Synthetic fuel, and its manufacturing method and apparatus

Abstract

Provided herein are systems and methods for converting CO2 and reducing gases, such as H2 or hydrocarbons, into a mixture of paraffins and aromatics suitable for use as aviation fuel.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 409,110, filed September 22, 2022, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 527,713, filed July 19, 2023, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] As atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations increase, it becomes advantageous to develop technologies that remove or mitigate carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, the development of transportation technologies that reduce CO2 emissions, such as electric vehicles, has been prioritized. However, the development of electric aircraft, especially commercial electric aircraft, is problematic due to the low energy density of the batteries required. Therefore, there remains a need for the development of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF), and currently available technologies will not be able to meet market demand.

[0003] Currently, jet fuel (Jet-A) is composed of normal paraffins, isoparaffins, naphthenes, and aromatics refined from crude oil. To produce SAF that can be used directly in place of Jet-A, the SAF must match the current composition of crude-oil-derived Jet-A. Current technologies for producing SAF involve making SAF from vegetable oils, animal fats, and waste oil. However, the SAF produced from these processes contains primarily paraffins and does not have enough naphthenes and aromatics to be used directly in place of crude-oil-derived Jet-A. Therefore, there is a need for technologies that produce SAF that can be used directly in place of crude-oil-derived Jet-A. Summary of the Invention

[0004] In one aspect, provided herein is a system for producing aviation fuel, comprising: a first reducing gas supply

[10] ; The first carbon source supply

[11] , a paraffin reactor

[25] containing a paraffin catalyst, said paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas supply inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] , and a paraffin product outlet

[27] , wherein the first reducing gas supply is coupled to the first reducing gas supply inlet and the first carbon source supply is coupled to the first carbon source supply inlet; a second reducing gas supply

[10] ; A second carbon source supply

[11] and an aromatic reactor

[31] containing an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas supply inlet

[37] , a second carbon source inlet

[37] , and an aromatic product outlet

[33] , wherein the second reducing gas supply is coupled to the second reducing gas supply inlet and the second carbon source supply is coupled to the second carbon source supply inlet; a blender having a paraffin product inlet

[28] , an aromatic product inlet

[35] , and a blended product outlet

[39] , wherein the paraffin product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the paraffin product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

[0005] In an embodiment, the system further comprises a high pressure separator

[40] having a blended product inlet

[39] , optionally a HP recycle gas outlet

[41] , and a HP separated product outlet

[45] , wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high pressure separator.

[0006] In a further embodiment, the system further comprises a low pressure separator

[46] having an HP separated product inlet

[45] , optionally an LP recycle gas outlet

[47] and an LP separated product outlet

[53] , the HP separated product outlet of the high pressure separator being coupled to the HP separated product inlet of the low pressure separator.

[0007] In yet another embodiment, the system includes a first separator

[57] having an LP separation product inlet

[56] and a C 1-4 Hydrocarbon outlet

[58] and C 5+ and a hydrocarbon outlet

[59] , the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator being coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator

[57] .

[0008] In one embodiment, the system includes a second separator

[60] , 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[59] and C 5-8 Hydrocarbon outlet

[62] and C 16+ Hydrocarbon outlet

[61] and C 9-15 and a hydrocarbon outlet

[63] . 5+ The hydrocarbon outlet is C of the second separator. 5+ It further includes a second separator

[60] coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

[0009] In a further embodiment, the system comprises: a third reducing gas supply [5]; an isomerization reactor

[64] containing an isomerization catalyst, said isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas supply inlet [not shown] and a C 9-15 a hydrocarbon inlet

[63] and an isomerized product outlet

[65] , and a third reducing gas supply is coupled to the third reducing gas supply inlet and to the C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet is C of the isomerization reactor. 9-15 and an isomerization reactor

[64] coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

[0010] In yet another embodiment, the system includes a third separator

[66] having an isomerization product inlet

[65] , a first recycle gas outlet

[75] , and a C 16+ It further includes a third separator

[66] having a hydrocarbon outlet

[68] and a refined aviation fuel outlet

[67] , the isomerization product outlet of the isomerization reactor being coupled to the isomerization product inlet of the third separator.

[0011] In a further aspect, provided herein is a method for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending the paraffinic product mixture with the aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

[0012] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises a first separation step: The first separation is performed by separating the degassed crude product mixture into C 1-4 a first low carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; C 5-8 Hydrocarbons, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons, and C 16+ a first higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons;

[0013] In a further embodiment, the method further comprises a second separation step, the second separation comprising separating the first higher carbon fraction from: C 5-8 a second lower carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and C 9-15 a refined product mixture comprising hydrocarbons; C 16+ and a second higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons.

[0014] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst to: More C 1-8 Hydrocarbons, Further C 2000 including normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes 9-15 Hydrocarbons, More C 16+and obtaining an isomerization product mixture comprising:

[0015] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises a third separation, the third separation comprising: More C 1-8 a first recycle gas mixture comprising hydrocarbons; More C 16+ a third higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and Further C 2000 including normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes 9-15 and a refined aviation fuel containing hydrocarbons.

[0016] In one aspect, provided herein is a fuel composition comprising: [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0017] [Figure 1] A typical process flow diagram for producing SAF, made from CO2 and reducing gas, which can be used directly as a replacement for crude oil-derived Jet-A, is shown. [Figure 2] 1 shows a typical process flow diagram for producing fuel from a reducing gas (e.g., H2) and a carbon source gas (e.g., CO2). [Figure 3] A typical isomerization reactor

[64] is shown with a third reducing gas feed inlet [5], a C9-15 hydrocarbon inlet

[63] , and an isomerized product outlet

[65] . [Figure 4] A typical hydrocracking reactor

[69] is shown having a fourth reducing gas feed inlet [6], a first C16+ hydrocarbon inlet

[61] , a second C16+ hydrocarbon inlet

[68] , and a hydrocracking product outlet

[70] . [Figure 5] 1 is a plot showing the carbon number distribution of the C10-16 product fraction from an exemplary CO2-paraffin process of the present disclosure. [Figure 6] 1 is a plot showing the carbon number distribution of the C10-16 product fraction from an exemplary CO2-paraffin process of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] 1 is a plot showing the carbon number distribution of the C10-16 product fraction from an exemplary CO2-paraffin process of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0018] Aviation fuels generally contain four types of hydrocarbon compounds: normal (straight-chain) paraffins, isoparaffins (branched-chain), cycloparaffins, and aromatics. The most commonly used fuels, Jet A and Jet A-1, are blended to achieve compositions that meet the specifications set forth by ASTM International (formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials) standard D1655. The ASTM D1655 standard specification for aviation turbine fuels includes physical and chemical property tests that must be met for Jet A or Jet A-1 to be used in aircraft. The standard also includes limits on the concentrations of acidic and sulfur-containing compounds, as well as minimum and maximum concentrations for aromatic hydrocarbons, and references these limits to ASTM standard tests. Aromatics are necessary for material compatibility with O-rings in existing turbine engines, but are absent from most synthetically produced blend components for aviation fuels.

[0019] Among aromatic hydrocarbons, single-ring aromatic compounds and bicyclic aromatic compounds (meaning compounds containing two fused aromatic rings) do not differ substantially in their effectiveness for O-ring compatibility, and petroleum-derived jet fuels typically contain both. ASTM D1655 also does not distinguish between them. However, polycyclic aromatic compounds (meaning compounds containing two or more fused aromatic rings), such as naphthalene, emit significantly more harmful particulate matter when burned than their single-ring counterparts. For example, n-butylbenzene produces approximately 62% of the soot of naphthalene when burned. Therefore, synthetic jet fuels containing single-ring aromatic compounds rather than polycyclic aromatic compounds are advantageous.

[0020] Among the processes used to synthesize synthetic blend components for sustainable aviation fuel, the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process is commonly used because it is a proven process that has been in operation since the early 1900s for converting synthesis gas (syngas) (a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas) into paraffins. The product liquid from FT, Fischer-Tropsch hydrotreated synthetic paraffinic kerosene (FT-SPK), was subject to Annex A1 of ASTM D7566 (the first approved annex for synthetic blend components for SAF). This paraffinic kerosene consists primarily of n-paraffins and isoparaffins, with little or no cycloparaffins or aromatic compounds. Therefore, FT-SPK must be blended with the corresponding conventional Jet A to achieve the desired concentration of cyclic compounds that meets the ASTM D1655 specification. Through the ASTM D4054 process, an additional annex to ASTM D7566 was approved for synthetic blend components that contribute to fully formulated Jet A.

[0021] In one aspect, the present disclosure describes a fully formulated jet A synthetically produced from carbon dioxide. As described herein, the manufacturing process assembles aromatic compounds from carbon dioxide. This bottom-up process design significantly reduces the synthetic accessibility of larger molecules. Thus, the synthetic jet A disclosed herein contains fewer polyaromatic compounds than jet A produced from petroleum-derived components. In one embodiment, the synthetic jet A of the present disclosure contains less than about 1 wt% polyaromatic compounds.

[0022] The compositions described herein also contain substantially fewer sulfur-containing species than comparable fossil fuels, in some embodiments less than 1 ppm, which is achieved by thermochemically synthesizing jet fuel from CO and H.

[0023] Both of these characteristics of the fuels described herein (low polyaromatic and sulfur content) are difficult or impossible to achieve with petroleum-derived fuels because these fuels are prepared by conventional methods and ultimately retain various characteristic compounds from the petroleum source (e.g., sulfur species and polyaromatic compounds) that are prohibitively expensive or impossible to completely remove from the final fuel product.

[0024] Also provided herein are systems and processes for producing SAF (which in some embodiments can be used directly in place of Jet-A made from petroleum-derived components) from CO and renewable electricity. In the system shown in Figure 1, CO is provided to a two-tubular reactor system along with hydrogen or another reducing gas. After optional combination with recycle gas, the combined feed is separated into two streams. One stream passes through tubular reactor 1, where a catalyst (e.g., iron oxide and / or cobalt oxide), In2O3 / HZSM-5, or FeO is passed over a support (e.g., SiO2, alumina, zeolite, TiO2). x The CO2 and hydrogen in reactor 1 are converted to hydrocarbons (mainly paraffins). Other suitable paraffin catalysts are described further below. The other stream passes through tubular reactor 2, where a catalyst (e.g., CuZnAlO x / HZSM-5, ZnCr2O4 / ZSM-5, ZnAlO x The reactors are charged with a catalyst such as ZnZrO / HZSM-5, or ZnZrO / HZSM-5, to convert the CO and hydrogen into hydrocarbons (mainly aromatics). Other suitable aromatics catalysts are described further below. The reactor effluents from reactor 1 and reactor 2 are mixed before they are sent to high- and low-pressure separators. Unconverted CO and H, plus CO produced in reactor 1 and reactor 2, are optionally recycled to reactor 1 and reactor 2.

[0025] The liquid stream from the low pressure separator is sent to a stabilizer to remove light hydrocarbons (e.g., LPG). The bottom liquid from the stabilizer is sent to a three-stream separator where the liquid is separated into medium hydrocarbons (C 5-10 The isomerized and hydrogenated product is separated into kerosene, diesel, and a heavy cut. The heart cut is sent to a fixed-bed reactor where paraffin isomerization and aromatics hydrogenation occur. Hydrogen is added to the isomerization and hydrogenation reactors. A catalyst (e.g., Pd or Pt) on zeolite is packed into the reactor. In this reactor, some of the n-paraffins are converted to isoparaffins and some of the aromatics are converted to naphthenes to meet the product ratio required for the intended use (e.g., drop-in aviation fuel). The ratio of aromatics to paraffins entering the reactors is fixed by adjusting the size and feed rates of Reactor 1 and Reactor 2, and can be adjusted as needed to obtain the desired product characteristics. A separator is used after the isomerization-hydrogenation reactor to separate the unconverted hydrogen from the liquid product. Finally, a product column is installed to obtain the cut for the desired product (e.g., drop-in aviation fuel). The light hydrocarbons produced are sent back to the stabilizer, and the heavy hydrocarbons are sent to the hydrocracker.

[0026] The diesel and heavy hydrocarbons from the three-stream separator, combined with the heavy hydrocarbons produced from isomerization-hydrogenation, are sent to a low-pressure hydrocracking reactor (e.g., operating at <1000 psig) to convert the heavy hydrocarbons and diesel to the desired application (e.g., drop-in aviation fuel). A hydrocracking catalyst with mild operating conditions is required to operate the reactor. Hydrogen is added to the hydrocracking reactor. A separator is required after the reactor to separate the unconverted hydrogen from the liquid product. A distillation column is installed after the separator, where the difficult-to-convert heavy hydrocarbons are separated from the lighter hydrocarbons so that they can be recycled to the stabilizer.

[0027] The above-described process can produce aviation fuel that can be used directly in place of crude oil-derived Jet-A because the ratios of isoparaffins to normal paraffins and aromatics to naphthenes can be controlled in the isomerization / hydrogenation reactors, and the ratio of paraffins to aromatics can be adjusted by controlling the relative sizes of reactor 1 and reactor 2. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the flexibility of the system design allows these ratios to be adapted for other applications as desired. A particular advantage of the present system and method is the ability to blend aromatics and paraffins prior to refining, resulting in significant capital expenditure savings.

[0028] fuel composition In certain aspects, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for producing fuel compositions from a carbon source gas (e.g., CO) and a reducing gas (e.g., H). Fuel compositions (e.g., those described below) produced by these systems and / or methods exhibit certain unique properties and compositional features. For example, these compositions (or their major components) have low total sulfur content because they are synthetically produced from CO. As another example, the systems and processes disclosed herein for preparing aromatic components strongly favor the production of single-ring aromatic compounds and disfavor the production of multi-ring aromatic compounds. These compositional features (e.g., low sulfur content and low multi-ring aromatic content), which result from the systems and processes described herein, are advantageous compared to conventional (petroleum-derived) fuels.

[0029] In some aspects, provided herein are fuel compositions comprising: a monocyclic aromatic compound; Cycloparaffins and n-paraffin, isoparaffins, The composition is a fuel composition that contains less than about 1 wt% polyaromatic compounds.

[0030] In certain embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 5 wt% tetralin and indan. In further embodiments, the composition comprises less than about 1 wt% tetralin and indan. In some embodiments, the composition comprises 0 wt% to about 5 wt% tetralin and indan. In further embodiments, the composition comprises 0 wt% to about 1 wt% tetralin and indan. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition is substantially free of tetralin and indan.

[0031] In some embodiments, the composition contains less than about 0.5 wt% polycyclic aromatic compounds. In further embodiments, the composition contains 0 wt% to about 0.5 wt% polycyclic aromatic compounds. In still other embodiments, the composition contains about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% polycyclic aromatic compounds. In still other embodiments, the composition contains about 0.1 wt% or less, about 0.2 wt% or less, about 0.3 wt% or less, about 0.4 wt% or less, or about 0.5 wt% or less polycyclic aromatic compounds. In preferred embodiments, the composition is substantially free of polycyclic aromatic compounds, as determined, for example, by GC-MS.

[0032] In certain preferred embodiments, substantially all of the aromatic compounds present in the fuel compositions of the present disclosure are single-ring aromatic compounds.

