Systems and methods for minimizing and preventing dendrite formation in electrochemical cells

Abstract

[0003] Embodiments described herein relate to electrochemical cells with dendrite prevention features. In some aspects, the electrochemical cell may include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, the cathode having a first thickness at a proximal end of the cathode and a second thickness at a distal end of the cathode that is greater than the first thickness, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end, and a power source electrically connected to the proximal end of the cathode and the proximal end of the intermediate layer, the power source configured to maintain a voltage difference between the cathode and the intermediate layer below a threshold.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 433,269, filed December 16, 2022, entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 450,208, filed March 6, 2023, entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 461,506, filed April 24, 2023, entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 461,506, filed June 2, 2023, entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 461,506, filed June 2, 2023, entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells." This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 470,679 entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," filed July 21, 2023, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 528,213 entitled "Systems and Methods for Minimizing and Preventing Dendrite Formation in Electrochemical Cells," filed November 2, 2023, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0002] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The embodiments described herein relate to electrochemical cells formulated to minimize damage due to dendrite formation. [Background technology]

[0003] Dendrite formation in electrochemical cells can lead to short circuits and heat generation. Heat generation in electrochemical cells is a safety issue that can have dangerous consequences. Thermal runaway can lead to fires and thermal decomposition of electrochemical cell materials. Minimizing the size to which dendrites can grow can avoid serious safety issues. Summary of the Invention

[0004] Embodiments described herein relate to electrochemical cells with dendrite prevention features, as well as methods of fabricating and operating the same. In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector; a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, the cathode having a first thickness at a proximal end of the cathode and a second thickness at a distal end of the cathode that is greater than the first thickness; a first separator disposed on the anode; a second separator disposed on the cathode; an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end; and a power source electrically connected to the proximal end of the cathode and the proximal end of the intermediate layer and configured to maintain a voltage difference between the cathode and the intermediate layer below a threshold. In some embodiments, the threshold can be approximately 0.01 V. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer can include Li(1-x)xNMC, where x is an integer. In some embodiments, the anode can include graphite. In some embodiments, the second thickness can be between about 500 nm and about 5 μm greater than the first thickness.

[0005] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end, and a circuit connecting the cathode and the intermediate layer and configured to transfer electrical energy between the cathode and the intermediate layer.

[0006] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end, and a circuit connecting the cathode and the intermediate layer and configured to transfer electrical energy between the cathode and the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a first current path and a second current path, the first current path including a diode and the second current path including a switch. In some embodiments, the circuit includes at least one of a transistor, a BJT, a MOSFET, or other switching device. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a diode having a current flow direction from the cathode to the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a diode having a current flow direction from the intermediate layer to the cathode. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a plurality of switches or switching devices, with a capacitor disposed between the plurality of switches or switching devices, and the plurality of switches or switching devices and the capacitor configured to increase the amount of current that can flow from the cathode to the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the plurality of switches or switching devices is a first plurality of switches or switching devices, the capacitor is a first capacitor, and the circuit further includes a second plurality of switches or switching devices, with a capacitor disposed between them, and the second plurality of switches or switching devices and the second capacitor configured to further increase the amount of current that can flow from the cathode to the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a resistor.

[0007] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end, and a circuit connecting the anode and the intermediate layer and configured to transfer electrical energy between the anode and the intermediate layer.

[0008] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on the anode current collector, a cathode disposed on the cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end, and a circuit connecting the anode and the intermediate layer and configured to transfer electrical energy between the anode and the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the circuit includes a buck-boost converter. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter is powered via an independent DC power source. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter is powered via an AC module. In some embodiments, the circuit is a first circuit, and the electrochemical cell further includes a second circuit connecting the cathode and the intermediate layer and configured to transfer electrical energy between the cathode and the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include a voltage regulator adjacent to the first circuit and the second circuit.

[0009] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode and having a first length, a second separator disposed on the cathode and having a second length longer than the first length, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer comprising an electroactive material and having a length longer than the first length such that a portion of the intermediate layer extends beyond the first separator, and a tab extending from the portion of the intermediate layer extending beyond the first separator.

[0010] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode with a portion removed, an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators with a portion exposed through the removed portion of the second separator, and a tab extending from the exposed portion of the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell further includes a first film bonded to the anode current collector and a second film bonded to the cathode current collector, the first film and the second film forming a pouch. In some embodiments, the pouch includes a removed portion, and the tab extends through the removed portion of the pouch.

[0011] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on the anode current collector, a cathode disposed on the cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, a first intermediate layer disposed on the first separator, a second intermediate layer disposed on the second separator, and a third separator disposed between the first intermediate layer and the second intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can further include a transistor or other switching device disposed in a circuit joining the cathode current collector and the second intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can further include a diode disposed in a circuit joining the cathode current collector and the second intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can further include a switch configured to bypass the diode. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell further includes a plurality of switches or switching devices disposed in circuit between the first intermediate layer and the cathode current collector, the plurality of switches or switching devices configured to amplify a voltage that can be applied to the first intermediate layer.

[0012] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include a first electrode containing lithium, a second electrode, a first separator disposed on the first electrode, a second separator disposed on the second electrode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of charging an electrochemical cell can include passing a current from the first electrode to the intermediate layer to cause lithium ions to migrate from the first electrode to the intermediate layer, thereby forming lithium plates on the intermediate layer and forming an SEI on particles included in the intermediate layer, and passing a current from the intermediate layer to the first electrode to balance the state of charge between the intermediate layer and the first electrode. In some embodiments, passing a current from the first electrode to the intermediate layer creates a voltage difference of at least about 4 V between the intermediate layer and the first electrode.

[0013] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0014] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0015] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0016] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0017] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0018] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0019] In some embodiments, a method of forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer on a first separator, the intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer, integrating a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and positioning the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell.

[0020] In some embodiments, a method for forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode material on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode material on a cathode current collector, disposing an intermediate layer including a carbon-containing layer and a coating layer on a first separator, merging a tab having a tab coating disposed thereon with the intermediate layer, disposing a second separator on the intermediate layer, and disposing the first separator and the second separator between the anode material and the cathode material to form an electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the merging is performed by heat pressing. In some embodiments, the carbon-containing layer includes conductive carbon. In some embodiments, the conductive carbon is mixed with CMC and water. In some embodiments, the coating layer includes at least one of a ceramic or a polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer is mixed with a solvent including PVDF and NMP.

[0021] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating an electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, and detecting dendrite formation and progression through filtering and / or modeling of the second voltage.

[0022] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating an electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, and detecting dendrite formation and progression through filtering and / or modeling of the second voltage.

[0023] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, and detecting dendrite formation and progression via hardware filtering of the second voltage.

[0024] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, and detecting dendrite formation and progression via digital filtering of the second voltage.

[0025] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first separator and the second separator. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, and detecting dendrite formation and progression via at least one of a constant voltage potential or a variable voltage potential.

[0026] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer, detecting dendrite formation and progression based on the value of the second voltage, and actively modulating, pulsing, and / or alternating the controlled potential of the intermediate layer to repair or prevent dendrite formation.

