that supplies low voltage, high current electrical energy to at least one vapor of molten metal to ignite the plasma and initiate rapid kinetics and energy gain of the reaction. In some embodiments, the generator includes: (v) a source of H 2 and O 2 ; (vi) a molten metal recovery system; and (vii) (a) converting the high power light output from the cell's blackbody radiator to electricity using a concentrating thermophotovoltaic cell with plasma optical recycling, or (b) converting a high energy plasma to electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter. A power converter is described that may include the above features.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] By Randell L. Mills Patent application for "Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Generator"

[0002] REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 332,111 (filed April 18, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 339,949 (filed May 9, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 343,971 (filed May 19, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 355,562 (filed June 24, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 368,602 (filed July 15, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 370,106 (filed August 1, 2022), and U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 371,754 (filed August 17, 2022). , U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 375,530 (filed September 13, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 429,914 (filed December 2, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 477,760 (filed December 29, 2022), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 481,384 (filed January 24, 2023), U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 449,948 (filed March 3, 2023), and U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 457,108 (filed April 4, 2023), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0003] Field of Disclosure The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and in particular to systems, devices, and methods for generating electricity. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to power generation devices and systems, and related methods, that generate optical, plasma, and thermal power and generate electrical power via magnetohydrodynamic, light-to-electrical, plasma-to-electrical, photonic-to-electrical, or thermal-to-electrical converters. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate optical, mechanical, electrical, and / or thermal power using a photovoltaic converter. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in this disclosure. [Background technology]

[0004] background Electricity generation can take many forms by harnessing power from plasmas, and the commercial success of plasmas depends on power generation systems that can efficiently form the plasma and harness the power generated by the plasma.

[0005] Plasma is formed upon ignition of certain fuels. These fuels include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms that have lost electrons is formed, and high optical power can be emitted. The high optical power of the plasma can be harnessed by the electrical converters of the present disclosure. Ions and excited atoms can recombine and undergo electron relaxation, releasing optical power. Optical power can be converted to electricity via photovoltaics. Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0006] overview The present disclosure relates to a power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power generation system comprising: at least one vessel capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure; a reactant capable of undergoing a reaction that generates sufficient energy to form a plasma within the vessel; (a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, and / or Water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor, and (b) molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump that maintains a pressure within the vessel below atmospheric pressure while one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel; a molten metal injector system including at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a power or ignition current source for supplying power to at least one stream of molten metal to ignite a reaction when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor are flowing into the vessel; a reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction; and a power converter or output system that converts a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical and / or thermal power.

[0007] The power system of the present disclosure (referred to herein as "SunCell®"): (a) at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which constitutes a reaction chamber; (b) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between them to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes and for passing a current therebetween when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from the gas, wherein the plasma generating cell outlet is directed toward a circuit (e.g., molten metal, an anode, a cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); wherein, when a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating cell undergoes a reaction that generates a second plasma and a reaction product; and (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma-generating cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is between 0.01% and 50% (e.g., between 0.1% and 20%, between 0.1% and 15%, etc.). In certain embodiments, the molten metal is gallium. In some embodiments, the reaction product has at least one spectroscopic characteristic as described herein. In various aspects, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, the walls of which are comprised of a liner having increased resistance to alloy formation with the molten metal, and the liner and reaction cell walls have high permeability to the reaction products (e.g., stainless steel such as 347SS, such as 4130 Alloy SS or Cr-MoSS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, Bb (94.33 Wt%)-Mo (4.86 Wt%)-Zr (0.81 Wt%)). The liner may be made of a crystalline material (e.g., SiC, BN, quartz) and / or at least one refractory metal of Nb, Ta, Mo, W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, the walls of which are comprised of a reaction cell chamber comprising first and second sections, The first section consists of stainless steels such as 347SS, 4130 alloy SS and Cr-MoSS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, Nb (94.33Wt%)-Mo (4.86Wt%)-Zr (0.81Wt%), the second section being made of a refractory metal different from the metal of the first section; Here, the bond between the different metals is formed by laminating materials (eg, ceramics such as BN).

[0008] The power system of the present disclosure includes: (a) a vessel that forms a reaction chamber and can maintain a pressure below atmospheric pressure; (b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair comprising an electrode configured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes and for passing a current therebetween when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from the gas, wherein the plasma generating cell outlet is directed to a circuit (e.g., molten metal, an anode, a cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); wherein, when a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating cell undergoes a reaction that generates a second plasma and a reaction product; and (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy; wherein at least one of the reaction products (eg, intermediate, final product) has at least one spectroscopic signature as described herein.

[0009] The power generation system is (a) at least one vessel having a bottom plate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which constitutes a reaction chamber; (b) two electrodes, each in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding reservoir, configured so that the molten metal flows between the electrodes to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes, the cathode and the anode, for applying an ignition current therebetween when the circuit is closed; (d) optionally, a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from the gas, wherein the plasma generating cell outlet is directed to a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, and each molten metal supplied by the molten metal reservoir); When a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the plasma generating cell undergoes a reaction to generate a second plasma and reaction products, and energy from the second plasma generates radiation; (e) a transparent window cavity that is transparent to radiation generated from the second plasma; (f) a wet seal between the transparent window cavity and the base plate, the wet seal being made of molten metal; and and (g) a power adapter configured to receive radiation transmitted through the transparent window cavity and convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the vessel is a stainless steel dome. A base plate may be disposed on the vessel. In various embodiments, a window having a cavity (e.g., a quartz window cavity) may be disposed on the base plate of the vessel, and the space defined by the cavity and the base plate may be considered a reaction chamber (e.g., reactants are ignited in the window cavity). In various embodiments, the vessel is a reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the window and cavity are part of the vessel. In some embodiments, the vessel comprises a spherical, hemispherical, or parabolic dome portion to which reservoirs are connected, further comprising a drip edge at the connection to each outer reservoir.

[0010] Molten metal may be supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems, each of which contacts one of the electrodes to form a molten metal stream, which crosses to close the circuit. (a) a reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal; a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream; and a reservoir for receiving the returning molten metal stream after injection. (b) an inlet riser pipe for controlling the molten metal level in the reservoir; (c) providing an electrical break in the wall of the reservoir to electrically isolate each corresponding electrode from the electrode of the opposite polarity; and (d) an alignment mechanism for orienting the electrode injectors so that the two corresponding flows of the two electrodes intersect to complete a circuit. In various embodiments, each injector tube may be covered by an electrically insulating sleeve that is resistant to wetting by molten metal. The sleeve may be composed of at least one of quartz, boron nitride, carbon, and a plurality of carbon sections separated by electrically insulating sections of boron nitride or quartz, and may be composed of at least two sections, an upper section and a lower section. The electromagnetic pump may be composed of an electromagnetic busbar assembly internally coated with a coating (e.g., TiN) that resists at least one of oxidation and alloy formation. In various implementations, the electromagnetic pump may be composed of a tungsten electromagnetic busbar assembly and a tungsten pump tube laser-welded with Kovar seals at the joints and further coated externally with tungsten disilicide or a noble metal.

[0011] In some embodiments, each reservoir further comprises an inner reservoir and an outer reservoir separated by a gap, where the outer reservoir connects to the vessel and houses the inner reservoir under vacuum, the inner reservoir opens to the interior of the vessel and the window cavity, and receives the return flow of molten metal. The inner reservoir may further comprise a funnel (e.g., a quartz funnel) at its opening to the vessel to prevent the return molten metal from flowing into the gap. In some embodiments, the funnel further comprises a graphite or BN washer between the drip edge and the funnel to seal the funnel's top from its bottom. The inner and outer reservoirs may further comprise a thermal conductor and an electrical insulator disposed in the gap between the inner and outer reservoirs to conduct heat and enable heat transfer while maintaining electrical insulation between the two electrodes. The thermal conductor and the electrical insulator may be bonded together, providing heat transfer while maintaining electrical insulation. For example, the thermal conductor and electrical insulator may be comprised of a copper cylinder that provides thermal conductivity and a boron nitride cylinder that provides electrical insulation and thermal conductivity, the cylinders being concentric, filling the gap between the inner and outer reservoirs, defining an expansion slot, and having a height equal to or less than the height of the inner reservoir. The system may further include a heater that heats an outer wall of the outer reservoir, such that the thermal conductor conducts heat from the heater to the inner reservoir to melt the molten metal. In some embodiments, the heater comprises at least one hydrogen torch.

[0012] The power generation system of the present disclosure may comprise a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window consisting of a cavity transparent to photovoltaic power, the wet seal joining the photovoltaic window chamber and a base plate (e.g., a base plate of a vessel having penetrations for the tops of one or more reservoirs) and consisting of a channel containing molten metal into which the photovoltaic window chamber is inserted; The molten metal is electrically connected to a power source to generate a current in the molten metal within the passageway, inducing magnetic contraction of the molten metal within the housing to maintain the seal; Here, light is generated on one side of a photovoltaic window, transmitted through the window, and concentrated onto at least one photovoltaic cell to generate electrical power. In some embodiments, the molten metal is exposed to a magnetic field such that the Lorentz force of the current and magnetic field applied to the molten metal in the channel opposes an external force applied to the molten metal to maintain the wet seal. In some embodiments, the wet seal is formed from multiple metal layers, with a liquid metal layer disposed between two solid metal layers.

[0013] In some embodiments, the container is connected to the window cavity and the wet seal is (a) a window flange at the bottom of the window cavity; (b) a base plate flange on the base plate; (c) a top flange mechanically connected to the base plate flange and pressing the window flange against the base plate flange; (d) a gasket (e.g., carbon) on at least one window cavity flange surface that contacts the top flange and the base plate flange; (e) at least one of an inner peripheral housing or retaining wall on the inside of the window cavity and an outer peripheral housing or retaining wall on the outside of the window cavity flange; and and (f) wet-sealing the molten metal held by the housing, the retaining wall, and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure within the window cavity relative to the outside and maintain a pressure differential. The wet seal may comprise a graphite gasketed flange seal for the transparent window cavity, consisting of upper and lower sealing flanges bolted together with upper and lower graphite gaskets between respective flange surfaces of the window cavity. The corresponding sealing flange further comprises an angle ring or channel ring around the graphite gasketed flange seal and is welded to at least one of the base plate and bottom flange of the seal to form a cavity around the graphite gasketed flange seal, which is filled with wet-sealed molten metal to form the wet seal.

[0014] The wet seal gasket (e.g., a graphite or carbon gasket) may be compressed by atmospheric pressure due to a pressure differential such that at least one of the flange mechanical tensions is reduced and the force maintaining the gasket compression is provided solely by atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, the wet seal comprises at least one barrier gasket that supports the weight of the window cavity and prevents the flow of molten metal due to a downward force corresponding to the pressure differential between atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the gas in the window cavity. The wet seal comprises at least one of the following: (a) the base of the window cavity has a precisely flat surface that matches the precisely flat surface of the base plate; (b) a window flange at the bottom of the window cavity having a precision flat surface that mates with the precision flat surface of the base plate; (c) a gasket (e.g., carbon) between the base of the window cavity and the flange of the base plate; (d) a gasket (e.g., carbon) between the base plate and at least a portion of the surface of the window cavity flange that contacts the base plate; (e) a peripheral housing or retaining wall to the outside of the window cavity or window cavity flange; (f) an inner housing or retaining wall to the inside of the window cavity; (g) providing a wet seal between the housing, the retaining wall, and the molten metal retained by the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside, thereby maintaining a pressure differential; and (h) A wet seal is provided to the molten metal held by precision-fitting contact between the housing, the retaining wall, and the window cavity or the window cavity flange and the base plate to maintain a pressure differential such that the pressure inside the window cavity is lower than the outside.

[0015] The wet seal molten metal (or a portion thereof) may be solidified along at least one of the periphery of the outer housing or retaining wall and the bottom of the photovoltaic window cavity or below its flange. (a) the height of the perimeter housing or retaining wall; (b) the width of the flange of the window cavity not covered by the gasket; (c) the width of the flange of the window cavity that is precisely fitted to the base plate, and (d) Window cavity flange height is sufficient to allow for the formation of a wet seal (e.g., in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm). In various embodiments, the wet seal consists of a precision and flatness match between the flange of the window cavity and the base plate, including at least one of the following: (a) The gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate is equal to or less than the penetration height of the molten metal of the wet seal; (b) The gap between the flange of the window cavity and the base plate, with or without a wet seal gasket, is equal to or less than the height at which the molten metal of the wet seal flows outward; (c) The gap between the flange and the base plate is 0.1 microns to less than 1 millimeter (e.g., less than 100 microns, less than 10 microns); (d) A portion of the circumferential gap between the flange of the precision-fitted window cavity and the base plate is (1) a wet seal molten metal penetration, the gap height maintaining a barrier to inward wet seal molten metal flow to maintain a positive pressure differential between the inside and outside of the window cavity; and / or (2) a height that prevents the wet seal molten metal from flowing outward to keep the wet seal molten metal in the gap area; and (e) At least a portion of the circumferential gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate, which is caused by the thickness of the gasket, is of a height sufficient to prevent outward flow of the wet seal molten metal in order to retain the wet seal molten metal in the gap area.

[0016] The wet seal molten metal is typically a molten metal that can be made flowable (e.g., by heating) to fill the flow passage and maintain a pressure differential. The wet seal molten metal may be comprised of tin or gallium. In some embodiments, the wet seal molten metal is impregnated into a solid matrix.

[0017] The wet seal and window cavity may further include a gasket interface consisting of a surface on each mating component that can tolerate a relative moment between the gasket and the window cavity without destructive damage to the gasket. The gasket interface may be located at the bottom of the window cavity, or the flange may consist of edges each having a radius of curvature or a chamfer to form a smooth edge. In various embodiments, the wet seal is comprised of at least one of the inner and outer housings and the retaining ring, at least one of which is (a) The inner housing or inner retaining ring is made of a refractory metal from the group of W, Ta, Mo, Nb, or a ceramic such as quartz or alumina; (b) At least one of the walls of the inner and outer housings and retaining ring is coated with BN; or (c) at least one of the housing and the retaining ring is at least partially recessed into the base plate;

[0018] In some embodiments, the system (e.g., base plate and / or vessel) may further include a reflective liner on all surfaces upon which the plasma radiation is incident and which reflects the incident light through the window cavity to the power adapter, and the liner may further include a penetration for the injector which is further covered by a reflective penetration liner. The reflectors may be constructed of quartz plates that are coated on the back side with a reflective coating to match the surfaces they align with. An exemplary reflective coating is Aremco Quartz Coat 850 ( https: / / news.thomasnet.com / fullstory / reflective-coating-handles-temperature-to-1-600-f-454985), CP4040-S2-HT and LC4040-SG, Aremco Pyro-Duct™ 597-A (adhesive) Pyro-Duct™ 597-C (coating) silver-filled, electrically and thermally conductive, for some systems up to 1700°F (927°C) (https: / / www.aremco.com / conductive-compounds / ), Aaremco 634-BN-SiC, reflective quartz material OM100 (Heraeus, https: / / www.heraeus.com / media / media / hca / doc_hca / products_and_solutions_8 / solids / OM100_EN.pdf ), metals, silver, aluminum, precious metals, gold, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, and platinum, and combinations thereof. In various embodiments, the reflective coating may be coated with a protective coating (e.g., BN) to avoid alloy formation with the molten metal. In various embodiments, the system (e.g., one of the base plate, the vessel, and the internal reservoir) may further include an electromagnetic pump base plate, the surface of which in contact with the molten metal is coated with a coating (e.g., boron nitride) that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal.

[0019] In certain embodiments, the molten metal for closing the circuit is tin. In various embodiments, the tin does not wet the photovoltaic window. In some embodiments, the effluent of the plasma generating cell does not oxidize the tin. In some embodiments, the transparent window cavity (e.g., the photovoltaic window) is made of at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, and MgF2.

[0020] In some embodiments, the power adapter is a thermophotovoltaic adapter. The power adapter may include a photovoltaic cell, wherein photons generated from the second plasma having energy below the bandgap of the photovoltaic cell are reflected into the reaction chamber and absorbed by the second plasma, the absorbed energy is at least partially emitted as above-bandgap radiation, and the above-bandgap radiation is incident on the photovoltaic cell.

[0021] The power system of the present disclosure may be enhanced to increase light recycling and incidence of light generated by the second plasma to the power adapter. For example, the vessel can have a wetted floor and / or wetted walls, and the vessel's base plate or walls have a layer of molten metal deposited thereon to reflect the second plasma light through the window cavity to the power adapter. In various embodiments, the base plate or walls have a film disposed thereon to provide the desired molten metal film coating. The base plate or walls may have a bead liner disposed thereon and a bead retention support consisting of a tray for supporting beads in the bead liner. In some embodiments, the tray has multiple depths with different heights (e.g., with bead diameters independently selected to match the depths).

[0022] In some embodiments, the vessel further comprises a window cavity that transmits light from the second plasma and / or blackbody radiation within the vessel to the power adapter, the window cavity comprising a window cavity flange that is attached to the base plate via a base plate flange attached to the vessel (or attached to a portion of the vessel), wherein a seal between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange is formed in part by a wet seal formed from molten metal distributed between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange and along the outer edge of the window cavity flange. In some embodiments, the window cavity flange constitutes a window cavity wall at its base. In various embodiments, the mated base plate or base plate flange and window cavity flange form a housing along the outer periphery of the window cavity flange, which may be filled with molten metal that solidifies along the outer periphery of the housing.

[0023] A wet seal system for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (photovoltaic) window is provided, the wet seal may comprise a cavity transparent to the photovoltaic, the wet seal joins the photovoltaic window chamber and a base plate (e.g., a base plate of a vessel having penetrations for the tops of one or more reservoirs) and comprises a channel containing molten metal into which the photovoltaic window chamber is inserted; Here, the molten metal rotates as centrifugal force pushes the molten metal radially, maintaining a seal against external forces.

[0024] Wet seals (e.g., magnetohydrodynamic wet seals) to keep one side of a photovoltaic window vacuum may consist of a cavity that is transparent to photovoltaics, wherein the seal comprises an electrically insulating channel sized for insertion of the photovoltaic window chamber therein and extending around the periphery of the photovoltaic window chamber when the photovoltaic window chamber is inserted into the channel; Here, the channel is filled with molten metal, wherein the electrically isolated channel has at least one positive lead electrode and at least one negative lead electrode at different locations on the channel; At least one electric current is applied through the molten metal in the channel, and the molten metal is exposed to at least one magnetic field applied by at least one magnet to produce at least one Lorentz force along a section of the channel, and the electrodes and magnets are configured and oriented such that the Lorentz forces of the corresponding electric current and magnetic field are in a vector direction that opposes atmospheric pressure on the molten metal in the channel to form a vacuum seal, and the Lorentz forces of the electric current and magnetic field are sufficient to maintain a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum seal). In some embodiments, the wet seal is comprised of two or more electrically isolated channels, each channel having at least one positive lead electrode and a negative lead electrode; wherein each channel is independently filled with molten metal such that when a photovoltaic window chamber comprising at least one edge is inserted into at least one channel, two or more channels together extend around the periphery of the photovoltaic window; and The current in each channel is independently biased and interacts with an independent Lorentz field to maintain a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum seal). In various embodiments, the photovoltaic window can form a photovoltaic window cavity having a flange at its bottom, the photovoltaic window flange seated on a window cavity base plate, wherein a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal between the photovoltaic window cavity flange and the window cavity base plate is (a) a molten metal (e.g., tin or gallium) reservoir disposed on the circumference of the photovoltaic window cavity flange, supplying molten metal (e.g., tin or gallium) to a gap between the bottom of the photovoltaic window flange and a portion of the base plate; (b) a continuous separator for the gap between the outer wall of the molten metal (e.g., tin or gallium) reservoir wall and the vertical edge of the photovoltaic window flange, and for the gap between the bottom surface of the photovoltaic window flange and the base plate; (c) a magnetic field source, such as a permanent magnet, the magnetic field generated by the magnetic field source being perpendicular to the gap between the photovoltaic window flange and the base plate; (d) a current supply and electrode on the opposite side of the continuous separator connected to the molten metal (e.g., gallium), supplying current to a corresponding tin or gallium wet seal circuit, such that in the presence of a crossed magnetic field, the current generates a radial magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) force in the gap between the photovoltaic window flange and the base plate; (e) an MHD-atmospheric pressure balance processor operably connected to sensors at the wet seal location, such as at least one optical sensor and one conductivity sensor, an MHD current sensor, and a controller, wherein the MHD-atmospheric pressure balance processor can receive sensor inputs and iteratively adjust the MHD current and vacuum level to achieve and maintain a stable wet seal as the photovoltaic window cavity is evacuated. In various embodiments, the processor adjusting the MHD-atmospheric pressure balance can adjust settings of the current supply controller to supply current corresponding to increased MHD force relative to maximum atmospheric pressure, such that as a vacuum is created within the photovoltaic window cavity, the outside atmospheric pressure will drive more molten metal (e.g., tin or gallium) into the gap between the photovoltaic window flange and the base plate, increasing the width of the wet seal and increasing the opposing MHD force until a steady-state wet seal is established.

[0025] Methods of using the disclosed systems are also provided. For example, a method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a first solid material includes: (a) engaging a first solid material and a second solid material with molten metal disposed therebetween, wherein a magnetic field is applied to the molten metal when engaged; (b) passing an electric current through the molten metal; (c) reducing the pressure of the molten metal; where the force created by the current and magnetic field opposes the force created by the pressure reduction to maintain the pressure differential.

[0026] A method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of the molten metal seal between the first and second solid materials can include magnetic fields of opposite polarity for each half of the circumference with opposite currents such that the Lorentz force is in the same direction relative to the channel (e.g., half of the channel can be magnetized with a magnetic field in the +z direction and half of the channel can be magnetized with a magnetic field in the -z direction).

[0027] A method for maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., vacuum) between two sides of a molten metal seal between the atmosphere and a closed cavity, comprising the steps of: a channel loop made of molten metal carrying an electric current; a plurality of current leads supplying a plurality of current segments between at least pairs of the plurality of leads in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction along the circumference of the channel loop; and a plurality of magnetic field sources perpendicular to the direction of each of the plurality of current segments, each magnetic field having a polarity such that the corresponding Lorentz force of the current segment and the magnetic field is in a direction relative to the channel that opposes the force caused by the reduction in pressure to maintain the pressure differential.

[0028] The power system can be comprised of a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen and oxygen gases and / or water molecules, and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner is comprised of a plasma cell. The plasma cell can be comprised of a central positive electrode and a grounded tubular counter electrode, and a voltage (e.g., a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied between the electrodes to induce plasma formation from the hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) mixed gas. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner is comprised of a recombination catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In certain embodiments, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generating cell to generate the first plasma consists of a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2 mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole percent O2, or a mixture having 0.01% to 30%, or 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 ​​by mole percentage of the mixture) and is flowed through a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to generate a reaction mixture capable of reacting with sufficient exotherm to generate a second plasma. The non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture may be passed through a glow discharge to generate an effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture in which water is present with sufficient concentration and internal energy to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds), The glow discharge effluent is directed into a reaction chamber where an ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., passing molten metal between them) and the effluent interacts with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), inducing a reaction between nascent water and atomic hydrogen, e.g., upon formation of an arc current.

[0029] In the power system, at least one of the reaction chamber (e.g., the cavity in which nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo the plasma-forming reaction) and / or the reservoir may be constructed with at least one refractory material liner resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal. The inner wall of the reaction chamber may be constructed with a ceramic coating, a carbon liner lined with a W, Nb, or Mo liner, or a liner lined with a tungsten (W) plate. In some embodiments, the reservoir is constructed with a carbon liner, and the carbon is coated with the molten metal contained therein. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall is constructed with a material that is highly permeable to reaction product gases. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall is constructed with at least one of stainless steel (e.g., Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten.

[0030] The power system may include a condenser that condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further include a vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to a vacuum pump, the condenser constituting a section perpendicular to the reaction cell chamber, the vacuum line being made of an inert, high surface area filler material that condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber while allowing the vacuum pump to maintain vacuum pressure within the reaction cell chamber.

[0031] The power system may consist of a blackbody radiator and a window for outputting light from the blackbody radiator. Such an embodiment may be used to generate light (e.g., for use in lighting).

[0032] In some embodiments, the power system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. For example, the power system may include a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprising a recombination catalytic metal supported by an inert support material.

[0033] The power system can be operated at parameters that maximize the reaction, specifically, the reaction capable of generating plasma and outputting enough energy to maintain the net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the pressure in the vessel during operation ranges from 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen mass flow rate exceeds the oxygen mass flow rate by a factor ranging from 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure can be 50 Torr or greater and can further include a gas recirculation system.