[0033] In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 5 wt% to about 25 wt% single-ring aromatic compounds. In further embodiments, the composition comprises about 8 wt% to about 15 wt% single-ring aromatic compounds. In still other embodiments, the composition comprises about 8 wt%, about 9 wt%, about 10 wt%, about 11 wt%, about 12 wt%, about 13 wt%, or about 14 wt% single-ring aromatic compounds. In some preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 14.5 wt% single-ring aromatic compounds.

[0034] In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 15 wt% to about 65 wt% cycloparaffins. In further embodiments, the composition comprises about 15 wt% to about 35 wt% cycloparaffins. In still other embodiments, the composition comprises about 15 wt%, about 20 wt%, about 25 wt%, about 30 wt%, or about 35 wt% cycloparaffins. In some preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 29 wt% cycloparaffins.

[0035] In some embodiments, the composition comprises about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% isoparaffins. In further embodiments, the composition comprises about 5 wt% to about 15 wt% isoparaffins. In still other embodiments, the composition comprises about 5 wt%, about 7 wt%, about 9 wt%, about 11 wt%, about 13 wt%, or about 15 wt% isoparaffins. In some preferred embodiments, the composition comprises about 8.8 wt% isoparaffins.

[0036] In a preferred embodiment, the composition complies with ASTM D4054-Tier 1.

[0037] In some embodiments, the composition has a total acidity of less than about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In further embodiments, the composition has a total acidity of about 0.05 mg KOH / g to about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In still other embodiments, the composition has a total acidity of about 0.05 mg KOH / g, about 0.06 mg KOH / g, about 0.07 mg KOH / g, about 0.08 mg KOH / g, about 0.09 mg KOH / g, or about 0.10 mg KOH / g. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition has a total acidity of about 0.07 mg KOH / g.

[0038] In certain embodiments, the composition contains less than about 0.3 wt.% total sulfur, for example, as determined by ASTM D2622. In some embodiments, the composition contains less than about 1 ppm sulfur-containing impurities. In certain embodiments, the composition is substantially free of sulfur-containing impurities. In certain embodiments, the composition contains less than about 0.003 wt.% sulfur mercaptans. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition contains about 0 wt.% sulfur mercaptans, for example, as determined by ASTM D3227.

[0039] In some embodiments, the composition has a flash point of at least about 38°C. In further embodiments, the composition has a flash point of about 38°C to about 370°C. In yet other embodiments, the composition has a flash point of about 38°C to about 50°C. In still other embodiments, the composition has a flash point of about 38°C, about 39°C, about 40°C, about 41°C, about 42°C, about 43°C, about 44°C, about 45°C, about 46°C, about 47°C, about 48°C, about 49°C, or about 50°C. In a preferred embodiment, the composition has a flash point of about 42°C.

[0040] In one embodiment, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15° C. 3 ~about 840kg / m 3 In a further embodiment, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. 3 ~Approx. 785kg / m 3 In one embodiment, the composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. 3 , about 778kg / m 3 , about 780kg / m 3 , about 782kg / m 3 , or approximately 785 kg / m 3 In one preferred embodiment, at 15°C the composition has a density of about 780 kg / m 3 is.

[0041] In certain embodiments, the composition has a freezing point of less than about -40°C. In further embodiments, the composition has a freezing point of about -70°C to about -40°C. In still other embodiments, the composition has a freezing point of about -70°C, about -65°C, about -60°C, about -55°C, about -50°C, about -45°C, or about -40°C. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition has a freezing point of about -51°C.

[0042] In some embodiments, the composition has a viscosity of less than about 8.0 cSt at −20° C. In certain embodiments, the composition has a viscosity of less than about 12 mmHg at −40° C. 2 In one preferred embodiment, the composition has a viscosity of less than about 3.2 mm / s at -20°C. 2 / s.

[0043] In some embodiments, the composition has a net calorific value of at least about 42.8 MJ / kg. In further embodiments, the composition has a net calorific value of about 42.8 MJ / kg to about 51 MJ / kg. In still other embodiments, the composition has a net calorific value of about 42.8 MJ / kg, about 43.4 MJ / kg, about 45 MJ / kg, about 47 MJ / kg, about 49 MJ / kg, or about 51 MJ / kg. In some preferred embodiments, the composition has a net calorific value of about 43.4 MJ / kg.

[0044] In some embodiments, the composition has a smoke point of at least about 18 mm. In further embodiments, the composition has a smoke point of at least about 25 mm. In yet other embodiments, the composition has a smoke point of about 25 mm to about 45 mm. In still other embodiments, the composition has a smoke point of about 25 mm, about 30 mm, about 35 mm, about 40 mm, or about 45 mm. In some preferred embodiments, the composition has a smoke point of about 36 mm.

[0045] In some embodiments, the composition provides a filter pressure drop of less than about 25 mmHg. In further embodiments, the composition provides a filter pressure drop of 0 mmHg to about 25 mmHg. In certain preferred embodiments, the composition provides a filter pressure drop of about 0 mmHg.

[0046] In some embodiments, the compositions provide a pipe deposit rating of less than about 3 and are substantially free of peacock or abnormal color deposits. In some preferred embodiments, the compositions provide a pipe deposit rating of 1 VTR color code.

[0047] In some embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of less than about 0.85 mm wear scar diameter (WSD). In further embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of 0 mm WSD to about 0.85 mm WSD. In some preferred embodiments, the composition has a lubricity of about 0.52 mm WSD.

[0048] In some embodiments, the composition complies with ASTM D1655.

[0049] In certain preferred embodiments, the single-ring aromatic compounds are not derived from petroleum. In some preferred embodiments, the single-ring aromatic compounds are derived from CO. In certain preferred embodiments, the single-ring aromatic compounds, cycloparaffins, n-paraffins, and isoparaffins are not derived from petroleum. In some preferred embodiments, the single-ring aromatic compounds, cycloparaffins, n-paraffins, and isoparaffins are derived from CO.

[0050] In some embodiments, the composition further comprises at least one fuel additive.

[0051] Aviation fuel production system In one aspect, provided herein are systems for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel. In this disclosure, certain components of these systems are described as being "coupled" to one another. As understood, the term "coupled," as used herein, describes components that are operatively linked to one another, but does not preclude the presence of intervening components between components that are said to be coupled to one another. Furthermore, as understood, various system components are described as "having" certain features. For example, in one embodiment, a paraffin reactor

[25] is described as having a first reducing gas supply inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] , and a paraffin product outlet

[27] . Such descriptions do not preclude the presence of, and are specifically contemplated for, additional features (e.g., inlets, outlets, valves, control mechanisms, measurement devices, heating and / or cooling systems, etc.). Furthermore, in the systems of this disclosure, certain components are described as having one or more outlets or inlets. Such outlets and inlets may represent separate structural elements or may be combined into a single inlet or outlet, as appropriate. As one skilled in the art will appreciate, once the important features and operating conditions of the system (e.g., those described herein) are understood, the detailed design and operation of such a system required many choices (e.g., specific reagent flows, separation steps, etc.) While the present disclosure provides a number of specific embodiments, any suitable combination of these design choices may be made.

[0052] Additionally, various systems and methods of the present disclosure may be used to identify compounds with specific carbon numbers (e.g., C X-Y) as the carbon number. Of course, these carbon numbers refer to the majority carbon composition of the fraction, but the fraction may contain additional components having higher or lower carbon numbers than those indicated. Separators capable of forming these fractions are well known in the art and can be adjusted as needed to obtain the appropriate product mixture disclosed herein or as otherwise desired by the operator. Certain components of the system are referenced by numbers in parentheses (i.e.,

[10] ) and correspond to components shown in FIG. 1.

[0053] In one aspect, provided herein is a system for producing aviation fuel, comprising: a first reducing gas supply

[10] ; The first carbon source supply

[11] , a paraffin reactor

[24] containing a paraffin catalyst, said paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas supply inlet

[23] , a first carbon source inlet

[23] , and a paraffin product outlet

[27] , wherein the first reducing gas supply is coupled to the first reducing gas supply inlet and the first carbon source supply is coupled to the first carbon source supply inlet; a second reducing gas supply

[10] ; A second carbon source supply

[11] and an aromatic reactor

[31] containing an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas supply inlet

[37] , a second carbon source inlet

[37] , and an aromatic product outlet

[33] , wherein the second reducing gas supply is coupled to the second reducing gas supply inlet and the second carbon source supply is coupled to the second carbon source supply inlet; a blender

[20] having a paraffin product inlet

[28] , an aromatic product inlet

[35] , and a blended product outlet

[39] , wherein the paraffin product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the paraffin product inlet of the blender, and the aromatic product outlet from the aromatic reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

[0054] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a high-pressure separator

[40] having a blended product inlet

[39] , optionally a HP recycle gas outlet

[41] , and a HP separated product outlet

[45] , wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high-pressure separator. In further embodiments, the HP recycle gas outlet is coupled to the first reducing gas supply, the second reducing gas supply, the first carbon source supply, and / or the second carbon source supply, if present.

[0055] In a further embodiment, the system further comprises a low-pressure separator

[46] having an HP separation product inlet

[45] , optionally an LP recycle gas outlet

[47] , and an LP separation product outlet

[53] , the HP separation product outlet of the high-pressure separator being coupled to the HP separation product inlet of the low-pressure separator. In yet another embodiment, the LP recycle gas outlet is coupled to one or more of the first reducing gas supply, the second reducing gas supply, the first carbon source supply, and the second carbon source supply, if present.

[0056] In yet another embodiment, the system includes a first separator

[57] having an LP separation product inlet

[56] and a C 1-4 Hydrocarbon outlet

[58] and C 5+ and a hydrocarbon outlet

[59] , the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator being coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator

[57] .

[0057] In one embodiment, the system includes a second separator

[60] , 5+ Hydrocarbon inlet

[59] and C 5-8 Hydrocarbon outlet

[62] and C 16+ Hydrocarbon outlet

[61] and C 9-15 and a hydrocarbon outlet

[63] . 5+ The hydrocarbon outlet is C of the second separator. 5+ It further includes a second separator

[60] coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

[0058] In a further embodiment, the system comprises: a third reducing gas supply [5]; an isomerization reactor

[64] containing an isomerization catalyst, the isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas supply inlet and a C 9-15 a hydrocarbon inlet

[63] and an isomerized product outlet

[65] , and a third reducing gas supply is coupled to the third reducing gas supply inlet and to the C 9-15 The hydrocarbon outlet is C of the isomerization reactor. 9-15 and an isomerization reactor

[64] coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

[0059] In yet another embodiment, the system includes a third separator

[66] having an isomerization product inlet

[65] , a first recycle gas outlet

[75] , and a C 16+ The system further includes a third separator

[66] having a hydrocarbon outlet

[68] and a refined aviation fuel outlet

[67] , the isomerization product outlet of the isomerization reactor being coupled to the isomerization product inlet of the third separator. In yet another embodiment, the first recycle gas outlet

[74] is coupled to the LP separated product inlet

[56] of the first separator.

[0060] In one embodiment, the system comprises: a fourth reducing gas supply [6]; a hydrocracking reactor

[69] containing a hydrocracking catalyst, the hydrocracking reactor having a fourth reducing gas supply inlet and a first C 16+ The hydrocarbon inlet

[61] and the second C 16+ a hydrocarbon inlet

[68] and a hydrocracked product outlet

[70] , and a fourth reducing gas supply is coupled to the fourth reducing gas supply inlet and to the C 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is the first C of the hydrocracking reactor. 16+ C of the third separator, coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet 16+ The hydrocarbon outlet is the second C of the hydrocracking reactor. 16+ and a hydrocracking reactor

[69] coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

[0061] In a further embodiment, the system comprises a fourth separator

[71] having a hydrocracking product inlet

[70] , a second recycle gas outlet

[73] , and a C 18+ and a fourth separator

[71] having a hydrocarbon outlet

[72] , wherein the hydrocracked product outlet of the hydrocracking reactor is coupled to the hydrocracked product inlet of the third separator. In yet another embodiment, the second recycle gas outlet

[73] is coupled to the LP separated product inlet [55 / 56] of the first separator.

[0062] In yet other embodiments, the system further comprises a carbon dioxide capture device coupled to the first carbon source supply and / or the second carbon source supply.

[0063] Aviation fuel manufacturing method As described below, the present disclosure provides various methods for converting a carbon source gas into aviation fuel. The present disclosure includes exemplary process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure, space velocity, etc.) that offer certain advantages in the context of the systems and methods disclosed herein. However, any suitable conditions may be used, and one of ordinary skill in the art will understand how to vary the conditions of any particular process described herein to obtain the results required for a particular application and tailor the product distribution as intended.

[0064] In some aspects, provided herein are methods for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending the paraffinic product mixture with the aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

[0065] In an aspect, provided herein is a method for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas into aviation fuel, the method comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending the paraffinic product mixture with the aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

[0066] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst or an olefin catalyst.

[0067] In some embodiments, contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst occurs at a paraffin temperature that can be at least 80°C, or at least 100°C, or at least 120°C. In further embodiments, the paraffin temperature can be 550°C or less, or 600°C or less, or 650°C or less. In still other embodiments, the paraffin temperature is between about 100°C and about 600°C. In preferred embodiments, the paraffin temperature is between about 200°C and about 500°C, more preferably about 350°C.

[0068] In some embodiments, the contacting of the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst is carried out at a paraffin pressure of about 50 psi to about 4000 psi. In further embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 75 psi to about 225 psi. In yet other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 75 psi. In other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 100 psi. In some embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 125 psi. In some preferred embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 150 psi. In some embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 175 psi. In other embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 200 psi. In some embodiments, the paraffin pressure is about 225 psi.

[0069] In some embodiments, contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture containing one or more paraffins is carried out at a paraffin standard gas hourly space velocity (paraffin GHSV) of about 500 mL / g*h to about 2000 mL / g*h. In further embodiments, the paraffin GHSV is about 1250 mL / g*h to about 1750 mL / g*h. In a preferred embodiment, the paraffin GHSV is about 1500 mL / g*h.

[0070] In some embodiments, the contacting of the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst is carried out at an aromatic temperature of about 100°C to about 500°C, preferably about 100°C to about 450°C. The aromatic temperature can be at least 80°C, or at least 100°C, or at least 120°C. The aromatic temperature can be 550°C or less, or 500°C or less, or preferably 450°C or less. In some embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 250°C to about 350°C. In some such embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 250°C, about 275°C, about 300°C, about 325°C, or about 350°C. In some preferred embodiments, the aromatic temperature is about 300°C.

[0071] In some embodiments, contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst is carried out at an aromatic pressure of about 50 psi to about 3000 psi, preferably about 50 psi to about 1000 psi. In certain such embodiments, the aromatic pressure is about 50 psi, about 150 psi, about 250 psi, about 350 psi, about 450 psi, about 550 psi, about 650 psi, about 750 psi, about 850 psi, about 950 psi, or about 1000 psi. In one preferred embodiment, the aromatic pressure is about 450 psi.

[0072] In some embodiments, contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cyclic paraffins is carried out at an aromatic standard gas hourly space velocity (aromatic GHSV) of about 8000 mL / g*h to about 12000 mL / g*h. In further embodiments, the aromatic GHSV is about 8750 mL / g*h to about 9250 mL / g*h. In still other embodiments, the aromatic GHSV is about 8750 mL / g*h, about 9000 mL / g*h, or about 9250 mL / g*h. In a preferred embodiment, the paraffin GHSV is about 9000 mL / g*h.