[0027] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first separator and the second separator. In some aspects, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate electrode, detecting dendrite formation and progression based on the value of the second voltage via a first system, and repairing the dendrite formation and progression via a second system. In some embodiments, the first system and the second system are each part of a battery management system. In some embodiments, the first system and the second system are each controlled via a system controller.

[0028] In some aspects, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator and including an electroactive material, and a layer of positive temperature coefficient (PTC) material disposed between the first separator and the second separator. In some embodiments, the PTC material is disposed between the intermediate layer and the first separator. In some embodiments, the PTC material is disposed between the intermediate layer and the second separator.

[0029] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator and including an electroactive material, and a switch, the switch having an open configuration, a first closed configuration in which the switch creates a first circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the first circuit having a first resistance, and a second closed configuration in which the switch creates a second circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the second circuit having a second resistance greater than the first resistance.

[0030] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator and including an electroactive material, and a switch, the switch having an open configuration, a first closed configuration in which the switch creates a first circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the first circuit having a first resistance, and a second closed configuration in which the switch creates a second circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the second circuit having a second resistance greater than the first resistance.

[0031] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator and including an electroactive material, and a switch, the switch having an open configuration, a first closed configuration in which the switch creates a first circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the first circuit having a first resistance, and a second closed configuration in which the switch creates a second circuit between the cathode and the intermediate layer, the second circuit having a second resistance greater than the first resistance. In some embodiments, the switch is a first switch, and the electrochemical cell further includes a second switch having an open configuration and a closed configuration in which the second switch creates a closed circuit between the anode and the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can further include a third switch having an open configuration and a closed configuration in which the third switch creates a closed short circuit between the anode and the cathode. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer is a first intermediate layer, and the electrochemical cell can further include a third separator disposed between the first separator and the second separator, and a second intermediate layer disposed between the second separator and the third separator.

[0032] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer, closing a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages, and opening a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages.

[0033] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators. In some embodiments, a method of operating the electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer, closing a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages, and opening a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages.

[0034] In some aspects, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators. In some aspects, a method of operating an electrochemical cell can include measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode, measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer, closing a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages, and opening a circuit between the intermediate layer and at least one of the anode or the cathode based on a difference between the first and second voltages. In some embodiments, closing the circuit occurs in response to the difference between the first and second voltages decreasing below a threshold. In some embodiments, closing the circuit occurs in response to a difference between the first voltage and the second voltage increasing above a threshold. In some embodiments, the method can further include closing a circuit between the anode and the cathode based on the difference between the first voltage and the second voltage. In some embodiments, closing the circuit and opening the circuit occur via a controller. In some embodiments, the controller can include a PID controller.

[0035] In some aspects, the electrochemical cell can include an anode current collector, an anode material disposed on the anode current collector, a cathode current collector, a cathode material disposed on the cathode current collector, a separator disposed between the anode material and the cathode material, a solid electrolyte layer disposed between the separator and the anode material, and an intermediate layer disposed between the separator and the solid electrolyte layer and containing carbon.

[0036] In some aspects, an electrochemical cell can include an anode current collector, an anode material disposed on the anode current collector, a cathode current collector, a cathode material disposed on the cathode current collector, a separator disposed between the anode material and the cathode material, a solid electrolyte layer disposed between the separator and the anode material, and an intermediate layer disposed between the separator and the solid electrolyte layer and containing carbon. In some embodiments, the anode material contains graphite. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte layer contains a sulfide. In some embodiments, the separator and the solid electrolyte layer have a porosity of less than about 1%. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer includes a binder. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer includes a solid electrolyte.

[0037] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators, wherein the intermediate layer and the first separator extend an extended distance beyond an edge of the second separator, such that the intermediate layer contacts the cathode when the cathode is laterally displaced relative to the anode. In some embodiments, the extended distance is from about 100 μm to about 1 mm.

[0038] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell includes an anode current collector, a first anode disposed on a first side of the anode current collector, a second anode disposed on a second side of the anode current collector, a first separator disposed on the first anode, a second separator disposed on the second anode, a first intermediate layer disposed on the first separator, a second intermediate layer disposed on the second separator, a third separator disposed on the first intermediate layer, and a second intermediate layer disposed on the second intermediate layer. The battery may include a fourth intermediate layer disposed on the third separator, a first cathode disposed on the third separator, a first cathode current collector disposed on the first separator, a second cathode disposed on the fourth separator, and a second cathode current collector disposed on the second cathode, wherein the first separator and the first intermediate layer extend a first extended distance from an edge of the third separator, and the second separator and the second intermediate layer extend a second extended distance from an edge of the fourth separator. In some embodiments, the first extended distance is from about 100 μm to about 1 mm. In some embodiments, the second extended distance is from about 100 μm to about 1 mm.

[0039] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode material disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode material disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode material, a second separator disposed on the cathode material, a first intermediate layer disposed on the first separator, a second intermediate layer disposed on the second separator, and a third separator disposed between the first intermediate layer and the second intermediate layer, wherein the third separator and the second intermediate layer extend a first extended distance beyond the edge of the second separator. In some embodiments, the first separator and the first intermediate layer extend a second extended distance beyond the edge of the third separator. In some embodiments, the first extended distance is from about 100 μm to about 1 mm. In some embodiments, the second extended distance is from about 100 μm to about 1 mm.

[0040] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, an anode tab coupled to the anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a cathode tab coupled to the cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, wherein the second separator and intermediate layer extend beyond an outer edge of the first separator such that a portion of the intermediate layer is exposed.

[0041] In some aspects, an electrochemical cell can include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, an anode tab coupled to the anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a cathode tab coupled to the cathode current collector, a first separator disposed on the anode, a second separator disposed on the cathode, and an intermediate layer disposed between the first and second separators, wherein the second separator and the intermediate layer extend beyond the outer edge of the first separator so that a portion of the intermediate layer is exposed. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer extends beyond the first separator by a distance of about 500 μm to about 1 cm. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include a first film with pre-punched holes coupled to the anode current collector and a second film with pre-punched holes coupled to the cathode current collector.

[0042] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell can include a plurality of electrochemical cells, each electrochemical cell including: an anode disposed on an anode current collector; a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector; a first separator disposed on the anode; a second separator disposed on the cathode; an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator; an anode tab extending from the anode current collector; a cathode tab extending from the cathode current collector; an intermediate layer tab extending from the intermediate layer; a common anode tab electrically coupled to each anode tab from the plurality of electrochemical cells; a common cathode tab electrically coupled to each cathode tab from the plurality of electrochemical cells; a common intermediate layer tab electrically coupled to each intermediate layer tab from the plurality of electrochemical cells; and a film resistor electrically coupled to the common cathode tab and the common intermediate layer tab. In some embodiments, each interlayer tab extends beyond the edge of the anode current collector in a first direction and extends in a second direction opposite the first direction to a point within 1 mm of the edge of the anode current collector.

[0043] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell may include an anode disposed on an anode current collector, a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, a first separator and a second separator disposed between the anode and the cathode, an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, and at least one of a first coating layer disposed between the anode and the first separator or a second coating layer disposed between the cathode and the second separator. In some embodiments, the first coating layer and / or the second coating layer comprises at least one of alumina, PVDF, boehmite, polyimide, cellulose, a cellulosic material, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, or carboxymethyl cellulose. In some embodiments, the thickness of the first coating layer and / or the second coating layer is about 1 μm to about 5 μm.