[0034] In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the vessel, which may be used to extend the lifetime of certain reactants formed in situ (such as nascent water).

[0035] The power system may include a water micro-injector configured to inject water into the vessel such that plasma generated from the energy output from the reaction constitutes water vapor. In some embodiments, the micro-injector injects water into the vessel. In some embodiments, the H mole percent is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percent of water vapor (e.g., water vapor injected by the micro-injector).

[0036] The power system may further include a heater for melting a metal (e.g., tin, gallium, silver, copper, or a combination thereof) to form a molten metal. The power system may further include a molten metal recovery system configured to recover the molten metal after the reaction, the molten metal recovery system including a molten metal overflow channel for recovering overflow from the non-injector molten metal reservoir.

[0037] The molten metal injection system may further include electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injected molten metal reservoir, and the ignition system may include a power source or ignition current for supplying opposing voltages to the injector and non-injected reservoir electrodes, and the power source supplies current and power flow through the molten metal stream to cause a reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside the vessel.

[0038] The power source typically provides electrical energy at a current (e.g., high current) sufficient to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma. In certain embodiments, the power source comprises at least one supercapacitor. In various embodiments, the current from the molten metal ignition system powers in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A.

[0039] Typically, the molten metal pumping system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal reservoir to a non-injected reservoir, creating a flow of molten metal therebetween. In some embodiments, the molten metal pumping system is one or more electromagnetic pumps, each electromagnetic pump comprising: (a) DC or AC conduction type consisting of a DC or AC current source fed to the molten metal through an electrode and a constant or in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic field source; or (b) Induction type consisting of an AC magnetic field source via a short-circuit loop of molten metal that induces AC current in the metal, and an in-phase AC vector cross magnetic field source. It consists of one of the positions.

[0040] In some embodiments, the circuit of the molten metal ignition system is closed by the flow of molten metal, further causing ignition (e.g., with an ignition frequency of less than 10,000 Hz). The injector reservoir can comprise an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir comprises an electrode in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

[0041] In various embodiments, the non-injector reservoir is aligned above the injector (e.g., perpendicular to the injector), and the injector is configured to generate a molten stream directed toward the non-injector reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream collects in the reservoir, the molten metal stream is in electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode, and the molten metal accumulates on the non-injector reservoir electrode. In certain embodiments, the ignition current to the non-injector reservoir is (a) a sealed, high-temperature feedthrough through the vessel; (b) an electrode bus bar; and (c) an electrode; It may consist of:

[0042] The ignition current density can be related to the shape of the vessel, at least because the shape of the vessel is related to the ultimate plasma shape. In various embodiments, the vessel is hourglass-shaped (e.g., a shape in which the intermediate portion of the vessel's interior surface area has a cross-section along its major axis that is within 20%, 10%, or 5% of the cross-section of each distal end), oriented with a vertical cross-section (e.g., the major axis is approximately parallel to the direction of gravity), with the injector reservoir below the constriction and configured such that the level of molten metal in the reservoir is proximate to the constriction of the hourglass shape to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the vessel is symmetrical about its major longitudinal axis. In some embodiments, the vessel can be hourglass-shaped and constructed with a refractory metal liner. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of an hourglass-shaped vessel can constitute the positive electrode for the ignition current.

[0043] The molten metal may include at least one of silver, gallium, a silver-copper alloy, copper, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point less than 700°C. For example, the molten metal may include at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or an alloy such as rose metal, Cerrosafe, Woods metal, Field metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cr-In-Tl, and Galinstan. In certain aspects, at least one of the components of the power generation system (e.g., reservoir, electrode) that contact the molten metal is made of, coated with, or coated with one or more alloy-resistant materials that resist forming an alloy with the molten metal. Exemplary alloy-resistant materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 Wt%)-Mo(4.86 Wt%)-Zr(0.81 Wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide coatings, carbon, and ceramics such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, Shapal, AlN, Sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the container is comprised of a ceramic and / or a metal. The ceramic is comprised of at least one of metal oxides, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics. In some embodiments, the metal of the container is comprised of at least one of stainless steel and a refractory metal.

[0044] The molten metal can react with water to form atomic hydrogen in situ. In various embodiments, the molten metal is gallium, and the power system further includes a gallium regeneration system for regenerating gallium from gallium oxide (e.g., gallium oxide generated in the reaction). The gallium regeneration system may include a source of at least one of hydrogen gas and atomic hydrogen for reducing gallium oxide to metallic gallium. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas is provided to the gallium regeneration system from a source external to the power generation system. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas and / or atomic hydrogen are generated in situ. The gallium regeneration system may include an ignition system that provides power to the gallium (or gallium / gallium oxide combination) generated in the reaction. In some embodiments, such power can electrolyze gallium oxide on the gallium surface to form metallic gallium. In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system may include an electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte comprising an alkali or alkaline earth halide). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system can be comprised of a basic pH aqueous electrolysis system, a means for transporting gallium oxide to the system, and a means for returning the gallium to a vessel (e.g., a molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system includes a skimmer and bucket elevator for removing gallium oxide from the gallium surface. In various embodiments, the power system can further include an exhaust gas line to a vacuum pump for maintaining exhaust gas flow, and an electrostatic deposition system in the exhaust gas line for collecting gallium oxide particles in the exhaust gas stream.

[0045] In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water / hydrogen mixture that is directed to a molten metal cell via a plasma generating cell. In these embodiments, the plasma generating cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas consisting of a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen), and the effluent of the plasma generating cell is directed to any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, an anode, a cathode, or an electrode immersed in the molten metal reservoir). When the biased molten metal interacts with this effluent, a second plasma (higher in energy than that generated by the plasma generating cell) may form. In these embodiments, the plasma generating cell may be supplied with a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) mixture with a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluent consists of atomic hydrogen (H2) and water (HO). The water in the effluent may be in the form of nascent water, which is water at a sufficiently high concentration that it is not hydrogen-bonded with other components in the effluent. This effluent may proceed in a second, more energetic reaction involving H and HOH, which forms a plasma that becomes more intense upon interaction with the molten metal, and an external current supplied to the molten metal and / or plasma may generate additional atomic hydrogen (from the H2 in the effluent) to further drive the second, more energetic reaction.

[0046] In some embodiments, the power system may further include at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to the vessel wall, capable of transferring heat to or from the molten metal or to or from the molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger is comprised of one of: (i) plates, (ii) shell-in-shell blocks, (iii) SiC annular grooves, (iv) SiC polyblocks, and (v) a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. In certain embodiments, the shell-and-tube heat exchanger is comprised of conduits, manifolds, distributors, heat exchanger inlet lines, heat exchanger outlet lines, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, baffles, at least one pump for recirculating hot molten metal from the reservoir through the heat exchanger and returning cooled molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more water pumps and water coolant or one or more blowers and air coolant for flowing cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and shell, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits at the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, the shell-and-tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, and a heat exchanger outlet line, the conduits, the manifold, the distributor, the heat exchanger inlet line, the heat exchanger outlet line, the shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, and baffles made of stainless steel and independently arranged, and made of expanded carbon. The external coolant of the heat exchanger comprises air, and air from the microturbine compressor or the microturbine recuperator is forced through the external coolant inlet and the shell, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits at the external coolant outlet. The hot coolant exiting the external coolant outlet flows into the microturbine to convert thermal power to electricity.

[0047] In some embodiments, the power system comprises at least one of the group consisting of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external combustor Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine, and a heat engine, heater, boiler. The vessel may include at least one of a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window for transmitting light from inside the vessel to the photovoltaic converter and a shape of the vessel.

[0048] The power converter or output system may be comprised of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a nozzle connected to the vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic flow path, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may include silver. In embodiments with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter may be supplied with oxygen gas to interact with the silver in the molten metal stream to form silver nanoparticles (e.g., sizes in the molecular range, such as less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm), which are accelerated through the magnetohydrodynamic nozzle and contribute to the kinetic energy content of the power generated from the reaction. A reactant supply system may provide and control the supply of oxygen gas to the converter. In various embodiments, at least a portion of the kinetic energy content of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic flow path. Such electrical energy conversion may result in the aggregation of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may condense as molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen in the condenser section (also referred to herein as the MHD condenser section) of the magnetohydrodynamic converter, and the molten metal with the absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen may be released from the metal by a plasma in the vessel. In some embodiments, a plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic flow path and metal recovery system to promote absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

[0049] The molten metal pumping system may comprise a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, the first stage comprising the pump of the metal recirculation system and the second stage comprising the pump of the metal injector system.

[0050] The reaction caused by the reactants generates enough energy to initiate the formation of a plasma within the vessel. (a) a hydrogen molecule generator H2 (e.g., H2(1 / p) (p is an integer between 1 and 137)) that generates an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopic signal; (b) generating one or more hydrogen generating products, such as a molecular hydrogen generating product H2 (e.g., H2(1 / 4)) having an EPR spectrum including a major peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386, wherein: (i) Based on the diamagnetic susceptibility of H2(1 / 4), the magnetic moment of the unpaired electron induces a diamagnetic moment in the paired electrons of the molecular orbital of H2(1 / 4), (ii) The magnetic moment corresponding to the inherent paired current interaction and the magnetic moment due to the relative rotational motion about the intranuclear axis give rise to the spin-orbit interaction energy, (iii) each spin-orbit split peak is further subdivided into a series of equally spaced peaks corresponding to integer fluxon energies that are a function of the electron fluxon quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition, and (iv) Furthermore, the spin-orbit splitting increases with the spin-orbit coupling quantum number on the downfield side of the series of peak pairs due to the increased magnetic energy caused by the coupling of the stored magnetic flux by molecular orbitals, or (c) For an EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz, (i) The downfield peak position E due to the combination of the magnetic energy and spin-orbit coupling energy shifts of H2(1 / 4) S / Ocombined downfield teeth,

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[0051] These reactions may produce hydrogen products characterized as one or more of the following: (a) 1900-2200 cm -1 , 5500~6400cm -1 , 7500~8500cm -1 , or 1900~2200cm -1 a hydrogen product having one or more Raman peaks in a range of an integer multiple of (b) Hydrogen products with multiple Raman peaks at intervals of integer multiples of 0.23–0.25 eV; (c) 1900-2000cm -1 A hydrogen product having an infrared peak in the range of an integer multiple of (d) Hydrogen products with multiple infrared peaks at intervals of integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV; (e) A hydrogen product having multiple UV fluorescence emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm with intervals of integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.3 eV; (f) A hydrogen product having multiple electron beam emission spectrum peaks in the range of 200 to 300 nm, spaced apart by an integer multiple of 0.2 to 0.3 eV; (g) 1000±200cm -1 5000 to 20000 cm with spacings of integer multiples of-1 a hydrogen generating product having multiple Raman spectrum peaks in the range of (h) Hydrogen evolved products with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peaks in the energy range of 490–525 eV; (i) Hydrogen evolution causing upfield MAS NMR matrix shifts; (j) hydrogen products with upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMR shifts of −5 ppm or more relative to TMS; (m) A hydrogen generator comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; (o) Inorganic compound M x X y and H, wherein M is a cation and X is an anion, and in electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), M (M x X y H2)n (n is an integer) peak; (p) Hydrogen products consisting of at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2, which are identified by electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peaks K(K2H2CO3) n + and K(KOHH2) n + having at least one of; (q) A magnetic hydrogen generator comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further containing hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal; (r) A hydrogen generator comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility measurement; (s) A hydrogen generator containing a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, wherein the EPR spectrum has at least one of the following characteristics: a g-factor of about 2.0046±20%, the EPR spectrum is divided into a series of peaks spaced apart by about 1-10 G, and each main peak is subdivided into a series of peaks spaced apart by about 0.1-1 G; (t) A hydrogen generating product containing a metal that is not active in electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, the EPR spectrum of which is at least M1 × 7.43 × 10 -27 J±20% electron spin-orbit bond splitting energy, and M2×5.78×10 -28 J ± 20% fluxon splitting, and ca. 1.58 × 10 -23 Hydrogen generation products, including dimer magnetic moment interaction splitting energy of J±20%; (v) hydrogen products consisting of gases with negative gas chromatography peaks using hydrogen or helium as a carrier; (w) Quadrupole moment / e is (1.70127a0 2 / p 2 ) ± 10%, where p is an integer hydrogen generator; (x) The rotational energy from end to end of the integer J to J+1 transition is (J+1) 44.30 cm -1 ±20cm -1 a protic hydrogen product consisting of molecular dimers in the range of 0.01 to 0.1, wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the molecular dimer consisting of deuterium is half that of the dimer consisting of protons; (y) (i) 1.028 Å ± 10% separation distance of hydrogen molecules, (ii) 23 cm -1 a hydrogen generator comprising dimeric molecules having at least one parameter selected from the group consisting of (iii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.0011 eV ± 10%; and (iv) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.0011 eV ± 10%; (z) (i) 1.028 Å ± 10% separation distance of hydrogen molecules, (ii) 23 cm -1a hydrogen generator comprising a solid having at least one parameter selected from the group consisting of (iii) a vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.019 eV ±10%; and (iv) a van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules of 0.019 eV ±10%; (aa)(i)(J+1)44.30cm -1 ±20cm -1 , (ii)(J+1)22.15cm -1 ±10cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm. -1 Hydrogen product with FTIR and Raman spectra of ±10%, and / or X-ray or neutron diffraction patterns showing hydrogen molecular separation of 1.028 Å ±10%, and / or calorimetric measurements of vaporization energy of 0.0011 eV ±10% per hydrogen molecule; (bb)(i)(J+1)44.30cm -1 ±20cm -1 , (ii)(J+1)22.15cm -1 ±10cm -1 , and (iii) 23 cm. -1 A solid hydrogen generator having FTIR and Raman spectral signatures of ±10%, and / or an X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern showing hydrogen molecular separation of 1.028 Å ±10%, and / or a calorimetric measurement of vaporization energy of 0.019 eV ±10% per hydrogen molecule. (cc) a hydrogen generator having magnetic properties and including hydride ions that couple flux with magnetic units in the free binding energy region; and (DD) High-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an organic column with a solvent consisting of water shows chromatographic peaks with retention times longer than the support void volume time, and detection of the peaks by mass spectrometry such as ESI-ToF indicates fragments of at least one inorganic compound that generates hydrogen.

[0052] In various embodiments, the hydrogen product can be characterized similarly to the product formed from various hydrino reactors, such as those formed by wire detonation in an atmosphere containing water vapor. (a) the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W, and the hydrogen comprises H; and the metal comprises at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen; (b) Inorganic compound M x X y and H2, where M is a metal cation and X is an anion, and at least one of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) reveals that M (M x X y H(1 / 4)2) n (where n is an integer) (c) a magnetic material comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further containing hydrogen, wherein the metal is at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); (d) The metal is at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the metal is at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further containing hydrogen in which H is H(1 / 4), and the generated product exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptometry.

[0053] In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction is: (i) an element other than hydrogen; (ii) H + , normal H2, normal H - , and regular H3 + (iii) conventional hydrogen species, including at least one of (i) an organic species, and (ii) an inorganic species. In some embodiments, the hydrogen generating product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various embodiments, the hydrogen generating product (or recovered hydrogen generating product from embodiments comprising a getter) may comprise at least one compound having a formula selected from the following group: (a) MH, MH2, or M2H2, where M is an alkali cation and H or H2 is a hydrogen generator; (b)MH n, where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is a hydrogen generator; (c) MHX, where M is an alkali cation, X is either a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a single negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (d) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (e) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (f) M2HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (g)MH n , where n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (h)M2H n、 where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (i)M2XH n , where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (j)M2X2H n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (k) M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (l)M2XH n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (m) MXX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (n)MM'H n , where n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (o)MM'XH n , where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a monovalent negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (p)MM'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen generator; (q) MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are single negatively charged anions, and H is a hydrogen generator; (r)MXX'H n , where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, transition element, inner transition element or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (s)MH n , where n is an integer, M is a cation of a transition element, inner transition element, rare earth element, etc., and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (t)MXH n , where n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation, an alkaline earth cation, etc., and X is another cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content H of the compound n includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (u)(MH m MCO3)n , where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, M and n are each integers, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (v)(MH m MNO3) n + nX - , where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, M and n are each integers, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m includes at least one hydrogen generating product; (w)(MHMNO3) n , where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content of the compound H contains at least one hydrogen generating compound; (x)(MHMOH) n , where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen generating compound; (y)(MH m M'X) n , where M and M' are each integers, are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m includes at least one hydrogen generator; and (z)(MH m M'X') n + nX - , where m and n are integers, M and M' are alkali or alkaline earth cations, X and X' are singly or doubly negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m contains at least one hydrogen generating product.

[0054] The anions of the hydrogen generating product formed by the reaction may be one or more singly negatively charged anions, including halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, nitrate ions, doubly negatively charged anions, carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfate ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogen generating product is embedded in a crystal lattice (e.g., using a getter such as K2CO3 placed in the vessel or in the exhaust line). For example, the hydrogen generating product can be embedded in a salt lattice. In various embodiments, the salt lattice is composed of an alkali salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, an alkaline earth salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, or a combination thereof.

[0055] Also provided is an electrode system configured as follows: (a) First electrode and second electrode; (b) a flow of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium) in electrical contact with the first and second electrodes; (c) a circulation system including a pump that withdraws the molten metal from the reservoir, conveys it through a conduit (e.g., a tube), and generates a flow of the molten metal exiting the conduit; (d) a power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; wherein the molten metal stream simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to generate a current between the electrodes, hi some embodiments, the power is sufficient to generate a current of greater than 100 A.

[0056] An electrical circuit is also provided and may be configured as follows: (a) Heating means for generating molten metal; (b) pumping means for conveying said molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit and generating a flow of said molten metal out of said conduit; (c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply means for generating a potential difference between said first and second electrodes; Here, the molten metal stream simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to form an electric circuit between the first and second electrodes, e.g., in an electric circuit consisting of first and second electrodes, the improvement comprises passing a molten metal stream across the electrodes to allow an electric current to flow therebetween.

[0057] Additionally, systems for generating plasma (which may be used in the power generation systems described herein) are provided. These systems may comprise: (a) a molten metal injector system configured to generate a stream of molten metal from a metal reservoir; (b) an electrode system for applying an electric current to said stream of molten metal; (c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered volume of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas; (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and water vapor; and (d) a power source configured to provide said current; wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is applied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, these systems further comprise: The plasma may include a pumping system configured to transfer collected metal to the metal reservoir after the plasma is generated. In some embodiments, these systems may comprise: A metal regeneration system configured to collect metal oxides and convert the metal oxides to metals, the metal regeneration system comprising an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides to metals. In certain embodiments, the system may comprise: (a) a pumping system configured to transfer the collected metal to a metal reservoir after the plasma is generated; and (b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect metal oxides and convert the metal oxides into metals, the metal regeneration system comprising an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and providing an electrical bias between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides into metals; wherein the metal regenerated by the metal regeneration system is transferred to the pump system. In certain embodiments, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

[0058] The system for producing plasma of the present disclosure may include: (a) a molten metal injector system configured to generate a stream of molten metal from a metal reservoir; (b) an electrode system for passing an electric current through the stream of molten metal; (c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered volume of water with the molten metal, a portion of the water reacting with a portion of the molten metal to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas; (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and water vapor; and (d) a power source configured to provide an electric current; Here, the plasma is generated when an electric current is supplied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system may further include: (a) a pumping system configured to transfer the collected metal to a metal reservoir after the plasma is generated; and (b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect metal oxides and convert the metal oxides into metals, the metal regeneration system comprising an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, and providing an electrical bias between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides into metals; Here, the metals recovered in the metal recovery system are transferred to the pump system.

[0059] A system for generating a plasma may include: (a) Two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between them to complete a circuit; (b) a power source connected to the two electrodes and applying a current between them when the circuit is closed; (c) a recombiner cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from the gas; where the recombiner effluent is directed into a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes immersed in a molten metal reservoir); Here, when a current is applied across the circuit, the effluent of the recombiner cell undergoes a reaction to generate a plasma. In some embodiments, the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. In various embodiments, the system is used to generate light from the plasma.

[0060] The system of the present disclosure may comprise (or be part of) a mesh network including a plurality of power-system-transmitter-receiver nodes that transmit and receive electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, where the frequencies in the band are high frequency for the ability to locally locate nodes with short separation distances, where the frequencies can be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz, and 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

[0061] The unique spectroscopic signatures measured in the reaction products produce hydrogen reaction products with unique properties that can be used in the various devices that are part of this disclosure.

[0062] Methods are also provided, which can, for example, generate power, generate light, or generate plasma using one or more systems of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the methods comprise: (a) Applying an electrical bias to the molten metal; (b) The effluent of a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) interacts with the biased molten metal to induce the formation of a plasma. In certain embodiments, the effluent of the plasma generating cell is generated from a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gases that pass through the plasma generating cell during system operation. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0063] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. [Figure 66C] 66C-D are schematic diagrams of an inverted Y-shaped SunCell® generator including dual reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joining to form a reaction cell chamber connected to a photovoltaic window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66D] 66C-D are schematic diagrams of an inverted Y-shaped SunCell® generator including dual reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joining to form a reaction cell chamber connected to a photovoltaic window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66E] FIG. 66E is a schematic diagram of a photovoltaic converter and inverted-Y SunCell® generator consisting of dual reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joining to form a reaction cell chamber connected to a photovoltaic window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66F] 66F-66G are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, and is comprised of an inlet riser, inner and outer photovoltaic windows, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly with one or two reservoirs consisting of electrical interrupters and bellows. [Figure 66G]66F-66G are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure, and is comprised of an inlet riser, inner and outer photovoltaic windows, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly with one or two reservoirs consisting of electrical interrupters and bellows. [Figure 66H] 66H-66L are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, each showing an inlet riser, an inner photovoltaic window, an outer photovoltaic window, at least one reservoir consisting of an electrical interrupter, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having at least one reservoir consisting of a bellows. [Figure 66I] 66H-66L are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, each showing an inlet riser, an inner photovoltaic window, an outer photovoltaic window, at least one reservoir consisting of an electrical interrupter, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having at least one reservoir consisting of a bellows. [Figure 66J] 66H-66L are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, each showing an inlet riser, an inner photovoltaic window, an outer photovoltaic window, at least one reservoir consisting of an electrical interrupter, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having at least one reservoir consisting of a bellows. [Figure 66K] 66H-66L are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, each showing an inlet riser, an inner photovoltaic window, an outer photovoltaic window, at least one reservoir consisting of an electrical interrupter, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having at least one reservoir consisting of a bellows. [Figure 66L]66H-66L are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a dual electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode, each showing an inlet riser, an inner photovoltaic window, an outer photovoltaic window, at least one reservoir consisting of an electrical interrupter, and a tilted electromagnetic pump assembly having at least one reservoir consisting of a bellows. [Figure 66M] 66M-66N are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including dual reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joined to form a reaction cell chamber. [Figure 66N] 66M-66N are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including dual reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joined to form a reaction cell chamber. [Figure 66O] 66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66P] 66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66Q] 66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66R]66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66S] 66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66T] 66O-66T are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including a dual reservoir and DC electromagnetic pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joining to form a reaction cell chamber and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. [Figure 66U] FIG. 66U is a schematic diagram of the electromagnetic pump tube, electromagnetic pump busbar assembly, reflective base plate, and bead retention housing of the SunCell® according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66V] 66V-66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joined to form a chamber joined to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal. [Figure 66W] 66V-66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joined to form a chamber joined to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal. [Figure 66X]66V-66X are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with the reservoirs joined to form a chamber joined to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal. [Figure 66Y] 66Y-66ZA are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with reservoirs intersecting and joining a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66Z] 66Y-66ZA are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with reservoirs intersecting and joining a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 66ZA] 66Y-66ZA are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including dual inner and outer reservoirs and a DC electromagnetic pump injector as liquid electrodes with reservoirs intersecting and joining a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate and a photovoltaic window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2I132] FIG. 2I132 is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® generator showing details of an optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2I133] FIG. 2I133 is a schematic diagram of a triangular element of a geodesic dense receiver array of a photovoltaic converter or heat exchanger according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2I143]2I143-2I144 are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a sloped electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser to reduce blackbody light intensity, and a dual electromagnetic pump injector as the liquid electrode showing the photovoltaic converter with increased radius. [Figure 2I144] 2I143-2I144 are schematic diagrams of a thermophotovoltaic SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of a sloped electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser to reduce blackbody light intensity, and a dual electromagnetic pump injector as the liquid electrode showing the photovoltaic converter with increased radius. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0064] Detailed Description of the Invention Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods that convert the energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and / or thermal energy. These reactions may involve catalytic systems that release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower-energy states in which the electron shells are closer to the nucleus. The released power is used to generate electricity, and new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws, and a catalyst is required to accept energy from hydrogen to effect the corresponding energy-releasing transitions.