[0073] In some embodiments, the crude product mixture further comprises unreacted carbon source and / or reducing gas. In further embodiments, the method further comprises separating the unreacted CO and / or reducing gas from the crude product mixture to obtain a degassed crude product mixture. In yet other embodiments, the degassed crude product mixture comprises C 1-4 Hydrocarbons, C 5-8 Hydrocarbons, C 9-15 Hydrocarbons, and C 16+ In yet other embodiments, the separation comprises high-pressure separation, low-pressure separation, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the separation comprises high-pressure separation and low-pressure separation.

[0074] In certain embodiments, the method further includes mixing the unreacted CO and / or reducing gas with one or more of the first reducing gas, the first carbon source gas, the second reducing gas, and the second carbon source gas. In further embodiments, the method further includes purifying the degassed product mixture to obtain a C 9-15 and obtaining a purified product mixture comprising hydrocarbons. In yet another embodiment, the purification comprises a first separation and a second separation.

[0075] In one embodiment, the first separation comprises separating the degassed crude product mixture: C 1-4 a first low carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; C 5-8 Hydrocarbons, C9-15 Hydrocarbons, and C 16+ a first higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons;

[0076] In a further embodiment, the second separation comprises separating the first higher carbon fraction from: C 5-8 a second lower carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and C 9-15 a refined product mixture comprising hydrocarbons; C 16+ and a second higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons.

[0077] In certain embodiments, the method further comprises contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst to: More C 1-8 Hydrocarbons, Further C 2000 including normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes 9-15 Hydrocarbons, More C 16+ and obtaining an isomerization product mixture comprising:

[0078] In one embodiment, contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst is carried out at an isomerization temperature of from about 50° C. to about 450° C. In a further embodiment, contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst is carried out at an isomerization pressure of from about 50 psi to about 2000 psi.

[0079] In an embodiment, the method further comprises a third separation, the third separation comprising separating the isomerized product mixture into: More C 1-8 a first recycle gas mixture comprising hydrocarbons; More C 16+ a third higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and Further C 2000 including normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes 9-15 and a refined aviation fuel containing hydrocarbons.

[0080] In some embodiments, refined aviation fuel contains from about 10% to about 20% aromatics.

[0081] In some embodiments, the method includes contacting the second higher carbon fraction and / or the third higher carbon fraction and a fourth reducing gas with a hydrocracking catalyst to produce a hydrocracking product. C 1-17 Hydrocarbons, C 18+ and obtaining a hydrocracking product mixture comprising:

[0082] In a further embodiment, the method further comprises a fourth separation, the fourth separation comprising separating the hydrocracking product mixture from: C 18+ a fourth higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and C 1-17 and a second recycle gas mixture comprising hydrocarbons.

[0083] In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises combining the first recycled gas mixture and / or the second recycled gas mixture with the degassed crude product mixture. In yet another embodiment, the method further comprises capturing a carbon source gas from the gas feed stream.

[0084] In some embodiments, provided herein are fuel compositions produced by the methods of the present disclosure.

[0085] The optional and preferred features of the present invention relating to the aviation fuel production method described above may also constitute optional or preferred features relating to the aviation fuel production system, and vice versa.

[0086] Catalysts for the conversion of carbon sources to paraffins In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure involve the use of a paraffin catalyst. In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst. As used herein, the term "paraffin catalyst" refers to a catalyst used in the conversion of a carbon source and a reducing gas to paraffins, although the catalyst itself does not necessarily contain paraffins.

[0087] In certain embodiments, the reduction catalysts and / or paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure are described as comprising and / or derived from a particular metal oxide or combination of metal oxides. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, during various catalyst preparation and activation methods known in the art, as well as those exemplified herein, some or all of the oxygen atoms of the metal oxide may be bonded to other atoms in the catalyst mixture and / or may be partially or totally removed from the catalyst mixture during the activation step (e.g., converted to CO and removed). Furthermore, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the molar ratio of oxygen to the overall composition may vary for such catalysts (e.g., reduction catalysts and / or paraffin catalysts described below). Furthermore, it should be understood that when specifying catalysts made from metal oxides, the molar ratio of one metal to another is specified on a metal (not metal oxide) basis.

[0088] In one embodiment, the paraffin catalyst of the present disclosure includes copper, zinc, one or more first elements selected from iron or cobalt, oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen, optionally aluminum, optionally one or more second elements selected from metals of Groups V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, and XI (e.g., manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel), and optionally one or more metals of Groups IA and IIA, wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 to about 40 wt. % (e.g., about 1 to about 10 wt. %, about 25 to about 40 wt. %, about 30 to about 40 wt. %, or about 35 to about 40 wt. %) of the total amount of copper, zinc, cobalt, iron, the optional second elements, and the optional metals of Groups IA and IIA.

[0089] In some embodiments, the one or more first elements comprise about 0.5 wt.%, about 1 wt.%, about 2 wt.%, about 3 wt.%, about 4 wt.%, about 5 wt.%, about 6 wt.%, about 7 wt.%, about 8 wt.%, about 9 wt.%, about 10 wt.%, about 11 wt.%, about 12 wt.%, about 13 wt.%, about 14 wt.%, about 15 wt.%, about 16 wt.%, about 17 wt.%, about 18 wt.%, about 19 wt.%, about 20 wt.%, about 21 wt.%, about 22 wt.%, about 23 wt.%, about 24 wt.%, about 25 wt.%, about 26 wt.%, about 27 wt.%, about 28 wt.%, about 29 wt.%, about 30 wt.%, about 31 wt.%, about 32 wt.%, about 33 wt.%, about 34 wt.%, about 35 wt.%, about 36 wt.%, about 37 wt.%, about 38 wt.%, about 39 wt.%, about 40 wt.%, about 41 wt.%, about 42 wt.%, about 43 wt.%, about 44 wt.%, about 45 wt.%, about 46 wt.%, about 47 wt.%, about 48 wt.%, about 49 wt.%, about 50 wt.%, about 51 wt.%, about 52 wt.%, about 53 wt.%, about 54 wt.%, about 55 wt.%, about 56 wt.%, about 57 wt.%, about 58 wt.%, about 59 wt.%, about 60 wt.%, about 61 wt.%, about 62 wt.%, about 63 wt.%, about 18wt.%, about 19wt.%, about 20wt.%, about 21wt.%, about 22wt.%, about 23wt.%, about 24wt.%, about 25wt.%, about 26wt.%, about 27wt.%, about 28wt.%, about 29wt. %, about 30 wt.%, about 31 wt.%, about 32 wt.%, about 33 wt.%, about 34 wt.%, about 35 wt.%, about 36 wt.%, about 37 wt.%, about 38 wt.%, about 39 wt.%, or about 40 wt.%. In some embodiments, the one or more first elements are present in an amount of 1-10 wt.%, 10-20 wt.%, or 20-30 wt.%, 20-25 wt.%, 22-24 wt.%, 25-40 wt.%, 30-40 wt.%, or 35-40 wt.% of the total amount of copper, zinc, one or more first elements, optional second elements, and optional Group IA metals.

[0090] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide. In some embodiments, the cobalt is present as cobalt oxide. In some embodiments, the copper is present as copper oxide. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) is about 0.1-100 for cobalt, 0.05-4 for copper, and 0.05-2 for zinc. In some embodiments, the Co:Cu:Zn ratio ranges from 1-2 for cobalt, 1-3 for copper, and 0.5-1 for zinc. In some embodiments, the Co:Cu:Zn ratio is about 1:2.5:1. In some embodiments, the zinc is preferably at a molar content of 0.3-1 relative to the copper. In some embodiments, the cobalt is preferably at a molar content of 0.1-1 relative to the copper.

[0091] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises an iron-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide. In some embodiments, the iron is present as iron oxide. In certain preferred embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof. In further embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4). In yet other embodiments, the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

[0092] In some embodiments, the copper is present as copper oxide. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of iron, copper, and zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 0.1-100 for iron, 0.05-4 for copper, and 0.05-4 for zinc. In some embodiments, the Fe:Cu:Zn ratio ranges from 0.4-2 for iron, 1-3 for copper, and 0.5-3 for zinc. In some embodiments, the Fe:Cu:Zn ratio is about 1:2.3:2.3. In some embodiments, the zinc is preferably present in a 0.3-1 molar content relative to the copper. In some embodiments, the iron is preferably present in a 0.5-5 molar content relative to the copper.

[0093] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more elements selected from transition metals or metals of Group VI, Group VII, Group VIII, Group IX, Group X, or Group XI. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group VI. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group VII. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group VIII. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group IX. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group X. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements selected from metals of Group XI.

[0094] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel.

[0095] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise nickel. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise silver. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise palladium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise niobium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise manganese. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise zirconium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements comprise molybdenum.

[0096] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 4 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 3 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 1 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.75 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.5 relative to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more second elements in a molar ratio of about 0.05 to about 0.25 relative to the one or more first elements.

[0097] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 0.5 to about 5 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 1 to about 10 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 2 to about 9 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 2.3 to about 8.4 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 2.3 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 8.4 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 1.5 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 1.0 to the one or more first elements. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to the one or more first elements of about 0.75, hi some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to the one or more first elements of about 0.5.

[0098] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.3 to about 3. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.3 to about 3. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.4 to about 1. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 1.5. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 1.0. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.75. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.5. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.4.

[0099] In some embodiments, the one or more second elements include niobium. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements consist of niobium. In some embodiments, the niobium is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.05 to about 1. In some embodiments, the niobium is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.2. In some embodiments, the niobium is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.3. In some embodiments, the niobium is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.1.

[0100] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.01 to about 1.0. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.05 to about 0.50. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.20 to about 0.50. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.30 to about 0.50. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.40 to about 0.50, hi some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.15.

[0101] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA metals. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals consist of potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise potassium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise sodium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals consist of potassium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals consist of sodium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals consist of cesium.

[0102] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises potassium in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.05, about 0.09, about 0.1, about 0.15, about 0.2, about 0.25, about 0.3, about 0.35, about 0.4, about 0.45, or about 0.5, hi some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises potassium in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.09.

[0103] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.1 to about 10. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.1 to about 1. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.1 to about 0.2. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.5 to about 1. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.1. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises aluminum in a molar ratio to copper of about 0.2.

[0104] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises zinc oxide.

[0105] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper oxide.

[0106] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises cobalt oxide.

[0107] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises iron oxide.

[0108] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises nickel oxide.

[0109] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises alumina.

[0110] In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise or consist of magnesium, calcium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise or consist of sodium or cesium. In some embodiments of the paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure, it has been found that using magnesium, calcium, sodium, or cesium in place of potassium does not substantially affect catalytic activity, and magnesium, calcium, sodium, and cesium provide the same stability as potassium. This is in contrast to known syngas catalysts, where the choice of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium significantly affects activity.

[0111] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises or consists of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), wherein the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.01 to about 100. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.1 to about 0.8. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 0.7. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 10. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 20. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 30. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 40. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 50. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 60. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 70. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 80. In some embodiments, the aluminum is present in a molar ratio relative to copper of about 90. In some embodiments, aluminum is present in a molar ratio to copper of about 100. In some embodiments, alumina can be added as a support to increase the surface area of ​​copper and zinc, or can be produced in situ as a component of a paraffin catalyst, for example, from aluminum nitrate co-precipitation with the first element, copper, and zinc precursors.

[0112] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, cobalt, and alumina. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises cobalt, copper in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 8.4, zinc in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 3.3, and alumina, and aluminum in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 1.8. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 8.4, zinc oxide in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 3.3, and alumina in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 0.9.

[0113] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, nickel, and alumina. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises nickel, copper in a molar ratio to nickel of about 2.5, zinc in a molar ratio to cobalt of about 1, and alumina, with aluminum in a molar ratio to nickel of about 0.7. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to nickel of about 2.5, zinc oxide in a molar ratio to nickel of about 1, and alumina in a molar ratio to nickel of about 0.35.

[0114] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, iron, and alumina. In some such embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises iron, copper in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, zinc in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, and alumina, and aluminum in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.8. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, zinc oxide in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, and alumina in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.4.

[0115] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, cobalt, alumina, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises cobalt, copper in a molar ratio of about 8.4 to cobalt, zinc in a molar ratio of about 3.3 to cobalt, alumina (aluminum in a molar ratio of about 1.8 to cobalt), and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.14 to cobalt. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 8.4 to cobalt, zinc oxide in a molar ratio of about 3.3 to cobalt, alumina in a molar ratio of about 0.9 to cobalt, and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.14 to cobalt.

[0116] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, nickel, alumina, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises nickel, copper in a molar ratio of about 2.5 to nickel, zinc in a molar ratio of about 1 to nickel, alumina (aluminum in a molar ratio of about 0.7 to nickel), and a Group IA metal in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to nickel. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio of about 2.5 to nickel, zinc oxide in a molar ratio of about 1 to nickel, alumina in a molar ratio of about 0.35 to nickel, and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio of about 0.1 to nickel.

[0117] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper, zinc oxide, iron, alumina, and a Group IA metal. In some embodiments, the molar ratios of the components are as described above. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises iron, copper in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, zinc in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.3, alumina (aluminum in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.4), and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.4. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises copper in a molar ratio to iron of about 2.5, zinc oxide in a molar ratio to iron of about 1, alumina in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.35, and one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.1.

[0118] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Al, O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Ni, Al, O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Al, O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Fe, Al, O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Al, O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Nb, Al, and O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Al, and O, and an alkali metal. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Mo, Al, and O, and an alkali metal.

[0119] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Fe, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Ni, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Fe, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Nb, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Ni, Al, and O. In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst comprises Cu, Zn, Co, Mo, Al, and O.

[0120] In one embodiment, the elemental composition of the paraffin catalyst material is Cu(ZnO)CoA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoFeA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNbA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNiA / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoMoA / Al2O3, where A is an alkali metal, and the relative amounts of the elemental components are as described above.

[0121] In one embodiment, the elemental composition of the paraffin catalyst material is Cu(ZnO)Co / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoFe / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNb / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoNi / Al2O3, Cu(ZnO)CoMo / Al2O3, with the relative amounts of the elemental components as previously described.

[0122] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is selected from one of the following exemplary catalysts: CuO(ZnO), Cu(ZnO)Co, Cu(ZnO)CoK, Cu(ZnO)CoFe, Cu(ZnO)CoFeK, Cu(ZnO)CoNi, Cu(ZnO)CoNiK, Cu(ZnO)CoNb, Cu(ZnO)CoNbK, Cu(ZnO)CoMo, Cu(ZnO)CoMoK on Al2O3, with the relative amounts of the elemental components as previously described. In certain such embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is about CuO (2) (ZnO) (1) , Cu (2.5) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) , Cu (2.5) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) K (0.1) , Cu (1) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Fe (1) , Cu (1) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Fe (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Ni (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Ni (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Nb (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Nb (1) K (0.15) , Cu (2) (ZnO)(1) Co (1) Mo (1) , Cu (2) (ZnO) (1) Co (1) Mo (1) K (0.15) is.

[0123] In a further aspect, provided herein is a catalyst for producing paraffins, comprising: One or more metals; optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc; optionally one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, or XI metal additives; and optionally a Group IA or Group IIA metal cocatalyst.

[0124] In some embodiments, the one or more metals are selected from cobalt, iron, nickel, indium, yttrium, lanthanides, and combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the one or more metals are cobalt. In yet other embodiments, the one or more metals are iron. In yet other embodiments, the one or more metals are a combination of iron and cobalt.