[0044] In some aspects, a method for forming an electrochemical cell can include disposing an anode on an anode current collector, disposing a cathode on a cathode current collector, wetting at least one of a first separator or a second separator, applying a coating layer to at least one of the first separator or the second separator, disposing the first separator on the anode, disposing the second separator on the cathode, and disposing an intermediate layer between the first separator and the second separator to form an electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the coating layer comprises at least one of alumina, PVDF, boehmite, polyimide, cellulose, a cellulosic material, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, or carboxymethyl cellulose. In some embodiments, the coating layer and / or the second coating layer has a thickness of about 1 μm to about 5 μm. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0045] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 2A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 2B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 3A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 3B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 4A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 4B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 5] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 6] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 7A] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 7B] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 8A] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 8B] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 9A] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 9B] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 10A] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 10B] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 10C] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 11A] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 11B] FIG. 2 is a diagram of separators with an intermediate layer disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. [Figure 12] FIG. 1 is a flow diagram of a method of operating an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. [Figure 13] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 14] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 15A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 15B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 16A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell stack having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 16B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell stack having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 17A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 17B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 18] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 19] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 20] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 21] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 22] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 23] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 24] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 25] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 26] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 27] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 28] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 29] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 30] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 31] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 32] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 33] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 34] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 35] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 36] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 37] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 38] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 39] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 40] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 41] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 42] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 43] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 44] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 45] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 46] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 47] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 48] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 49]FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 50] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 51A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 51B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 51C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 52A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 52B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 52C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of a method for preparing an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 53] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme to a separator, according to one embodiment. [Figure 54] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme to a separator, according to one embodiment. [Figure 55] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme to a separator, according to one embodiment. [Figure 56] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme to a separator, according to one embodiment. [Figure 57] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme to a separator, according to one embodiment. [Figure 58] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having a tab sealing scheme, according to one embodiment. [Figure 59A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 59B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 59C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 60]FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 61] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 62A] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab arrangement, according to one embodiment. [Figure 62B] FIG. 10 is a diagram of a tab arrangement, according to one embodiment. [Figure 63] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell system according to one embodiment. [Figure 64] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell system according to one embodiment. [Figure 65] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell system according to one embodiment. [Figure 66] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell system according to one embodiment. [Figure 67] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell system according to one embodiment. [Figure 68] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 69] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 70A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell with an interlayer and associated control logic, according to one embodiment. [Figure 70B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell with an interlayer and associated control logic, according to one embodiment. [Figure 71] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 72] 1 illustrates the interrelationship between a controller and associated devices, according to one embodiment. [Figure 73] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 74] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 75A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 75B]FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 75C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 76A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 76B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 76C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 77A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 77B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 77C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 78A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 78B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 78C] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. [Figure 79A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 79B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell having an interlayer, according to one embodiment. [Figure 80] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell stack, according to one embodiment. [Figure 81A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 81B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 82A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 82B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 83A]FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 83B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an assembly of electrochemical cell stacks, according to one embodiment. [Figure 84A] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. [Figure 84B] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. [Figure 85] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. [Figure 86] FIG. 1 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. [Figure 87] 1 is a graph showing the point at which dendrites form and form an interface with the intermediate layer. [Figure 88] 1 is a photograph of dendrite formation at the interface with the intermediate layer. [Figure 89] 1 is a graph showing an electrochemical cell having an intermediate layer maintained by a passive resistor. [Figure 90] 1 is a graph showing the prevention of dendrites from penetrating the separator and causing localized short circuits. [Figure 91] FIG. 10 is a state transition diagram of a sample control operation mode. [Figure 92] FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a dual ion system. [Figure 93] 1 is a graph showing cell voltage and interlayer voltage. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0046] Embodiments described herein relate to cells having an interlayer and methods of operating the same. The interlayer can include a layer of electroactive material disposed between an anode and a cathode of an electrochemical cell. The interlayer can be disposed between a first separator and a second separator. The interlayer can be used to detect dendrites before they grow too large and pose a safety hazard. A battery management system (BMS) can connect to the electrochemical cell to detect when a dendrite enters the interlayer and safely discharge the remaining energy in the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the discharge energy can be used to power other devices, such as a heater, or to remove energy from the cell to create a safe condition.

[0047] In some embodiments, the BMS can be used to draw energy through the interlayer to dissolve the dendrites, effectively removing the dendrites from the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the energy to dissolve the dendrites can be generated by a power source within the BMS. In some embodiments, the energy to dissolve the dendrites can be generated by drawing energy from the cathode to increase the interlayer voltage relative to the anode.

[0048] In some embodiments, the BMS can be used to detect the voltage of the interlayer relative to the anode to detect dendrite formation. Detection can include estimating the relative voltage of the interlayer relative to both the anode and the cathode. If the voltage of the interlayer drops relative to the cathode (e.g., if the voltage difference between the interlayer and the cathode is greater than about 0.1 V, greater than about 0.2 V, greater than about 0.3 V, greater than about 0.4 V, greater than about 0.5 V, greater than about 0.6 V, greater than about 0.7 V, greater than about 0.8 V, greater than about 0.9 V, greater than about 1 V, greater than about 1.5 V, greater than about 2 V, greater than about 2.5 V, or greater than about 3 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)), a signal can be provided to a vehicle housing the electrochemical cell to issue a warning that the vehicle requires service. The threshold voltage can be a function of the design of the electrochemical cell and the interlayer. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between the interlayer and the anode can be used to trigger a service warning. In some embodiments, the combination of the voltages between the anode and the cathode and / or the interlayer can be used to trigger a service alert. In some embodiments, the rate of change of the interlayer voltage can be used to assess alerts and faults in the electrochemical cell and / or vehicle. In some embodiments, the rate of change of the interlayer voltage can be used to perform a control function to remove dendrites.

[0049] In some embodiments, a large voltage difference between the intermediate layer and the cathode (e.g., at least about 0.5 V, at least about 1 V, at least about 1.5 V, at least about 2 V, at least about 2.5 V, at least about 3 V, at least about 3.5 V, at least about 4 V, at least about 4.5 V, at least about 5 V, at least about 5.5 V, or at least about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)) can trigger a warning signal that electrochemical cell failure and / or vehicle failure is imminent. In some embodiments, the BMS can limit the discharge current of the electrochemical cell to reduce power to the vehicle. This can be done by limiting power directly and / or by communicating the limit information to a vehicle controller or other controller within the vehicle, depending on the vehicle design.

[0050] In some embodiments, the voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer can be measured. In some embodiments, the voltage between the cathode and the intermediate layer can be measured. In some embodiments, the voltage can be measured via a proportional-integral (PI) loop. The voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer and the voltage between the cathode and the intermediate layer are preferably kept constant throughout the charging process. In some embodiments, an external component can be used to maintain the intermediate layer near the cathode voltage. In some embodiments, the external component can include a diode, a resistor, a fuse, a transistor (such as a Bi junction or a field effect transistor (FET)), or any combination thereof.