[0065] One possible theory explaining the exothermic reactions generated by the disclosed power generation system involves the nonradiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to a specific catalyst (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, predicting corresponding chemical species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy at integer multiples of atomic hydrogen's potential energy, m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Otherwise, the predicted reaction involves resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom." Here, n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (where p is an integer less than or equal to 137) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for excited states of hydrogen. Each hydrogen state also consists of an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the contribution to the field from the photon corresponds to energy detachment rather than absorption, increasing rather than decreasing the binding energy. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m hydrogen atoms act as catalysts for m 27.2 eV to another (m+1) hydrogen atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, available at http: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from another H atom via through-space energy transfer, such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, resulting in a short wavelength cutoff and m 2 13.6eV((91.2 / m 2) nm), forming an intermediate that decays with the emission of a continuum of radiation. In addition to atomic H, molecules that accept m 27.2 eV from atomic H while decreasing the magnitude of the molecule's potential energy by the same amount can also act as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Next, by the same mechanism, nascent H2O molecules (not hydrogen-bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous states) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of metal oxides are predicted to act as catalysts to form H(1 / 4) with an energy release of 204 eV consisting of an 81.6 eV transfer to HOH and the emission of a continuum of radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV).

[0066] H[a H In H-atom catalysis involving transitions to the (m+1)th H atom, m H atoms catalyze another (m+1)th H atom with m 27.2 eV. Therefore, the reaction between m+1 H atoms in which m atoms catalyze the mth H atom by resonantly and non-radiatively accepting m 27.2 eV from the (m+1)th H atom is given by

number

[0067] And the overall reaction

number

[0068] Potential energy of nascent H2O in catalytic reactions (m=3) [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, http: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / The following is a list of the articles published in the magazine:

number

[0069] And the overall reaction

number

[0070] After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate H with a radius of the hydrogen atom and a central magnetic field m+1 times the central magnetic field of the proton is formed. * [a H / (m+1)] is formed. This radius decreases as the electron is accelerated radially, reaching a stable state with a radius 1 / (m+1) times the radius of an uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, m 2 The predicted energy release is 13.6 eV. * [a H / (m+1)] intermediates (e.g., Eqs. (2) and (6)) have a short wavelength cutoff and

number

number

[0071] Additional catalysts and reactions to form hydrinos are possible. To catalyze the process, specific species that can be identified based on known electronic energy levels (e.g., He + , Ar + , Sr + , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent HO, nH (n = integer) must be present along with atomic hydrogen. In this reaction, non-radiative energy transfer is followed by continuum emission of q 13.6 eV or transfer of q 13.6 eV to H, forming a very hot excited state of H and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the equation for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom,

number

[0072] Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release: non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by further energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is

number

number

[0073] The catalytic product H(1 / p) reacts with electrons to form hydrinohydride ions H -(1 / p), or two H(1 / p) may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p). Specifically, the catalytic product H(1 / p) reacts with an electron to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p), resulting in a binding energy E B The nascent hydride ion H - It may also form (1 / p):

number

number

number

number

[0074] The upfield shift of the NMR peak is direct evidence for the presence of a lower-energy hydrogen state with a smaller radius and increased diamagnetic shielding of the proton compared to the normal hydride ion. This shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the two electron diamagnetisms and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)):

number

[0075] H(1 / p) reacts with a proton, and two H(1 / p) react to form H2(1 / p) + and form H2(1 / p). The charge and current density functions, bond lengths, and energies of the hydrogen molecular ion and molecule were obtained by solving the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with nonradiative constraints.

number

[0076] Total energy E of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +PE at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital. T (Mills GUT equations (11.192~11.194)) are as follows: E T =p 2 16.253 (22) Total energy E of a hydrogen molecule T (Mills GUT equations (11.239~11.242)) have a prolate spheroidal molecular orbital at each focus point +PE and are given by the following equation: E T =p 2 31.667 (23)

[0077] Bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D (Mills GUT equations (11.249~11.253)) give the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T and This is the difference. E D =E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four) where: E(2H(1 / p))=-p 2 27.20eV (25) and E D is given by the following equations (23-25): E D=E(2H(1 / p)-E T =p 2 27.20-E T =p 2 4.478eV (26)

[0078] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), which shows that the ionization products, in addition to the ionizing electron, are hydrogen (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p) + , is at least one of the possibilities for energy being shifted by the matrix.

[0079] NMR of the catalyst evolved gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be upfield relative to the H2 resonance because the electron is a fractional radius of the ellipsoidal coordinate significantly closer to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB of H2(1 / p) T / B is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP formula (11.415~11.416)):

number

[0080] Vibrational energy E of the transition from ν=0 to ν=1 in the hydrogen-like molecule H2(1 / p) vib is expressed as follows: E vib =p 2 0.515902eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0081] Rotational energy E of the J to J+1 transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) rot is expressed as follows:

number

[0082] rotational energy p 2 The dependence arises from the inverse dependence of the internuclear distance on p and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. For H2(1 / p), the predicted internuclear distance 2c' is:

number

[0083] At least one of the rotational energy and vibrational energy of H2(1 / p) can be measured by at least one of electron-induced emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a measurement matrix, such as at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali; X = halide) matrices.

[0084] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino generator has a peak at about 1950 cm -1 This peak is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak. This peak is enhanced by using conductive materials with roughness features or particle sizes comparable to the Raman laser wavelength, which supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) that exhibits an IRE peak.

[0085] I. Catalyst In this disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalyst, H-catalyzed reaction, catalytic reaction when referring to hydrogen, reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction of a catalyst defined in Equation (14) with atomic H as shown in Equations (15-18) to form hydrogen states having the energy levels given in Equation (10) and Equation (12). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactant for hydrino formation, reactant that generates or forms lower energy states of hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to the reaction mixture from the catalytic reaction of H to hydrogen states or hydrino states having the energy levels given in Equation (10) and Equation (12).

[0086] The catalytic low-energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure requires a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m times the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV, that accepts energy from atomic H to effect the transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom, ion, or molecule, and may further include a concerted bond cleavage reaction involving the ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the original bond partners. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also function as a catalyst with an enthalpy of integer multiples of 27.2 eV. In one embodiment, the catalyst can accept energy from atomic hydrogen at any integer unit between about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and (27.2 / 2) eV ± 0.5 eV.

[0087] Classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen will react catalytically with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy at integer multiples of atomic hydrogen's potential energy, m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer). Otherwise, the predicted reaction involves resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom." Here, n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (where p is an integer less than or equal to 137) replaces the familiar parameter n = an integer in the Rydberg equation for excited states of hydrogen. Each hydrogen state also consists of an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon corresponds to an energy release rather than an energy absorption, increasing rather than decreasing the bond. Because the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms act as a catalyst for another (m+1) H atom with m⋅22.7 eV. For example, one H atom can act as a catalyst for another H atom by accepting 27.2 eV from another H atom through energy transfer through space, such as through magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole bonding. In addition to atomic H, molecules that accept m⋅22.7 eV from atomic H, decreasing the molecular potential energy by the same amount, can also function as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV [Mills GUT]. Therefore, by the same mechanism, nascent H2O molecules (not hydrogen-bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous states) can also function as catalysts. Based on a 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization from ice at 0°C to water at 100°C, the average number of H-bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6 [Mills GUT]. Therefore, for H2O to act as a catalyst to form hydrinos, it must be chemically formed as an isolated molecule with the appropriate activation energy. The catalytic reaction (m=3) in terms of the potential energy of the nascent H2O is:

number

[0088] And the overall reaction is:

number

[0089] After the energy transfer to the catalyst, an intermediate H with a radius of the hydrogen atom and a central magnetic field m+1 times the central magnetic field of the proton * [a H / (m+1)] is formed (e.g., H * [a H / 4] is an intermediate of formula (1) where m=3, and H + fast and H fast refers to these intermediates with excess kinetic energy). The radius decreases as the electron is accelerated radially to a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+1) that of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, m 2 The predicted energy release is 13.6 eV. * [a H / (m+1)] intermediates (e.g., Eq. (2a)) have a short wavelength cutoff and

number

number

[0090] II. Hydrino Atom E B =13.6eV / (1 / p) 2A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by (where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably 2 to 137) is the product of the H catalytic reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by equations (10) and (12) is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino." Radius a H / p(a H is the radius of a normal hydrogen atom, p is an integer) hydrino is H / p]. Hereafter, radius a H The hydrogen atom is called an "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "normal hydrogen atom." The ordinary hydrogen atom is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0091] According to the present disclosure, when p=2 to 23, the binding energy according to Equation (19) is larger than the binding energy of a normal hydride ion (about 0.75 eV), and when p=24, it is larger than the binding energy of a normal hydride ion (H - For p=2 through p=24 in Equation (19), the binding energies of the hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions containing the nascent hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0092] Also provided are exemplary compounds comprised of one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino halide compounds."

[0093] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). Here, with respect to forms of hydrogen, "normal" and "normal" are synonymous.

[0094] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound having: (a) 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 (p is an integer between 2 and 137) 2 (b) a hydrogen atom with a bond energy of

number

number

[0095] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, there are provided compounds comprised of at least one hydrogen species of increased binding energy, as follows: (a) a total energy of E T =p 2 16.253 (where p is an integer,

number

[0096] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound contains a proton, typically H2 + or regular H3 + The compound further comprises one or more cations such as

[0097] Provided herein is a method for producing compounds containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino halide compounds." The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about (m / 2) 27e, where m is an integer greater than or equal to 1, preferably less than 400, and having a net enthalpy of reaction of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p). 2The catalytic reaction generates increased binding energy hydrogen atoms having a binding energy of p = 1. Here, p is an integer, preferably an integer between 2 and 137. The catalytic reaction also generates energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atoms, when reacted with an electron source, can generate increased binding energy hydride ions. The increased binding energy hydride ions, when reacted with one or more cations, can generate a compound containing at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0098] In one embodiment, the very high power and / or energy is referred to herein as "disproportionation," as described in Chapter 5 of Mills' GUTCP. The hydrogen atom, H(1 / p) (p = 1, 2, 3, ... 137), can undergo further transitions to lower energy states, as shown in Equations (10) and (12), where this transition is catalyzed by a second atom resonantly and nonradiatively accepting m 27.2 eV with a simultaneous opposite change in potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p + m)) caused by the resonant transition from m 27.2 eV to H(1 / p') given in Equation (32) is expressed as follows:

number

[0099] Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light from the hydrino process dissociates dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms can act as catalysts for transitions to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction consists of the catalysis of H(1 / 4) to H(1 / 17), where H(1 / 4) may be a product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Hydrino disproportionation reactions are predicted to produce X-ray signatures. As shown in equations (5-8), the product of the HOH catalysis is H[a H / 4]. The first hydrogen atom, H[a H / p] is an H atom, and the second catalytic acceptor hydrogen atom H[a H / p'] is H[a H / 4]. H / 4] has a potential energy of 4 2 Since 27.2 eV = 16 27.2 eV = 435.2 eV, the transition reaction is expressed as follows:

number

[0100] And the overall reaction

number

[0101] H * [a H The extreme ultraviolet continuum band due to intermediates (such as Eqs. (16) and (34)) has a short wavelength cutoff and

number

number

[17] intermediate is predicted to have a short-wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 eV; 0.35625 nm, and to extend into longer wavelengths. NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and XMM-Newton have observed a broad X-ray peak with a cutoff of 3.48 keV in the Perseus cluster of galaxies [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R.K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S.W.Randall, "Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-ray spectrum of galaxy clusters," The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 789, No. 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, "An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andomeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy clusters"]. cluster), (2014), arXiv:1402.4119 [astro-ph.Co]-ph.CO], which do not match any known atomic transitions. The 3.48 keV feature assigned by BulBul et al. to the unidentified dark matter is H[a H / 4]+H[a H / 1]→H[a H / 17] transition, further supporting the idea that dark matter is hydrinos.

[0102] The nascent hydrogen composition may include: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy (hereinafter, "increased binding energy hydrogen species"), (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is greater than the binding energy of the hydrogen species that is negative; and (b) at least one other element. Typically, the hydrogen products described herein are hydrogen species with increased binding energy.

[0103] The term "other element" as used herein refers to an element other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element may be a regular hydrogen species or an element other than hydrogen. In one class of compounds, the increased binding energy hydrogen species and the other element are neutral. In another class of compounds, the increased binding energy hydrogen species and the other element are charged such that the other element provides a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former class of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding, while the latter class of compounds is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0104] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions, including: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the total energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy under ambient conditions, or is greater than the total energy of the negative hydrogen species; and (b) at least one other element.

[0105] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than that of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. Hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," even though some embodiments of hydrogen species with increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less than that of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 has a first binding energy less than that of the normal hydride ion, but the total energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 is much greater than that of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0106] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions, including: (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy, (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the corresponding normal hydrogen species is unstable or the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative and therefore greater than the binding energy of the unobserved hydrogen species; and (b) optionally one other element.

[0107] Increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound comprising at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0108] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions, including: (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy, (i) greater than the total energy of an ordinary hydrogen molecule, or (ii) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species that is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or negative than the thermal energy under ambient conditions; and (b) optionally one other element.

[0109] In one embodiment, compounds are provided that comprise at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy according to Equation (19) that is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.8 eV) for p=2 to 23 and less for p=24 ("increased binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion"); (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (approximately 13.6 eV) ("increased binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino"); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino"); and (d) a hydrogen molecular ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecular ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion"). In the present disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as low energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently low energy hydrogen species.

[0110] III. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for generating increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalytic reaction are electrical power and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors may hereinafter be referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells." A hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell for producing hydrinos may take the form of a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, as well as a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell, such as an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. The ice can have a high surface area to increase the rate of formation of the HOH catalyst and H from the ice and / or the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In one embodiment, the cell comprises an arc discharge cell, containing ice on at least one electrode so that the discharge contains at least a portion of the ice.

[0111] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a vessel, two electrodes, a high-voltage power supply, such as one capable of providing a voltage in the range of approximately 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of approximately 1 A to 100 kA, a water source, such as a reservoir, and a means for forming and supplying HO droplets. The droplets can travel between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of an arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma contains H and HOH, which may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and corresponding power rate can be adjusted by controlling the droplet size and the rate at which the droplets are supplied to the electrodes. The high-voltage source can comprise at least one high-voltage capacitor that can be charged by the high-voltage power supply. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means, such as a power converter according to the present invention, such as a photovoltaic converter and / or a heat engine, for converting power from the hydrino process, such as light or heat, into electricity.

[0112] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells is comprised of: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof, for producing hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting the catalyst with hydrogen to produce hydrinos. As used herein and intended in this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to proteum ( 1 H) as well as deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors can constitute embodiments of the SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell of this disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are described in this chemical reactor section. An example of a reaction mixture with HO as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture is provided in this disclosure. Other catalysts can serve to form hydrogen species and compounds of increased binding energy. Reactions and conditions can be adjusted from these exemplary cases in parameters such as reactants, wt% of reactants, H pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those disclosed herein. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos have been shown to be products of the reactors of this disclosure by the predicted continuum bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV, Doppler line broadening of the H line, H line inversion, the formation of a plasma without a cutoff downfield, and an otherwise inexplicably high H kinetic energy measured by an anomalous plasma afterglow time, as reported in a prior publication by Mills. Such data regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuel has been independently verified off-site by other researchers. Hydrino formation by the disclosed cell was also confirmed by the continuous electrical energy output over long periods of time. The electrical energy output was, in most cases, more than 10 times the input in the absence of an alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino, H2(1 / 4), was identified as the product of the CIHT cell and solid fuel by MAS H NMR at approximately -4.4 ppm. ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS indicated that H2(1 / 4) was complexed to the getter matrix as a m / e = M + n peak (where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer). Electron-excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy indicated that the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) are 16, or the fourth power of the quantum number p = the energy of H2. Raman and FTIR spectroscopy indicated that the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) is 1950 cm. -1XPS showed that the rotational energy of H2 is 16, or the square of the quantum number p=4, and that the total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) is predicted to be 500 eV. Energy release from H to H(1 / 4) is predicted, with a ToF-SIMS peak having an arrival time before the m / e=1 peak corresponding to H at around 204 eV, where energy is transferred to third-body H. These findings are consistent with previous publications by Mills and R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, and J. LoPtoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research (2013) and R. Mills, J. LoPtoski, J. Kong, G. Chu, J. He, and J. Trevey, "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell." This is reported in “A Novel Method for Developing a Novel CIHT-Induced Hydrino Transition Electrochemical Cell” (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0113] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos from the disclosed cells, including those consisting of solid fuels generating thermoelectric power, was confirmed by observing that the thermal energy from the hydrino-forming solid fuel exceeded 60 times the maximum theoretical energy. MAS H NMR showed the expected H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. 1950 cm -1 The Raman peak beginning at was consistent with the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results were reported in a previous publication by Mills and in R. Mills, J. Ltoski, W. Good, and J. He, "Solid Fules that Form HOH CaTalyst," (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0114] IV. SunCell® and Power Converter A power system (also referred to herein as a "SunCell®") for generating electrical and / or thermal energy is configured as follows: a vessel capable of maintaining subatmospheric pressure; a reactant capable of undergoing a reaction that generates enough energy to form plasma within the vessel; (a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases, and / or Water vapor, and / or A mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; (b) molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump that maintains a pressure within the vessel below atmospheric pressure while one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel; a molten metal injector system including at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a power source or ignition current source for supplying power to at least one stream of molten metal for igniting a reaction when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor are flowing into the vessel; a reactant supply system that replenishes reactants consumed in the reaction; and A power converter or power system that converts a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or thermal power. In some embodiments, the effluent consists of (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent consists of (or consists of) nascent water and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent includes (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent further includes a noble gas.

[0115] In some embodiments, the power system may include an optical rectenna such as that reported by A. Sharma, V. Singh, T.L. Bougher, and B.A. Cola, “A carbon nanotube optical rectenna,” Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027-1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein, particularly the thermoelectric converter. In further embodiments, the vessel is capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressures. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-power converter may include at least one of the following: a plasmadynamic power converter, an E(vector) × B(vector) orientation angle converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In further embodiments, the at least one thermoelectric converter can include at least one of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary cogeneration systems, which can be configured with a closed cooling water system or an open system that rejects heat to the ambient atmosphere, are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0116] In addition to the ultraviolet photovoltaic and thermophotovoltaic power systems disclosed herein, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbine, microturbine, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. Rankine cycle turbines may be constructed with supercritical CO2, organics such as hydrofluorocarbons or fluorocarbons, or steam working fluids. In Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, SunCell® provides heat and power for at least one of the turbine system's preheater, recuperator, boiler, and external combustor-type heat exchanger. In one embodiment, a Brayton cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater integrated into the turbine's combustion section. The SunCell® turbine heater may comprise a duct that receives airflow from at least one of a compressor and a recuperator, where the air is heated, and the duct directs the heated, compressed air to the turbine inlet to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater can replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be a closed cycle in which the power converter further includes a condenser and / or a cooler.

[0117] The transducer may be one of those described in the prior publications and applications by Mills. Hydrino reactants, such as H sources, HOH sources, and SunCell® systems, may be used in conjunction with those disclosed herein or in other applications, such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, filed April 24, 2008, PCT / US08 / 61455; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, filed July 29, 2009, PCT / US09 / 052072; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, filed March 18, 2010, PCT / US10 / 27828; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, filed March 17, 2011, PCT / US11 / 28889; HO-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, filed March 30, 2012; Water-based electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power generation system, PCT / US12 / 31369; CIHT Power System, filed May 21, 2013, PCT / US13 / 041938; Power Generation System and Methods Regulating Same, filed January 10, 2014, PCT / IB2014 / 058177; Photovoltaic Power Generation System and Methods Regulating Same, filed April 1, 2014, PCT / US14 / 32584; Electrical Generation System and Methods Regulating Same, filed May 29, 2015, PCT / US2015 / 033165;Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System and Methods Regrading the Same, filed December 15, 2015, PCT / US2015 / 065826; Thermophotovoltanic Electrical Power Generator, filed January 8, 2016, PCT / US16 / 12620; Thermophotovoltanic Electrical Power Generator Network, filed December 7, 2017, PCT / US2017 / 035025; Thermophotovoltanic Electrical Power Generator, filed January 18, 2017, PCT / US2017 / 013972; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic, filed January 5, 2018 Cell (extreme ultraviolet and deep ultraviolet solar cell), PCT / US2018 / 012635; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, filed February 18, 2018, PCT / US2018 / 17765; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, filed May 29, 2018, PCT / US2018 / 034842; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, filed December 5, 2018, PCT / IB2018 / 059646; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, filed January 16, 2020, PCT / IB2020 / 050360; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, filed February 8, 2021, PCT / US21 / 17148;and Infarred Light Recycling Thermophotovoltanic Hydrogen Electric Power Generator, filed March 8, 2022, PCT / IB2022 / 052016, (the "Mills Prior Application"), all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0118] In one embodiment, HO is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the form of at least one of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (In this disclosure, "ignition" refers to the ignition of a set of reactants to generate a reaction, such as a reaction ignited by applying an electric current to the set of reactants to generate a plasma due to the extremely high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may manifest as a burst, pulse, or other form of high-power release.) HO can constitute a fuel that is ignited by the application of a high electric current, such as one in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a large electric current. In one SunCell® embodiment, the hydrino-forming reactants are subjected to a low-voltage, high-current, high-power pulse that causes a very fast reaction rate and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak and the current is 100 A / cm peak. 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 The range is 1000W / cm 2 ~750,000W / cm 2 Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers ranging from about 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are also suitable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a large current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current in at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC current density or peak AC current density is greater than 100 A / cm. 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2, 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 The DC voltage or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The pulse time may be about 10 -6 seconds~10 seconds, 10 -5 seconds ~ 1 seconds, 10 -4 seconds~0.1 seconds, 10 -3 The time may be set to at least one range selected from 0.01 seconds to 0.01 seconds.

[0119] Ignition system In one embodiment, the ignition system comprises at least one switch that initiates current flow and interrupts it once ignition is achieved. The current flow can be initiated by contact of the molten metal stream. The switching can be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition can be mechanically switched. The current can be interrupted after ignition to optimize the output hydrino generation energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system can include a switch for injecting a controllable amount of energy into the fuel to cause detonation and turning off the power at the stage where plasma is generated. In one embodiment, the power source for providing short bursts of high current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following: a voltage selected to induce high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC currents in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, or 10 kA to 50 kA; 1A / cm 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 a DC current density or a peak AC current density in at least one of the ranges; where the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, and the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; The DC voltage or peak AC voltage is in at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and The AC frequency is in at least one range of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0120] The system further includes a start-up power / energy source, such as a battery, e.g., a lithium-ion battery. Alternatively, external power, such as grid power, may be provided for starting via a connection from an external power source to a generator. This connection may comprise a power output bus bar. The start-up power energy source may perform at least one of powering a heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, powering an injection system, and powering an ignition system.

[0121] In one embodiment, the SunCell® system includes a heater, such as a hydrogen-oxygen combustion heater, for melting molten metal, such as the molten metal in the wet seal or the molten metal contained in the reservoir or electromagnetic pump tube. The heater may be comprised of multiple burner nozzles. An exemplary heater includes at least one of: (i) a burner nozzle located below and directed toward the base plate 5b531c to heat the base plate 5b531c and the wet seal; (ii) a burner nozzle located around the reservoir at the location of the molten metal to heat a corresponding portion of the reservoir and the molten metal therein; and (iii) a burner nozzle directed toward the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 to heat the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 and the molten metal therein. The burner or nozzle may be constructed of a material capable of high-temperature operation, such as stainless steel.

[0122] This section can be heated sufficiently above its melting point to heat other SunCell® components by conduction or transport the molten metal by electromagnetic pumping. Melting and heating may occur during start-up. Hydrogen to supply the heater can be contained in a tank that also supplies the hydrogen reactant for the hydrino reaction. Hydrogen is generated from the electrolysis of water, and electrolysis power is provided by the SunCell®. In addition to the tank, the fired heater gas system may further include an optional oxygen tank, a water electrolyzer, flow meters, pressure gauges, sensors, pressure and flow controllers, values, and a computer. After start-up, the burner nozzles may function as coolant injection jets to cool corresponding SunCell® components, such as the reservoirs. Exemplary coolants are air and water.