[0125] In some embodiments, the one or more metals are present in the form of an oxide, nitride, or carbide. In further embodiments, the one or more second elements are copper. In yet other embodiments, the one or more second elements are zinc. In yet other embodiments, the one or more second elements are copper and zinc. In some embodiments, the one or more second elements are present in the form of an oxide, nitride, or carbide.

[0126] In some embodiments, the one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, or XI metal additives, when present, are selected from manganese, silver, niobium, zirconium, molybdenum, ruthenium, palladium, platinum, or nickel. In further embodiments, the Group IA or IIA metal promoter, when present, is a Group IA element. In yet other embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals, when present, are magnesium, calcium, lithium, sodium, potassium, or cesium. In yet other embodiments, the Group IA or IIA metal promoter, when present, is lithium, sodium, potassium, or cesium. In yet other embodiments, the one or more secondary elements are present in an amount of about 0.5 to about 40 wt. % of the total amount of the one or more metals, secondary elements, optional one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, or XI metal additives, and optional Group IA or IIA metal promoter.

[0127] In an embodiment, the present disclosure provides a catalyst comprising one or more paraffinic metal oxides, optionally a support, and optionally one or more metal additives.

[0128] In some embodiments, the one or more paraffinic metal oxides are selected from cobalt oxide, iron oxide, nickel oxide, indium oxide, yttrium oxide, lanthanide oxide, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the support, when present, comprises carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, or silica carbide. In some embodiments, the one or more metal additives, when present, are selected from Group IA or Group IIA elements, palladium, platinum, ruthenium, or combinations thereof.

[0129] In an embodiment, the present disclosure provides a catalyst composition comprising one or more of the paraffin catalysts disclosed herein and a reduced catalyst support. The reduced catalyst support can be any suitable material capable of functioning as a catalyst support.

[0130] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and silica carbide. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is aluminum oxide formed in situ as part of the paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from, without limitation, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, and TiO2. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silica carbide, and TiO2.

[0131] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials, hi some embodiments, the carbon-based materials are selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0132] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is an aluminum-based material, such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0133] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is a zeolite, such as Y zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In a preferred embodiment, the reduction catalyst support is MCM-49. In further embodiments, the zeolite includes an additional metal, such as Zn, Ga, Fe, or another transition metal. In still other embodiments, the additional metal is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0134] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0135] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is a mesoporous material. In such embodiments, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the physical properties of the mesoporous material, such as mesopore volume and surface area, may be measured using standard gas absorption measurement techniques known in the art, such as the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method for determining pore size distribution and pore volume, and the Brunauer-Emmett and Teller (BET) method for obtaining specific surface area (hereinafter "surface area").

[0136] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support has a mesopore volume of from about 0.01 to about 3.0 cc / g.

[0137] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m 2 In some preferred embodiments, the catalyst composition comprising a reduced catalyst support and a catalyst disclosed herein has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m 2 / g.

[0138] In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0139] In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% paraffin catalyst.

[0140] In some embodiments, the support is a high surface area scaffold. In some embodiments, the support comprises mesoporous silica. In some embodiments, the support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0141] In some embodiments, the paraffin catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 1 nm to 5 nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 5 nm to 100 nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the paraffin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is 100 to 500 nm. In some embodiments, particles that do not undergo aggregation are 100 to 500 nm in size.

[0142] In certain embodiments, the paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure (such as those described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO) to paraffins.

[0143] Catalysts for the conversion of carbon source gases and reducing gases to linear alpha olefins In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure involve the use of an olefin catalyst. As used herein, the term "olefin catalyst" refers to a catalyst used in the conversion of a carbon source and a reducing gas to an olefin, although the catalyst itself does not necessarily contain an olefin. In certain embodiments, the reduction catalyst of the present disclosure is an olefin catalyst of the present disclosure.

[0144] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides an olefin catalyst comprising: Iron and Optionally, alumina, and optionally a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt, or a combination thereof; and optionally one or more second elements selected from Group IA and Group IIA metals.

[0145] In certain preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture comprising potassium, manganese, ruthenium, and MgO. In further embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1 wt % to about 10 wt % of the additive mixture.

[0146] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises alumina.

[0147] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt, or a combination thereof. In further embodiments, the first element is copper. In yet other embodiments, the first element is zinc. In yet other embodiments, the first element is cobalt. In some embodiments, the first element is a combination of copper, zinc, and / or cobalt.

[0148] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals. In further embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In still other embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of magnesium, calcium, potassium, sodium, or cesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise magnesium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise calcium. In still other embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise potassium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals comprise sodium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of cesium. In some preferred embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of magnesium. In some preferred embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of calcium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals consist of potassium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise sodium. In some embodiments, the one or more Group IA or IIA metals comprise cesium.

[0149] In some aspects, the present disclosure provides an olefin catalyst comprising: Iron and Optionally, alumina, and a first element selected from K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof; and one or more second elements selected from Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, MnCo, Ru, Ni, or combinations thereof.

[0150] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst is Iron and K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; and Zn in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron.

[0151] In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron. In some preferred embodiments, the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio of about 0.04 relative to iron and Na in a molar ratio of about 0.006 relative to iron. In certain such embodiments, the olefin catalyst is preferably Zn-free.

[0152] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst is Iron and K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.20 relative to iron; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron; Co, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron.

[0153] In some such embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.20. In one preferred embodiment, the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.05.

[0154] In some preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.50. In certain such embodiments, the olefin catalyst preferably comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.14. In certain more preferred embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.14 and K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.01.

[0155] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

[0156] In certain preferred embodiments, the iron is in the form of iron oxide. In certain such embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite (Fe2O3), or a combination thereof. In further such embodiments, the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe3O4). In yet other such embodiments, the iron oxide is a combination of magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3).

[0157] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support. The reduced catalyst support can be any suitable material capable of functioning as a catalyst support.

[0158] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the additional support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolite, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and silica carbide. In some embodiments, the additional support is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is aluminum oxide formed in situ as part of the paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from, without limitation, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, and TiO2. In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silica carbide, and TiO2.

[0159] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials, hi some embodiments, the carbon-based materials are selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0160] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is an aluminum-based material, such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0161] In some embodiments, the reduction catalyst support is a zeolite, such as Y zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In a preferred embodiment, the reduction catalyst support is MCM-49. In further embodiments, the zeolite includes a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal. In still other embodiments, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0162] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0163] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is a mesoporous material. In such embodiments, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the physical properties of the mesoporous material, such as mesopore volume and surface area, can be measured using standard gas absorption measurement techniques known in the art, such as the Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) method for determining pore size distribution and pore volume, and the Brunauer-Emmett and Teller (BET) method for determining specific surface area (hereinafter "surface area"). In further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support has a mesopore volume of about 0.01 to about 3.0 cc / g.

[0164] In one embodiment, the reduced catalyst support has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m 2 In one preferred embodiment, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m 2 / g.

[0165] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In further embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In still other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In still other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In certain embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0166] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% olefin catalyst. In further embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% olefin catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% olefin catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst comprising the reduced catalyst support comprises from about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% olefin catalyst.

[0167] In some embodiments, the reduced catalyst support is a high surface area scaffold. In further embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises mesoporous silica. In yet other embodiments, the reduced catalyst support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0168] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In further embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 1 nm to 5 nm. In yet other embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 5 nm to 100 nm. In yet other embodiments, the particle size of the olefin catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 100 to 500 nm. In some embodiments, particles that do not undergo agglomeration are about 100 to 500 nm in size.

[0169] In some embodiments, the olefin catalyst is pretreated with syngas. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst is pretreated with hydrogen. In yet other embodiments, the olefin catalyst is heated with an inert gas (including, but not limited to, nitrogen gas, argon) prior to production.

[0170] In certain embodiments, the olefin catalysts of the present disclosure (such as those described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO 2 ) to olefins.

[0171] Catalysts for the conversion of carbon sources and reducing gases to aromatic compounds In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure involve the use of aromatic catalysts. As used herein, the term "aromatic catalyst" refers to a catalyst used in the conversion of a carbon source and a reducing gas to aromatic compounds, but does not necessarily contain aromatic compounds itself. In certain aspects, the aromatic catalysts of the present disclosure include one or more aromatic metal oxides, optionally an aromatic catalyst support, and optionally one or more aromatic metal additives. In certain embodiments, the catalysts of the present disclosure are described as comprising and / or derived from a particular metal oxide or combination of metal oxides. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, during various catalyst preparation and activation methods known in the art, as well as those exemplified herein, some or all of the oxygen atoms of the metal oxide may be bonded to other atoms in the catalyst mixture and / or may be removed from the catalyst mixture during the activation step (e.g., converted to CO and removed). Furthermore, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the molar ratio of oxygen to the overall composition may vary for such catalysts (e.g., the aromatic catalysts described below).

[0172] In some embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal oxides are selected from zinc oxide, copper oxide, chromium oxide, and zirconium oxide. In further embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal additives, when present, are selected from Group IA or Group IIA elements, palladium, platinum, and ruthenium. In yet other embodiments, the one or more aromatic metal oxides comprise a first aromatic metal oxide and a second aromatic metal oxide, wherein the first aromatic metal oxide is zinc or copper and the second aromatic metal oxide is selected from chromium, aluminum, and zirconium.

[0173] In some embodiments, the first aromatic metal oxide and the second metal oxide are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:1. In some embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:5. In further embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:4.5. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:4. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:3.5. In some embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:3. In further embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:2.5. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:2. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1:1. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 1.5:1. In yet other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 2:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 2.5:1. In some embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 3:1. In further embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 3.5:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 4:1. In still other embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 4.5:1. In some embodiments, the first metal ratio is about 5:1.

[0174] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises one or more metals, optionally one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, or XIII metal additives, and optionally a Group IA or IIA metal cocatalyst.

[0175] In some embodiments, the one or more metals include a first metal and a second metal. In further embodiments, the first metal is zinc oxide. In yet other embodiments, the second metal is selected from zirconium, chromium, aluminum, and copper. In still other embodiments, the first metal is present in the form of an oxide, nitride, or carbide. In some embodiments, the second metal is present in the form of an oxide, nitride, or carbide.

[0176] In some embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:10 to about 10:1. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:10. In yet other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:9. In yet other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:8. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:7. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:6. In yet other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:5. In yet other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:4. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:3. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:2. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 1:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 2:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 3:1. In further embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 4:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 5:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 6:1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 7:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 8:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 9:1. In still other embodiments, the ratio of the first metal to the second metal is about 10:1.

[0177] In some embodiments, the metal additive is selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, and aluminum. In some preferred embodiments, the metal additive is gallium. In further embodiments, the metal additive is chromium. In yet other embodiments, the metal additive is molybdenum. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is tungsten. In some embodiments, the metal additive is manganese. In further embodiments, the metal additive is rhenium. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is iron. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is ruthenium. In some embodiments, the metal additive is osmium. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is cobalt. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is rhodium. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is iridium. In some embodiments, the metal additive is nickel. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is palladium. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is platinum. In still other embodiments, the metal additive is copper. In some embodiments, the metal additive is silver. In further embodiments, the metal additive is gold. In further embodiments, the additive is aluminum.

[0178] In some embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. In further embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium, and cesium. In yet other embodiments, the metal promoter is selected from beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. In yet other embodiments, the metal promoter is potassium.

[0179] In one embodiment, the aromatic catalyst is ZnCrO4.

[0180] In one preferred embodiment, the aromatic metal is zinc, one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium; The aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, and the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

[0181] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component comprising iron and zinc and a zeolite component comprising a zeolite. In some embodiments, the zeolite is selected from Y-type zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In some preferred embodiments, the zeolite is ZSM-5.

[0182] In further embodiments, the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, preferably Ga or Zn. In still other embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier. In still other embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.01 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier. In some embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.1 wt % to about 1.5 wt % of the modifier. In some preferred embodiments, the zeolite component comprises 0.5 wt % to about 1 wt % of the modifier.

[0183] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 10 wt% to about 90 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 90 wt% to about 10 wt% of the zeolite component. In further embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 25 wt% to about 75 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 75 wt% to about 25 wt% of the zeolite component. In some preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 40 wt% to about 60 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 60 wt% to about 40 wt% of the zeolite component.

[0184] In some embodiments, the mixed oxide component is Iron and zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron; Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.10 relative to iron; and Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.60 relative to iron.

[0185] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.10. In one preferred embodiment, the aromatic catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.036. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst further comprises an aromatic catalyst support. The aromatic catalyst support can be any suitable material capable of functioning as a catalyst support.

[0186] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support comprises gamma-alumina. In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and silica carbide. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is aluminum oxide formed in situ as part of the paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from, without limitation, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, and TiO2. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silica carbide, and TiO2.

[0187] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support comprises one or more carbon-based materials, hi some embodiments, the carbon-based materials are selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0188] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In further embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is an aluminum-based material, such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0189] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is a zeolite, such as Y zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In a preferred embodiment, the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5. In further embodiments, the zeolite includes a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal. In still other embodiments, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0190] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0191] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support is a mesoporous material, hi some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support has a mesopore volume of about 0.01 to about 3.0 cc / g. In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst support has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m2 In some preferred embodiments, the catalyst composition comprising an aromatic catalyst support and a catalyst disclosed herein has a surface area of ​​about 10 m 2 / g~about 1000m 2 / g.

[0192] In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 10 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 20 nm to about 5 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 1 μm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 100 nm to about 500 nm. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition is in the form of particles having an average size of about 50 nm to about 300 nm.

[0193] In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 80 wt.% aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 5 wt.% to about 70 wt.% aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 20 wt.% to about 70 wt.% aromatic catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises from about 30 wt.% to about 70 wt.% aromatic catalyst.

[0194] In some embodiments, the support is a high surface area scaffold. In some embodiments, the support comprises mesoporous silica. In some embodiments, the support comprises a carbon allotrope.

[0195] In some embodiments, the aromatic catalyst is a nanoparticle catalyst. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 1 nm to 5 nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is about 5 nm to 100 nm. In some embodiments, the particle size of the aromatic catalyst on the surface of the scaffold is 100 to 500 nm. In some embodiments, particles that do not undergo aggregation are 100 to 500 nm in size.

[0196] The optional and preferred features of the present invention relating to the catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas to aromatic compounds described above may also constitute optional or preferred features for the catalyst for converting a carbon source to paraffins or for the catalyst for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas to linear alpha olefins, and vice versa.

[0197] In certain embodiments, the aromatic catalysts of the present disclosure (such as those described above) are active in the conversion of a carbon source gas (such as CO) to aromatic compounds.

[0198] Hydrogenation and Isomerization Catalysts In certain aspects, the systems and methods of the present disclosure involve the use of a hydrogenation and isomerization catalyst (referred to herein as an "isomerization catalyst") to isomerize and / or hydrogenate a proportion of the hydrocarbons produced. Any suitable hydrogenation and / or isomerization catalyst known in the art may be used in these processes. However, the specific embodiments described below are provided both to illustrate the use of such catalysts and to identify catalysts that are particularly well suited for use in conjunction with other features of the systems and methods disclosed herein.