[0051] In some embodiments, the intermediate layer can be chemically configured to remove dendrites when they protrude into the intermediate layer. For example, a high potential applied to the intermediate layer can oxidize and dissolve the dendrites. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer can include one or more solid layers that physically block dendrites from penetrating the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the solid layers can include a solid electrolyte.

[0052] In some embodiments, a resistor can be applied to the interlayer, which can continuously excite the interlayer so that dendrites cannot form across the dendrites and both separator layers. Such prevention methods can be used as part of an overall control strategy that can vary the voltage potential, current, and resistance to the interlayer based on a control algorithm.

[0053] The control system can operate in an active prevention mode, modulating or changing the potential of the interlayer to apply a different voltage potential. To maintain cell function, the voltage potential can be increased (i.e., moved closer to the cathode side) or decreased (moved closer to the anode side). As dendrites form and interface with the interlayer, the voltage of the interlayer increases closer to the cathode potential relative to the anode. The dendrites dissolve or heal, and the voltage potential of the interlayer returns to near the cathode voltage potential relative to the anode.

[0054] Dendrite growth in lithium cells is often detected by a thermal event (i.e., a sudden increase in temperature). Often, once a thermal event is detected, cell damage has already occurred. Embodiments described herein relate to measuring the voltage potential of a separator layer (i.e., including an interlayer) relative to the anode and / or cathode. The voltage potential is used to detect dendrite growth in the separator layer. Dendrite growth causes a voltage change in the separator layer relative to the anode and / or cathode. Detecting the voltage change can directly detect dendrite growth before a safety event occurs. In some embodiments, the voltage potential of the interlayer can be changed or modulated to stop dendrite growth or shrink the dendrites. The voltage can be actively changed by a control system to repair dendrite formation in the separator layer. Increasing the voltage relative to the anode can prevent dendrite growth through the separator. Reducing the voltage relative to the anode can inhibit dendrite growth in the active area. Modulating the voltage of the interlayer separator can affect the ability of the electrodes to pass current through the cell. For example, applying a greater voltage to the separator layer than to the anode can reduce or prevent charging current from passing through the cell. This provides a means of controlling the current flow in the cell without the use of traditional external switching devices or primary or secondary means of current control.

[0055] Further description of electrochemical cells with multiple separators and interlayers can be found in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2022 / 0352597 (the "'597 Publication"), entitled "Electrochemical Cells with Multiple Separators and Methods of Producing the Same," filed April 29, 2022, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0056] In some embodiments, the electrodes described herein can comprise conventional solid electrodes. In some embodiments, the solid electrodes can comprise a binder. In some embodiments, the electrodes described herein can comprise semi-solid electrodes. The semi-solid electrodes described herein can be fabricated (i) at greater thicknesses (e.g., greater than 100 μm, up to 2,000 μm, or even greater) due to the reduced tortuosity and increased electronic conductivity of the semi-solid electrodes, (ii) with higher loadings of active material, and (iii) through simplified manufacturing processes utilizing less equipment. These relatively thick semi-solid electrodes reduce the volume, mass, and cost contributions of inactive components relative to the active components, thereby enhancing the commercial appeal of batteries fabricated using semi-solid electrodes. In some embodiments, the semi-solid electrodes described herein are binderless and / or do not utilize binders used in conventional battery manufacturing. Instead, the volume of the electrode typically occupied by the binder in conventional electrodes is now occupied by: 1) an electrolyte, which has the effect of reducing tortuosity and increasing the total salt available for ion diffusion, thereby countering the salt depletion effect typical of conventional thick electrodes when used at high rates; 2) an active material, which has the effect of increasing the charge capacity of the battery; or 3) a conductive additive, which has the effect of increasing the electronic conductivity of the electrode, thereby countering the high internal impedance of conventional thick electrodes. The reduced tortuosity and increased electronic conductivity of the semi-solid electrodes described herein result in superior rate capabilities and charge capacities for electrochemical cells formed from the semi-solid electrodes. Because the semi-solid electrodes described herein can be made substantially thicker than conventional electrodes, the ratio of active material (i.e., semi-solid cathode and / or anode) to inactive material (i.e., current collector and separator) can be much higher in batteries formed from electrochemical cell stacks including the semi-solid electrodes compared to similar batteries formed from electrochemical cell stacks including conventional electrodes. This results in significantly increased overall charge capacity and energy density for batteries including the semi-solid electrodes described herein.

[0057] In some embodiments, the electrode materials described herein can be flowable semi-solid or condensed liquid compositions. In some embodiments, the electrode materials described herein can be binderless or substantially binder-free. A flowable semi-solid electrode can include a suspension of electrochemically active material (anode or cathode particles or particulates) and, optionally, an electronic conductor (e.g., carbon) in a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte. Stated another way, active electrode particles and conductive particles are co-suspended in the electrolyte to produce a semi-solid electrode. Examples of battery structures utilizing semi-solid suspensions are described in International Patent Publication No. WO 2012 / 024499, entitled "Stationary, Fluid Redox Electrode," and International Patent Publication No. WO 2012 / 088442, entitled "Semi-Solid Filled Battery and Method of Manufacture," the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0058] As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, the term "element" is intended to mean a single element or a combination of elements, and "material" is intended to mean one or more materials, or a combination thereof.

[0059] The term "substantially," when used in connection with "cylindrical," "linear," and / or other geometric relationships, is intended to convey that the structure so defined is nominally cylindrical, linear, etc. As an example, a portion of a support member described as "substantially linear" is intended to convey that while linearity of the portion is desirable, some non-linearity may occur in the "substantially linear" portion. Such non-linearity may result from manufacturing tolerances or other practical considerations (e.g., pressure or force applied to the support member, etc.). Thus, a geometric structure modified by the term "substantially" includes such geometric characteristics within a tolerance of plus or minus 5% of the described geometric structure. For example, a "substantially linear" portion is one that defines an axis or centerline that is within plus or minus 5% of being linear.

[0060] As used herein, the terms "set" and "plurality" can refer to multiple features or a singular feature having multiple portions. For example, when referring to a set of electrodes, the set of electrodes can be considered as one electrode having multiple portions, or the set of electrodes can be considered as multiple separate electrodes. Additionally, for example, when referring to multiple electrochemical cells, the multiple electrochemical cells can be considered as multiple separate electrochemical cells, or one electrochemical cell having multiple portions. Thus, a set of portions or multiple portions may include multiple portions that are contiguous or discontinuous with one another. Multiple particles or multiple materials can also be made from multiple articles that are produced separately and then joined together (e.g., by mixing, adhesive, or any suitable method).

[0061] As used herein, the term "semi-solid" refers to a material that is a mixture of liquid and solid phases, such as, for example, a particle suspension, a slurry, a colloidal suspension, an emulsion, a gel, or a micelle.

[0062] 1 is a block diagram of an electrochemical cell 100 having an interlayer 160, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 100 includes an anode 110 disposed on an anode current collector 120, a cathode 130 disposed on a cathode current collector 140, a first separator 150a, a second separator 150b disposed between the anode 110 and the cathode 130, and an interlayer 160 disposed between the first separator 150a and the second separator 150b.