[0123] In one embodiment, a burner heater nozzle can directly or indirectly heat the inner reservoir to melt the molten metal during startup. The nozzle can be positioned outside and directed outward from the outer reservoir to heat the inner reservoir by conduction. The gap between the inner and outer reservoirs can be comprised of a thermally conductive medium. In another embodiment, a heater, such as an electric cartridge heater or at least one burner nozzle, can be positioned within a housing or well that passes through the interior of the inner reservoir.

[0124] The SunCell® may comprise a high-pressure water electrolyzer, such as one that comprises a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer with high-pressure water to provide high-pressure hydrogen. The H2 and O2 chambers each include a recombiner to remove contaminants O2 and H2, respectively. The PEM functions as a separator and / or salt bridge between the anode and cathode compartments, allowing hydrogen to be generated at the cathode and oxygen to be generated at the anode as separate gases. The cathode may comprise a dichalcogenide hydrogen generation catalyst, which may be composed of niobium and / or tantalum and may further contain sulfur. The cathode may be composed of Pt or Ni, as known in the art. Hydrogen is generated at high pressure and delivered to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 either directly or via a hydrogen-permeable membrane. The SunCell® may also include an oxygen gas line from the anode compartment to a storage container or vent for oxygen gas delivery. In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a sensor, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller.

[0125] In another embodiment, the hydrogen fuel can be obtained from at least one of the electrolysis of water, the reforming of natural gas, the syngas reaction, and the water-gas shift reaction by reacting water vapor with carbon to form H2 and CO, CO2.

[0126] In another embodiment, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis using supplied water and heat generated by the SunCell®. The pyrolysis cycle can be configured as disclosed herein or as known in the art, such as those based on metals and their oxides, such as SnO / Sn and / or ZnO / Zn. In embodiments where the inductively coupled heater, electromagnetic pump, and ignition system consume power only during startup, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis, resulting in very low parasitic power requirements. The SunCell® can be configured with a battery, such as a lithium-ion battery, to provide power to operate systems such as gas sensors and control systems for reactive plasma gases.

[0127] Molten metal flow generation In one embodiment, as shown in Figures 66C-66N, the SunCell® includes two reservoirs 5c, each including an electromagnetic (EM) pump, such as a DC, AC, or another electromagnetic pump of the present disclosure, an injector that also functions as an ignition electrode, and a reservoir inlet riser for leveling the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may be comprised of tin, silver, a silver-copper alloy, gallium, galinstan, or another of the present disclosure. The SunCell® may further include a reaction cell chamber 5b31, an electrically insulating flange between the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber, such as an electrically insulating conflat flange, and a drip edge at the top of each reservoir that electrically isolates the reservoir and the electromagnetic pump from each other, through which ignition current flows at the contact of the intersecting molten metal streams of the two electromagnetic pump injectors. In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component, such as the interior of each reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, or electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, is coated with a ceramic or constructed with a ceramic liner such as BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, or a mixture such as TiO2-YrO-Al2O3, or another material disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the SunCell® further comprises an external resistance heater, such as a heating coil, such as Kanthal wire, wound around the exterior surface of at least one SunCell® component. In an embodiment, the exterior surface of at least one SunCell® component, such as the reaction cell 5b3, reservoir 5c, or electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, is coated with a ceramic to electrically insulate the resistance heating coil, such as Kanthal wire, wound around the surface. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include at least one of a heat exchanger and insulation wrapped around at least one SunCell® component. At least one of the heat exchanger and the heater may be wrapped in insulation.

[0128] In one embodiment, the resistance heater may include a support for a heating element, such as a heating wire. The support may be constructed of hermetically sealed carbon. The seal may be constructed of a ceramic, such as SiC. SiC can be formed by reacting carbon and silicon at high temperatures in a vacuum furnace.

[0129] SunCell® heaters may be resistance heaters or induction-coupled heaters. An exemplary SunCell® heater is constructed with Kanthal A-1 resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum (FeCrAl) alloy capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and possessing high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys suitable for heating elements include Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and / or Alcrotal. Heating elements, such as resistance wire elements, may also be constructed with NiCr alloys capable of operating in the 1100°C to 1200°C range, such as Nicrotal 80, Nicrotal 70, Nicrotal 60, and / or Nicrotal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may be constructed of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) capable of operating in an oxidizing atmosphere in the range of 1500°C to 1800°C, such as at least one of Kanthal Al Super 1700, Kanthal Al Super 1800, Kanthal Al Super 1900, Kanthal Al Super RA, Kanthal Al Super ER, Kanthal Al Super HT, and Kanthal Al Super NC. The heating element may be constructed of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistance heater may be constructed of SiC capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C.

[0130] Electromagnetic pumps are one of two main types used for liquid metals: AC or DC conduction pumps, in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing the liquid metal and AC or DC current is supplied to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube wall, respectively; and induction pumps, in which a traveling magnetic field induces the required current, similar to an induction motor, allowing current to cross the applied AC electromagnetic field. Induction pumps come in three main forms: annular linear, planar linear, and spiral. Pumps can be mechanical pumps, thermoelectric pumps, or other pumps known in the art. Mechanical pumps can consist of centrifugal pumps with a motor-driven impeller. Power to the electromagnetic pump can be constant or pulsed to induce a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal, respectively. Pulse injection is driven by a program or function generator. Pulse injection can maintain a pulsed plasma within the reaction cell chamber. Electromagnetic pumps can be multi-stage pumps.

[0131] In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 comprises a flow chopper for generating intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The chopper may comprise a valve, such as an electronically controlled valve further comprising a controller. The valve may comprise a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the chopper may comprise a rotating disk having at least one passage that periodically rotates to intersect the molten metal flow so that the molten metal flows through the passage, with the flow being blocked by portions of the rotating disk that do not comprise the passage.

[0132] The molten metal pump can consist of a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercially available AC electromagnetic pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, and the heating and cooling system can be modified to support the pumping of molten metal.

[0133] In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump may be of the alternating current induction type, in which the Lorentz force acting on the molten metal is generated by a time-varying current passing through the molten metal and a cross-synchronous time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying current passing through the molten metal may be generated by Faraday induction of a first time-varying magnetic field generated by an electromagnetic pump transformer winding circuit. The source of the first time-varying magnetic field may comprise a primary transformer winding, and the molten metal may act as a secondary transformer winding, such as a one-turn short-circuit winding, consisting of the electromagnetic pump tube section of the current loop and the electromagnetic pump current loop return section.

[0134] In embodiments in which the molten metal injector includes at least one electromagnetic pump comprising a current source and a magnet for generating a Lorentz pump force, the electromagnetic pump magnet 5k4 can be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, such as a DC electromagnet or an AC electromagnet. If the magnet is a permanent magnet or a DC electromagnet, the electromagnetic pump current source is a DC power supply. If the magnet 5k4 is an AC electromagnet, the electromagnetic pump current source for the electromagnetic busbar 5k2 is an AC power supply that supplies a current in phase with the AC electromagnetic pump electromagnet field applied to the electromagnetic pump tube 5k6 to generate the Lorentz pump force. In embodiments in which the magnet is immersed in a corrosive coolant such as a water bath, the magnet may be sealed with a sealant, coating, or housing, such as a thermoplastic, which may be non-magnetic, such as a stainless steel housing.

[0135] In another embodiment, the ignition system comprises an induction system in which an electrical source provides induced current, voltage, and power that is applied to the electrically conductive molten metal to cause ignition of the hydrino reaction. The ignition system may also comprise an electrodeless system in which ignition current is applied by induction through an induction ignition transformer assembly. The induced current may flow through intersecting molten metal streams from multiple injectors maintained by a pump, such as an electromagnetic pump. In one embodiment, the reservoir 5c may further include a ceramic cross-connecting channel, such as a channel between the bases of the reservoir 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly may include an induction ignition transformer winding and an induction ignition transformer yoke that may extend through the reservoir 5c, the intersecting molten metal streams from the multiple molten metal injectors, and the induced current loop formed by the cross-connecting channel. The induction ignition transformer assembly may be similar to the electromagnetic pump transformer winding circuit.

[0136] In one embodiment, the heater for melting the molten metal comprises a resistive heater, such as one comprised of wire, such as Kanthal, of the present disclosure. The resistive heater may be comprised of a refractory resistive filament or wire wrapped around the part to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may be comprised of high-temperature conductors such as carbon, nichrome, 300 series stainless steel, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The filament or wire may be potted with a potting compound to protect it from oxidation. Heating elements as filaments, wires, or meshes may be operated in a vacuum to protect them from oxidation. An exemplary heater consists of Kanthal A-1 resistance heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum (FeCrAl) alloy capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C, with high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM, which forms a non-scaling oxide film, is resistant to oxidation and carburizing environments, and can operate up to 1475°C. At 1375K and emissivity of 1, the heat loss rate is 200 kW / m 2 or 0.2 W / cm 2 The power of a commercially available resistance heater that operates up to 1475K is 4.6W / cm 2 Heating can be increased by using insulation on the outside of the heating element.

[0137] An exemplary heater 415 is constructed from Kanthal A-1 resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum (FeCrAl) alloy capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys suitable for heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. Heating elements, such as resistance wire elements, may also be constructed from NiCr alloys capable of operating in the range of 1100°C to 1200°C, such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may be constructed of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) capable of operating in an oxidizing atmosphere at temperatures ranging from 1500°C to 1800°C, such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may be constructed of molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistance heater 415 may be constructed of SiC capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C. The heater may be constructed of insulation to enhance its efficiency and / or effectiveness. The insulation may be constructed of ceramics known to those skilled in the art, such as alumina silicate insulation. The insulation may be removable and / or reversible. The insulation may be removed after startup to more effectively transfer heat to the ambient environment or a desired recipient, such as a heat exchanger. The insulation may be mechanically removable. The insulation consists of a vacuum chamber and a pump, where the insulation is applied by drawing a vacuum and reversed by adding a heat transfer gas, such as a noble gas like helium. A vacuum chamber that can add or pump out a heat transfer gas like helium can function as an adjustable insulation.

[0138] The ignition current may be time-varying, such as an AC current of about 60 Hz, but may have other characteristics and waveforms, such as DC or AC waveforms having frequencies in at least one of the ranges of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, peak currents in at least one of the ranges of about 1 A to 100 mA, 10 A to 10 mA, 100 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and may also have other characteristics and waveforms, such as DC or AC waveforms having frequencies in at least one of the ranges of about 1 A to 100 mA, 10 A to 10 mA, 100 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 1 kA. The ignition system may be configured with a peak voltage in at least one range of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V, where the waveform may be a sine wave, a square wave, a triangular wave, or other desired waveform that may include a duty cycle in at least one range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize the skin effect at high frequencies, the windings of the ignition system may be configured with at least one of braided wire, multi-filament wire, and Litz wire. In one embodiment, the ignition power waveform, such as a periodic square wave of the ignition current, as well as the frequency and duty cycle, are selected to optimize at least one of the output power and the power gain provided by the ratio of the output power to the ignition power. An exemplary frequency of a square wave waveform is in the range of 1 to 500 Hz. In another exemplary embodiment, the ignition power consists of a repeating pattern of different currents over time, such as square waves alternating between a high current, such as 1500 A, and a low current, such as 500 A, where the widths of the high and low current square waves may be the same or different.

[0139] Power System and Configuration At least a portion of the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q, the portion of the electromagnetic pump tube that comes into contact with the molten metal, such as tin, may be composed of a metal, such as stainless steel, W, or Ta, to conduct the ignition current, or may be composed of carbon. The carbon may be composed of a hard form, such as glassy carbon, or a hard coating, such as carbon coated with a pyrolytic coating or Calcoat. In an exemplary embodiment, the carbon portion of the electromagnetic pump tube or nozzle can be connected to the metal portion of the electromagnetic pump tube using a coupler by bonding the parts using an adhesive, such as Aremco Products' Graphical Bond 551RN. The carbon may be coated with a coating, such as a pyrolytic carbon coating. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q may be composed of an oxide coating, such as tungsten oxide or ta oxide, on the W and Ta components, respectively. In one embodiment, the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 includes a carbon-metal nozzle coupler for connecting the carbon nozzle to the metal portion of the electromagnetic pump tube by means of potting compound, adhesive, or the like. This coupler may be a carbide, which is advantageous for forming a bond with the nozzle and avoiding the formation of carbides associated with coupler corrosion. Exemplary materials for the latter are at least one of W, Ta, and Ni. At least one nozzle, such as the positive electrode nozzle, may be submerged.

[0140] In embodiments, at least a portion of the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 and nozzle 5q, such as those made of W, may be covered or coated with a material such as quartz, BN, alumina, carbon, or another ceramic, such as those disclosed herein, to reduce or prevent conduction and / or recombination of hydrino plasma ions and electrons on the exterior surfaces. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the reaction cell chamber wall may comprise a conductive surface to promote recombination of hydrino plasma ions and electrons. Exemplary surfaces are a liquid wall or floor made of molten metal and at least one refractory metal plate, such as at least one W plate, which may be a clean metal. Preferential ion-electron recombination within the reaction cell chamber may prevent the hydrino reaction plasma from concentrating in a reservoir, such as a reservoir that is the positive electrode.

[0141] In one embodiment, the separation distance between the injector electrodes is minimized to minimize ignition voltage. The nozzle may be recessed into the reservoir to minimize exposure to the plasma, which can cause thermal damage. The degree of immersion may be determined by a balance between thermal protection and avoiding excessive ignition voltage due to increasing electrode separation, which can result in the undesirable result of large separation distances and / or high ignition voltages causing the plasma to localize in at least one reservoir, such as the positive reservoir. In one embodiment, an inert gas, such as argon, may be added to the reaction mixture at sufficient pressure, such as in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 5 atmospheres, to prevent the plasma from localizing in at least one reservoir.

[0142] In one embodiment, the nozzle area can be increased to increase radiative heat loss and prevent thermal damage. The nozzle's emissivity can be maximized by means such as surface oxidation or roughening to maximize radiation. In an exemplary embodiment, the nozzle may be constructed from a large, heavy, surface-roughened or oxidized W disk or cylinder, such as one with a mass ranging from approximately 10 g to 2 kg, with a nozzle cone at its center. In another embodiment, the electrode may be constructed from an at least partial liquid or hybrid solid-liquid electrode. The nozzle may contain a pool for molten metal, which can serve to cool the nozzle. In an alternative embodiment, the injection electrode may comprise a large discharge hole at the center of the nozzle and multiple small holes or pinholes around the nozzle and the injection electromagnetic pump tube. The nozzle exit hole may be constructed in other shapes other than circular, such as polygonal, fan-shaped, or star-shaped patterns known in the art, to generate a desired shape of the emitted flow, such as a circular cross-section or a flow that is diverged or distributed in space and / or time. A high ignition current can exert a magnetic pinch effect that forces a pinhole flow parallel to the injector electromagnetic pump tube and nozzle flow, keeping the molten metal above the nozzle to protect it from plasma and thermal damage.

[0143] In one embodiment, at least one nozzle may be configured with a polarity of outlets, such as one that connects to a central passage that connects to an electromagnetic pump tube for injecting multiple molten metal streams. The nozzle may be configured with a larger central outlet and multiple other outlets, such as those circumferential to the central outlet, as may be located in a flat-top nozzle. The multiple molten metal streams may inject molten metal into the hydrino reaction plasma for the purposes of at least one of lowering ignition voltage and increasing the effectiveness of the injected molten metal for cleaning the photovoltaic window or photovoltaic window cavity.

[0144] In another embodiment, the nozzle may be constructed of W with sufficient thermal mass, such as a mass in the range of about 10 g to 1 kg, so that the nozzle does not melt when recessed into the reservoir a distance, such as in the range of 0.5 mm to 10 cm, from the top of the base plate liner 5b31b. In another embodiment, the top of the reservoir, such as the cathode reservoir, may be constructed of a metal screen or grid, such as a refractory one, such as a W grid, that shields the nozzle from the plasma electric field while allowing the flow of return molten metal and injected metal.

[0145] In one embodiment, at least one seal between components of the SunCell® may comprise a wet seal. The wet seal may comprise a seal formed by a molten solid confined by the same or another solid confining material. The solid confining material may flow as a liquid into a gap between two components to be sealed together, filling the gap and confining the molten solid that solidifies to form a seal between the two components (e.g., a seal consisting of molten tin confined by solid tin in a gap between two components sealed by the molten tin). The wet seal may comprise at least one of a heater, a cooler, a temperature sensor, and a controller for maintaining the molten (liquid) and solid phases of the wet seal.

[0146] In one embodiment, hydrogen can be delivered to cells through a hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a structurally reinforced Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. Maintaining plasma on the outer surface of the hydrogen-permeable membrane can increase the rate of hydrogen permeation through the hydrogen-permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise a semipermeable membrane that constitutes an electrode of a plasma cell, such as the cathode of a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell). The SunCell®, as shown in Figure 66C, may further comprise an outer, sealed plasma chamber consisting of an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of the cell 5b31, with a portion of the metal wall of the cell 5b31 constituting an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber can comprise a chamber surrounding the cell 5b31, such as a housing, in which the wall of the cell 5b31 constitutes an electrode of the plasma cell, and a separate electrode within the housing or chamber can constitute the counter electrode. The SunCell® may further comprise a plasma power supply, a plasma control system, a gas source, such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and periodic hydrogen supply, and a vacuum pump.

[0147] The system can operate by generating two plasmas. An initial reaction mixture, such as a non-stoichiometric H / O mixture (e.g., H / O with less than 20%, 10%, 5%, or 3% O by mole percentage of the mixture), can be passed through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, to generate a reaction mixture capable of undergoing a catalytic reaction with sufficient exotherm to generate a plasma as described herein. For example, a non-stoichiometric H / O mixture can be passed through a glow discharge to generate an effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H0 (e.g., a mixture with water having sufficient concentration and internal energy to prevent hydrogen bond formation). The glow discharge effluent can be directed to a reaction chamber where an electric current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., with molten metal passing between them). When the discharge liquid interacts with a biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), a catalytic reaction between the nascent water and atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, upon the formation of an arc current. The power system can consist of: (a) Plasma cells (e.g., glow discharge cells); (b) A pair of electrodes in electrical contact with each other through the molten metal flowing between them so that an electrical bias can be applied to the molten metal; (c) a molten metal injection system that flows molten metal between the electrodes; Here, the effluent of the plasma cell is directed towards a biased molten metal (eg, an anode or positive electrode).

[0148] The SunCell® may include a transparent window that acts as a light source for wavelengths transparent to the window. The SunCell® may include a blackbody radiator 5b4c that acts as a blackbody light source. In one embodiment, the SunCell® consists of a light source (e.g., plasma from a reaction) and the hydrino plasma light emitted through the window is utilized for desired lighting applications such as indoor, street, commercial, or industrial lighting, or for heating or processing applications such as chemical processing or lithography.

[0149] In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power supply comprises a non-DC power source, such as a time-varying current source, such as a pulsed or AC power source. The peak current is in at least one of the following ranges: 10 A to 100 mA, 100 A to 10 mA, 100 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, 100 A to 1 kA, etc. The peak voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump power supply and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inferences that result in at least one of ineffective electromagnetic pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform.

[0150] In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power supply for supplying the ignition current may include at least one of a DC, AC, and DC-AC power supply, such as a switching power supply, a variable frequency drive (VFD), an AC-AC converter, a DC-DC converter, an AC-DC converter, a DC-AC converter, a rectifier, a full-wave rectifier, an inverter, a photovoltaic array generator, a magnetohydrodynamic generator, and a conventional generator such as a Rankine or Brayton cycle generator, a thermionic generator, and a thermoelectric generator, powered by at least one of AC, DC, and DC-AC electricity. The ignition power supply may be comprised of at least one circuit element, such as a transition, an IGBT, an inductor, a transformer, a capacitor, a rectifier, a bridge such as an H-bridge, a resistor, an operational amplifier, or another circuit element or power conditioning device known in the art, to generate the desired ignition current. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition power supply may be a full-wave rectified high-frequency power supply, such as one that provides positive square-wave pulses with a duty cycle of approximately 50% or greater. The frequency may be in the range of approximately 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary power supply provides approximately 30 to 40 V and 3000 to 5000 A at a frequency in the range of approximately 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In one embodiment, the power supply for supplying the ignition current may consist of a capacitor bank charged to an initial offset voltage, such as in the range of 1 V to 100 V, which may be in series with an AC transformer or power supply, and the resulting voltage may consist of a DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component decays at a rate dependent on its normal discharge time constant, or the discharge time may be increased or removed, and the ignition power supply further includes a DC power supply that recharges the capacitor bank. The DC voltage component assists in initiating the plasma, which is then maintained at a lower voltage. The ignition power supply, such as a capacitor bank, may consist of a high-speed switch, such as one controlled by a servomotor or solenoid, to connect and disconnect the ignition power to the electrodes.

[0151] While the hydrino reaction rate can be increased by current, sustained high current and power can thermally damage the SunCell®. The SunCell® ignition power supply can consist of a charging power source, a capacitor bank (e.g., composed of multiple supercapacitors), a voltage sensor, a controller, and an ignition switch. To achieve a high hydrino reaction rate while avoiding thermal damage, a high current can be applied intermittently. This intermittent application of ignition current can be achieved by continuously charging the capacitor bank with a power source, such as a DC power supply. Activating the ignition switch can discharge the capacitor bank from a first voltage setpoint to a second, lower voltage setpoint, controlled by the controller in response to the voltage sensor. For example, the first and second voltage setpoints can be selected so that the peak ignition current during capacitor discharge is greater than the charging current provided by the DC power supply.

[0152] In one embodiment, at least one of the hydrino plasma and the ignition current may comprise an arc current. The arc current may have the characteristic that the higher the current, the lower the voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber wall and the electrode is selected to form and support at least one of the hydrino plasma current and the ignition current comprising an arc current, one having a very high current and a very low voltage. The current density may be about 1 A / cm. 2 ~100MA / cm 2 , 10A / cm 2 ~10MA / cm 2 , 100A / cm 2 ~10MA / cm 2 , and 1 kA / cm 2 ~1MA / cm 2 The range may be at least one of:

[0153] In one embodiment, the SunCell® is configured with a vacuum system consisting of a vacuum line inlet, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump can be configured with a high pumping speed, such as a root pump, scroll pump, or multilobe pump. The vacuum system may be capable of maintaining an ultra-high vacuum and / or at least one low operating pressure range for the reaction cell chamber, such as approximately 0.01 Torr to 500 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 Torr to 10 Torr, or 1 Torr to 5 Torr. The pressure can be maintained low for at least one of the following: (i) H2 addition with trace HOH catalyst provided as trace water or O2, which reacts with H2 to form HOH; and (ii) H2O addition. If a noble gas such as argon is also supplied to the reaction mixture, the pressure may be maintained in at least one high operating pressure range, such as about 100 Torr to 100 atmospheres, 500 Torr to 10 atmospheres, or 1 atmosphere to 10 atmospheres, with the argon being in excess relative to other reaction cell chamber gases. The argon pressure can increase the lifetime of the HOH catalyst and / or atomic H and prevent the plasma formed at the electrodes from dispersing too quickly, which increases plasma intensity.

[0154] In one embodiment, the vacuum pump may be comprised of at least one of: (i) a positive displacement pump, a kinetic transfer pump, and an entrapment pump; (ii) a mechanical pump, such as a scroll pump, a rotary vane pump, a dry screw pump, a diaphragm pump, a molecular drag pump, a turbo pump, or a root pump; (iii) a cryopump; and (iv) a hydrogen recombiner that reacts with hydrogen flowing from at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the photovoltaic window cavity 5b5, and the reservoir 5c to form water. The vacuum pump may be comprised of multiple pumps that can be connected in series and / or parallel. The recombiner may be comprised of at least one of a supported catalyst, such as a noble or transition metal such as Pt, Pd, Ir, or Ni, on a high-surface-area support such as alumina or silica; a high-temperature catalytic surface, such as Raney nickel, heated W, noble metal, or Ni filament; and an oxidant, such as oxygen or CuO. The supported catalyst may be heated for activation. In another embodiment, the H2 / O2 recombiner comprises a plasma source such as a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively coupled RF plasma, or other plasma cell known in the art. Oxygen may be mixed with hydrogen as a ballast gas for a vacuum pump. Water can be pumped or removed by at least one of a vacuum pump, such as a mechanical pump, a cryopump, and a chemical absorbent, such as a moisture absorbent known in the art, including desiccants such as silica gel, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and molecular sieves (typically zeolites).