[0199] In some embodiments, the isomerization catalyst of the present disclosure is an aluminosilicate catalyst, such as a zeolite. In further embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is AlCl. In still other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is doped with a transition metal, such as Pt, Pd, etc. In still other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is Pt in beta zeolite. In some embodiments, the isomerization catalyst of the present disclosure includes an isomerization metal and an isomerization support. The isomerization support can be any suitable material capable of functioning as a catalyst support.

[0200] In some embodiments, the isomerization support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the isomerization support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and silica carbide. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is aluminum oxide formed in situ as part of the paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from, without limitation, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, and TiO2. In some embodiments, the isomerization support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silica carbide, and TiO2.

[0201] In some embodiments, the isomerization support comprises one or more carbon-based materials, hi some embodiments, the carbon-based materials are selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0202] In some embodiments, the isomerization support is SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In a further embodiment, the isomerization support is an aluminum-based material, such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0203] In some embodiments, the isomerization support is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the zeolite includes a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metals. In still other embodiments, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0204] In some embodiments, the isomerization support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0205] In further embodiments, the isomerization metal is selected from Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo. In yet other embodiments, the zeolite support is SiAlO x , SO4-ZrO2, Y-type zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM5, ZSM22, SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41, MCM-49, MCM-22, TiO2, WO3, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In some embodiments, the zeolite support is selected from TiO2, WO3, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In still other embodiments, the isomerization catalyst is selected from Pt / ZrO2 / WO3, Pt / ZrWO4, Pt / SiAlO x , Pt / SO4-ZrO2, Pt / ZSM5, Pt / ZSM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO x, Ni-W / SO4-ZrO2, Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22, and Ni-W / SAPO. In one preferred embodiment, the isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO2 / WO3. In another preferred embodiment, the isomerization catalyst is Pt / SAPO containing 0.2 wt% Pt.

[0206] In some embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 0.5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In further embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 0.5 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 1 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 10 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In some embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 20 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In further embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 30 wt% of the isomerization catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the isomerization metal comprises about 40 wt% of the isomerization catalyst.

[0207] The optional and preferred features of the invention relating to the hydrogenation and isomerization catalysts described above may also constitute optional or preferred features for the catalyst for converting a carbon source to paraffins, for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas to linear alpha olefins, or for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas to aromatics, and vice versa.

[0208] Hydrocracking catalyst The systems and methods of the present disclosure can use any suitable hydrocracking catalyst, including those known in the art. In some embodiments, catalysts similar to those described for the hydrogenation and isomerization steps (above) are also used for hydrocracking.

[0209] Any suitable hydrocracking catalyst known in the art may be used in these processes, however, the specific embodiments described below are provided both to illustrate the use of such catalysts and to identify catalysts that are particularly well suited for use in conjunction with other features of the systems and methods disclosed herein.

[0210] In a further embodiment, the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal, such as Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo, and a hydrocracking support, which can be any suitable material capable of functioning as a catalyst support.

[0211] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support comprises one or more materials selected from oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin. In some preferred embodiments, the hydrocracking support comprises γ-alumina. In certain embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from carbon, silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, and silica carbide. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is aluminum oxide formed in situ as part of the paraffin catalyst. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from, without limitation, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, and TiO2. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is selected from MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2, SnO2, SiO2, ZnO, WO3, silica carbide, and TiO2.

[0212] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support comprises one or more carbon-based materials, hi some embodiments, the carbon-based materials are selected from activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide.

[0213] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is SiAlO x, SO4-ZrO2, zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO2-Al2O3, SiO2-TiO2). In a further embodiment, the hydrocracking support is an aluminum-based material, such as alumina (e.g., γ-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite.

[0214] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is a zeolite, such as Y-type zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof. In further embodiments, the zeolite includes a modifier, such as Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metals. In still other embodiments, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework.

[0215] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

[0216] In some embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise between about 0.5 wt% and about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In further embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 0.5 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 1 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 10 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In some embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 20 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In further embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 30 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst. In yet other embodiments, the hydrocracking metals comprise about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

[0217] The optional and preferred features of the invention described above with respect to a hydrocracking catalyst may also constitute optional or preferred features with respect to a catalyst for converting a carbon source to paraffins, a catalyst for converting a carbon source gas and a reducing gas to linear alpha olefins, a catalyst for converting a carbon source and a reducing gas to aromatics, or a hydrogenation and isomerization catalyst, and vice versa.

[0218] Reducing gas, carbon source gas, and their ratio The systems and methods of the present disclosure can be designed to utilize any combination of a suitable reducing gas and a suitable carbon source gas, which may, in some embodiments, be fed separately into the required reaction vessel, or may, in some embodiments, be premixed (e.g., a first reducing gas feed and a first carbon source gas feed, as well as a second reducing gas feed and a second carbon source gas feed, may, in some embodiments, refer to the same physical characteristic) to provide a single feed stream containing both the carbon source gas and the reducing gas, which is coupled to a suitable reactor.

[0219] Additionally, a single gas feed comprising a first reducing gas feed, a first carbon source gas feed, a second reducing gas feed, and a second carbon source gas feed can be premixed to provide a single feed stream comprising both a carbon source gas and a reducing gas, which is coupled to both the aromatic reactor and the paraffin reactor. In some embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and the fourth reducing gas are independently selected from H, hydrocarbons, syngas (CO / H), or a gas that is or is derived from flare gas, tail gas, or natural gas.

[0220] In some embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is H. In further embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is synthesis gas. In still other embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is a hydrocarbon, such as CH, ethane, propane, or butane. In still other embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is or is derived from flare gas, tail gas, or natural gas. In some embodiments, the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is CH.

[0221] In certain preferred embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO. In further embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas comprises CO. In yet other embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO. In yet other embodiments, the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas comprises CO.

[0222] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the flow rates of the carbon source gas and / or reducing gas, or various product mixtures, through the paraffinic and / or aromatic reactors (or elsewhere in the disclosed systems and methods) can be adjusted as needed to obtain the desired product output characteristics.

[0223] Furthermore, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the carbon source gas and reducing gas may be provided in any suitable ratio that results in the desired product output characteristics. In certain embodiments, the molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:10. In further embodiments, the molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:1. In yet other embodiments, the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:10. In yet other embodiments, the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:1.

[0224] definition Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used in this application shall have the meanings commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Generally, the nomenclature used in connection with, and techniques of, chemistry, cell and tissue culture, molecular biology, cell and cancer biology, neurobiology, neurochemistry, virology, immunology, microbiology, pharmacology, genetics, and protein and nucleic acid chemistry described herein are well known and commonly used in the art.

[0225] The methods and techniques of this disclosure are generally, unless otherwise indicated, carried out according to conventional methods well known in the art and as described in various general and more specific references cited and discussed throughout the specification. See, e.g., "Principles of Neural Science," McGraw-Hill Medical, New York, NY (2000); Motulsky, "Intuitive Biostatistics," Oxford University Press, Inc. (1995); Lodish et al., "Molecular Cell Biology, 4th ed.," W.H. Freeman & Co., New York (2000); Griffiths et al., "Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 7th ed.," W.H. Freeman & Co., NY (1999); and Gilbert et al., "Developmental Biology, 6th ed.," Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA (2000).

[0226] Chemical terms used herein, unless otherwise defined herein, are used in accordance with conventional usage in the art, as exemplified in "The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms," ​​Parker S., Ed., McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, CA (1985).

[0227] All of these and any other publications, patents and published patent applications referenced in this application are specifically incorporated herein by reference. In case of conflict, the present specification, including its specific definitions, will control.

[0228] The terms "logarithm of solubility," "LogS," or "logS," as used herein, are used in the art to quantify the aqueous solubility of a compound. The aqueous solubility of a compound greatly affects its absorption and distribution properties. Low solubility often coincides with poor absorption. The LogS value is the unit-stripped logarithm (base 10) of the solubility measured in moles / liter.

[0229] The term "single-ring aromatic(s)," as used herein, refers to compounds containing only one single aromatic ring, which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g., alkylbenzenes), and which may optionally be fused with a non-aromatic ring (e.g., tetralin and indane).

[0230] The term "polyaromatic(ies)," as used herein, refers to a compound containing at least two aromatic rings, which may be fused (e.g., two separate rings that share two adjacent ring atoms). As a non-limiting example, the term "polyaromatic compound" may be used to refer to a group of compounds that include naphthalene and / or naphthalene derivatives.

[0231] The term "petroleum-derived," as used herein, refers to compounds and compositions obtained by physical and chemical processes from a petroleum feedstock, but does not include compounds and compositions whose carbon is derived from carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide, even if the carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide is produced from a petroleum feedstock (e.g., by burning petroleum).

[0232] Where the amount of an impurity is specified at a level of "about 0", one skilled in the art will understand that such a measurement is accurate to a certain number of significant figures, depending on the relevant detection method used. [Example]

[0233] The present invention has now been generally described and will be more readily understood with reference to the following examples, which are included solely for the purpose of illustrating certain aspects and embodiments of the invention and are not intended to limit the invention.

[0234] Example 1: Typical CO-aromatic catalyst composition A typical aromatic catalyst of the present disclosure comprises a mixed metal oxide and a zeolite support. The ratio of mixed metal oxide to zeolite can be as follows: a. Mixed oxides: 10% to 90%, zeolite: 90% to 10% b. Mixed oxides: 25% to 75%, zeolite: 75% to 25% c. Mixed oxides: 40% to 60%, zeolite: 60% to 40%

[0235] A typical mixed oxide component of the catalyst is a B b Fe 100 Zn x O y where a, b, and x represent the atomic composition of each metal, and y is the number of oxygen atoms supplementing the metal. A consists of at least one of Na, K, Cs, Mg, or Ca, and B consists of at least one of Cu, Cr, or Mn. The ranges for a, b, and x are shown below. a.0 <a<10 b.0<=b<60 c.0<=x<50

[0236] The zeolite component of a typical catalyst has the formula M x ZSM5 y where x and y are the weight percent of the metal and ZSM5, respectively, or metal- or metalloid-modified ZSM5, where M is Ga or Zn, and the ranges of x and y are as follows: a.ZSM5 100 b.Ga 0.01 ZSM5 99,99 ~Ga2ZSM5 98 c.Ga0.1 ZSM5 99,9 ~Ga 1.5 ZSM5 98.5 d.Ga 0.5 ZSM5 99,5 ~Ga1ZSM5 99 e.Zn 0.01 ZSM5 99,99 ~Zn2ZSM5 98 f.Zn 0.1 ZSM5 99,9 ~Zn 1.5 ZSM5 98.5 g.Zn 0.5 ZSM5 99,5 ~Zn1ZSM5 99

[0237] Example 2: General procedure for CO2-aromatic catalyst synthesis The aromatic catalyst of the present disclosure was synthesized by incipient wetness impregnation of zinc nitrate and chromium nitrate (Zn / Cr=0.5) onto an HZSM-5 support. The zinc and chromium metal content was 38 wt%. The HZSM-5 support was prepared by hydrothermal modification of tetraethyl orthosilicate and aluminum nitrate (Si / Al=70) at 180°C for 48 hours. The resulting product was dried at 110°C overnight. Calcination was carried out at 450°C for 2 hours.

[0238] Example 3: Synthesis of a typical CO2-aromatic catalyst Preparation of mixed metal oxide: 109.1 g of ferric nitrate nonahydrate and 20.1 g of zinc nitrate hexahydrate were dissolved in 675 mL of water to obtain Solution I. 47.2 g of sodium carbonate was dissolved in 891 mL of water to obtain Solution II. Solutions I and II were added to a flask containing 100 mL of water heated to 338 K while stirring. The feed rate of Solution II was 1.3 times that of Solution I, so that the addition of both solutions was completed simultaneously. After the addition, the temperature of the solution was raised to 353 K, and the precipitated solid was aged in the solution for 1 hour. After aging, the solid was separated from the solution by filtration. The resulting solid was then washed with water until the sodium concentration in the solid was less than 0.1 wt%. The washed solid was then further dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain Solid I. 1.34 g of potassium carbonate was dissolved in 1.5 mL of water to obtain Solution III. Solution III was combined with solid I to obtain mixture I, which was dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain solid II. Solid II was then calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting mixed oxide was 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y It was.

[0239] Preparation of Ga-ZSM5 support: 3.7 g of gallium nitrate was dissolved in 3 mL of water to obtain Solution I. Solution I was then mixed with 99 g of ZSM5 to obtain Mixture I. Mixture I was dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain Solid I. Solid I was calcined at 773 K for 12 hours. The obtained solid was Ga1ZSM5 99 It was.

[0240] Preparation of Zn-ZSM5 support: 2.9 g of zinc nitrate hexahydrate was dissolved in 3 mL of water to obtain Solution I. Solution I was then mixed with 99 g of ZSM5 to obtain Mixture I. Mixture I was dried at 395 K for 6 hours to obtain Solid I. Solid I was calcined at 773 K for 12 hours. The obtained solid was Zn1ZSM5 99 It was.

[0241] Example 4: General procedure for converting CO2 to aromatic compounds Aromatics production from CO2 and hydrogen is carried out in a fixed-bed flow reactor. The flow reactor is loaded with 1 kg of ZnCr2O4 on HZSM-5 catalyst. The catalyst is reduced in situ in a hydrogen environment at 350 °C for 2 h. The reactor is heated to 300 °C after pretreatment. A feed mixture of 75% hydrogen and 25% CO2 is added at 300 psi and a gas hourly space velocity of 5,000 h -1 CO2 is introduced into the reactor in a selected range of carbon chain lengths (C8-C 12 ) is converted into a mixture of alkylated aromatic compounds having the formula:

[0242] Example 5: Typical Procedure for the Hydrogenation of CO2 to SAF Range Aromatics (Commercial ZSM5) I Catalyst K made by the method from Example 1 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y The commercial ZSM5 was granulated to the same 40-60 mesh size. The same weight of granulated K 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y and ZSM5 were mixed by a rotary mixer at 60 rpm for 1 minute to obtain the final catalyst I. 2 grams of catalyst I was loaded into a ½ inch tube fixed-bed reactor.

[0243] Catalyst I was activated by a gas flow of 5% H2 diluted with nitrogen. The activation was operated at 200 psig and 623 K. The activation time was 5 hours. After activation, a mixture of CO2 and H2 was introduced into the reactor. The H2 / CO2 molar ratio was 3:1. The reactor was operated at a pressure of 450 psig, a temperature of 573 K, and a standard gas hourly space velocity of 9000 mL / g*h. The liquid and gaseous reactor effluents were measured, and the CO2 conversion per pass and the major carbon selectivity are reported in Table 5.1. [Table 1] The content of polycyclic aromatic compounds in the aromatic compounds was 1 to 2 wt%.

[0244] Example 6: Typical Procedure II for the Hydrogenation of CO to SAF Range Aromatics (Modified ZSM-5) Mixed metal oxides made by the method from Example 3, e.g., K 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y The catalyst support prepared by the method from Example 3, e.g., Ga1ZSM5, was granulated to 40-60 mesh size. 99 The same weight of granulated K was granulated to the same 40-60 mesh size. 3.6 Fe 100 Zn 16 O y and Ga1ZSM5 99 was mixed by a rotary mixer at 60 rpm for 1 minute to obtain catalyst II. 2 grams of catalyst II was loaded into a ½ inch tube fixed-bed reactor.