[0063] In some embodiments, the anode 110 and / or cathode 130 can comprise at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.2%, at least about 0.3%, at least about 0.4%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 0.6%, at least about 0.7%, at least about 0.8%, at least about 0.9%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 3%, at least about 4%, at least about 5%, at least about 6%, at least about 7%, at least about 8%, at least about 9%, at least about 10%, at least about 11%, at least about 12%, at least about 13%, at least about 14%, at least about 15%, at least about 16%, at least about 17%, at least about 18%, at least about 19%, at least about 20%, at least about 21%, at least about 22%, at least about 23%, or at least about 24% by volume of the liquid electrolyte solution. In some embodiments, the anode 110 and / or cathode 130 can comprise about 25% or less, about 24% or less, about 23% or less, about 22% or less, about 21% or less, about 20% or less, about 19% or less, about 18% or less, about 17% or less, about 16% or less, about 15% or less, about 14% or less, about 13% or less, about 12% or less, about 11% or less, about 10% or less, about 9% or less, about 8% or less, about 7% or less, about 6% or less, about 5% or less, about 4% or less, about 3% or less, about 2% or less, about 1% or less, about 0.9% or less, about 0.8% or less, about 0.7% or less, about 0.6% or less, about 0.5% or less, about 0.4% or less, about 0.3% or less, or about 0.2% or less by volume of the liquid electrolyte solution.

[0064] Combinations of the above volume percentages of liquid electrolyte solution in anode 110 and / or cathode 130 (e.g., at least about 0.1% and not more than about 25%, or at least about 5% and not more than about 10%) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the anode 110 and / or cathode 130 can comprise about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, about 0.8%, about 0.9%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, about 12%, about 13%, about 14%, about 15%, about 16%, about 17%, about 18%, about 19%, about 20%, about 21%, about 22%, about 23%, about 24%, or about 25% by volume of the liquid electrolyte solution.

[0065] In some embodiments, the anode current collector 120 and / or the cathode current collector 140 may be composed of copper, aluminum, titanium, or other metals that do not form alloys or intermetallic compounds with lithium, carbon, and / or coatings including such materials disposed on another conductor. In some embodiments, the anode current collector 120 and / or the cathode current collector 140 may have a thickness of at least about 1 μm, at least about 5 μm, at least about 10 μm, at least about 15 μm, at least about 20 μm, at least about 25 μm, at least about 30 μm, at least about 35 μm, at least about 40 μm, or at least about 45 μm. In some embodiments, the anode current collector 120 and / or the cathode current collector 140 can have a thickness of about 50 μm or less, about 45 μm or less, about 40 μm or less, about 35 μm or less, about 30 μm or less, about 25 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 15 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, or about 5 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses of the anode current collector 120 and / or the cathode current collector 140 are also possible (e.g., at least about 1 μm and about 50 μm or less, or at least about 10 μm and about 30 μm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the anode current collector 120 and / or the cathode current collector 140 can have a thickness of about 1 μm, about 5 μm, about 10 μm, about 15 μm, about 20 μm, about 25 μm, about 30 μm, about 35 μm, about 40 μm, about 45 μm, or about 50 μm.

[0066] In some embodiments, the anode 110 can include a first electrolyte, and the cathode 130 can include a second electrolyte. In other words, the anode 110 can include an anolyte, and the cathode 130 can include a catholyte. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 100 can include an anolyte disposed on the anode side of the separator 150. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 100 can include a catholyte disposed on the cathode side of the separator 150. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 100 can include a permselective membrane. In some embodiments, the permselective membrane can be disposed between the first separator 150a and the second separator 150b. Electrochemical cells with anolytes, catholytes, and / or selectively permeable membranes are described in U.S. Pat. No. 10,734,672, filed January 8, 2019, entitled "Electrochemical Cells Including Selectively Permeable Membranes, Systems and Methods of Manufacturing the Same" (the "'672 Patent"), the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0067] As shown, first separator 150a is disposed on anode 110, while second separator 150b is disposed on cathode 130. In some embodiments, separator 150 can be disposed on each electrode during fabrication of electrochemical cell 100. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can be composed of polyethylene, polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene, thermoset polymer, hard carbon, thermoset resin, polyimide, ceramic-coated separator, inorganic separator, cellulose, glass fiber, polyethylene oxide (PEO) polymer complexed with a lithium salt to provide lithium conductivity, Nation™ membrane, which is a proton conductor, or any other suitable separator material, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, first separator 150a can be composed of the same material as second separator 150b. In some embodiments, the first separator 150a can be composed of a different material than the second separator 150b.

[0068] In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a porosity of at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90%. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a porosity of about 95% or less, about 90% or less, about 85% or less, about 80% or less, about 75% or less, about 70% or less, about 65% or less, about 60% or less, about 55% or less, about 50% or less, about 45% or less, about 40% or less, about 35% or less, about 30% or less, about 25% or less, about 20% or less, or about 15% or less.

[0069] Combinations of the above porosity percentages for first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b are also possible (e.g., at least about 10% and not more than about 95%, or at least about 20% and not more than about 40%), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a porosity of about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, or about 95%.

[0070] In some embodiments, the first separator 150a can have a different porosity than the second separator 150b. In some embodiments, the porosity of the first separator 150a and the second separator 150b can be selected based on differences between the anolyte and the catholyte. For example, if the catholyte has a higher vapor pressure and faster evaporation characteristics than the anolyte, the second separator 150b can have a lower porosity than the first separator 150a. The lower porosity of the second separator 150b can at least partially prevent evaporation of the catholyte during fabrication.

[0071] In some embodiments, the first separator 150a can be constructed of a different material than the second separator 150b. In some embodiments, the materials of the first separator 150a and the second separator 150b can be selected to promote wetting of the first separator 150a with the anolyte and the second separator 150b with the catholyte 150. For example, an ethylene carbonate / propylene carbonate-based catholyte can wet a polyethylene separator better than a polyimide separator based on the molecular properties of the materials. An ethylene carbonate / dimethyl carbonate-based anolyte can wet a polyimide separator better than a polyethylene separator. Complete wetting of the first separator 150a and the second separator 150b can result in better transport of electroactive species through the separator 150. This transport is particularly well facilitated when the first separator 150a is in physical contact with the second separator 150b.

[0072] As shown, electrochemical cell 100 includes two separators 150. In some embodiments, electrochemical cell 100 can include 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more than about 10 separators 150. In some embodiments, a liquid electrolyte layer (not shown) can be disposed between first separator 150a and second separator 150b. The liquid electrolyte layer can improve adhesion between separators 150.

[0073] In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a thickness of at least about 0.5 μm, at least about 1 μm, at least about 2 μm, at least about 3 μm, at least about 4 μm, at least about 5 μm, at least about 6 μm, at least about 7 μm, at least about 8 μm, at least about 9 μm, at least about 10 μm, at least about 15 μm, at least about 20 μm, or at least about 25 μm. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a thickness of about 30 μm or less, about 25 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 15 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, about 9 μm or less, about 8 μm or less, about 7 μm or less, about 6 μm or less, about 5 μm or less, about 4 μm or less, about 3 μm or less, about 2 μm or less, or about 1 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses of first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b are also possible (e.g., at least about 0.5 μm and not more than about 30 μm, or at least about 5 μm and not more than about 20 μm), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can have a thickness of about 0.5 μm, about 1 μm, about 2 μm, about 3 μm, about 4 μm, about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm, about 8 μm, about 9 μm, about 10 μm, about 15 μm, about 20 μm, about 25 μm, or about 30 μm. In some embodiments, the thickness of first separator 150a can be the same as or substantially similar to the thickness of second separator 150b. In some embodiments, the thickness of first separator 150a may be greater or less than the thickness of second separator 150b.