[0155] In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises: (i) a gas recirculation system having a gas inlet and an outlet; (ii) a gas separation system, such as one capable of separating a mixture of at least two of a noble gas, such as argon, O, H, HO, air, and hydrino gas; (iii) at least one noble gas, O, H, and HO partial pressure sensor; (iv) a flow controller; (v) at least one injector, such as a microinjector or mass flow controller, for injecting water or water vapor; (vi) at least one valve; (vii) a pump; (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller; and (ix) a computer for maintaining the pressure of at least one of the noble gas, argon, O, H, HO, and hydrino gas. The recirculation system may include a semipermeable membrane to allow removal of at least one gas, such as molecular hydrino gas, from the recirculated gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas, such as a noble gas, can be selectively recycled, while at least one gas of the reaction mixture can exit the outlet and be exhausted through the exhaust.

[0156] In one embodiment, the pressure sensor comprises at least one of: (i) a thermal conductivity type, such as a Pirani gauge, such as the MKS Series 925 MicroPirani™ vacuum pressure transducer; (ii) a capacitance type, such as the MKS Series 600 absolute analog Baratoron® capacitance manometer; and (iii) a piezoresistive gauge, such as the MKS Series 902B piezo transducer. Pirani-type gauges can be calibrated for SunCell® gases, such as hydrogen. In one embodiment, the gauge may comprise multiple different sensors in the same or separate gauges used in combination. An exemplary embodiment of a combined piezoresistive and capacitance gauge comprises the gas-independent DCP Quantum | DuoSENS capacitive piezo vacuum sensor 0.01 to 1000 Torr. To meet the temperature limitations of the gauge, the exhaust gases can be cooled by means of a water bath, forced air, air fins, a heat sink such as a copper or aluminum block with additional coolant fins, a heat exchanger such as that used to cool the electromagnetic pump magnets and a heat exchanger using a circulating coolant.

[0157] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a means for recording plasma spectral emissions, such as a spectrometer and at least one mass flow controller. At least one component of the hydrino reaction mixture, such as at least one of oxygen, hydrogen, water vapor, air, and an inert gas, is controlled by monitoring at least one characteristic spectral emission with the spectrometer, the intensity of which or its relative intensity to at least one other characteristic plasma emission is used to control the flow of the component with the mass flow controller.

[0158] In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be operated in a sealed, vented state with the addition of at least one of the reactants H, O, and H0, and the reaction cell chamber atmosphere composed of the reactants as well as, optionally, a noble gas such as argon. The total gas can be maintained at a desired pressure range, such as between about 0.1 Torr and 100 atmospheres. In an exemplary embodiment, the pressure is maintained in the range of about 1 to 10 Torr by a control system, such as a processor and one or more pressure sensors, gas flow controllers, valves, and a gas source. The atmosphere can be continuously and periodically or intermittently evacuated and / or recirculated by a recirculation system. The evacuation can remove at least one of hydrino gas and excess oxygen. The addition of H and the reactant O can be such that, when injected into the reaction cell chamber with the excess H, the O becomes a minor species, essentially forming the HOH catalyst. A torch can inject the H and O mixture, which reacts immediately to form the HOH catalyst and the excess H reactant.

[0159] In one embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be controlled, at least in part, by controlling at least one of the pumping rate and the recirculation rate. At least one of these rates can be controlled by a valve controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller. Exemplary valves for controlling gas flow are solenoid valves that open and close in response to upper and lower target pressure limits, and variable flow restriction valves, such as butterfly valves and throttle valves, controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller to maintain a desired gas pressure range.

[0160] The removal of molecular hydrino products can be further increased by increasing the vacuum pumping speed. A SunCell™, as shown in Figures 66O-66T, may include multiple vacuum ports, such as 711, connected to one or more vacuum pumps. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pumping speed and / or capacity may be increased to function as a dropping metal vacuum pump. Molecular hydrinos absorbed on the returning molten metal surface and within the molten metal can be pumped through a molecular hydrino-permeable section of the electromagnetic pump tubing, allowing the hydrinos to be evacuated outside the SunCell™.

[0161] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a means for evacuating or removing molecular hydrino gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or the photovoltaic window cavity 5b4. In one embodiment, at least one of the walls of the photovoltaic window cavity, reservoir, electromagnetic pump tube, etc., has a high transmittance to molecular hydrinos, such as H2(1 / 4). In one embodiment, the length and / or diameter of at least one wall of the reservoir, electromagnetic pump tube, etc., can be increased to increase the transmittance. At least one of the wall thicknesses can be minimized to maximize the operating temperature of the wall. In one embodiment, the thickness of at least one wall can be in the range of 0.05 mm to 5 mm. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may be composed of one or more of stainless steel, such as 347SS, such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, and Nb(94.33 Wt%)-Mo(4.86 Wt%)-Zr(0.81 Wt%). Crystalline materials, such as SiC, are more permeable to hydrinos than amorphous materials, such as sialon and quartz, making crystalline materials exemplary liners.

[0162] In an exemplary embodiment, molecular hydrinos permeate through at least one wall or base plate of the SunCell®, such as at least one of the photovoltaic widow cavity, the electromagnetic pump tube, the reservoir wall, and the base plate 5b531c. In one embodiment, the width and / or length of the electromagnetic pump tube can be increased to increase the permeation rate of molecular hydrinos, and the electromagnetic pump can be positioned to the side of the reservoir to accommodate the increased length of the pump tube while optimizing the dimensions of the SunCell®.

[0163] In one embodiment, (i) vacuum pressure is maintained, and (ii) molecular hydrino gas is removed by a Sprengel pump, where molten metal, such as tin, is injected into a reaction cell chamber, such as a photovoltaic window cavity, and flows back into a reservoir as droplets. This flow may pass through beads, such as quartz beads. The Sprengel pump consists of at least one Sprengel pump tube that penetrates the reservoir from the top to the bottom and is vacuum-sealed to the reservoir wall at the bottom of the reservoir, where it is connected by an electrical interrupter 913 (Figures 66O-66T). Droplets of molten metal flow into the Sprengel pump tubes, capturing gas from inside the SunCell®, such as from the photovoltaic window cavity, and are transported along each tube and compressed. The droplets exit the bottom tube, releasing the gas. The compressed gas is released in a vacuum-tight chamber consisting of a pool of molten metal and a bellows 917, which forms the inlet of the electromagnetic pump. The compressed molecular hydrino gas can be pumped out of the bellows chamber or permeated through the walls of the bellows.

[0164] In one embodiment, the sprengel pump tube extends into the electromagnetic pump. The molten metal returns through at least one of the sprengel pump tube and the reservoir. The molten metal in the reservoir flows into an inlet tube to the electromagnetic pump, which may include an inlet riser for adjusting the molten metal level in the reservoir. The flow from the sprengel pump tube and the flow from the electromagnetic pump tube inlet merge at a junction before the electromagnetic pump. In an embodiment, at least one of the walls is comprised of a gas-permeable membrane. In an embodiment, the gas-permeable membrane may be comprised of a frit, such as tin, that allows the molten metal to pass through, with a pore size smaller than one pore, such as a diameter of less than 10 microns. At least a portion of the walls of the electromagnetic pump tube and the sprengel pump tube may be comprised of a gas-permeable membrane.

[0165] In one embodiment, the means for removing hydrino gas from the photovoltaic window cavity by permeation comprises: (i) a frit having a pore size penetrated by molten metal, such as gallium, that serves as at least a portion of a wall of a SunCell® component, such as a photovoltaic window cavity wall, a reservoir wall, or a portion of an electromagnetic pump tube wall; (ii) an open-topped chamber that serves as a reservoir for the molten metal, with the frit serving as at least one wall; and (iii) molten metal filling the reservoir that serves as a vacuum-tight seal to atmospheric pressure and a pathway for hydrino gas to diffuse from the SunCell® interior through the frit to the outside, such as the atmosphere. The molten metal in the reservoir may be thin, such as in the range of about 0.1 mm to 10 mm thick, to aid in the diffusion of hydrino gas from the SunCell® interior.

[0166] In one embodiment, the Sprengel-type gas pump may be configured with a tube attached to and penetrating the reservoir base plate 5kk1, which may lead to a vacuum-tight chamber. The tube enters the top of the chamber, which functions as the reservoir chamber, and the returning molten metal droplets and the gas pushed by the droplets flow into the reservoir chamber. The gas fills the top, and the molten metal fills the bottom of the reservoir chamber. The bottom of the reservoir chamber may form an inlet to an electromagnetic pump that can inject molten metal into the reaction cell chamber or photovoltaic window cavity to maintain the hydrino reaction plasma. The gas-containing portion of the reservoir chamber may include a penetration to a vacuum pump for evacuating the gas.

[0167] At least one wall of the reservoir chamber may be comprised of a permeable membrane, such as one comprised of a frit and / or a thin molten metal seal. In one embodiment, the electromagnetic pump may be comprised of multiple stages, with inlets to the reservoir chamber and from the reservoir supplying molten metal to different pump stages. In an exemplary embodiment, the reservoir chamber feeds a first stage and the reservoir feeds a second stage, and the reservoir may include an inlet riser for controlling the molten metal level in the reservoir. The electromagnetic pump and reservoir chamber may be located side-by-side with the reservoir to achieve suitable packaging.

[0168] In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be used to form an electrostatic deposition (ESP) system. The electrostatic deposition system can include two separate electrical disconnects in the vacuum line 711 near the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to electrically isolate the positive vacuum line section. The positive section can be connected to the vacuum line as a positive lead, and the SunCell® components, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31, can be connected to a negative lead. The leads can be connected to a high-voltage power supply so that the positive section is positively biased and the SunCell® components are negatively biased or grounded. The voltage applied to the positive section can be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 10 V to 10 MV, 50 V to 1 MV, and 100 V to 100 kV. The diameter of the corresponding positive section can be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 mm to 1 m, 1 mm to 10 cm, and 1 mm to 5 cm. The reservoir tube may be configured so that the cross-sectional area for drawing a vacuum remains similar to the cross-sectional area of ​​the connected portion of the vacuum line, such as electrical interrupter 945. The corresponding electric field is approximately 1000 V / m to 10 8 The plasma pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be in the range of about 0.1 mTorr to 10 atmospheres. The plasma in the reaction cell chamber can negatively charge oxide particles, such as gallium or tin oxide particles, and such particles flowing through the vacuum line can be electrostatically attracted to the positively charged walls of the isolated, positively charged vacuum line section. The positively charged vacuum line can be made of and / or lined with an electrical insulator to prevent the charged particles from losing their charge before entering the positively charged vacuum line section. Accumulated particles in an electrostatic deposition system can fall into the reaction cell chamber by gravity or can be forced back by means of a gas jet, such as a hydrogen or argon gas jet.

[0169] In an embodiment, the reaction cell mixture in the reaction cell chamber is controlled by controlling the pressure of the reaction cell chamber through at least one of controlling the rate at which the reactants are injected and the rate at which excess reactants and by-products are evacuated from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the SunCell® is comprised of a pressure sensor, a vacuum pump, a vacuum line, a valve controller, and a valve, such as a pressure-activated valve such as a solenoid valve or throttle valve, that opens and closes the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump in response to the controller processing the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve can control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve can remain closed until the cell pressure reaches a first high preset value, and then be activated to open until the pressure is reduced by the vacuum pump to a second low preset value, thereby allowing the valve to remain unactivated. In one embodiment, the controller can control at least one reaction parameter, such as the reaction cell chamber pressure, the reactant injection rate, the voltage, the current, or the molten metal injection rate, to maintain a non-pulsating or substantially steady or continuous plasma.

[0170] In one embodiment, the SunCell® is comprised of a hydrogen source, such as hydrogen gas, and an oxygen source, such as oxygen gas. The hydrogen and / or oxygen source comprises at least one gas tank, flow regulator, pressure gauge, valve, and gas line to the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the HOH catalyst is generated from the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and / or oxygen gases can be flowed into the reaction cell chamber. The flow of reactants, such as hydrogen and / or oxygen, can be continuous or intermittent. The flow rate and exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The inlet flow rate can be intermittent, stopping the flow at a maximum pressure in the desired range and starting the flow at a minimum pressure in the desired range. The H2 pressure and / or flow rate and / or O2 pressure and / or flow rate can be controlled to maintain the concentration or partial pressure of HOH and / or H2 within a desired range to control and optimize the output from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the hydrogen inventory and / or flow rate are significantly greater than the oxygen inventory and flow rate. The ratio of at least one of the H2 / O2 partial pressure and H2 / O2 flow rate may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1.1-10,000, 1.5-1000, 1.5-500, 1.5-100, 2-50, and 2-10. In embodiments, the total pressure may be maintained in a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H, such as at least one of the following pressure ranges: approximately 1 mTorr-500 Torr, 10 mTorr-100 Torr, 100 mTorr-50 Torr, and 1 Torr-100 Torr. In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber may be maintained at an operating temperature higher than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide. The operating temperature may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 200°C-2000°C, 200°C-1000°C, and 200°C-700°C. When suppressing the generation of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide, the water inventory can be controlled in a gaseous state.

[0171] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a gas mixer that mixes at least two gases, such as hydrogen and oxygen, flowing into the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the water micro-injector is configured with a mixer that mixes hydrogen and oxygen to form HOH as the mixture enters the reaction cell chamber. The mixer can further include at least one mass flow controller, such as one for each gas or a mixture of gases, such as a premixed gas. The premixed gas may contain a desired molar ratio of each gas, such as a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. The H2 mole percentage in the H2-O2 mixture may be in significant excess, such as in a molar ratio range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the O2 mole percentage. The mass flow controller may control the flow of hydrogen and oxygen and their subsequent combustion to form the HOH catalyst, such that the resulting gas flow entering the reaction cell chamber consists of excess hydrogen and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, the H2 mole percentage ranges from about 1.5 to 1000 times the HOH mole percentage. The mixer may include a hydrogen-oxygen torch, which may be of any design known in the art, such as commercially available hydrogen-oxygen torches.

[0172] Nascent water and atomic hydrogen generation In embodiments, the reaction cell chamber further comprises a dissociator chamber containing a hydrogen dissociator, such as Pt, Pd, Ir, Re, or other dissociator metal, on a support such as carbon, or ceramic beads such as Al2O3, silica, or zeolite beads; Raney-Ni, or other dissociator metals of the present disclosure in a form providing a high surface area, such as a powder, mat, woven fabric, or cloth. In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a recombiner that catalytically reacts supplied H2, O2, HOH, and H2 flowing into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The recombiner may further comprise a controller including at least one of a temperature sensor, a heater, and a cooling system, such as a heat exchanger, that senses the temperature of the recombiner and controls at least one of a water jet and a heater to maintain the recombiner catalyst within a desired operating temperature range, such as between about 60°C and 600°C. The upper temperature limit is limited by the temperature at which the recombination catalyst sinters and loses its effective catalytic surface area.

[0173] In another embodiment, the recombiner is configured as a high temperature filament, such as a noble metal-black coated Pt filament, such as a Pt-black-Pt filament, which can be maintained at a temperature sufficiently elevated to maintain the desired recombination rate by resistive heating maintained by a power source, temperature sensor, and controller.

[0174] In one embodiment, the H2 / O2 recombiner consists of a plasma source such as glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively coupled, or capacitively coupled RF plasma. The discharge cell used as the recombiner can be high-vacuum compatible. The exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in Figures 66C-66N consists of a stainless steel vessel or glow discharge plasma chamber 901 with an upper conflat flange 902 with a mating top plate 903 sealed with a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring. The flange may be coated with a coating such as fire-retardant paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, Ta, or another coating disclosed herein that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The gasket or O-ring, such as that of Ta, may be alloy-resistant. In one embodiment, the flange may be replaced with a flat metal plate (without bolt holes), such as an annular ring, around the periphery of each joining component. The plate may be welded at its periphery to form a seam. This seam can also be cut or ground to separate the two plates. The top plate may have a high-voltage feedthrough 904 to an inner tungsten rod electrode 905. The cell body may be grounded to serve as a counter electrode. The top flange may further comprise at least one gas inlet 906 for a hydrini reaction gas mixture such as at least one of H, O, air, H, O, and a noble gas (e.g., Ar), or a mixture thereof (e.g., H / O, H / air, H / H, O / noble gas, O / noble gas, H / O / H, O / O / noble gas, H / O / H, O / noble gas, H / O / air, H / air / H, H / air / noble gas, H / O / air / H, O / air / H, O / air / noble gas, H / O / air / H, O / air / noble gas, H / O / air / H, O / air / noble gas). Hydrogen and oxygen gases may be flowed into the discharge cell, and argon may be flowed into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 through a separate gas inlet, to add argon to the hydrino reaction mixture to enhance the desired yield of HOH catalyst generation. The stainless steel vessel bottom plate 907 may provide a gas outlet to the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell further includes a power source, such as a DC power supply having a voltage in the range of approximately 10 V to 5 kV and a current in the range of approximately 0.01 A to 100 A.The glow discharge breakdown voltage and sustaining voltage for a desired gas pressure, electrode separation, and discharge current can be selected according to Paschen's law. The glow discharge cell may further include a means, such as a spark plug ignition system, to cause gas breakdown to initiate the discharge plasma, operating at a low sustaining voltage that sustains the glow discharge. The breakdown voltage may be in the range of approximately 50 V to 5 kV, and the sustaining voltage may be in the range of approximately 10 V to 1 kV. The glow discharge cell may be electrically isolated from other SunCell® components, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c, to prevent shorting of the ignition power. Pressure waves can cause instability in the glow discharge, fluctuating the reactant flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and potentially damaging the glow discharge power supply. To prevent backpressure waves due to the hydrino reaction from propagating to the glow discharge plasma chamber, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be configured with a baffle, such as one threaded into a BN sleeve on the electrode bus bar where the gas line from the glow discharge cell enters the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge power supply may include at least one surge protection device, such as a capacitor. The length of the discharge cell and the height of the reaction cell chamber may be minimized to reduce the distance from the glow discharge plasma to the front surface of the gallium, thereby increasing the concentration of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst by reducing the possible recombination distance.

[0175] The glow discharge cell can be replaced with other atomic hydrogen sources. For example, it operates by thermally dissociating hydrogen in a fine tungsten capillary (thermal hydrogen cracker) heated by electron beam irradiation, where hydrogen molecules are broken down into atomic hydrogen by bouncing along the hot walls. The atomic hydrogen source is the H-flux Atomic Hydrogen Source (H-Flux) manufactured by Tee Tra. https: / / tectra.de / sample-preparation / atomic-hydrogen-source / #:~:text=H%2Dflux%20Atomic%20Hydrogen%20Source,is%20crackd%20to%20atomic%20Hydrogen Exemplary commercially available atomic hydrogen sources such as those known in the art can be used.

[0176] In one embodiment, the area of ​​the connection between the source of atomic H and / or HOH catalyst, such as a plasma cell, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be minimized to avoid atomic H wall recombination and HOH dimerization. A plasma cell, such as a glow discharge cell, may be directly connected to an electrical isolator, such as a ceramic isolator from Solid Seal Technologies, which directly connects to the reaction cell chamber. The electrical isolator may be connected to the discharge cell and flange by welding, flange joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the electrical isolator may be as large as the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of approximately 0.05 cm to 15 cm. In another embodiment, where the SunCell® and the discharge cell body are maintained at the same voltage, such as ground level, the discharge cell may be directly connected to the reaction cell chamber. The connection may be constructed by welding, flange joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the connection may be as large as the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of approximately 0.05 cm to 15 cm.

[0177] In one embodiment, the SunCell® is configured as a driven plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, microwave discharge, or discharge cell, such as an inductively or capacitively coupled discharge cell, in which the hydrino reaction mixture comprises a hydrino reaction mixture of the present disclosure, such as hydrogen with an excess of oxygen relative to a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) and O2 (33.3%) mole percent. The driven plasma cell may comprise a vacuum-capable vessel, a reaction mixture supply, a vacuum pump, a pressure gauge, a flow meter, a plasma generator, a plasma power supply, and a controller. A plasma source for sustaining the hydrino reaction is described in Mills' prior application, which is incorporated by reference. The plasma source can sustain a plasma in a hydrino reaction mixture comprising a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen with an oxygen deficiency compared to a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) and O2 (33.3%) mole percent. The oxygen deficiency in the hydrogen-oxygen mixture may range from about 5% to 99% of the oxygen deficiency of the stoichiometric mixture. The mixtures consist of approximately 99.66% to 68.33% H2 and approximately 0.333% to 31.66% O2. When these mixtures pass through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, they can generate a reaction mixture sufficient to induce the catalytic reactions described herein by interacting with the polarized molten metal in the reaction cell chamber.

[0178] In one embodiment, the ceramic liner, coating, or cladding of at least one SunCell® component, such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, ignition feedthrough, or electromagnetic pump tube, may be composed of at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, titania, yttria-stabilized zirconia, hafnia, magnesia, mullite, or a mixture of ZrO-TiO-YO, TiO-YrO-AlO, BN, BN-BO, quartz, fused silica, SiO, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride (SiN), or a glass-ceramic system such as a LiOxAlOxnSiO system (LAS system), a MgOxAlOxnSiO system (MAS system), or a ZnOxAlOxnSiO system (ZAS system). At least one of the SunCell® components, such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, electromagnetic pump tube liner, cladding, or coating, may be made of a refractory metal such as graphite (sublimation point = 3642°C), tungsten (melting point = 3422°C) or tantalum (melting point = 3020°C), nickel (melting point = 3020°C), niobium, niobium alloys, vanadium, ceramics, ultra-high temperature ceramics, and borides, carbides, nitrides, and hafnium boride ( and at least one of the following ceramic matrix composites: an oxide of an early transition metal, such as zirconium diboride (ZrB2), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO2), niobium boride (NbB2), tantalum carbide (TaC), and related composites.Exemplary ceramics having desirable high melting points include magnesium oxide (MgO) (melting point = 2852°C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (melting point = 2715°C), boron nitride (BN) (melting point = 2973°C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (melting point = 2715°C), hafnium boride (HfB2) (melting point = 3380°C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (melting point = 3900°C), Ta4HfC5 (melting point = 4000°C), Ta4HfC5 TaX4HfCX5 (melting point = 4215°C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (melting point = 3385°C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (melting point = 3246°C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (melting point = 3400°C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (melting point = 3400°C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (melting point = 2950°C), titanium boride (TiB2) (melting point = 3225°C), titanium carbide (TiC) (melting point = 3100°C), titanium nitride TiN (melting point = 2950°C), silicon carbide (SiC) (melting point = 2820°C), tantalum boride (TaB2) (melting point = 3040°C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (melting point = 3800°C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (melting point = 2700°C), niobium carbide (NbC) (melting point = 3490°C), niobium nitride (NBN) (melting point = 2573°C), vanadium carbide (VC) (melting point = 2810°C), vanadium nitride (VN) (melting point = 2050°C) (°C), and turbine blade materials such as superalloys, nickel-based superalloys containing chromium, cobalt, and rhenium, ceramic matrix composites, U-500, Rene 77, Rene N5, Rene N6, PWA1484, CMSX-4, CMSX-10, Inconel, IN-738, GTD-111, EPM-102, and PAW1497. Ceramics such as MgO and ZrO may be resistant to reaction with H. Coatings on SunCell® components may be applied by at least one method selected from the group consisting of molecular vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, diffusion coating, MOCVD, sputtering, high velocity spray application, electrostatic spray application, plasma or electrolytic electrodeposition, electroplating, and other deposition methods known in the art.

[0179] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may be configured with dual molten metal injectors 5k61 within the reservoir 5c (FIGS. 66F-66L) each functioning as an ignition energized electrode, which may further include at least one of an electrical isolation 913, an electrical isolation flange 914, a reservoir flange 915, an electromagnetic pump tube assembly 5kk, an electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, an electromagnetic bus bar 5k2, an electromagnetic pump magnet 5k4, and an inlet riser 5qa, which may each be configured with a thermal insulating liner. The SunCell® may further include vacuum line 711, discharge cell 900 and body 901, gas inlet such as through electrical feedthrough 906a (FIGS. 66J-66L), reaction cell chamber 5b31, top flange 26e, which may comprise a solid plate or inner photovoltaic window flange, photovoltaic chamber 916, inner photovoltaic window 5ab4, inner photovoltaic window sheet 26e1, and outer photovoltaic window 5b4. In an exemplary embodiment, the positive lead of the glow discharge power supply connects to a gas line extension of feedthrough gas inlet 906a, and the negative lead is attached to discharge cell flange 906b or chamber 901 or reaction cell chamber 5b31; the negative connection may be indirect by connecting to a gas line such as argon gas line 906 (FIG. 66C) in electrical contact with discharge cell flange 906b. The discharge cell body 901 may be attached directly to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 as shown in Figure 66G, or may be attached by a connection such as an elbow that allows the discharge cell body to be oriented in another desired direction, such as vertically. In one embodiment, the discharge cell 900 may be attached to the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 in a desired orientation, such as vertically.