[0245] Catalyst II was activated with a gas stream 2 of 5% H diluted with nitrogen. The activation was operated at 200 psig and 623 K. The activation time was 5 hours. After activation, a mixture of CO2 and H2 was introduced into the reactor. The H2 / CO2 molar ratio was 3:1. The reactor was operated at a pressure of 450 psig, a temperature of 573 K, and a standard gas hourly space velocity of 9000 mL / g*h. The liquid and gaseous reactor effluents were measured, and the CO2 conversion per pass and the major carbon selectivity are reported in Table 6.2. [Table 2] The content of polycyclic aromatic compounds in the aromatic compounds was 1 to 2 wt%.

[0246] Example 7: Typical CO-Paraffin Catalyst Composition Typical paraffin catalysts of the present disclosure comprise mixed metal oxides. Typical mixed oxide compositions are shown below:

[0247] A a B b Fe 100 Zn x O yThe catalyst is a mixed oxide composition of iron, zinc oxide and a further promoter metal. a B b Fe 100 Zn x O y where a, b, and x represent the atomic composition of each metal, and y is the number of oxygen atoms supplementing the metal. A is at least one of K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, and Ca, and B is at least one of Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, and Mn. The ranges for a, b, and x are shown below. a.0≦a<20 b.0≦b<60 c.0≦x<50

[0248] A a B b Fe 100 X c The mixed oxide component of the catalyst is designated as A a B b Fe 100 X c wherein a, b, and c represent the atomic composition of each metal. A is at least one of K, Cs, Mg, and Ca; B is at least one of Na, Cu, Cr, and Mn; and X is at least one of Co, Ru, and Ni. The ranges for a, b, and c are shown below. a.0≦a<20 b.0≦b<60 c.0≦c<50

[0249] Example 8: Synthesis of a typical CO2-paraffin catalyst composition I. Preparation of mixed oxide catalyst: Iron oxide and zinc oxide composites were first prepared by coprecipitation using a 0.5 M concentration metal nitrate precursor solution, which was then reacted with 1.2 molar equivalents of sodium carbonate and mixed using parallel addition at 338 K for 1 h.

[0250] The resulting slurry was then aged at 353 K for 1 hour with continuous stirring. The precipitate was then obtained using vacuum filtration and a 0.25 micron filter. Excess sodium was removed by three distilled water washing steps, each using 300 mL of distilled water. The resulting solid contained less than 0.1% residual sodium. The precipitate was dried at 393 K for 4 hours and then crushed to a fine powder.

[0251] Potassium was impregnated using the incipient wetness impregnation method, in which a 2M solution of potassium carbonate was prepared and then sprayed onto the solid iron and zinc composite while mixing on a shaker table. This was then calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst contained Na 0.6 K4Fe 100 Zn 16 O y It was.

[0252] II.A a B b Fe 100 X c Catalyst Preparation: Mined magnetite was crushed to a particle size of 0.25 and impregnated with 5 wt% potassium relative to iron using the incipient wetness impregnation method. Impregnation was performed with potassium carbonate solution using enough distilled water to provide 0.2 grams of water per gram of magnetite. The impregnation step was performed dropwise on an ultrasonic bath. After the solution was completely added to the magnetite, the slurry was left in the ultrasonic bath for 10 minutes. It was then dried in an oven at 393 K for 4 hours and then calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst contained Fe 100 It was K5.

[0253] III.A a B b Fe 100 X c Catalyst preparation: Solutions of Fe and Co metals were prepared using metal nitrates as precursors, and a base solution of 2.4 molar equivalents of sodium carbonate relative to the metal nitrates was prepared at a concentration of 0.5M. Sufficient water to immerse the stirrer was added to a 2 L round-bottom flask and heated to 343 K with continuous stirring. The metal and base solutions were transferred to the round-bottom flask via peristaltic pumps and added in parallel, with the target flow rates set so that the metal solution was completely added along with half of the base solution over approximately 1 h. The temperature was then increased to 353 K and aged for 1 h. After 1 h, the mixture was allowed to cool to room temperature before being reheated to 343 K. The remaining base solution was added over 1 h, and the resulting slurry was aged at 353 K for an additional 1 h.

[0254] The precipitate was vacuum filtered using a 0.25 micron filter. The product was then washed three times, blended with approximately 300 mL of water, and filtered each time to remove excess sodium to less than 0.1%. The resulting precipitate was dried at 393 K for 4 hours before being crushed into a fine powder and calcined at 623 K for 6 hours. The resulting catalyst contained Fe 100 Co 14 It was K1.

[0255] Example 8: Basic procedure for converting CO2 to paraffin Paraffin production and hydrogenation from CO2 are carried out in a fixed-bed flow reactor. The flow reactor is loaded with 1 kg of CoRu / In on alumina catalyst. The catalyst is reduced in situ in a hydrogen environment at 250 °C for 2 h. The reactor is heated to 250 °C after pretreatment. A feed mixture of 80% hydrogen and 20% CO2 is added at 500 psi and a gas hourly space velocity of 9,000 h -1 CO2 is introduced into the reactor in a selected range of carbon chain lengths (C6-C 40 ) to a mixture of paraffins and olefins.

[0256] Example 9: Typical Procedure for Converting CO2 to Paraffins I Catalysts made by the method from Example 7, e.g., Na 0.6 K4Fe 100 Zn 16 O yThe catalyst was granulated to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated with H at 623 K, 150 psig, and GHSV of 1200 for 5 hours. It was then conditioned with syngas (H / CO = 2) at GHSV of 600 and 623 K. The catalyst was then tested for CO hydrogenation, and the hydrocarbon range was C 10 -C 16 The conversion of CO to SAF was measured in a fixed-bed reactor under conditions of 623 K, GHSV 1500, and 450 psig using a feed gas of H = 72 mol%, CO = 24 mol%, and N = 4 mol% as an internal standard. [Table 3]

[0257] SAF Product Range (C 10 -C 16 The high molecular weight products in the olefins were analyzed for carbon type distribution. The results are summarized in Figure 5, and the distribution by carbon number is summarized in Table 9.2 below, where Others includes isoparaffins and cycloparaffins. Table 9.2: C obtained by typical procedure I for converting CO2 to paraffins 10 -C 16 Hydrocarbon distribution. [Table 4]

[0258] Example 10: Typical Procedure II for Converting CO2 to Paraffins Catalysts made by the method from Example 7, e.g., Fe 100 K5 was granulated to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated under H2 at 150 psig, 623 K, and GHSV 400 for 10 h. After hydrotreatment, the conversion of CO2 to SAF was carried out in a fixed-bed reactor under conditions of 623 K, GHSV 1500, and 450 psig using a feed gas of H2 = 63 mol%, CO2 = 23 mol%, and N2 = 4 mol% as an internal standard. [Table 5]

[0259] SAF Product Range (C 10 -C 16 The high molecular weight products in the olefins were analyzed for carbon type distribution. The results are summarized in Figure 6, and the distribution by carbon number is summarized in Table 10.2 below, where Others includes isoparaffins and cycloparaffins. [Table 6]

[0260] Example 11: Typical Procedure III for Converting CO2 to Paraffins Catalysts made by the method of Example 7, e.g., Fe 100 Co 14 K1 was granulated to 40-60 mesh size and pretreated under H2 at 150 psig, 623 K, and GHSV 200 for 5 hours. After hydrotreating, the catalyst was conditioned with syngas (H2 / CO = 2) at 145 psig, 623 K, and GHSV 600 for 1 hour. CO2 conversion to SAF was measured in a fixed-bed reactor under conditions of 623 K, GHSV 1500, and 450 psig using a feed gas of 63 mol% H2, 23 mol% CO2, and 4 mol% N2 as an internal standard. [Table 7]

[0261] SAF Product Range (C 10 -C 16 The high molecular weight products in the 11.1.2.1 olefins were analyzed for carbon type distribution. The results are summarized in Figure 7, and the distribution by carbon number is summarized in Table 11.2 below, where Others includes isoparaffins and cycloparaffins. [Table 8]

[0262] Example 12: General procedure for separating target hydrocarbons A feed mixture of 50% CO2-paraffinic product (e.g., from Example 3) and 50% CO2-aromatic product (e.g., from Example 2) is introduced into a distillation system under atmospheric N2 atmosphere. A fraction cut between 150°C and 250°C is collected.

[0263] Example 13: General Procedure for Hydroisomerizing CO to SAF Products The fraction recovered from the separation step (e.g., from Example 4) is fed into a hydroisomerization reactor packed with 1 kg of Pt on Beta zeolite catalyst (0.5 wt% Pt). The reaction is carried out at 750 psi, the hydrogen to hydrocarbon molar ratio is set to 500, and the liquid weight hourly space velocity is 1.0 h -1 The fraction is selected from the carbon chain numbers C8 to C 15 The crude oil is converted to a mixture of saturated n-paraffins, isoparaffins, aromatics, and cycloparaffins.

[0264] Example 14: Typical Procedure for Hydrogenation and Hydrodeoxygenation Platinum (0.5 wt% Pt) and palladium on carbon (1 wt% Pd) impregnated on alumina were loaded into a hydroisomerization fixed-bed reactor. The catalyst was pretreated with hydrogen at 600 psig, 100°C for 2 hours, then at 300°C for 4 hours with a GHSV of 3000. The liquid was fed at a WHSV of 1 and a liquid / hydrogen volume ratio of 50. The resulting liquid was recovered, indicating complete conversion of olefins and oxygenates to paraffins and 10% of the cracked products from the process.

[0265] Example 15: Typical Procedure for Hydroisomerizing Paraffinic SAF Platinum (0.2 wt% Pt) impregnated on SAPO-11 was loaded into a hydroisomerization fixed-bed reactor. The catalyst was pretreated with hydrogen at atmospheric pressure at 100°C for 2 hours and then at 250°C for 12 hours. Liquid was fed at a WHSV of 1 and a liquid / hydrogen volume ratio of 10. The resulting liquid was recovered, indicating a 65% conversion of normal paraffins to isoparaffins and 10% of the cracked products from the process.

[0266] Example 16: General procedure for hydrocracking The fraction recovered from the separation step (e.g., from Example 4) was fed into a hydrocracking reactor packed with 1 kg of Pt on Y zeolite catalyst (0.5 wt% Pt). The reaction was carried out at 750 psi, the hydrogen to hydrocarbon molar ratio was set to 20, and the liquid weight hourly space velocity was 1.0 h -1 The fraction is selected from the carbon chain numbers C8 to C 15 is converted to a mixture of saturated n-paraffins, isoparaffins, aromatics, and cycloparaffins having

[0267] Example 17: Blending Jet Fuel from Aromatic and Paraffinic SAF I. 160 gallons of paraffinic fuel mixture is blended with 120 gallons of aromatic fuel mixture. Of the 160 gallons of paraffinic fuel mixture, 100 gallons are isoparaffins and 60 gallons are n-paraffins, ensured by controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the paraffins. Of the 120 gallons of aromatic fuel mixture, 80 gallons are cycloparaffins and 40 gallons are aromatics, ensured by controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the aromatics. Thus, this typical blended jet fuel has the following composition: n-paraffin: 21.4v%, Isoparaffin: 35.7v%, Cycloparaffins: 28.6v%, Aromatic compounds: 14.3v%, Polycyclic aromatic compounds <1v%, Indan and tetralin <1v%.

[0268] II. 200 gallons of paraffinic fuel blend was blended with 200 gallons of aromatic fuel blend. Of the 200 gallons of paraffinic fuel blend, 120 gallons were isoparaffins and 80 gallons were normal paraffins by controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the paraffins. Of the 200 gallons of aromatic fuel blend, 160 gallons were cycloparaffins and 40 gallons were aromatics by controlling the hydroisomerization conditions of the aromatics. Thus, the blended jet fuel has the following composition: n-paraffin: 20v%, Isoparaffin: 30v%, Cycloparaffins: 40v%, Aromatic compounds: 10v%, Polycyclic aromatic compounds <1v%, Indan and tetralin <1v%.

[0269] Example 18: Typical fuel composition Renewable fuels were produced by contacting carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas with a catalyst to produce a mixture of n-paraffins, isoparaffins, cycloparaffins, and aromatics. The products were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and further characterized according to each of the standard methods listed in Table 18.1 below. [Table 9]

[0270] Example 19: Comparison of aviation fuel produced by the disclosed method with conventional aviation fuel A comparison is made between synthetic Jet A and conventional (petroleum-based) Jet A in a turbojet engine. The two fuels are tested back-to-back using the same engine, instrumentation, and test cell. The engine is first run on Jet A + 5% oil mix, supplied from a temporary nitrogen-pressurized 2-gallon liquid dispensing tank. The reservoir and fuel lines are emptied and replaced with synthetic jet fuel + 5% oil mix, and the test is repeated. The engine is run at multiple speeds, holding at each point for 1.5 minutes to reach thermal equilibrium. The final 20 seconds of each hold are averaged as a data point.

[0271] Start times, engine speeds, and temperatures are also compared. After actuating the throttle hook to measure performance, the engine is shut off and allowed to cool for 15 minutes. While it cools, the battery is recharged. After 15 minutes, the engine is started and allowed to idle. This process is the same for each engine to eliminate known influences on engine starting performance.

[0272] Incorporation by Reference All publications and patents mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety as if each individual publication or patent was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. In case of conflict, the present application will control, including any definitions herein.

[0273] equivalent While specific embodiments of the subject invention have been described, the foregoing specification is illustrative and not restrictive. Many variations of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon review of this specification and the claims that follow. The full scope of the invention should be determined by reference to the claims, along with their full scope of equivalents and the specification, and together with such variations.

Claims

1. 1. A system for producing aviation fuel, comprising: a first reducing gas supply; a first carbon source supply; a paraffin reactor containing a reduction catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas supply inlet, a first carbon source inlet, and a paraffin product outlet, the first reducing gas supply being coupled to the first reducing gas supply inlet and the first carbon source supply being coupled to the first carbon source supply inlet; a second reducing gas supply; and a second carbon source supply; an aromatic reactor containing an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas supply inlet, a second carbon source inlet, and an aromatic product outlet, the second reducing gas supply being coupled to the second reducing gas supply inlet and the second carbon source supply being coupled to the second carbon source supply inlet; a blender having a paraffin product inlet, an aromatic product inlet, and a blended product outlet, wherein the paraffin product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the paraffin product inlet of the blender and the aromatic product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

2. 1. A system for producing aviation fuel, comprising: a first reducing gas supply; a first carbon source supply; a paraffin reactor containing a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin reactor having a first reducing gas supply inlet, a first carbon source inlet, and a paraffin product outlet, the first reducing gas supply being coupled to the first reducing gas supply inlet and the first carbon source supply being coupled to the first carbon source supply inlet; a second reducing gas supply; and a second carbon source supply; an aromatic reactor containing an aromatic catalyst, the aromatic reactor having a second reducing gas supply inlet, a second carbon source inlet, and an aromatic product outlet, the second reducing gas supply being coupled to the second reducing gas supply inlet and the second carbon source supply being coupled to the second carbon source supply inlet; a blender having a paraffin product inlet, an aromatic product inlet, and a blended product outlet, wherein the paraffin product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the paraffin product inlet of the blender and the aromatic product outlet from the paraffin reactor is coupled to the aromatic product inlet of the blender.

3. The reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst is one or more paraffin metals; optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc; 3. The system of claim 1 or 2, optionally comprising one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, or XI metal additives.