[0074] In some embodiments, first separator 150a, second separator 150b, and intermediate layer 160 can form a film. In some embodiments, the film can have a total thickness of at least about 5 μm, at least about 6 μm, at least about 7 μm, at least about 8 μm, at least about 9 μm, at least about 10 μm, at least about 15 μm, at least about 20 μm, at least about 25 μm, at least about 30 μm, at least about 35 μm, at least about 40 μm, or at least about 45 μm. In some embodiments, the film can have a total thickness of about 50 μm or less, about 45 μm or less, about 40 μm or less, about 35 μm or less, about 30 μm or less, about 25 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 15 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, about 9 μm or less, about 8 μm or less, about 7 μm or less, or about 6 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses are also possible (e.g., at least about 5 μm and not more than about 50 μm, or at least about 10 μm and not more than about 40 μm), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the film can have a total thickness of about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm, about 8 μm, about 9 μm, about 10 μm, about 15 μm, about 20 μm, about 25 μm, about 30 μm, about 35 μm, about 40 μm, about 45 μm, or about 50 μm.

[0075] In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can include a solid electrolyte sheet. In some embodiments, a solid electrolyte sheet can be used in place of first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can be made of a separator film. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can include a coated polymer, a sprayed polymer, and / or a printed polymer. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can include a ceramic powder. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can be free of a ceramic powder. In some embodiments, first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b can include a ceramic with a liquid electrolyte and / or a solid electrolyte.

[0076] Intermediate layer 160 can dissolve dendrites by voltage manipulation. In other words, a current can be supplied to intermediate layer 160, anode 110, and / or cathode 130 to generate a potential difference between intermediate layer 160 and anode 110 or between intermediate layer 160 and cathode 130, thereby dissolving dendrites formed in intermediate layer 160. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a conductive layer. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a liquid electrolyte. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a solid electrolyte. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 160 can include Ketjenblack, AA-stacked graphene, AB-stacked graphene, carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, graphite, lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium manganese iron phosphate (LMFP), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), LiNiO (LNO), nickel manganese cobalt (NMC), lithium nickel manganese oxide (LNMO), lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), iron (III) fluoride (FeF), sulfur, vanadium (V) oxide (VO), bismuth trifluoride (BiF), iron (IV) sulfate (FeS), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 160 creates a physical block that prevents vertical dendrite growth, thereby forcing the dendrites to grow horizontally.

[0077] In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include an intercalating cathode (e.g., LMOP, LNO, NMC, LFP, LNMO, LCO, and / or LMFP). In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a convertible cathode (e.g., FeF3, sulfur, VO5, BiF3, FeS2). In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include an anode capable of withstanding high voltages. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a conventional anode (e.g., hard carbon, graphite, and / or silicon). In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a metal. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a metal alloy. In some embodiments, the metal alloy can include lithium, tin, aluminum, silver, and / or copper. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can include a metal oxide. In some embodiments, the metal oxide may include silicon oxide (SiO), zinc oxide (ZnO), copper oxide (CuO), lithium titanate (LTO), and / or titanium(IV) oxide (TiO). In some embodiments, the interlayer 160 may include a semi-solid electrode. In some embodiments, the interlayer 160 may include a coated, sprayed, and / or printed polymer. In some embodiments, the interlayer 160 may include a ceramic powder. In some embodiments, the interlayer 160 may include a pre-fabricated film having a solid electrolyte.

[0078] In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 may include a conductive material. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 may include activated carbon, hard carbon, soft carbon, ketjen, carbon black, graphitic carbon, carbon fiber, carbon microfiber, vapor-grown carbon fiber (VGCF), fullerenic carbon including buckyballs, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), graphene, graphene sheets or aggregates of graphene sheets, and materials including fullerenic fragments, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 may include a solid electrode material. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte may include an oxide-based electrolyte. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte material may be lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (LLZO), Li 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7 (PO4)3 (LATP), lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON), lithium ion conducting solid electrolyte ceramics (LLTO), and / or Li3BO3-Li2SO4-Li2CO3 (LiBSCO). In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte material is a garnet structure, a perovskite structure, a lithium phosphate based superionic conductor (LISICON) structure, a glass structure (La 0.51 Li 0.34 TiO 2.94 , Li 1.3 Al 0.3 Ti 1.7 (PO4)3, Li 1.4 Al 0.4 Ti 1.6 (PO4)3, Li7La3Zr2O 12 , Li 6.66 La3Zr 1.6 Ta 0.4 O 12.9 (LLZO), 50Li4SiO4·50Li3BO3, Li 2.9 PO 3.3 N 0.46 (Lithium oxynitride, LiPON), Li 3.6 Si 0.6 P 0.4One or more oxide-based solid electrolyte materials, including LiO4, Li3BN2, Li3BO3-Li2SO4, etc., and / or thio-LISICON structures, glass structures, and glass-ceramic structures (Li 1.07 Al 0.69 Ti 1.46 (PO4)3, Li 1.5 Al 0.5 Ge 1.5 (PO4)3, Li 10 GeP2S 12 (LGPS), 30Li2S 26B2S3 44LiI, 63Li2S 36SiS2 1Li3PO4, 57Li2S 38SiS2 5Li4SiO4, 70Li2S 30P2S5, 50Li2S 50GeS2, Li7P3S 11 , Li 3.25 P 0.95 S4 and Li 9.54 Si 1.74 P 1.44 S 11.7 Cl 0.3 Sulfide-containing solid electrolyte materials including LiBH4-LiI, LiBH4-LiNH2, LiBH4-P2S5, Li(CB X H X+1 )-LiI, Li(CB9H 10 )- and / or LiI). In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte material can be sulfide-based. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte can include lithium phosphide (LPS), Li 10 GeP2S 12 (LGPS), lithium tin phosphate sulfide (LSPS), and / or Li 5.5 PS 4.5 Cl 1.5 (LPSCI). In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte material can include a complex hydride solid electrolyte. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte material can include LiBH—LiI and / or LiBH—P—S.

[0079] In some embodiments, when intermediate layer 160 comprises a solid electrolyte, intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of at least about 0%, at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90%. In some embodiments, when intermediate layer 160 includes a solid electrolyte, intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of about 95% or less, about 90% or less, about 85% or less, about 80% or less, about 75% or less, about 70% or less, about 65% or less, about 60% or less, about 55% or less, about 50% or less, about 45% or less, about 40% or less, about 35% or less, about 30% or less, about 25% or less, about 20% or less, about 15% or less, about 10% or less, or about 5% or less. Combinations of the above porosities (e.g., at least about 0% and about 95% or less, or at least about 10% and about 50%) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, when the intermediate layer includes a solid electrolyte, the intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of about 0%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, or about 95%.