[0180] Thermophotovoltaic Converter Tests of single-junction III / V semiconductor photovoltaic conversion of 1207°C blackbody radiation with infrared light recycling have been reported by Z. Omair et al., "Ultraefficient thermophotovoltaic power conversion by band-edge spectral filtering," PNAS, Vol. 116, No. 3 (2019), pp. 15356-15361, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Omair et al. achieved a conversion efficiency of 30% and predicted a 50% efficiency with improvements in mirrors, photovoltaics, blackbody emissivity, view factor, series resistance, and other factors. The thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion efficiency of 3000K SunCell® radiation from a single-junction concentrator silicon photovoltaic cell operating at 120°C was calculated to be 84%, with a practical expected value of 50%. In one embodiment, a SunCell® is comprised of a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter including at least one photovoltaic cell and at least one blackbody radiator or emitter. The blackbody radiator for thermophotovoltaic conversion with light recycling consists of one or more of: (i) at least one of the exterior walls of the SunCell® component parts; and (ii) the hydrino plasma within the reaction cell chamber, which emits light through a photovoltaic window to the photovoltaic converter. The SunCell® component with the exterior wall functioning as a blackbody radiator may comprise at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir made of a refractory material resistant to alloy formation with molten metals, such as a wall made of a Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, Cr, or Zr alloy with an interior coating such as VHT flame-resistant paint or similar ceramic paint, ceramic-coated steel or stainless steel, or a refractory metal. Alternatively, the wall may be constructed from at least one of carbon, quartz, fused silica, and ceramics such as alumina, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, boron nitride (BN), and others of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator may include a filter that blocks infrared light from radiating toward the TPV cell. The TPV cell may be constructed with at least one of a filter, such as an infrared filter, on its front surface and a mirror, such as an infrared mirror, on its back surface.Photons incident on a photovoltaic cell having energies below the bandgap of the cell may be reflected back into the SunCell®, such as through a photovoltaic window into at least one of the SunCell® structural walls and reaction cell chamber, in order to recycle corresponding lower energy photons.

[0181] Due to reflections and multiple reflections of plasma and recycled light by the molten metal in the reaction cell chamber, the percentage of SunCell® component emissions and recycled light, such as direct plasma emission, floating plasma and walls, molten metal, and positive electrode emission, that may exit the chamber or be transmitted through the photovoltaic window may be 100%. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir can be thermally insulated so that the power transferred from the SunCell® through the photovoltaic window to a load, such as a photovoltaic converter, oven absorber, or boiler absorber, is dominated by radiation. The percentage of radiated hydrino reaction power is a function of the emissivity of the molten metal, which typically ranges from about 0 to 0.3, and the reaction cell chamber wall temperature, which ranges from 500°C to 3500°C. The percentage of transmitted radiation may increase as the molten metal emissivity decreases and the reaction cell chamber wall temperature increases. In an exemplary embodiment consisting of an upper transparent half-dome photovoltaic window connected to a lower reaction cell chamber, the transmittance through the photovoltaic window was calculated to be approximately 100% with a plasma blackbody temperature of 3000 K, a molten metal emissivity of 0.3, and a reaction cell chamber wall temperature of 1700°C.

[0182] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include dual reservoir and injector electrodes for injecting molten metal so that the injected molten metal streams intersect to form a plasma. In an embodiment, at least one reaction cell chamber wall may be transparent to at least one of visible and infrared light. The reaction cell chamber wall may constitute a photovoltaic window. The SunCell® may include a reaction cell chamber having a polygonal shape, such as a square, rectangular, pentagonal, or hexagonal shape. The surface of the reaction cell chamber may be covered with a photovoltaic cell, such as a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cell, and a gap may exist between the reaction cell chamber wall and the photovoltaic cell. In one embodiment, at least one window or filter comprises a means for reducing reflection, such as a surface texture or a quarter-wave plate. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a photovoltaic window, consisting of a chamber connected to the reaction cell chamber by a joint, such as a flanged joint. The thermophotovoltaic cell surrounds the photovoltaic window and receives and converts plasma emission into electricity. Thermophotovoltaic cells can reflect light, such as infrared light, that is not converted into electricity back into the plasma for reuse.

[0183] In one embodiment, the molten metal can comprise tin. The reaction cell chamber temperature may be maintained at or above the temperature at which the reaction of tin with water vapor to form tin oxide becomes thermodynamically unfavorable, with water being provided to the hydrino reaction as part of a hydrino reaction mixture, such as one comprising at least two of hydrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. In an exemplary embodiment in which the hydrino reaction mixture comprises water vapor, the reaction cell chamber is maintained at or above 875 K. The addition of molecular or atomic hydrogen as part of the hydrino reaction mixture lowers the temperature at which the reaction of tin with water vapor to form tin oxide becomes thermodynamically unfavorable.

[0184] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a water injector, such as a hydrogen source and an oxygen source, and a recombiner, such as a plasma cell, a recombination catalyst, such as a noble metal on a support such as alumina, or other recombiners of the present disclosure. The hydrogen and oxygen sources may be corresponding gases supplied by gas lines, mass flow controllers, valves, flow and pressure sensors, computers, and other systems of the present disclosure. Alternatively, water may be supplied as water vapor. The water vapor gas may be controllably flowed by a mass flow controller into at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the molten metal from a water tank maintained at a desired pressure for operation of the mass flow controller. The water vapor pressure may be controlled by adjusting the temperature of a water vapor source, such as a sealed water tank. In an exemplary embodiment, MKS Model Nos. 1150, 1152M, 1640 ( https: / / www.mksinst.com / c / vapor-mass-flow-controllers ; https: / / ccrprocessproducts.com / product / 1640a-mass-flow-controller-mks / ) senses the difference between the inlet and outlet pressures and uses that data to control the steam flow rate.

[0185] In the exemplary embodiment shown in Figures 66C-D, a SunCell® for thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion with light recycling consists of an inverted Y-shape. The inverted "V" portion of the inverted Y-shape consists of two injection reservoirs 5c connecting to the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the straight portion of the inverted Y-shape consists of a blackbody radiator or photovoltaic window 5b4. The inverted "V" portion may further comprise a glow discharge cell 900 connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and having a gas inlet for reactant gases such as H2 and O2, and / or a vacuum line 711 connected to a vacuum pump for evacuating the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell may include a flange at its top to provide access to at least the discharge electrode for replacement. At least one of the glow discharge cell 900 and the vacuum line 711 may be tilted upward to avoid filling with molten metal and may be lined with a liner, such as that disclosed herein, to prevent alloy formation with the molten metal. The liner of the glow discharge cell may be electrically conductive or may consist of a partial liner in which the unlined portion of the cell wall acts as an electrode.

[0186] The linear photovoltaic window may comprise a rectangular cavity with an opening to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the photovoltaic window may comprise a flat plate that covers the reaction cell chamber. This plate may comprise a window in a housing sealed with a Rayotek gasket or the like. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window or photovoltaic window cavity is vacuum sealed to the base plate 5b 531c or housing by at least one of adhesives, heat fusion, gaskets, brazing, and compression sealing. The sealing may comprise sealing methods and means known in the art (see, e.g., "Sealing Methods"). https: / / rayotecksightwindows.com / services / sealing.html). In an exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic window cavity can be attached to a sight glass fitting, such as that manufactured by Rayotech, which consists of a flange that can be welded to a mating flange on the base plate 5b531c. The weld seam can be cut to separate the parts. In an exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic window cavity flange can be fitted with a GRAFOIL, a braided flexible graphite packing with encapsulated E-glass ( https: / / www.selasales.com / braidedpacking / flexiblegraphitepacking.html A graphite gasket, such as a Garlock Style 1333-G graphite packing, or a graphite gasket, such as a Garlock Style 1333-G graphite packing, can be used to seal between two bolted metal flanges. The gasket may comprise a C-seal. In an exemplary embodiment, the ConFlat flange is configured with at least one C-seal, such as one to apply pressure to the top of the photovoltaic window cavity flange, and a carbon gasket serves as a seal between the bottom of the photovoltaic window cavity flange and the bottom of the ConFlat flange. In one embodiment, the gasket may comprise a bladder (e.g., a malleable metal tube filled with a high-boiling point liquid or gas). The gasket may be configured with vermiculite, such as a Thermiculite gasket, such as one manufactured by FlexiTallic, or a vermiculite spiral-wound gasket (e.g., SW600-V835 Sunwell Seal or Thermiculite 845 Flexpro Kammprofile). In one embodiment, the flange bolt includes a spring and optionally a bushing between the flange and the bolt nut, the spring being extended by the bushing away from the high temperature zone of the flange.

[0187] In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window cavity comprises a section between the base plate and the transparent portion of the photovoltaic window cavity to allow rapid diffusion of molecular hydrinos from the photovoltaic window cavity. The corresponding lower portion of the photovoltaic window cavity, which comprises the diffusing portion, may be constructed from a metal or other material highly transparent to molecular hydrinos, such as a metal like CrMo steel. The lower cavity may be connected to the base plate by a weld, flange, or other bond, such as those disclosed herein. The diffusing cavity portion and the transparent cavity portion may be connected by a flange or other combination, such as those disclosed herein. The lower cavity may be at least partially filled with a liner, such as carbon. The thickness of the liner may be selected to at least partially maintain a hydrino reaction plasma in the transparent portion of the photovoltaic window cavity. The carbon liner may be constructed from Calcarb. The wall temperature of the transparent portion may be maintained at a temperature favorable for rapid molecular hydrino diffusion, such as a temperature in the range of approximately 100°C to 3000°C.

[0188] The window may be metallized and brazed or welded to the housing. The window may be bonded to the housing with an adhesive, such as those disclosed herein. Alternatively, the window may consist of a flat plate that is bonded to the flange at the top of the reaction cell chamber. Adhesives include: (i) TorrSeal TS10 and 353ND vacuum epoxy (ThorLabs); (ii) FO-EPXY-UHV (Accu-Glass Products, Inc.); (iii) TorrSeal (Kurt J. Lesker); (iv) EP30-2, EP29LPSP, and EP21TCHT-1 (Masterbond); and (v) KB1039 CRLP, KB1040 CTE-LO, KB10473 FLAO, and KB1372-LO (Kohesi Bond). In one embodiment, at least one flat-panel photovoltaic high-density photodetector array is positioned parallel to the rectangular photovoltaic window surface or flat window to receive light emitted from inside the photovoltaic window chamber or reaction cell chamber. Each high-density photodetector array may be separated from its corresponding photovoltaic window surface or flat plate by a gap. In the embodiment shown in Figures 66C and 66D, the SunCell® is comprised of a photovoltaic window chamber. Other shapes, such as rectangular, cubic, cylindrical, and conical, are also within the scope of this disclosure. At least one wall of the photovoltaic window-chamber may be flat to facilitate light transmission from the photovoltaic window-chamber and / or recycling of hydrino reaction plasma light between the photovoltaic panel of the photovoltaic converter 26a (Figure 66E) and the hydrino reaction plasma in the photovoltaic window-chamber. Facilitating light transmission and / or recycling from the photovoltaic window-chamber can be achieved by minimizing light reflection by at least one transparent window wall. The surface of at least one window wall may include a coating or texture to further minimize reflection of light during conversion of photovoltaic power to electricity.

[0189] The V portion of the inverted Y-shape may be constructed of a refractory metal such as Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, or Cr, and an inner-coated steel, stainless steel, or refractory metal. The coating may be a high-temperature ceramic paint such as a VHT flame-resistant paint or a ceramic coating such as mullite. The photovoltaic window or cavity may be constructed of quartz, sapphire, MgF2, aluminum oxynitride, or other photovoltaic windows disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window may include a heater to preheat the molten metal to prevent it from solidifying. In an exemplary embodiment, a photovoltaic window or cavity, such as a quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, MgF2, or Schott Nextrema photovoltaic window, may be preheated with a heater such as a resistance heater, a hydrogen-oxygen flame heater, or a plasma recombination reaction heater. In one embodiment, the quartz photovoltaic cavity may be formed by at least one of molding, welding, and slip casting. In an exemplary embodiment, the quartz photovoltaic cavity may be formed from a quartz tube with a base draw formed through a mold or a welded plate base.

[0190] In one embodiment, the dual injectors can be aligned so that the corresponding injected molten metal streams intersect. Considering that the reservoir, reservoir, and bases of the intersecting metal streams form a triangle with the intersection of the streams as the apex, extending the length of the base can increase the apex angle (e.g., the stream trajectories become less arc-shaped and more linear) to avoid mutual Lorentz deflection of the intersecting streams.

[0191] The V-section and straight section may be joined by a seal, such as gasketed seal 26d (FIG. 66C). The gasket may be constructed of carbon, and seal 26d may be constructed of a bolted flange. Alternatively, the seal and joint 26d between the inverted V-section and straight section may be constructed of adhesive (FIG. 66D). In one embodiment, Rayotek ( https: / / Rayoteksightwindows.com / products / high-temp-sight-glass-windows.htmlA high temperature window, such as the product of

[0003] ), may be connected to form a plasma chamber or cavity, where the window constitutes a photovoltaic window for plasma discharge to a photovoltaic converter with light recycling. This connection can be achieved by welding the edges of the window to form a polygonal cavity, and then welding the bottom opening of the cavity to the reaction cell chamber.

[0192] In an embodiment of the means for electrically isolating the SunCell® ignition electrode comprising a dual injector, (i) the at least one reservoir may include an insulating joint such as a flanged joint comprising an insulating gasket or an insulating bolt such as a ceramic bolt or bolt comprising an insulating bushing, (ii) at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the at least one reservoir may include an electrical break (isolator) such as a ceramic of the present disclosure, such as alumina, where: (a) the reservoir isolator may be comprised of a ceramic tube having flanges on both ends that fit the two reservoir sections or that fit the reservoir section and the reaction cell chamber, for example, an exemplary ConFlat Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break (CF Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break); https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf and (b) a reservoir isolator including at least one of a gasket that fits over a matching flange on the reservoir and a liner, such as a ceramic liner as disclosed herein, that protects the gasket and electrical break from alloying with molten metal and thermal shock, respectively; (c) a reservoir isolator including an exemplary Weldable Vacuum Ceramic Break; https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=weldand (c) the reservoir isolator may consist of a ceramic tube with wet seals at each end that fits over two reservoir sections or over a reservoir section and a reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the electrical interrupter consists of a ceramic cylinder, such as a Ni-plated alumina cylinder, first plated with a Mo-Mn alloy and then brazed to Ni-plated Kovar. The braze may have a high melting point, such as above 600°C. Exemplary brazing filler metals are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (American Society for Materials Science (AMS) 4785 melting point = 1135°C) or Palolo, or see the link. https: / / www.morGaNbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-Alloys / precious-brazing-fillerrmeTals / is.

[0193] In one embodiment, both reservoirs of the dual injector SunCell® shown in Figures 66C-66L comprise at least one electrical breaker that (i) isolates the ignition voltage of one reservoir from the ignition voltage of the other reservoir and at least partially isolates the electromagnetic pump power supply of one reservoir from the electromagnetic pump power supply of the other reservoir until the molten metal flows from each reservoir intersect, and (ii) can also at least partially isolate the ignition power supply from the electromagnetic pump power supply. In another embodiment, at least two power sources, the ignition power supply, the electromagnetic pump power supply of the first reservoir, and the electromagnetic pump power supply of the second reservoir, have the capability to operate substantially autonomously from at least one other power source. Each power source may be known in the art or may be modified with voltage and current fluctuation suppressing reactances that suppress fast ignition transients in voltage and current to enable independent power source operation. Exemplary suppressing reactances consist of at least one capacitor bank in parallel with the electromagnetic pump power supply or at least one inductor in series with the electromagnetic pump power supply.

[0194] In embodiments, the reservoir comprising the electrical break may be long enough to remove the electrical break far enough from the reaction cell chamber so that the electrical break does not overheat. In embodiments, the electrical break may be comprised of at least one inner liner made of a thermal insulator so that the break can be maintained below its failure temperature while the molten metal temperature inside the liner can be higher. The electrical break may be coated with at least one coating, such as CrC, alumina, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, WC, or another of the present disclosure, to prevent oxidation on the outside and / or alloy formation on the inside. The metal-ceramic brazed portion of the electrical break may be covered with a potting material, such as Resnond 940SS or another of the present disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal is comprised of silver, and the liner is comprised of at least one refractory material, such as carbon, BN, quartz, alumina, moldable or castable ceramic, ceramic beads such as alumina beads that may further contain a binder, such as Resbond, refractory metal, and other liners of the present disclosure. The liner can fill the reservoir, except for the flow paths for the electromagnetic pump inlet and outlet. The height of the electrical break and the liner can be minimized to allow heat conduction through the flow paths to maintain the molten metal across the electrical break and the liner. In one embodiment, the electrical break can be externally cooled. The electromagnetic pump pipe brace can constitute the electrical break liner of the present disclosure.

[0195] In an embodiment of an electrical isolator for electrically insulating the ignition electrodes of a dual-injector SunCell®, at least one reservoir may comprise an electrical break comprised of a ceramic reservoir wall, which may further comprise a ceramic-to-metal joint at each end to fit over the reservoir wall. In an embodiment, the reservoir molten metal level is at a desired level below the top of the ceramic portion of the isolator on the reaction cell chamber side. In an exemplary embodiment, the reservoir molten metal level is at a desired level below the top of the ceramic-to-metal joint of the electrical break on the reaction cell chamber side. The height of the inlet riser inlet can be adjusted to match the desired level to control the maximum molten metal level at the desired level. The electrical break may comprise an internal insulation pack with holes for melt flow into at least one of the molten metal reservoir or the lower portion of the molten metal reservoir, an inlet riser to the electromagnetic pump tubing, and an ignition bus bar on the electromagnetic pump side of the pack. An electromagnetic injection pump and electrode can penetrate the insulating pack into the reaction cell chamber to inject molten metal into the opposing electrode.

[0196] In one embodiment, each reservoir may include a drain plug to allow gravity removal of molten metal from the bottom of the reservoir during operation and maintenance. In one embodiment, the inlet riser may be constructed from a strainer, such as a metal screen, such as a W or Ta screen, to protect the electromagnetic pump and nozzle from blockage by debris flowing into the inlet riser.

[0197] The reservoir on the electromagnetic pump side of the electrical interrupter can be increased in length to increase the molten metal inventory in the reservoir. The reservoir length may be increased on the reaction cell chamber side of the electrical interrupter to move the electrical interrupter away from the plasma and reduce the operating temperature. In another embodiment, the electrical interrupter can accommodate high temperatures, such as between 450°C and 1500°C, and the braze on the electrical interrupter is selected to have a melting point above the operating temperature. An exemplary high temperature electrical breaker is made of at least one of Kovar and Niobium and a compatible high temperature braze such as Paloro 3V, link: https: / / www.morhanbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-alloys / precious-brazing-filler-meTals / or a similar braze material such as another of this disclosure.

[0198] The electrical isolator may be composed of a ceramic (e.g., 97% alumina), a weld adapter flange (e.g., made of Cu / Ni (e.g., 70%-30%) or Fe / Ni (e.g., 50%-50%)) circumferentially attached to the ceramic insulator, and a conflat flange (e.g., 304 stainless steel) brazed or welded circumferentially to the weld adapter flange. The electrical isolator may further include a bellows or S-flange (diaphragm) between the conflat flange and the weld adapter flange.

[0199] The maximum molten metal inventory of the two reservoirs 5c is such that the maximum molten metal level on the electrical break side, consisting of the initial charge and the amount of molten metal equal to or greater than the minimum height of the inlet riser of the reservoir opposite the electrical break reservoir, does not exceed the height of the ceramic of the electrical break.

[0200] In an exemplary embodiment with electrical breaks in the reservoirs, an unoxidized innermost W liner may be used along with an intermediate carbon liner and an outer W liner or cladding within the reaction cell chamber. The liner may cover at least one of the walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reaction cell chamber floor, and the reservoir 5c. The reaction cell chamber floor liner 5b31b may include a conduit or groove to direct the molten metal away from the corresponding injected molten metal flow as it returns from the injector 5k61 to the reservoir 5c. In an exemplary embodiment, each reservoir injector 5k61 is spaced apart relative to the center of the reaction cell chamber within its reservoir, and the groove in the floor liner 5b31b directs the molten metal return flow to the side of the reservoir, and alternatively, to the side facing the center of the reservoir. In another embodiment, the injector 5k61 extends over the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber floor liner 5b31b to prevent the returning molten metal flow from interfering with the injected flow.

[0201] In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window comprises a means, such as a mirror, such as a dichroic mirror or a filter, that reflects light of wavelengths significantly higher in energy than the bandgap to the photovoltaic cell of photovoltaic converter 26a. In one embodiment, the reflected light has an energy in at least one of the following ranges: about 10% to 1000% higher in energy, about 10% to 500% higher in energy, and about 10% to 100% higher in energy. In another embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the photovoltaic window may include a means for down-converting the energy of the light, such as a phosphor.

[0202] The joint and photovoltaic window can be housed in a vacuum-tight housing consisting of a window chamber, such as a vacuum chamber, which further houses the photovoltaic converter. The housing can be secured to the top of the reaction cell chamber with fasteners or joints. The fasteners or joints can be welded. The housing can have penetrations for vacuum lines to a vacuum pump and for the photovoltaic converter's electrical and cooling lines. Nearly equal pressures can be maintained on both sides of the window (vent) by controlling the vacuum pumps for the window chamber and the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, an overpressure can be maintained in the window chamber relative to the reaction cell chamber, and the window can be held against the top of the reaction cell chamber on a window sheet or flange. Alternatively, the vacuum lines for the window and reaction cell chamber can be combined and connected to a single vacuum pump. In another embodiment, the window can have a leak-tight seal to ensure pressure equilibration on both sides of the window. The vacuum-tight housing can also be comprised of a vacuum-sealable opening, such as a flanged port, gate valve, or door. In a further embodiment, the window and reaction cell chamber may be configured with a tube, such as a gas line, connecting the two chambers such that gas pressure is dynamically equilibrated between the two connected chambers.

[0203] In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 66F-66L and 2I144, the SunCell® is comprised of dual molten metal injectors 5k61 within a reservoir 5c, each functioning as an ignition powered electrode. In one embodiment, at least one of the dual molten metal injectors 5k61 may be comprised of a plurality of injectors 5k61 or nozzles 5q, one for each corresponding reservoir 5c. At least one dual molten metal injector 5k61 within a reservoir 5c may further include an electrical isolation 913, which may comprise a thermal insulating liner and an electrical isolation flange 914. The SunCell® may further include a reservoir flange 915. Each of the dual molten metal injectors 5k61 within a reservoir 5c may further include an electromagnetic pump tube assembly 5kk, an electromagnetic pump tube 5k6, an electromagnetic bus bar 5k2, an electromagnetic pump magnet 5k4, and an inlet riser 5qa. The SunCell® may further include a vacuum line 711 connected to a vacuum pump, which may include a screen or filter for removing at least one of molten metals, such as tin, gallium, silver, and the like, and corresponding oxides. To clean the vacuum line screen of deposits, such as metal oxides and / or metals, the vacuum line 711 may be configured with a gas jet backflush, such as at least one gas nozzle, on the pump side of the vacuum screen to apply a pulsed gas jet, such as an argon gas jet, through the screen to blow the deposits back toward the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0204] In one embodiment, the electrical interrupt 913 is an exemplary Conflat flanged vacuum ceramic interrupter, product number CFT08V2376, https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf, or product number A0625-2, https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / uhv-isolators / 10kv-uhv-breaks / a062502-w / The electrical isolation 913 may be made from commercially available materials, such as those manufactured by MPF Products, Inc. In an alternative embodiment, the electrical isolation 913 may be made from two tubes, such as a section of reservoir tube 5c, joined by an electrically insulating adhesive that forms a layer that electrically insulates the two joined tubes. The thickness of the adhesive layer may range from approximately 15 μm to 2 cm. The resistance of the adhesive layer may be in the range of approximately 1 kilo-ohm to 1 giga-ohm. The tubes may include flanges joined by the adhesive. The adhesive and the corresponding seal between the two tubes may be vacuum-sealable. The adhesive may be capable of operating at high temperatures and may be thermally cycleable. In one embodiment, the electrical isolation 913 may be made from a layer of potting compound between two metal tubes, such as stainless steel (SS) tubes, having a thickness sufficient to form a bond sufficient for operation of the SunCell® while minimizing the contact area of ​​the bond to maximize resistance. To enhance the shear strength of the corresponding evacuable joint between the tubes, the joint may consist of thick tubes joined at their butt ends, and / or other mating structures such as flanges, concentric tubes (e.g., tube-in-tube), or protrusions or tongues (e.g., tongue and groove) on at least one side of the break. In an exemplary embodiment, two tubes having the same inner and outer diameters (ID and OD) are milled at their ends, one on the ID and the other on the OD, so that the ends fit concentrically with a sufficient gap (e.g., 17 microns or greater for an applied 50 V ignition voltage) to achieve electrical isolation between the tubes with an adhesive such as Resibond 940HT for 400 series steel. The adhesive or potting compound can be selected to closely match the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the tube. Alternatively, the metal of the reservoir, which forms the electrical break, is selected to closely match the CTE of the adhesive or potting compound. In an exemplary embodiment, 400 series stainless steel, such as SS440, and cold rolled steel (CRS) each have a coefficient of thermal expansion that closely matches that of Resbond 940HE.Other exemplary materials and metals include steel, stainless steel ferric 410, cast iron gray, hard alloy K20, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, tungsten, etc. The metal may be thin (e.g., having a thickness ranging from about 0.1 mm to 10 mm) to provide flexibility to accommodate thermal expansion. In one embodiment, the electrical isolation may be constructed with at least one of a thermal expansion joint and a compressible material to accommodate thermal expansion mismatch between the adhesive and the metal.