4. The reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst is Copper and Zinc and one or more first elements selected from iron or cobalt; one or more non-metallic elements selected from oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen; Optionally, aluminum, and optionally one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals; 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 to about 40 wt. % of the total amount of the copper, zinc, cobalt, and the optional Group IA or IIA metal.

5. 5. The system of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin catalyst comprising a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

6. 6. The system of claim 4 or 5, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) in the paraffin catalyst is about 100:1:30.

5.

7. 5. The system of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin catalyst comprising an iron-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

8. 8. The system of claim 4 or 7, wherein the molar ratio of iron to copper to zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 100:1:0.

5.

9. The system of any one of claims 4 to 8, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals.

10. The reduction catalyst is an olefin catalyst, and the olefin catalyst comprises: Iron and Optionally, alumina, and optionally a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt, or a combination thereof; 3. The system of claim 1 or 2, optionally comprising one or more second elements selected from Group IA or Group IIA metals.

11. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture comprising potassium, manganese, ruthenium, and MgO.

12. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1% to about 10% by weight of the additive mixture.

13. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the olefin catalyst optionally further comprises Zr, Au, Cr, Ga, Mn, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof.

14. The olefin catalyst is K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.60; 14. The system of claim 13, comprising Zn in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

15. 15. The system of claim 14, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.20 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

60.

16. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.04 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

006.

17. The olefin catalyst is K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.60; and Co, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

18. 18. The system of claim 17, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.

20.

19. 20. The system of claim 18, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.

05.

20. 20. The system of any one of claims 17 to 19, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

21. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

14.

22. 22. The system of claim 21, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.14 and K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

01.

23. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ), hematite (Fe ２ O ３ ), or a combination thereof.

24. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ 24. The system according to claim 10, wherein

25. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 24. The system according to claim 10, wherein

26. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ) and hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 24. The system of claim 23 in combination with

27. The system of any one of claims 1 to 26, wherein the reduction catalyst further comprises a reduction catalyst support.

28. The reduction catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 28. The system of claim 27, wherein optionally, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

29. 29. The system of claim 27 or 28, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

30. The aromatic catalyst is one or more aromatic metals; Optionally, one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, or XIII aromatic metal additives; 30. The system of any one of claims 1 to 29, optionally comprising a Group IA or Group IIA metal promoter.

31. 31. The system of any one of claims 1 to 30, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component comprising iron and zinc, and a zeolite component comprising a zeolite.

32. 32. The system of claim 31, wherein the zeolite is selected from Y-type zeolite, beta zeolite, ZSM-type zeolite (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolite (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolite, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolite, microcrystalline USY zeolite, and combinations thereof, preferably the zeolite is ZSM-5.

33. 33. The system of claim 31 or 32, wherein the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, e.g., Ga or Zn.

34. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the zeolite component comprises from 0 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier.

35. 35. The system of claim 33 or 34, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.01 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier.

36. 36. The system of any one of claims 33 to 35, wherein the zeolite component comprises from 0.1 wt % to about 1.5 wt % of the modifier.

37. 37. The system of any one of claims 33 to 36, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.5 wt% to about 1 wt% of the modifier.

38. 38. The system of any one of claims 31 to 37, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 10 wt% to about 90 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 90 wt% to about 10 wt% of the zeolite component.

39. 39. The system of any one of claims 31 to 38, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 25 wt% to about 75 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 75 wt% to about 25 wt% of the zeolite component.

40. 40. The system of any one of claims 31 to 39, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 40 wt% to about 60 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 60 wt% to about 40 wt% of the zeolite component.

41. The mixed oxide component is Iron and zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron; Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.10; and Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

60.

42. 42. The system of claim 41, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

10.

43. 43. The system of claim 41 or 42, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.

036.

44. the one or more aromatic metals include a first aromatic metal and a second aromatic metal; the first aromatic metal is zinc; 31. The system of claim 30, wherein the second aromatic metal is selected from zirconium, chromium, aluminum, and copper.

45. 45. The system of claim 30 or 44, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives, if present, are selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, and aluminum.

46. 46. ​​The system of any one of claims 30, 44, and 45, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives are present and the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium.

47. 47. The system of any one of claims 30 and 44-46, wherein the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium, and cesium.

48. 48. The system of any one of claims 30 and 44-47, wherein the first aromatic metal and second metal are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:

1.

49. the aromatic metal is zinc; the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium; 31. The system of claim 30, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, and the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

50. 50. The system of any one of claims 49, wherein the aromatic catalyst further comprises an aromatic catalyst support.

51. The aromatic catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 51. The system of claim 50, wherein optionally, the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

52. 52. The system of claim 50 or 51, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

53. 53. The system of any one of claims 1 to 52, further comprising a high pressure separator having a blended product inlet and, optionally, an HP recycle gas outlet and an HP separated product outlet, wherein the blended product outlet of the blender is coupled to the blended product inlet of the high pressure separator.

54. 54. The system of claim 53, wherein the HP recycle gas outlet, if present, is coupled to the first reducing gas supply, the second reducing gas supply, the first carbon source supply, and / or the second carbon source supply.

55. 55. The system of claim 53 or 54, further comprising a low pressure separator having an HP separated product inlet, and optionally an LP recycle gas outlet, and an LP separated product outlet, the HP separated product outlet of the high pressure separator being coupled to the HP separated product inlet of the low pressure separator.

56. 56. The system of claim 55, wherein the LP recycle gas outlet, if present, is coupled to one or more of the first reducing gas supply, the second reducing gas supply, the first carbon source supply, and the second carbon source supply.

57. a first separator having an LP separated product inlet and a C １－４ a hydrocarbon outlet and C ５＋ 57. The system of claim 55 or 56, further comprising a first separator having a hydrocarbon outlet, wherein the LP separated product outlet of the low pressure separator is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

58. A second separator, ５＋ a hydrocarbon inlet; and ５－８ a hydrocarbon outlet and C １６＋ a hydrocarbon outlet and C ９－１５ a hydrocarbon outlet, ５＋ The hydrocarbon outlet is the C ５＋ 58. The system of claim 57, further comprising a second separator coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

59. a third reducing gas supply; and an isomerization reactor containing an isomerization catalyst, the isomerization reactor having a third reducing gas supply inlet and a C ９－１５ a hydrocarbon inlet and an isomerization product outlet, wherein the third reducing gas supply is coupled to the third reducing gas supply inlet, and the C ９－１５ The hydrocarbon outlet is the C ９－１５ 60. The system of claim 58, further comprising: an isomerization reactor coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

60. 60. The system of claim 59, wherein the isomerization catalyst comprises an isomerization metal, such as Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo, and an isomerization support.

61. The isomerization carrier is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 61. The system of claim 60, wherein optionally, the isomerization support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

62. The isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO ２ / WO ３ , Pt / ZrWO ４ , Pt / SiAlO ｘ , Pt / SO ４ -ZrO ２ , Pt / ZSM5, Pt / ZSM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO ｘ , Ni-W / SO ４ -ZrO ２ , Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22, and Ni-W / SAPO.

63. The isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO ２ / WO ３ The system according to any one of claims 60 to 62,

64. 63. The system of claim 62, wherein the isomerization catalyst is a Pt / SAPO containing 0.2 wt% Pt.

65. a third separator having an isomerization product inlet, a first recycle gas outlet, and C １６＋ 65. The system of any one of claims 59 to 64, further comprising a third separator having a hydrocarbon outlet and a refined aviation fuel outlet, the isomerization product outlet of the isomerization reactor being coupled to the isomerization product inlet of the third separator.

66. 66. The system of claim 65, wherein the first recycle gas outlet is coupled to the LP separation product inlet of the first separator.

67. a fourth reducing gas supply; and a hydrocracking reactor containing a hydrocracking catalyst, the hydrocracking reactor having a fourth reducing gas supply inlet and a first C １６＋ a hydrocarbon inlet and a second C １６＋ a hydrocarbon inlet and a hydrocracked product outlet, wherein the fourth reducing gas supply is coupled to the fourth reducing gas supply inlet, and the C １６＋ The hydrocarbon outlet is the first C of the hydrocracking reactor. １６＋ The C of the third separator is coupled to a hydrocarbon inlet. １６＋ The hydrocarbon outlet is the second C １６＋ 67. The system of claim 65 or 66, further comprising: a hydrocracking reactor coupled to the hydrocarbon inlet.

68. 68. The system of claim 67, wherein the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal, e.g., Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo, and a hydrocracking support.

69. The hydrocracking support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; Optionally, the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

70. 70. The system of claim 68 or 69, wherein the hydrocracking metals comprise from about 0.5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

71. a fourth separator having a hydrocracking product inlet, a second recycle gas outlet, and a C １８＋ and a hydrocarbon outlet, wherein the hydrocracking product outlet of the hydrocracking reactor is coupled to the hydrocracking product inlet of the third separator.

72. 72. The system of claim 71, wherein the second recycle gas outlet is coupled to the LP separated product inlet of the first separator.

73. 73. The system of any one of claims 1 to 72, further comprising a carbon dioxide capture device coupled to the first carbon source supply and / or the second carbon source supply.

74. A fuel composition produced using the system of any one of claims 1 to 73.

75. 1. A method for producing aviation fuel, comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending said paraffinic product mixture with said aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

76. 1. A method for producing aviation fuel, comprising: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a paraffin catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending said paraffinic product mixture with said aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

77. The reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst is one or more paraffin metals; optionally one or more second elements selected from copper and zinc; 77. The method of claim 75 or 76, optionally comprising one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, or XI metal additives.

78. The reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst is Copper and Zinc and one or more first elements selected from iron or cobalt; Oxygen and Optionally, aluminum, and optionally one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals; 77. The method of claim 75 or 76, wherein the one or more first elements are present in an amount of about 1 to about 40 wt. % of the total amount of the copper, zinc, cobalt, and the optional Group IA or Group IIA metal.

79. 79. The method of any one of claims 75 to 78, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin catalyst comprising a cobalt-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

80. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the molar ratio of cobalt to copper to zinc (Co:Cu:Zn) is about 1:8.4:3.

3.

81. 81. The method of any one of claims 75 to 80, wherein the reduced catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, the paraffin catalyst comprising an iron-embedded interconnected matrix of reduced copper metal nanoparticles and alumina-modified zinc oxide.

82. 82. The method of claim 81, wherein the molar ratio of iron to copper to zinc (Fe:Cu:Zn) is about 1:2.3:2.

3.

83. 79. The method of any one of claims 78, wherein the reduction catalyst is a paraffin catalyst, and the paraffin catalyst comprises the one or more Group IA or Group IIA metals.

84. The reduction catalyst is an olefin catalyst, and the olefin catalyst comprises: Iron and Optionally, alumina, and optionally a first element selected from copper, zinc, cobalt, or a combination thereof; and optionally one or more second elements selected from Group IA and Group IIA metals.

85. 85. The method of claim 84, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises an additive mixture comprising potassium, manganese, ruthenium, and MgO.

86. 86. The method of claim 85, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises from about 1 wt % to about 10 wt % of the additive mixture.

87. 85. The method of claim 84, wherein the olefin catalyst optionally further comprises Zr, Au, Cr, Ga, Mn, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof.

88. The olefin catalyst is K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.60; and Zn in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

89. 89. The method of claim 88, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.20 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

60.

90. 90. The method of claim 88 or 89, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.04 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

006.

91. The olefin catalyst is K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.60; and Co, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

92. 92. The method of claim 91, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.

20.

93. 93. The method of claim 91 or 92, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.

05.

94. 94. The method of any one of claims 91 to 93, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

95. 95. The method of any one of claims 91 to 94, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

14.

96. 96. The method of claim 95, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.14 and K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

01.

97. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ), hematite (Fe ２ O ３ ), or a combination thereof.

98. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ 98. The method according to any one of claims 84 to 97, wherein

99. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ) and hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 98. The method of any one of claims 84 to 97, in combination with

100. 100. The method of any one of claims 75 to 99, wherein the reduction catalyst further comprises a reduction catalyst support.

101. The reduction catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 101. The method of claim 100, wherein optionally the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

102. 102. The method of claim 100 or 101, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

103. 103. The method of any one of claims 75 to 102, wherein contacting the first reducing gas and the first carbon source gas with the reduction catalyst occurs at a paraffin temperature of from about 100°C to about 600°C.

104. 104. The method of any one of claims 75 to 103, wherein the first reducing gas, the first carbon source gas, and the reduction catalyst are reacted at a paraffin pressure of about 50 psi to about 4000 psi.

105. The aromatic catalyst is one or more aromatic metals; Optionally, one or more Group VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, or XIII aromatic metal additives; and optionally a Group IA or Group IIA metal cocatalyst.

106. 106. The method of any one of claims 75 to 105, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a mixed oxide component comprising iron and zinc, and a zeolite component comprising a zeolite.

107. 107. The method of claim 106, wherein the zeolite is ZSM-5.

108. 108. The method of claim 106 or 107, wherein the zeolite component further comprises a modifier, for example, Ga or Zn.

109. 108. The method of claim 107, wherein the zeolite component comprises from 0 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier.

110. 110. The method of claim 108 or 109, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.01 wt % to about 2 wt % of the modifier.

111. 111. The method of any one of claims 108 to 110, wherein the zeolite component comprises from 0.1 wt % to about 1.5 wt % of the modifier.

112. 112. The method of any one of claims 108 to 111, wherein the zeolite component comprises 0.5 wt% to about 1 wt% of the modifier.

113. 113. The method of any one of claims 106 to 112, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 10 wt % to about 90 wt % of the mixed oxide component and from about 90 wt % to about 10 wt % of the zeolite component.

114. 114. The method of any one of claims 106 to 113, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 25 wt% to about 75 wt% of the mixed oxide component and from about 75 wt% to about 25 wt% of the zeolite component.

115. 115. The method of any one of claims 106 to 114, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises from about 40 wt % to about 60 wt % of the mixed oxide component and from about 60 wt % to about 40 wt % of the zeolite component.

116. The mixed oxide component is Iron and zinc in a molar ratio of 0 to about 0.50 relative to iron; Na, K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.10; and Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.

60.

117. 117. The method of claim 116, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.

10.

118. 118. The method of claim 116 or 117, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

036.

119. the one or more aromatic metals include a first aromatic metal and a second aromatic metal; the first metal is zinc; 106. The method of claim 105, wherein the second metal is selected from zirconium, chromium, aluminum, and copper.

120. 120. The method of claim 105 or 119, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support.

121. The aromatic catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 121. The method of claim 120, wherein optionally the aromatic catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

122. 122. The method of claim 120 or 121, wherein the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

123. 123. The method of any one of claims 119 to 122, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives, if present, are selected from gallium, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, copper, silver, gold, and aluminum.

124. 124. The method of any one of claims 119 to 123, wherein the one or more aromatic metal additives are present and the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium.

125. 125. The method of any one of claims 119 to 124, wherein the metal promoter is selected from lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, magnesium, calcium, and cesium.

126. 126. The method of any of claims 119 to 125, wherein the first aromatic metal and second metal are present in a first metal ratio of about 1:5 to about 5:

1.

127. the aromatic metal is zinc; the one or more aromatic metal additives are present, and the one or more aromatic metal additives are gallium; 106. The method of claim 105, wherein the aromatic catalyst comprises an aromatic catalyst support, and the aromatic catalyst support is ZSM-5.

128. 128. The method of any one of claims 75 to 127, wherein contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic temperature of from about 100°C to about 450°C.