[0080] In some embodiments, when intermediate layer 160 comprises a liquid electrolyte, intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, or at least about 90%. In some embodiments, when intermediate layer 160 includes a liquid electrolyte, intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of about 95% or less, about 90% or less, about 85% or less, about 80% or less, about 75% or less, about 70% or less, about 65% or less, about 60% or less, about 55% or less, about 50% or less, about 45% or less, about 40% or less, about 35% or less, about 30% or less, about 25% or less, about 20% or less, or about 15% or less. Combinations of the above porosities (e.g., at least about 0% and about 95% or less, or at least about 10% and about 50%) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, when the intermediate layer includes a liquid electrolyte, the intermediate layer 160 can have a porosity of about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, or about 95%.

[0081] In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can be pre-coated on first separator 150a and / or second separator 150b. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 160 can help identify the amount of lithium or another metal contamination via a BMS. The BMS then applies additional voltage and current to intermediate layer 160 to dissolve the contaminants. The BMS can maintain the state of charge (SOC) of intermediate layer 160 between a lower limit (e.g., about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, or about 40% (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)) and an upper limit (e.g., about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, or about 90% (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)). Keeping the interlayer 160 between minimum and maximum voltage limits can help reduce dendrite formation while the electrochemical cell 100 is not in use (i.e., by adding voltage and / or current). In some embodiments, the interlayer 160 can include a tab (not shown) that can be used to monitor the voltage of the interlayer 160 while the electrochemical cell is heat pressed (e.g., via a two-sided or four-sided heat press with a jelly roll design to fit into a prismatic can).

[0082] In some embodiments, the voltage between the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160 (and / or the voltage between the anode 110 and the cathode 130) is below a threshold value (e.g., about 2 V, about 2.1 V, about 2.2 V, about 2.3 V, about 2.4 V, about 2.5 V, about 2.6 V, about 2.7 V, about 2.8 V, about 2.9 V, about 3 V, about 3.1 V, about 3.2 V, about 3.3 V, about 3.4 V, about 3.5 V, about 3.6 V, about 3.7 V, about 3.8 V, about 3.9 V, about 4.0 V, about 4.1 V, about 4.2 V, about 4.3 V, about 4.4 V, about 4.5 V, about 4.6 V, about 4.7 V, about 4.8 V, about 4.9 V, about 5.0 V, about 5.1 V, about 5.2 V, about 5.3 V, about 5.4 V, about 5.5 V, about 5.6 V, about 5.7 V, about 5.8 V, about 5.9 V, about 6.0 V, about 6.1 V, about 6.2 V, about 6.3 V, about 6.4 V, about 6.5 V, about 6.6 V, about 6.7 V, about 6.8 V, about 6.9 V, about 7.0 V, about 7.1 V, about 7.2 V, about 7.3 V, about 7.4 V, about 7.5 V, about 7.6 V, about 7.7 V, about 7.8 V, about 7.9 V, about 8.0 V, about 8.1 V, about 8.2 V, about 8.3 V, about 8.4 V, about 8.5 The cell voltage may be maintained above a threshold value of about 0.7V, about 3.8V, about 3.9V, about 4V, about 4.1V, about 4.2V, about 4.3V, about 4.4V, about 4.5V, about 4.6V, about 4.7V, about 4.8V, about 4.9V, about 5V, about 5.1V, about 5.2V, about 5.3V, about 5.4V, about 5.5V, about 5.6V, about 5.7V, about 5.8V, about 5.9V, or about 6V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). Maintaining the cell voltage above a threshold value can prevent dendrite formation. Including a highly stable salt in the electrolyte can facilitate applying a high voltage (i.e., at least about 5V) between the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160.

[0083] In some embodiments, high salt concentrations in the electrolyte (e.g., at least about 2 M, at least about 2.1 M, at least about 2.2 M, at least about 2.3 M, at least about 2.4 M, at least about 2.5 M, at least about 2.6 M, at least about 2.7 M, at least about 2.8 M, at least about 2.9 M, at least about 3 M, at least about 3.1 M, at least about 3.2 M, at least about 3.3 M, at least about 3.4 M, at least about 3.5 M, at least about 3.6 M, at least about 3.7 M, at least about 3.8 M, at least about 3.9 M, at least about 4 M, at least about 4.1 M, at least about 4.2 M, at least about 4.3 M, at least about 4.4 M, at least about 4.5 M, at least about 4.6 M, at least about 4.7 M, at least about 4.8 M, at least about 4.9 M, or at least about 5 M) may cause side reactions at higher voltages. These side reactions can be prevented by maintaining a voltage difference between the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160. Intermediate layer 160 may include more stable carbon (e.g., ketjen, graphite, graphene, CNT, and / or hard carbon). In some embodiments, high-voltage stable metals (e.g., aluminum, gold, platinum) may be used to promote the stability of intermediate layer 160.

[0084] At a low state of charge (SOC), the intermediate layer 160 may have a voltage lower than that required to dissolve dendrites. In some embodiments, the BMS can be activated to provide additional voltage to the intermediate layer 160 to ensure sufficient voltage for metal dissolution. If no additional power is available to the intermediate layer 160, the cycling conditions can be narrowed (e.g., to about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, or about 20% of the SOC, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween) to limit dendrite formation. In some embodiments, the voltage between the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160 can be kept above a threshold by monitoring the potential of the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160 and controlling the SOC (i.e., monitoring and adjusting the cycling). In some embodiments, the voltage between the anode 110 and the intermediate layer 160 can be maintained by maintaining a constant SOC (e.g., at least about 15%, at least about 20%, or at least about 25%, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0085] 2A and 2B are diagrams of an electrochemical cell 200 including an interlayer 260, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 200 includes an anode 210 disposed on an anode current collector 220, a cathode 230 disposed on a cathode current collector 240, and a first separator 250a and a second separator 250b disposed between the anode 210 and the cathode 230. The interlayer 260 is disposed between the first separator 250a and the second separator 250b. In some embodiments, the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 110, anode current collector 120, cathode 130, cathode current collector 140, first separator 150 a, second separator 150 b, and intermediate layer 160 described above with reference to Figure 1. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and first intermediate layer 260 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0086] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 220 and intermediate layer 260, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 220 and cathode current collector 240. As shown, diode D is coupled to intermediate layer 260 and cathode current collector 240 to direct current flow in a single direction from intermediate layer 260 to cathode current collector 240. In some embodiments, diode D can be replaced with a resistor, a fuse, and / or a transistor (e.g., a bijunction transistor, FET). Anode current collector 220 is coupled to cathode current collector 240 via resistor R1 and switch S.