[0205] The potting compound layer can be composed of multiple potting compounds or adhesives of the present disclosure, such as those from Contronics Corporation or Aremco. In one embodiment, the potting compound or adhesive can be selected to provide at least one layer that functions as a non-conductive current barrier and at least one other layer that serves to optimize the match between the thermal expansion coefficient of the break and that of the tubing. In an exemplary embodiment, Cotronics Resist Bond 940SS or 954, which have a thermal expansion coefficient that closely matches that of SS, are used in combination with 940HE, since 940SS and 954 are conductive, while 940HE is not. In another embodiment, the end of the tubing is coated with 940SS and cured to form an electrically insulating oxide coating on the surface, after which the oxide coating surface is bonded with another adhesive or potting compound, such as 940SS or 940HE. In one embodiment, the electrical interruption may comprise an electrically insulating tin return flow shield, liner, or deflector to prevent tin shorts across the electrical interruption. In an exemplary embodiment, the deflector comprises a shelf having an edge attached to the inside of a tube above the electrical interruption, such as a ring-shaped drip edge welded to the inside of the tube above the electrical interruption. In one embodiment, the reservoir 5c includes a portion comprising the electrical interruption 913. At least a portion of the reservoir's electrical interruption may be at least partially filled with ceramic beads, such as zirconia beads or other beads of the present disclosure, which act to at least one of thermally insulate the electrical interruption and prevent electrical shorts across the electrical interruption, such as commercially available electrical interruptions or electrical interruptions comprised of ceramic potting compound.

[0206] The SunCell® may further comprise a discharge cell 901, a reaction cell chamber 5b31, an upper flange 26e, which may comprise a solid plate or an inner photovoltaic window flange, a photovoltaic window chamber 916, an inner photovoltaic window 5ab4, an inner photovoltaic window sheet 26e1, and an outer photovoltaic window 5b4. The inner photovoltaic window 5ab4 may be semi-hermetic (e.g., hermetic to molten metal, but not necessarily hermetic to vacuum), with the vacuum seal provided by a vacuum-tight housing or chamber 916 containing the photovoltaic window flange 26d, the inner photovoltaic window flange 26e, and the semi-hermetic window 5ab4, which is bonded to the support 26e1 above the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an exemplary embodiment, the window 5ab4 may comprise a Rayotek window, which comprises a gasket seal to its housing that is not vacuum-tight. Alternatively, the exemplary window 5ab4 may comprise a flat or cavity window secured by clamping, gluing, or gasketing or bonding to a support on top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as the inner photovoltaic window flange support 26e1. An exemplary clamp is a C-clamp between the support 26e1 and the window 5ab4. The inner photovoltaic window 5ab4 may be connected to the inner photovoltaic window flange support 26e1 with a countersink fixture. At least one of the electrical isolation flange 914, the reservoir flange 915, the inner photovoltaic window flange 26e, and the photovoltaic window flange 26d can provide access to the interior of at least one of the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the inner photovoltaic window 5ab4.

[0207] In the embodiment shown in Figures 66J-66L and 2I144, the outer photovoltaic window 5b4 may consist of a photovoltaic window flange 26d sealed with a gasket and fasteners 26d1. In an exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic window is made of fused silica, quartz, sapphire, or aluminum oxynitride and is in the shape of a half dome with a precision-milled or lapped flange of the same material as the window, and the window is sealed with a grafoil, vermiculite, or ceramic fiber gasket, a metal ring on top of the flange, and fasteners 26d1. The photovoltaic window dome 5b4 may be further sealed with a vacuum adhesive. Adhesives include: (i) TorrSeal TS10 and 353ND vacuum epoxy (ThorLabs), (ii) FO-EPXY-UHV (Accu-Glass Products, Inc.), (iii) TorrSeal (Kurt J. Lesker), (iv) EP30-2, EP29LPSP, and EP21TCHT-1 (Masterbond), and (v) KB1039 CRLP, KB1040 CTE-LO, KB10473 FLAO, and KB1372-LO (Kohesi Bond).

[0208] In embodiments having tin as the molten metal, the SunCell® includes means for preventing at least one of the photovoltaic windows 5b4 and 5ab4 (FIGS. 66F-66L) from being opacified by metallic tin and / or tin oxide. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window includes means, such as a window temperature controller, for maintaining the temperature of the photovoltaic window above the melting point of at least one of tin (melting point = 232°C) and tin oxides, such as SnO (melting point = 1080°C) and SnO (melting point = 1630°C). The window temperature controller, comprised of at least one of a heater or chiller, a temperature sensor, and a controller, maintains a desired photovoltaic window temperature, such as a temperature within at least one of the following ranges: 200°C to 2500°C, 232°C to 2000°C, 232°C to 1800°C, or 232°C to 1650°C. The heater or chiller is configured to direct a flow of heated or cooled air at the window. In the latter case, the photovoltaic window is heated by a hydrino plasma. In another embodiment, the photovoltaic window is cleaned of tin oxide by hydrogen reduction. The reducible hydrogen reactant is hydrogen gas flowing into the reaction cell chamber, and the hydrogen pressure is controlled using a hydrogen source, a flow controller, pressure and flow meters, lines, and a computer to achieve the reduction. At least one of the hydrogen pressure and the photovoltaic window temperature can be controlled to provide thermodynamically favorable conditions for the reduction of tin oxide by hydrogen. The hydrogen pressure is in the range of 1 mTorr to 10 atmospheres. The photovoltaic window temperature is in the range of at least one of 100°C to 2500°C, 232°C to 2000°C, 232°C to 1800°C, and 232°C to 1650°C. The hydrogen reaction may occur intermittently at a different hydrogen pressure than desired to optimize the hydrino reaction rate. The photovoltaic window is cleaned by a hydrino reaction plasma. Photovoltaic windows can be cleaned by spraying molten tin onto the window surface. The injection is performed by an injector electromagnetic pump or a separate electromagnetic pump. The window cleaning electromagnetic pump can consist of a raster injector with a raster mechanism that scans the injection over the window surface.The raster mechanism may be comprised of actuators such as mechanical, electromagnetic, screw jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoid, piezoelectric, shape memory polymer, photopolymer, or other actuators known in the art for moving or rotating the direction of the poured molten metal stream. In another embodiment, the window may be comprised of at least one of a tin oxide adhesion resistant coating such as a carbon coating, a spinning window, a mechanical scraper, and a gas jet such as those disclosed herein.

[0209] In an exemplary embodiment, a photovoltaic window such as 5ab4 and / or 5b4 is cleaned by spraying molten metal onto the interior surface from at least one nozzle having multiple spray openings or orifices, such as one for spraying tin in a countercurrent flow and another for spraying tin onto the photovoltaic window, to clean debris such as metal oxides and metal. The molten metal poured onto the window provides additional cooling and, in some embodiments, can prevent or reduce overheating or associated structural deformation of the window (e.g., warping, cracking, loss of transparency). In one embodiment, the window maintains a steady-state temperature through radiative heat losses at its operating blackbody temperature, balancing the optical and thermal power absorbed to heat it.

[0210] In one embodiment, the flow rate of the injected molten metal may be high enough that the crossing of the flow paths causes the molten metal to splash onto the photovoltaic window, cleaning and / or cooling the photovoltaic window.

[0211] In one embodiment, a SunCell® system, such as one comprising dual molten metal injectors, is configured with an injector alignment mechanism or aligner, such as a mechanical, electromagnetic, screw-jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoid, piezoelectric, shape memory polymer, photopolymer, or other actuator known in the art, to move or rotate at least one of the nozzle 5q, injector 5k61, reservoir 5c, shutoff-reservoir-electromagnetic pump assembly 914a (FIG. 66G), and electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk. The aligner can change the corresponding molten metal stream ejected from the aligned nozzle in a desired direction to achieve alignment with the opposing stream ejected by the opposing injector, resulting in the intersection of the molten metal streams. The aligner may comprise a sensor, such as an ignition current or voltage sensor, and a controller, such as a computer, that automatically aligns the aligned injectors to maintain flow intersection. The aligner may comprise a mechanical linkage, such as a gear system, for rotating the nozzle 5q and achieving alignment for nozzles with asymmetric openings. The aligner may include at least one mechanical push-pull rod connected to the injector 5k61 or nozzle 5q and mechanically moving the injector 5k61 or nozzle 5q. The rod may extend through the reservoir 5c and through a conduit to a drive mechanism, at least one of which may be sealed. The drive mechanism may comprise a threaded rod collar, a means for rotating the rod, and at least one of a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator, a piezoelectric actuator, or other actuators disclosed herein for pushing or pulling the rod.

[0212] In one embodiment, the nozzle aligner may comprise at least one sensor, such as a photovoltaic cell like one of the photovoltaic converters 26a, that senses light emitted from the photovoltaic window or photovoltaic window cavity, a processor, such as a computer, that processes the light intensity recorded by the sensor, and a controller that controls movement of at least one actuator of the aligner so that molten metal ejected by the at least one nozzle is directed to a location inside the photovoltaic window or photovoltaic window cavity. The directed flow may be in response to a reduction in light transmission due to the window being coated with a metal or metal oxide, resulting in increased flow at that location, facilitating removal of the window coating.

[0213] In another SunCell® embodiment consisting of dual molten metal injectors, the electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk may be mounted to a sliding table 409c (FIGS. 66B-66L and 21144) with supports 409k for mounting and aligning the corresponding tilted electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk and reservoir 5c. The SunCell® supports 409k may be configured with turnbuckles that can be adjusted to any height and locked with a locking nut. The supports 409k may be electrically insulated from the sliding table 409c by an electrical isolator, such as a ceramic or Teflon® washer 409c1. The washer may be provided at the base of the supports 409k. The SunCell® may include an electrical breaker 913 (FIGS. 66G-66L and 2I144) that electrically isolates the breaker electromagnetic pump assembly 914a from the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoir portion above the breaker, the opposing reservoir 5c, and the reservoir electromagnetic pump assembly 915a. At least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoir portion above the breaker, the opposing reservoir 5c, and the reservoir electromagnetic pump assembly 915a may be further supported and rigidly mounted to the slide table 409c, independent of the support of the breaker electromagnetic pump assembly 914a. An exemplary rigid support on each side of the reaction cell chamber is the reaction cell chamber support 918 shown in FIGS. 66H-66L and 2I144. In embodiments, the support 918 may include a pressure regulator, such as a deformable bushing or spring 922, at the end of the base 409c to maintain a desired support pressure as the SunCell® components contract and expand. The reservoir constituting the electrical cutoff section 913 is connected to a welded or flanged bellows 917 (e.g., https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / expansion-joints-with-butt-weld-ends / or https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / high-temperature-all-metal-expansion-joints-with-flanged-ends) or braided hose (e.g., https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / extreme-temperature-air-and-steam-house-with-male-threaded-fittings / The flexible section may further include a flexible reservoir section such as a flexible section 917. The flexible section may be constructed from a material such as tantalum or may be coated with a coating such as flame-resistant paint, chromium, chromium carbide, alumina, tantalum, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, or another coating of the present disclosure that protects the flexible section, such as the bellows, from alloying with the molten metal. The flexible section may include a liner, such as a thermal insulator such as BN, Macol, quartz, alumina, zirconia, or another coating of the present disclosure, to protect the flexible section from overheating. The liner may be cross-sectional, segmented, or loose-fitting to allow for flexibility. The flexible section 917 may be connected above or below the electrical isolation section 913. The aligner may include at least one tilting system for selectively tilting the cylindrical axis of the bellows by compressing one side of the flexible section and stretching the opposite side. The tilt system may include means for extending or retracting the length of the support 409k of the isolator electromagnetic pump assembly 914a to change the orientation of the corresponding injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 and nozzle 5q. In one embodiment, the tilt system is comprised of multiple length-adjustable supports 409k to allow for vertical alignment adjustment as well as multiple azimuthal directions. The aligner tilt system may be comprised of actuators, such as mechanical, screw jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoid, piezoelectric actuator, shape memory polymer, photopolymer, or other actuators known in the art, to adjust the length of the supports 409k.In an exemplary embodiment, the aligner comprises: (i) a bellows, one end of which is butt-welded to the isolator 913 or isolator flange 914 and the other end of which is butt-welded to the reservoir 5c; (ii) four turnbuckle supports 409k, electrically insulated from the slide table 409c by ceramic washers at their bases; and (iii) mechanical means for rotating each turnbuckle to adjust the length of the turnbuckle and thereby adjust the nozzle position, where the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c, which lack electrical isolators, are rigidly supported to allow independent movement of the isolator electromagnetic pump assembly 914a. An exemplary rigid support is the reaction cell chamber support 918 shown in Figures 66H-66L and 2I144. The mechanical means for rotating each turnbuckle may comprise a fixed gear on each turnbuckle, a mating gear, and a motor, such as a servomotor, that rotates the mating gear to change the length of the turnbuckle. The rotation can be controlled by a computer receiving firing current and voltage data from corresponding sensors. Alternatively, the aligner can be comprised of a tilt system including at least one actuator, such as those disclosed herein, that changes the length of one or more of the turnbucks supports 409k to cause alignment.

[0214] In another embodiment, the aligner includes a flexible section, such as a bellows 917, in the reservoir 5c between the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir-electromagnetic pump assembly 915a, and a tilt system for selectively tilting the cylindrical axis of at least the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by compressing one side of the bellows and expanding the opposite side, where at least one of the upper reservoir 5c, the opposing reservoir 5c, and the shutoff-electromagnetic pump assembly 914a may be further supported and rigidly mounted on a slide table 409c to enable independent movement of the lower reservoir-electromagnetic pump assembly 915a. An exemplary rigid support is the reaction cell chamber support 918 shown in Figures 66H-66L and 2I144. The tilt system may include at least one support 409k whose length is adjustable to tilt the bellows to effect alignment. An exemplary tilt system is an actuator, such as those disclosed herein, for effecting the length adjustment to achieve alignment.

[0215] In an alternative embodiment, the aligner comprises a flexible section, such as a bellows 917, and a contraction-tilt system, where tilting of the bellows by the tilt system is achieved by contraction of one side of the bellows rather than compression and expansion of the opposite side. An exemplary contraction-tilt system, shown in FIGS. 66H-66L and 2I144, comprises a bellows 917 and a contraction or clamping device that can tension a flexible section, such as the bellows 917, along its cylindrical axis and is secured to the bellows at opposite ends. The exemplary contraction-tilt system comprises a frame 920 at the electrically broken end of the bellows, a movable frame 920a at the opposite end, and multiple contraction elements, such as screws or bolts 921, that span the frame; contraction or shortening of the bolts 921 causes the bellows to contract or shorten on the side of the shortened bolt and lengthen on the opposite side in accordance with the corresponding lengthening of the bolts 921. In one embodiment, at least one movable frame 920a may include a means for tilting the bolt 920 as the length between the frames 920a is adjusted. The tilting means may comprise a slotted hole for the bolt 920. In one embodiment, the turnbuckle support 409k (FIG. 66I) is replaced with a rigid support that can be fixed to at least the bottom of the reaction cell chamber, such as a welded metal leg support, such as a three-element or four-element support. The bellows contraction element may comprise a threaded bolt fixed to each upper square hole of the bellows bracket 921 and a bushing, washer, and nut provided on the threaded bolt portion of each corresponding lower bracket square hole to adjust the electromagnetic pump molten metal injection direction. In another embodiment, the contraction elements may each comprise a clamp, such as a C-clamp, that can be fastened across the bellows, and the fastener may be welded. To increase the ease of contraction of the element, the bellows may include a leverage source, such as a metal extension fixed perpendicular to the bellows wall, such as a welded angle or channel iron lever, to which the contraction element, such as a C-clamp, is attached.

[0216] The contraction element can consist of an actuator such as that disclosed herein, which can be attached to the outside of the bellows, the inside of which can act as part of a corresponding reservoir 5c.

[0217] In one embodiment, the aligner consists of a flexible portion of the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, such as a bellows, and a system for tilting the injector electromagnetic pump tube 5k61. The tilt system may consist of a linkage, such as a mechanical linkage, and a system for moving the linkage, such as mechanical, screw jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoid, piezoelectric actuator, shape memory polymer, photopolymer, or other actuator known in the art.

[0218] In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, the electrical interrupter, and the bellows may be constructed from a magnetic material, such as one with a high Curie temperature, such as steel (Curie temperature 770°C). The magnetic material, such as steel, can function as a magnetic circuit to trap the magnetic flux of the ignition current and the magnetic flux caused by eddy or image currents in the reservoir, and the magnetic flux trapping acts to prevent magnetic pinch effect instabilities in the molten metal flow. In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, the electrical interrupter, and the bellows may be constructed from a cladding, collar, or cover of a magnetic material, such as magnetic steel. In another embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, the electrical interrupter, and the bellows may be constructed from an electrical insulator or a material with low or no electrical conductivity, which may prevent the formation of eddy or image currents and corresponding magnetic fluxes that may interfere with the molten metal pouring by the electromagnetic pump.

[0219] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 66L, the nozzle 5q comprises an opening approximately in the center of the end of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 so that a corresponding molten metal stream is injected parallel to the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61. In embodiments, each injector tube may comprise multiple (e.g., two, three, or four) nozzles 5q, and / or each reservoir 5c may be configured in fluid communication with multiple injector tubes 5k61. The height of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 within the reservoir 5c can be adjusted so that the nozzle is within the reservoir to protect the nozzle from damage due to exposure to the stronger plasma within the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the nozzle may be submerged in the molten metal pool of the reservoir. The reservoirs and corresponding injector sections of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61 of the two such injectors and nozzles of the dual injector SunCell® may be angled relative to each other so that the ejected molten metal streams follow intersecting trajectories 941 within the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The reservoirs 5c may form an inverted V connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the photovoltaic windows 5ab4, 5b4. The angle between the reservoirs that make up the legs of the inverted V may range from approximately 1° to 179°. The area where the reservoirs 5c connect to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be configured with a heat spreader to prevent this area from overheating. The heat spreader may thicken at least one wall of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber floor. The heat spreader may be configured with a metal collar around the outer upper portion of the reservoir. Exemplary heat spreaders are made of stainless steel or copper.

[0220] In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may serve as a receptacle for an insert to further prevent overheating of the upper section of the reservoir and the base of the reaction cell chamber to which the reservoir is attached. The insert may be comprised of the reaction cell chamber floor liner 5b31b and the portion of the reservoir 5c that communicates with the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The insert may be comprised of a refractory material, such as at least one of a refractory metal, such as ceramic, carbon, quartz, tungsten, or another refractory material of this disclosure or known in the art. The insert may be comprised of a multi-aggregate of materials. The insert may be comprised of multiple parts that can be fastened together. The fasteners may be comprised of adhesives, brazing, welding, bolts, screws, clamps, or other fasteners known in the disclosure or art. For bonded carbon parts, an exemplary adhesive is Graphite Bond 551RN by Aremco Products. The reservoir can consist of a metal tube of any desired cross-sectional shape (e.g., circular, square, or rectangular) fixed to the bottom of the reaction cell chamber. Corresponding fasteners may be constructed by welding. The metal can be made of stainless steel or another material of the present disclosure.

[0221] In an alternative embodiment, the reservoirs are fastened or fused together (e.g., as shown in Figures 66M and 66N), and fasteners, such as welds, may be present over the electrical gap 913 of each reservoir to maintain electrical insulation of the molten metal injector electrode. In this molten reservoir embodiment shown in Figures 66M and 66N, the reservoirs are only partially directionally connected to the base of the metal reaction cell chamber, eliminating the central region of the base where the reservoirs are attached to each other. The connection from the base to the reservoir interface may be comprised of a bridging metal section, such as a flat trapezoidal or triangular section, joined to each other and to the reservoir in the central region, as shown in Figures 66N-66M. The interface may be comprised of a weld. In one embodiment, a thick insert liner fills the base cavity, which is formed by corresponding connections to the bonded reservoirs. The insert liner may be comprised of at least one of the base liner 5b31b and the reservoir liner. In an exemplary embodiment, the insert comprises a thick carbon or carbon-like block liner, such as a Calcarb liner, inserted into the reaction cell chamber at its base to form the base liner 5b31b of the reaction cell chamber. The block liner may be comprised of two tubes machined into a block having a reservoir diameter angled relative to the vertical to align with a reservoir tube of approximately the same cross-sectional dimensions. This angle may be within a range of approximately 5° to 85° relative to the vertical. The thickness of the block ranges from approximately 1 mm to 100 mm and fits into at least one of the base, base cavity, and reservoir of the reaction cell chamber. In another embodiment, the machined tube may have a minimum diameter to aid in reservoir operation, reducing the plasma volume within the reservoir and reducing heat load. The diameter of the liner tube may be within a range of 1% to 100% of the reservoir diameter.

[0222] In one embodiment, components such as upper reservoir 5cb, electrical isolator 913, and bellows 917 (FIGS. 66F-66N) may be connected by a flange 914, which may be gasketed and bolted or welded. Alternatively, the components may be directly welded. In an exemplary embodiment, the coupling of the components may consist of a reducer, such as one for welding electrical isolator 913 to upper reservoir 5cb.

[0223] The electrical interruption may be internally coated to protect it from alloying with the molten metal. The coating may be composed of an electrical insulator. Exemplary coatings are the VHT paints of the present disclosure, mullite, alumina, etc. The electrical interruption may further include a liner, such as an electrically insulating liner, such as BN, quartz, or other liners of the present disclosure.

[0224] In an embodiment, the nozzle 5q is oriented toward the injector electromagnetic pump tube, which further comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 of extended height to allow the molten metal flow to intersect within the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which may further comprise at least a portion of an optional cavity formed by the photovoltaic window 5b4. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the photovoltaic window may be configured with a shape consisting of a vertical portion of an inverted Y. This portion may be configured with any desired geometric horizontal cross-section, such as a circle or a square. In an embodiment, one or more sidewalls of at least a portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a photovoltaic window. In the exemplary embodiment shown in Figures 66C-66D and 66L, the photovoltaic window may be configured as a transparent rectangular or cubic chamber, such as one made of quartz or sapphire, connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by a joint, such as one made of a wrapped quartz or sapphire flange mated to a matching metal flange. In a further exemplary embodiment, the corresponding photovoltaic chamber formed by the photovoltaic window(s) can constitute the reaction cell chamber 5b31 shown in Figure 66L, with a joint at the base where the reservoir connects to the reaction cell chamber. The joint can be sealed with a gasket, such as a graphite gasket or clamp, or with an adhesive or glue. In another embodiment, the rectangular or cubic chamber can be sealed with a gasket or comprised of a frame with a quartz or sapphire window panel glued to a frame, such as a metal frame, with an adhesive or glue. In either embodiment, the adhesive or glue can comprise any of the adhesives disclosed herein. The adhesive can be comprised of multiple layers, such as multiple layers, to allow for adhesion to the frame and to the window with corresponding layers of different adhesive. In one embodiment, the base or frame can be comprised of an anchor, such as a metal screen, welded or soldered to the base or frame, and an adhesive is applied to the anchor and the window, such as a quartz or sapphire window.