129. 129. The method of any one of claims 75 to 128, wherein contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with the aromatic catalyst occurs at an aromatic pressure of from about 50 psi to about 1000 psi.

130. 130. The method of any one of claims 75 to 129, wherein the crude product mixture further comprises unreacted carbon source and / or reducing gas.

131. The method further comprises removing the unreacted CO from the crude product mixture. ２ and / or separating the reducing gas to obtain a degassed crude product mixture.

132. The degassed crude product mixture is １－４ Hydrocarbons, C ５－８ Hydrocarbons, C ９－１５ Hydrocarbons, and C １６＋ 132. The method of claim 131, comprising a hydrocarbon.

133. 133. The method of claim 131 or 132, wherein the separation comprises high pressure separation, low pressure separation, or a combination thereof.

134. 134. The method of claim 133, wherein the separation comprises high pressure separation and low pressure separation.

135. The unreacted CO ２ and / or mixing a reducing gas with one or more of the first reducing gas, the first carbon source gas, the second reducing gas, and the second carbon source gas.

136. The degassed product mixture is purified to form C ９－１５ 136. The method of any one of claims 131 to 135, further comprising obtaining a purified product mixture comprising hydrocarbons.

137. 137. The method of claim 136, wherein the purification comprises a first separation and a second separation.

138. The first separation comprises separating the degassed crude product mixture; Said C １－４ a first low carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; Said C ５－８ Hydrocarbons, the C ９－１５ Hydrocarbons, and the C １６＋ and a first higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons.

139. The second separation comprises separating the first high carbon fraction into: Said C ５－８ a second lower carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and Said C ９－１５ the refined product mixture comprising hydrocarbons; Said C １６＋ and a second higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons.

140. contacting the purified product mixture and a third reducing gas with an isomerization catalyst; Further C １－８ Hydrocarbons, Further C 2000 including normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatics, and naphthenes ９－１５ Hydrocarbons, Further C １６＋ 140. The method of claim 139, further comprising obtaining an isomerization product mixture comprising:

141. 141. The method of claim 140, wherein the isomerization catalyst comprises an isomerization metal, such as Pd, Pt, Ni-Co, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo, and an isomerization catalyst support.

142. The isomerization catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 142. The method of claim 141, wherein optionally the isomerization catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

143. The isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO ２ / WO ３ , Pt / ZrWO ４ , Pt / SiAlO ｘ , Pt / SO ４ -ZrO ２ , Pt / ZSM5, Pt / ZSM22, Pt / SAPO, Ni-W / SiAlO ｘ , Ni-W / SO ４ -ZrO ２ , Ni-W / ZSM5, Ni-W / ZSM22, and Ni-W / SAPO.

144. The isomerization catalyst is Pt / ZrO ２ / WO ３ The method according to any one of claims 141 to 143, wherein

145. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the isomerization catalyst is a Pt / SAPO containing 0.2 wt% Pt.

146. 146. The method of any one of claims 141 to 145, wherein contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization temperature of from about 50°C to about 450°C.

147. 147. The method of any one of claims 141 to 146, wherein contacting the purified product mixture and the third reducing gas with the isomerization catalyst occurs at an isomerization pressure of from about 50 psi to about 1000 psi.

148. and a third separation, the third separation comprising: separating the isomerized product mixture; The further C １－８ a first recycle gas mixture comprising hydrocarbons; The further C １６＋ a third higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and The further C 2 containing normal paraffins, branched paraffins, cyclic paraffins, aromatic compounds, and naphthenes. ９－１５ and a hydrocarbon-containing refined aviation fuel.

149. 149. The method of claim 148, wherein the refined aviation fuel comprises from about 10% to about 20% aromatics.

150. contacting the second high-carbon fraction and / or the third high-carbon fraction and a fourth reducing gas with a hydrocracking catalyst; C １－１７ Hydrocarbons, C １８＋ 150. The method of claim 148 or 149, further comprising obtaining a hydrocracking product mixture comprising:

151. 151. The method of claim 150, wherein the hydrocracking catalyst comprises a hydrocracking metal, e.g., Pd, Pt, Ni, Co, Co-W, Ni-W, and Ni-Mo, and a hydrocracking support.

152. The hydrocracking support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 152. The method of claim 151, wherein optionally the hydrocracking support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

153. 153. The method of claim 151 or 152, wherein the hydrocracking metals comprise from about 0.5 wt% to about 40 wt% of the hydrocracking catalyst.

154. further comprising a fourth separation, said fourth separation comprising: Said C １８＋ a fourth higher carbon fraction comprising hydrocarbons; and Said C １－１７ and a second recycle gas mixture comprising hydrocarbons.

155. 155. The method of claim 154, further comprising mixing the first recycled gas mixture and / or the second recycled gas mixture with the degassed crude product mixture.

156. 156. The method of any one of claims 75 to 155, further comprising capturing a carbon source gas from the gas feed stream.

157. The first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas may be H ２ , hydrocarbons, synthesis gas (CO / H ２ 157. The method of any one of claims 75 to 156, wherein the gas is independently selected from:

158. The first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas may be H ２ The method according to any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein

159. 158. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is synthesis gas.

160. The first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas may be a hydrocarbon, such as CH ４ ethane, propane, or butane.

161. 158. The method of any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein the first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas is or is derived from flare gas, exhaust gas, or natural gas.

162. The first reducing gas, the second reducing gas, the third reducing gas, and / or the fourth reducing gas may be CH ４ The method according to any one of claims 75 to 157, wherein

163. The first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas may be CO ２ The method according to any one of claims 75 to 162, wherein

164. 163. The method of any one of claims 75 to 162, wherein the first carbon source gas and / or the second carbon source gas is CO.

165. 165. The method of any one of claims 75 to 164, wherein a molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:

10.

166. 166. The method of any one of claims 75 to 165, wherein a molar ratio of the first reducing gas to the first carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:

1.

167. 167. The method of any one of claims 75 to 166, wherein the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 10:1 to about 1:

10.

168. 168. The method of any one of claims 75 to 167, wherein the molar ratio of the second reducing gas to the second carbon source gas is from about 5:1 to about 0.5:

1.

169. A fuel composition prepared by the method of any one of claims 75 to 168.

170. 1. A fuel composition comprising: a monocyclic aromatic compound; Cycloparaffins and n-paraffin, isoparaffins, The composition comprises less than about 1 wt. % polycyclic aromatic compounds, and the fuel composition comprises: contacting a first reducing gas and a first carbon source gas with a reduction catalyst to obtain a paraffin product mixture comprising one or more paraffins; contacting the second reducing gas and the second carbon source gas with an aromatic catalyst to obtain an aromatic product mixture comprising one or more aromatic compounds and / or cycloparaffins; blending said paraffinic product mixture with said aromatic product mixture to obtain a crude product mixture.

171. 1. A fuel composition comprising: a monocyclic aromatic compound; Cycloparaffins and n-paraffin, isoparaffins, A fuel composition, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt. % polycyclic aromatic compounds.

172. 172. The fuel composition of claim 171, wherein the composition comprises less than about 5 wt% tetralin and indane.

173. 173. The fuel composition of claim 171 or 172, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 wt% tetralin and indane.

174. 173. The fuel composition of claim 171 or 172, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt % to about 5 wt % tetralin and indan.

175. 175. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 174, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt % to about 1 wt % tetralin and indan.

176. 176. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 175, wherein the composition is substantially free of tetralin and indane.

177. 177. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 176, wherein the composition comprises less than about 0.5 wt.% polyaromatic compounds.

178. 178. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 177, wherein the composition comprises from 0 wt % to about 0.5 wt % polyaromatic compounds.

179. 179. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 178, wherein the composition is substantially free of polycyclic aromatic compounds.

180. 180. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 179, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 25 wt% single ring aromatic compounds.

181. 181. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 180, wherein the composition comprises from about 8 wt% to about 15 wt% single ring aromatic compounds.

182. 182. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 181, wherein the composition comprises about 14.5 wt% single ring aromatic compounds.

183. 183. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 182, wherein the composition comprises from about 15 wt% to about 65 wt% cycloparaffins.

184. 184. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 183, wherein the composition comprises from about 15 wt% to about 35 wt% cycloparaffins.

185. 185. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 184, wherein the composition comprises about 29 wt% cycloparaffins.

186. 186. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 185, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 50 wt% n-paraffins.

187. 187. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 186, wherein the composition comprises from about 30 wt% to about 50 wt% n-paraffins.

188. 188. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 187, wherein the composition comprises about 47.7 wt% n-paraffins.

189. 189. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 188, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 40 wt% isoparaffins.

190. 190. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 189, wherein the composition comprises from about 5 wt% to about 15 wt% isoparaffins.

191. 191. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 190, wherein the composition comprises about 8.8 wt% isoparaffins.

192. 192. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 191, wherein the composition complies with ASTM D4054-Tier 1.

193. 193. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 192, wherein the composition has a total acidity of less than about 0.10 mg KOH / g.

194. 194. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 193, wherein the composition has a total acidity of from about 0.05 mg KOH / g to about 0.10 mg KOH / g.

195. 195. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 194, wherein the composition has a total acidity of about 0.07 mg KOH / g.

196. 196. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 195, wherein the composition contains less than about 0.3 wt% total sulfur.

197. 197. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 196, wherein the composition comprises less than about 0.003 wt% sulfur mercaptans.

198. 198. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 197, wherein the composition has a flash point of at least about 38°C.

199. 200. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 198, wherein the composition has a flash point of from about 38°C to about 370°C.

200. 200. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 199, wherein the composition has a flash point of about 42°C.

201. The composition has a density of about 775 kg / m at 15°C. ３ ~Approx. 840kg / m ３ 201. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 200, wherein

202. The composition has a density of about 780 kg / m ３ 202. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 201, wherein

203. 203. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 202, wherein the composition has a freezing point of less than about -40°C.

204. 204. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 203, wherein the composition has a freezing point of about -51°C.

205. 205. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 204, wherein the composition has a viscosity of less than about 8.0 cSt at -20°C.

206. The composition has a viscosity of about 12 mm at -40°C. ２ 206. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 205, wherein the .lambda. / s is less than 1 / 2.

207. The composition has a viscosity of about 3.2 mm at −20° C. ２ 207. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 206, wherein:

208. 208. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 207, wherein the composition has a net heating value of at least about 42.8 MJ / kg.

209. 209. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 208, wherein the composition has a net heating value of about 43.4 MJ / kg.

210. 210. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 209, wherein the composition has a smoke point of at least about 18 mm.

211. 211. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 210, wherein the composition has a smoke point of at least about 25 mm.

212. 212. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 211, wherein the composition has a smoke point of about 36 mm.

213. 213. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 212, wherein the composition provides a filter pressure drop of less than about 25 mmHg.

214. 214. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 213, wherein the composition provides a filter pressure drop of about 0 mmHg.

215. 215. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 214, wherein the composition provides a pipe deposit rating of less than about 3 and is substantially free of peacock or abnormal color deposits.

216. 216. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 215, wherein the composition provides a pipe deposit rating of 1 VTR color code.

217. 217. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 216, wherein the composition has a lubricity of less than about 0.85 mm wear scar diameter (WSD).

218. 218. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 217, wherein the composition has a lubricity of about 0.52 mm WSD.

219. 219. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 218, wherein the composition complies with ASTM D1655.

220. 220. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 219, wherein the composition comprises less than about 1 ppm of sulfur-containing impurities.

221. 221. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 220, wherein the composition is substantially free of sulfur-containing impurities.

223. 222. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 221, wherein the single-ring aromatic compound is not petroleum derived.

224. The monocyclic aromatic compound is CO ２ 224. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 223, derived from

225. 225. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 224, wherein the single ring aromatic compounds, cycloparaffins, n-paraffins, and isoparaffins are not petroleum derived.

226. The monocyclic aromatic compounds, cycloparaffins, n-paraffins, and isoparaffins are CO ２ 226. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 225, derived from

227. 227. The fuel composition of any one of claims 171 to 226, further comprising at least one fuel additive.

228. An olefin catalyst comprising: Iron and Optionally, alumina, and a first element selected from K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof; and one or more second elements selected from Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn, Co, Ru, Ni, or combinations thereof.

229. Iron and K, Li, Zr, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Au, Cu, Na, Cr, Al, Ga, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.60; 229. The olefin catalyst of claim 228, comprising Zn in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

230. 230. The olefin catalyst of claim 229, wherein the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.20 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

60.

231. 231. The olefin catalyst of claim 230, wherein the catalyst comprises K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.04 and Na in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

006.

232. Iron and K, Cs, Mg, Ca, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of 0 to about 0.20; Na, Cu, Cr, Mn, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio relative to iron of from 0 to about 0.60; 229. The olefin catalyst of claim 228, comprising Co, Ru, Ni, or a combination thereof, in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

233. 233. The olefin catalyst of claim 232, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of from 0 to about 0.

20.

234. 234. The olefin catalyst of claim 232 or 233, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises a molar ratio of K to iron of about 0.

05.

235. 235. The olefin catalyst of any one of claims 232 to 234, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of from 0 to about 0.

50.

236. 236. The olefin catalyst of claim 235, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

14.

237. 237. The olefin catalyst of claim 236, wherein the olefin catalyst comprises Co in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.14 and K in a molar ratio to iron of about 0.

01.

238. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ), hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 238. The olefin catalyst of claims 228-237, wherein:

239. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ 239. The olefin catalyst according to any one of claims 228 to 238, wherein

240. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 239. The olefin catalyst according to any one of claims 228 to 238, wherein

241. The iron is in the form of iron oxide, and the iron oxide is magnetite (Fe ３ O ４ ) and hematite (Fe ２ O ３ 239. The olefin catalyst of any one of claims 228 to 238, in combination with

242. 242. The catalyst of any one of claims 1 to 241, wherein the olefin catalyst further comprises a reduced catalyst support.

243. The reduction catalyst support is A) oxides, nitrides, fluorides, silicates, or carbides of elements selected from aluminum, silicon, titanium, zirconium, cerium, magnesium, yttrium, lanthanum, zinc, tungsten, and tin, such as MgO, Al ２ O ３ , ZrO ２ , SnO ２ , SiO ２ , ZnO, WO ３ , silica carbide, and TiO ２ one or more materials selected from B) carbon-based materials, such as activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide; C) SiAlO ｘ , S.O. ４ -ZrO ２ , zirconium tungstate, tungstated titania, and anatase (SiO ２ -Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ -TiO ２ ), D) aluminum-based materials, such as alumina (e.g., gamma-alumina), boehmite, crystalline boehmite, pseudoboehmite, gibbsite, and thermally shocked gibbsite; or E) zeolites, including, for example, Y-type zeolites, beta zeolites, ZSM-type zeolites (e.g., ZSM-5, HZSM-5, ZSM-12, ZSM-22, ZSM-57), SAPO-type zeolites (e.g., SAPO11, SAPO31, SAPO41), mordenite-type zeolites, MCM-49, MCM-22, DA-114, microcrystalline USY zeolites, microcrystalline USY zeolites, and combinations thereof; Optionally, the zeolite comprises a modifier, for example, Zn, Ga, Fe, or other transition metal; Optionally, the modifier is present as a zeolite-supported metal or as an isomorphous substitution in the zeolite framework; 243. The catalyst of claim 242, wherein optionally, the reduced catalyst support is modified with molybdenum, chlorine, and / or sulfur.

244. 243. The catalyst of claim 241 or 242, wherein the reduced catalyst support is MCM-49.

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