[0225] In one embodiment, the anchor comprises a thin metal annulus consisting of a cylinder with collars or flanges on both ends. The annulus may be vacuum-sealed welded to the base or frame, with the collar on the opposite side of the annulus glued to the photovoltaic window. The annulus may include at least one expansion means, such as at least one circumferential pleat on the cylinder or annulus wall. The adhesive joint may be constructed of multiple layers, such as one on the base or frame side and one on the window side of the corresponding adhesive joint. In an embodiment, the thermal expansion coefficients of the flange, adhesive, and window are closely matched over the operating temperature range. In an exemplary embodiment, the sapphire window is bonded to a selected stainless steel (SS) flange having a similarly matched expansion coefficient. In one embodiment, the stainless steel may be Kovar or Invar. The adhesive or pressure-sensitive adhesive may comprise any of the materials disclosed herein. The adhesive bond may be replaced with a suitable braze, such as one capable of high-temperature operation, such as that disclosed herein. The operating temperature is within the range of approximately 300°C to 2000°C.

[0226] In one embodiment, the pressure of the electromagnetic pump can be increased to inject molten metal onto the surface of at least one of the top 5ab4, 5b4 and side windows of the photovoltaic window chamber to clean the window of a material such as a metal oxide, such as tin oxide or gallium oxide.

[0227] In one embodiment, at least one pair of flanges such as 914 and 915 shown in Figures 66H-66L and 2I144, as well as other flanges such as 26d, 26e, and 902, may be replaced with flat metal plates (without bolt holes) such as annular bodies around the periphery of each joining component. The plates may be welded at their outer edges to form a seam. The seam may be cut or ground to separate the two plates.

[0228] In one embodiment, the injector electromagnetic pump tubing 5k61, such as one having at least one of refractory properties and resistance to alloying with molten metals, such as W or Ta, may be constructed with tubing fasteners for fastening the tubing to a collar on the electromagnetic pump base plate 5kk1. The fasteners may be constructed with welds. The fasteners may be constructed with compression joints. Alternatively, the fasteners may be constructed with a ceramic such as Contronics Resbond 940SS, Contronics Resbond 940HT, or an adhesive or potting compound such as those disclosed herein, such as Sauerensen Electrotemp Cement, that has a thermal expansion coefficient similar to that of stainless steel. Exemplary high-temperature adhesives or glues of the present disclosure include Contronix Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesives, zirconium oxide coatings such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 made of ZrO2-ZrSiO4, and Durabond such as RK454. In another embodiment, the fastener may consist of an electromagnetic pump tube and respective washer-like collar annulus, which are welded at the ends to fasten the tube. Alternatively, the electromagnetic pump tube may consist of an annulus for securing the tube to a collar welded to a base plate using a cover such as a carbon plate that presses the annulus against the base plate. The plate is either glued to the base plate or held in place by at least one fastener. Components such as the collar, annulus, and fasteners may be coated with tin-resistant alloy coatings such as those disclosed herein, such as CrC, alumina, or Ta.

[0229] At least one of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the reservoir 5c, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be coated with a coating that protects the underlying metal from alloying with the molten metal. Exemplary coatings include oxides, carbides, diborides, nitrides, ceramics such as fire-retardant paints, and other coatings disclosed herein. At least one of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the reservoir 5c, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31, e.g., at least one of the walls and bottom, may be lined with a liner. Exemplary liners include carbon or alumina ceramics such as 96+% alumina or FG995 alumina wrapped around a tungsten liner. The carbon may be coated with a fire-resistant paint, ZrO2, or an electrical insulator such as Resbond 907GF. The reservoir 5c and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may have a polygonal cross-section, such as a square or rectangle. A liner, such as a carbon and / or tungsten liner, may be constructed from plates of liner material beveled together at the intersections of the plates.

[0230] In embodiments of the present disclosure, coatings on SunCell® components, such as the reaction cell chamber, inlet riser, reservoir, and electromagnetic pump tubing, can include those made with ZYP coatings, such as yttrium oxide, hafnium titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, YAG, 3Y2O3-5Al2O3, and aluminum oxide, where at least one ZYP coating is an alternative to fire-retardant paint.

[0231] At least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the photovoltaic window chamber 916 may further include at least one structural support for supporting the weight of at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the photovoltaic window chamber 916, such as at least one post or turnbuckle 409k, which may be attached to the table 409c. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may be supported by a bracket attached to the base plate 5b531c, which is connected to a support structure or frame. The reservoir may be suspended or supported by a flexible support rod from the reservoir plate 5kk1. To hold the magnet 5k4 in place, the electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk may be configured with a bracket between the electromagnetic pump magnet 5k4 or a magnet bracket from the reservoir base plate 5kk1.

[0232] In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window comprises at least one blower or compressor and at least one jet to cool the photovoltaic by high velocity gas flow over the window surface. Gases such as helium or hydrogen can be selected to be inert, transparent to the emitted radiation, and have high heat transfer capabilities.

[0233] In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window is located at the center of a sphere, with the light-recyclable photovoltaic lining the sphere. Alternatively, the photovoltaic window may be located at the center of a ring of flat mirrors at the base of a hemisphere, with the light-recyclable photovoltaic lining the hemisphere. The mirrors can be constructed from polished metal, ceramics such as Accuratus, or other reflectors known in the art that can reflect substantially all wavelengths emitted by SunCell®, such as light in the wavelength range of approximately 200 nm to 5000 nm.

[0234] In an embodiment such as that shown in FIG. 66L, the reaction cell chamber walls can be heated to a high temperature and act as a blackbody radiator for the photovoltaic cells of the photovoltaic converter 26a. Each of the photovoltaic cells of the photovoltaic converter 26a may include an infrared backing mirror or bottom layer mirror to recycle light to the blackbody radiator wall. The reaction cell chamber walls may be constructed from a refractory material such as niobium, which allows for operation at high temperatures, such as in the range of approximately 1000°C to 3500°C. The walls may be coated with a coating of the present disclosure, such as alumina or CrC, to inhibit oxidation and / or alloy formation with the molten metal.

[0235] In one embodiment, molten metal, such as gallium or tin, is flowed through a heat exchanger, such as a tube-in-shell type, that forms a thermophotovoltaic converter. The molten metal, such as gallium or tin, may be pumped through a tube that radiates it to a TPV cell mounted inside the shell.

[0236] In one embodiment, the intense blackbody radiation emitted by the hydrino plasma through the photovoltaic window can be directly used as a radiant heater, a light source, and / or a directed energy weapon. The directed energy, such as intense light emission, can destroy or melt projectiles, such as missiles or bullets.

[0237] In one embodiment, the molten metal can be composed of any known metal or alloy, such as tin, gallium, galinstan, silver, copper, Ag-Cu alloys such as 71.9% Ag / 28.1% Sn, or Ag-Sn alloys such as 50% Ag / 50% Sn melt. The SunCell® may include a photovoltaic window to allow at least one of plasma and blackbody light to be emitted from the reaction cell chamber to the photovoltaic converter. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber includes a gas to provide a more uniform blackbody temperature. The gas can be a noble gas such as argon. The gas pressure can be high to provide a more uniform temperature.

[0238] The molten metal can be composed of a metal, such as tin, that is difficult to wet with the photovoltaic window to prevent opacification of the photovoltaic window. The photovoltaic window can be composed of a transparent material that is resistant to high temperatures and / or tin wetting. The window can be composed of at least one of quartz, Zerodur (lithium aluminosilicate glass ceramic), ULE (titania-silica binary glass with zero coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)), sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, MgF2, glass, Pyrex, and other such windows known in the art. The window can operate at high temperatures, such as in the range of approximately 200°C to 1800°C, and can function as a blackbody radiator in addition to transmitting plasma radiation from inside the reaction cell chamber. An exemplary suitable high-temperature window is the High Pressure, High Temperature Sight Glass (HTHP) window manufactured by Rayotek. https: / / rayoteksightwindows.com / products / high-temp-sight-glass-windows.html ) is.

[0239] In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window is cleaned and cooled with at least one of a gas blanket, a gas jet, a high-pressure jet, or a gas knife from a source such as a gas nozzle or injector, a gas source, and flow and pressure controllers such as pressure sensors, valves, and a computer that can operate during plasma generation. The gas may include at least one of a noble gas such as argon and water vapor. In one embodiment, the window cleaning device comprises a pulsed water jet through which excess water is pumped up as vapor. In an embodiment, the gas jet may comprise steam. The window may include a local vacuum port connected to a vacuum pump to remove the vapor before it enters the reaction cell chamber. The window may further include a baffle, such as a gate valve, to close the window from the reaction cell chamber to allow the vapor to be selectively pumped up by the local vacuum port and the vacuum pump. In one embodiment, the window may include a molten metal pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, to inject molten metal, such as gallium, tin, silver, copper, or an alloy thereof, onto the inner surface of the window to clean it.

[0240] In one embodiment, the molten metal comprises tin. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic window comprises a conductive transparent coating, such as indium tin oxide. A bias may be applied to the window by a voltage source to repel adhering particles, such as tin or SnO particles. In one embodiment, the window is plasma cleaned by a plasma source, such as a glow discharge source. In an embodiment, at least one of the window or the window housing may further include a glow discharge electrode. In an embodiment, the photovoltaic window is adjacent to a glow discharge cell 900 (Figure 16.19A), which supplies HOH and atomic H to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The discharge cell may be positioned and / or angled such that atomic hydrogen formed within the discharge cell from the supplied molecular hydrogen flows over the surface of the photovoltaic window. The atomic hydrogen reacts with the tin or tin oxide to form volatile SnH4, which can clean the photovoltaic window. In one embodiment, the discharge cell outlet may include a baffle or deflector to direct the flow of atomic hydrogen from the discharge cell outlet onto the photovoltaic window. The baffles or deflectors may be constructed of materials with low hydrogen recombination coefficients or recombination capacities, such as glass, quartz, or ceramics such as alumina or BN.

[0241] In one embodiment, the power generation system (referred to as SunCell®) comprises at least one plasma cell including: (i) a discharge plasma generation cell 900 that generates a water / hydrogen mixture that is directed to the molten metal cell via the discharge plasma generation cell; and (ii) a discharge plasma ignition cell that generates a discharge plasma within the reaction-cell chamber 5b31, where at least one of the plasma cells causes ignition of a hydrino plasma within the reaction-cell chamber 5b31, the hydrino plasma comprising a plasma that is at least partially powered and sustained by the hydrino reaction. In these embodiments, the discharge plasma generation cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen), and the discharge of the discharge plasma generation cell is directed to any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode immersed in the molten metal reservoir, either of the two molten metal reservoirs, or either of the two injector molten metal electrodes). In these embodiments, a discharge plasma ignition cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces a discharge, such as a gas discharge, in the reaction cell chamber, causing ignition of the hydrino reaction in the reaction cell chamber. The discharge plasma ignition electrode can comprise an ignition electrode. The discharge cell electrode can be comprised of at least one of an anode, a cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal reservoir, one of two molten metal reservoirs, one of two injector molten metal electrodes, a reservoir, the reaction cell chamber, and a separate discharge plasma ignition electrode that penetrates the reaction cell chamber via an electrically insulating connector, such as a feedthrough. The discharge plasma ignition electrode can be a metal, such as Ta or W, or a coated metal, such as a carbide- or nitride-coated stainless steel electrode, that resists alloy formation with the molten metal.

[0242] In one embodiment, the optical-to-electrical converter comprises a photovoltaic converter of the present disclosure, including a photovoltaic (PV) cell responsive to a substantial wavelength range of light emitted from the cell, corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic cell is a concentrating cell capable of accepting high-intensity light greater than that of sunlight, such as at least one of the following intensity ranges: approximately 1.5 Sun to 75,000 Sun, 10 Sun to 10,000 Sun, and 100 Sun to 2000 Sun. Concentrating SunCells® are constructed of c-Si and can operate in the range of approximately 1 to 1000 suns. Silicon photovoltaic cells can be operated at temperatures that improve their bandgap to better match the blackbody spectrum, thereby achieving at least one of improved heat rejection and reduced cooling system complexity. In an exemplary embodiment, concentrating silicon photovoltaic cells are operated at approximately 130°C between 100 Sun and 500 Sun, providing a bandgap of approximately 0.84 V, matching the spectrum of a blackbody radiator at approximately 3000°C. Photovoltaic cells can be single junction or multiple junctions such as triple junctions. Concentrating SunCell® cells are constructed from multiple layers such as single junction Si or single junction III / V semiconductors or III / V semiconductors such as at least one of the following group: InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. Multiple junctions, such as triple or double junctions, may be connected in series. In another embodiment, junctions may be connected in parallel. Junctions may be mechanically stacked. Junctions may be wafer bonded. In one embodiment, the tunnel diode between the junctions can be replaced with a wafer bond.The wafer bond may be electrically insulating and transparent to the wavelength region to be converted by subsequent or deeper junctions. Each junction may be connected to an independent electrical connection or bus bar. The independent bus bars may be connected in series or parallel. The electrical contact for each electrically independent junction may be composed of a grid wire. Wire shadow areas may be minimized by distributing current across multiple parallel circuits or interconnections for independent junctions or groups of junctions. Current may be removed laterally. The wafer bond layer may be composed of a transparent conductive layer. Exemplary transparent conductors include transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) such as indium tin oxide (ITO), fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), and doped zinc oxide, conductive polymers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, all of which are known to those skilled in the art. Benzocyclobutene (BCB) may constitute an intermediate bonding layer. The bond may be between a transparent material, such as glass, such as borosilicate glass, and a photovoltaic semiconductor material. An exemplary two-junction cell consists of a top layer of GaInP wafer bonded to a bottom layer of GaAs (GaInP / / GaAs). An exemplary four-junction cell consists of GaInP / GaAs / GaInAsP / GaInAs on an InP substrate, with each junction individually separated by a tunnel diode ( / ) or an isolating transparent wafer bond layer ( / / ), such as a cell provided by GaInP / / GaAs / / GaInAsP / / GaInAs on InP. Photovoltaic cells may be constructed of InGaP / / GaAs / / InGaAsNSb / / conductive layer / / GaSb / / InGaAs. The substrate may be GaAs or Ge. Photovoltaic cells may be constructed of Si-Ge-Sn and alloys. All combinations of diode junctions and wafer junctions are within the scope of this disclosure. An exemplary four-junction cell with 44.7% conversion efficiency at 297x concentration of the AM1.5d spectrum is manufactured by SOITEC, France. The photovoltaic cell may be constructed with a single junction.An exemplary single-junction photovoltaic cell is described in Sater et al. (B / L / Sater, N.D. Sater, "High voltage silicon VMJ solar cells for up to 100 suns intensities," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Conference Record of Twenty-ninth IEEE, 19-24 May 2002, pp. 109-1022), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, the single-junction cell may be constructed from GaAs or GaAs doped with other elements, such as group III or V. In an exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic cell is constructed from a triple-junction concentrator photovoltaic cell, or a GaAs photovoltaic cell operating at approximately 1000 suns. In another exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic cell is constructed from c-Si operating at 250 suns. In an exemplary embodiment, the photovoltaic cell may be composed of GaAs, which can selectively respond to wavelengths below 900 nm, and InGaAs on at least one of InP, GaAs, and Ge, which can selectively respond to wavelengths between 900 nm and 1800 nm. The combination of two photovoltaic cells, consisting of GaAs on InP and InGaAs, can increase efficiency. Using two such single-junction cells can achieve the effect of a double-junction cell. This combination can be achieved by using at least one of a dichroic mirror, a dichroic filter, and an architecture that achieves multiple bounces or reflections of light, such as those disclosed herein, using a cell alone or in combination with a mirror. In one embodiment, each photovoltaic cell includes a polychromatic layer that separates and redirects incident light to specific layers within the multi-junction cell. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell is composed of an indium gallium phosphide layer for visible light and a gallium arsenide layer for infrared light, where the corresponding light is illuminated. The photovoltaic cell is composed of GaAs. 1-x-y N x Bi y It may be made of an alloy.

[0243] Photovoltaic cells may be constructed of silicon. Silicon photovoltaic cells can constitute light-concentrating cells operating in an intensity range of approximately 5 to 2000 suns. Silicon photovoltaic cells are constructed of crystalline silicon, with at least one surface made of amorphous silicon having a bandgap different from that of the crystalline silicon layer. The amorphous silicon may have a wider bandgap than the crystalline silicon. The amorphous silicon layer can perform at least one function of making the cell electrically transparent and preventing electron-hole pair recombination at the surface. Silicon cells may constitute multijunction cells. Layers may constitute individual cells. At least one cell, such as a top cell made of at least one of Ga, As, InP, Al, and In, may be ion-sliced ​​and mechanically stacked on a Si cell, such as a Si bottom cell. At least one layer of a multijunction cell and / or layers of serially connected cells may be constructed with bypass diodes to minimize current and power losses due to current mismatch between the layers of cells. The cell surface may be textured to facilitate light transmission into the cell. The cell may include an anti-reflective coating to facilitate light transmission into the cell. The anti-reflective coating may further reflect wavelengths below the bandgap energy. The coating may be composed of multiple layers, such as approximately 2 to 20 layers. Increasing the number of layers can increase selectivity, allowing a desired wavelength range, such as light above the bandgap energy, to be passed and another wavelength range, such as wavelengths below the bandgap energy, to be reflected. Light reflected from the cell surface is reflected back to at least one other cell, which absorbs the light. The photovoltaic converter may be constructed in a closed structure, such as a geodesic dome, to provide multiple bounces of reflected light to increase the cross-sectional area for photovoltaic absorption and conversion. The geodesic dome may be composed of multiple receiver units 200 (Figure 2I133), such as triangular units covered with photovoltaic cells 15. The dome may function as an integrating sphere. Unconverted light may be recycled. Light recycling occurs through reflection between receiver units within a structure, such as a geodesic dome.The surface may include a filter that reflects wavelengths below the bandgap energy of the cell. The cell may also include a bottom mirror, such as a silver or gold bottom layer, to reflect unabsorbed light back into the cell. Furthermore, unabsorbed light and light reflected from the cell surface filter may be absorbed and re-emitted into the photovoltaic cell by a blackbody radiator, which may comprise at least one of the components of the SunCell®, such as at least one wall of the reaction cell chamber or the reservoir. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic substrate may be constructed of a material that is transparent to light transmitted from the bottom cell to the reflector on the backside of the substrate. Exemplary triple-junction cells with transparent substrates are InGaAsP (1.3 eV), InGaAsP (0.96 eV), InGaAs (0.73 eV), or InP substrates, and copper or g...

Claims

1. It is a power generation system, (a) At least one container comprising a bottom plate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, which constitutes a reaction chamber (b) Two electrodes, each contained in a corresponding reservoir, are in fluid communication with molten metal, and the electrodes are configured such that the molten metal flows between them to complete a circuit. (c) A power supply connected to the two electrodes consisting of a cathode and an anode, which applies an ignition current between them when the circuit is closed, (d) Optionally, a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) that induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas, wherein the outflow from the plasma generating cell is directed to a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, and each molten metal supplied by the molten metal reservoir), and where, when a current is applied across the circuit, the outflow from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products, and the energy from the second plasma generates radiation. (e) A transparent window cavity that allows radiation generated from the second plasma to pass through; (f) A wet seal made of molten metal between the transparent window cavity and the base plate, and (g) A power generation system comprising a power adapter configured to receive radiation transmitted through a transparent window cavity and to convert and / or transmit energy from a second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy.

2. A power generation system according to claim 1, wherein molten metal is supplied to the electrodes to close a circuit by two molten metal injector systems, each of which contacts one of the electrodes to form a molten metal flow, the molten metal flows cross to close the circuit, and each molten metal injector system has the following configuration: (a) at least a storage tank containing a portion of the molten metal; a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the storage tank through an injector tube and provide a molten metal flow; and a storage tank for receiving the molten metal flow returning after injection; (b) Inlet riser tube for controlling the molten metal level in the storage tank; (c) to electrically isolate each corresponding electrode from the electrode of the opposite polarity, an electrical break is provided in the wall of the storage tank, and (d) An alignment mechanism that changes the orientation of the electrode injector so that the two corresponding flows from the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit.

3. A power generation system according to claim 1, wherein each injector tube is covered with an electrically insulating sleeve resistant to wetting by molten metal, and the sleeve is made of at least one of quartz, boron nitride, and carbon, and consists of a plurality of carbon portions separated by electrically insulating portions of boron nitride or quartz, and is made of at least two portions, an upper and a lower portion.

4. A power generation system according to claim 2 or 3, wherein each storage tank further comprises an inner storage tank and an outer storage tank separated by a gap, the outer storage tank communicating with a container, housing the inner storage tank under vacuum, and the inner storage tank opening to the inside of the container and a window cavity to receive reflux of molten metal.

5. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the base plate and the container further comprise a reflective liner with a full surface to which plasma radiation is incident and which reflects the incident light through a window cavity to a power adapter, and the liner further comprises a penetration for an injector which is further covered by a reflective penetration liner.

6. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the system further comprises an electromagnetic pump base plate whose surface in contact with molten metal is coated with a coating (for example, boron nitride) that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal.

7. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the container is connected to a window cavity, and the wet seal is further configured as follows: (a) Window flange at the bottom of the window cavity; (b) Base plate flange on the base plate; (c) A top flange that is mechanically connected to the base plate flange and presses the window flange against the base plate flange; (d) A gasket (e.g., carbon) on the surface of at least one window cavity flange that is in contact with the top flange and the base plate flange; (e) at least one of the inner circumferential housing or retaining wall to the inside of the window cavity and the outer circumferential housing or retaining wall to the outside of the window cavity flange, (f) The molten metal held by the housing, retaining wall, and gasket is wet-sealed, keeping the pressure inside the window cavity lower than the outside and maintaining a pressure difference.

8. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that the wet seal comprises at least one of the following: (a) The base of the window cavity has a precisely flat surface that coincides with the precisely flat surface of the base plate; (b) A window flange at the bottom of a window cavity having a precisely flat surface that fits into the precisely flat surface of the base plate; (c) A gasket (e.g., carbon) provided between the base of the window cavity and the flange of the base plate; (d) A gasket (e.g., carbon) provided between at least a portion of the surface of the window cavity flange that contacts the base plate; (e) Outer periphery housing or retaining wall provided on the outside of the window cavity or window cavity flange; (f) Inner circumferential housing or retaining wall inside the window cavity; (g) wet sealing the molten metal held by the housing, retaining wall and gasket to maintain a pressure difference and keep the pressure inside the window cavity low relative to the outside; and (h) Wet sealing the molten metal held by the precise mating contact between the housing, the retaining wall, and the window cavity or the window cavity flange and the base plate, and maintaining the pressure inside the window cavity low relative to the outside in order to maintain a pressure difference.

9. A power generation system according to claim 7, characterized in that it includes at least one of the following: (a) Height of the outer housing or retaining wall; (b) Width of the flange of a window cavity not covered by a gasket; (c) width of the flange of the window cavity precisely fitted to the base plate; and (d) The height of the window cavity flange is sufficient to allow the formation of a wet seal (e.g., in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm).

10. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that the wet seal and window cavity further comprise a gasket interface having a surface that allows a relative moment between the gasket and the window cavity without causing destructive damage to the gasket.

11. A power generation system according to claim 4, wherein the inner storage tank and the outer storage tank further comprise a heat conductor and an electrical insulator that conduct heat and enable heat conduction while maintaining electrical insulation between the two electrodes, and are located in the gap between the inner storage tank and the outer storage tank.

12. A power generation system according to claim 4, further comprising a heater for heating the outer wall of an outer storage tank, characterized in that a heat conductor conducts heat from the heater to the inner storage tank to melt molten metal.

13. A power generation system according to claim 1, characterized in that the base plate or wall of the container has a film disposed thereon to provide a desired molten metal film coating.

14. A power generation system according to claim 13, characterized in that a base plate or wall has a bead-holding support comprising a bead liner disposed thereon and a tray for supporting the beads of the bead liner.

15. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the vessel further comprises a window cavity that transmits light from a second plasma and / or blackbody radiation within the vessel to a power adapter, the window cavity comprising a window cavity flange, and the window flange being attached to a base plate via a base plate flange attached to the vessel (or to a part of the vessel); Here, the seal between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange is partially formed by a wet seal made of at least one of the molten metals, which is distributed between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange and along the outer edge of the window cavity flange.

16. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, characterized in that a fitted base plate or base plate flange and window cavity flange form a housing along the outer circumference of the window cavity flange, the outer circumference is filled with molten metal, and the molten metal can solidify along the outer circumference of the housing.

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