[0087] In FIG. 2A , switch S is open and electrochemical cell 200 is functioning normally. In FIG. 2B , dendrite 225 is forming. Dendrite 225 creates a short circuit between anode 220 and intermediate layer 260, thereby reducing voltage V1 below a threshold. Upon detecting that V1 has fallen below the threshold, switch S closes and electrochemical cell 200 discharges through resistor R1. In some embodiments, switch S can be closed during charging of electrochemical cell 200. In some embodiments, switch S can be closed during discharging of electrochemical cell 200. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage V1 can be about 0.001V, about 0.002V, about 0.003V, about 0.004V, about 0.005V, about 0.006V, about 0.007V, about 0.008V, about 0.009V, about 0.01V, about 0.02V, about 0.03V, about 0.04V, about 0.05V, about 0.06V, about 0.07V, about 0.08V, about 0.09V, about 0.1V, about 0.2V, about 0.3V, about 0.4V, about 0.5V, about 0.6V, about 0.7V, about 0.8V, about 0.9V, or about 1V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0088] In some embodiments, multiple electrochemical cells can be connected in series and / or in parallel. As shown, a hardware-triggered discharge can be easily used to automatically apply an external load to rapidly discharge electrochemical cell 200 when switch S is closed. This discharge can be beneficial to the functional safety of electrochemical cell 200. To confirm the reliability of dendrite detection, the number of failure times (FIT) of electrochemical cell 200 or multiple electrochemical cells can be detected (e.g., based on contaminant concentration (ppm) values ​​corresponding to a specific voltage). Individual monitors may be required for each electrochemical cell connected in parallel, which would increase the control costs of such a system without individual hardware detection. In some embodiments, all intermediate layers of parallel cells can be connected in parallel. The use of switching devices can allow for duplication of a single component (i.e., a single transistor is cheaper than a BMS monitoring chip). When electrochemical cells are fully connected in series, a battery measurement chip can be used, connecting V1 to the first channel and V2 to the next higher channel. In some embodiments, the BMS measures a voltage V, which is equal to V2 - V1. f The BMS may measure / calculate short-circuit voltages to allow control decisions to be made to protect the system. The BMS can react to short-circuit detection via standard balancing circuits or through additional control. Less integrated monitors may be suitable for such measurements because they have lower control overhead and cost than more automated BMS devices. Using multiple chipsets can also create redundant safety measurements for voltage and temperature sensing, giving additional flexibility in safety designs.

[0089] Resistor R1 moderates or reduces the flow of current through the direct path between anode 210 and cathode 230. In some embodiments, the current flowing through closed switch S can be used to provide power to an external device. In some embodiments, the current flowing through closed switch S can be used to provide heat to an external device or a heater. As shown, diode D connects intermediate layer 260 to cathode current collector 240. In some embodiments, diode D can connect intermediate layer 260 to anode current collector 220 while measuring the voltage between intermediate layer 260 and cathode current collector 240. In other words, electrochemical energy can flow in the opposite direction to that shown in FIGS. 2A and 2B .

[0090] In some embodiments, anode 210 can comprise a semi-solid anode. In some embodiments, anode 210 can comprise a conventional solid anode (i.e., including a binder). In some embodiments, cathode 230 can comprise a semi-solid cathode. In some embodiments, cathode 230 can comprise a conventional solid cathode (i.e., including a binder).

[0091] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 200 can be subjected to a high potential (hipot) test. In some embodiments, the cathode 230 can be subjected to a hipot test. In some embodiments, the anode 210 can be subjected to a hipot test. In some embodiments, the entire hipot of the electrochemical cell 200 can be performed with the intermediate layer 260 acting as a reference layer. In some embodiments, the hipot test can be performed using conventional electrode layers.

[0092] In some embodiments, first separator 250a and / or second separator 250b may be made of a material that has minimal thermal distortion. For example, first separator 250a and / or second separator 250b may be made of cellulose, a cellulose compound, a thermoset resin, a high melting point polymer, a polyimide, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, first separator 250a and / or second separator 250b can have a melting temperature of at least about 100° C., at least about 110° C., at least about 120° C., at least about 130° C., at least about 140° C., at least about 150° C., at least about 160° C., at least about 170° C., at least about 180° C., at least about 190° C., at least about 200° C., at least about 210° C., at least about 220° C., at least about 230° C., at least about 240° C., at least about 250° C., at least about 260° C., at least about 270° C., at least about 280° C., at least about 290° C., or at least about 300° C. This level of heat resistance prevents shrinkage of first separator 250a and / or second separator 250b. In some embodiments, electrochemical cell 200 can be formed such that first separator 250a and second separator 250b do not contact the pouch film encasing electrochemical cell 200. Because dendrite formation is prevented, first separator 250a and second separator 250b do not need to extend substantially outward from anode current collector 220 or cathode current collector 240.

[0093] In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 260 is at least about 500 nm, at least about 1 μm, at least about 2 μm, at least about 3 μm, at least about 4 μm, at least about 5 μm, at least about 6 μm, at least about 7 μm, at least about 8 μm, at least about 9 μm, at least about 10 μm, at least about 20 μm, at least about 30 μm, at least about 40 μm, at least about 50 μm, at least about 60 μm, at least about 70 μm, at least about 80 μm, at least about 90 μm, The film may have a thickness of at least about 100 μm, at least about 150 μm, at least about 200 μm, at least about 250 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 450 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 550 μm, at least about 600 μm, at least about 650 μm, at least about 700 μm, at least about 750 μm, at least about 800 μm, at least about 850 μm, at least about 900 μm, or at least about 950 μm. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 260 has a thickness of about 1,000 μm or less, about 950 μm or less, about 900 μm or less, about 850 μm or less, about 800 μm or less, about 750 μm or less, about 700 μm or less, about 650 μm or less, about 600 μm or less, about 550 μm or less, about 500 μm or less, about 450 μm or less, about 400 μm or less, about 350 μm or less, about 300 μm or less, about 250 μm or less, about 20 The thickness may be about 0 μm or less, about 150 μm or less, about 100 μm or less, about 90 μm or less, about 80 μm or less, about 70 μm or less, about 60 μm or less, about 50 μm or less, about 40 μm or less, about 30 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, about 9 μm or less, about 8 μm or less, about 7 μm or less, about 6 μm or less, about 5 μm or less, about 4 μm or less, about 3 μm or less, about 2 μm or less, or about 1 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses are also possible (e.g., at least about 500 nm and about 1,000 μm or less, or at least about 200 μm and about 700 μm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween.In some embodiments, intermediate layer 260 can have a thickness of about 10 μm, about 20 μm, about 30 μm, about 40 μm, about 50 μm, about 60 μm, about 70 μm, about 80 μm, about 90 μm, about 100 μm, about 150 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, about 500 μm, about 550 μm, about 600 μm, about 650 μm, about 700 μm, about 750 μm, about 800 μm, about 850 μm, about 900 μm, about 950 μm, or about 1,000 μm.

[0094] In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 260 is at least about 1×10 -3 S / m, at least about 2 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 3 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 4 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 5 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 6 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 7 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 8 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 9 × 10 -3 S / m, at least about 1 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 2 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 3 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 4 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 5 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 6 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 7 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 8 × 10 -2 S / m, at least about 9 × 10 -2S / m, at least about 0.1 S / m, at least about 0.2 S / m, at least about 0.3 S / m, at least about 0.4 S / m, at least about 0.5 S / m, at least about 0.6 S / m, at least about 0.7 S / m, at least about 0.8 S / m, or at least about 0.9 S / m. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 260 may have a conductivity of about 1 S / m or less, about 0.9 S / m or less, about 0.8 S / m or less, about 0.7 S / m or less, about 0.6 S / m or less, about 0.5 S / m or less, about 0.4 S / m or less, about 0.3 S / m or less, about 0.2 S / m or less, about 0.1 S / m or less, about 9×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 8×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 7×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 6×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 5×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 4×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 3×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 2×10 -2 S / m, approx. 1×10 -2 S / m or less, approximately 9×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 8×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 7×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 6×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 5×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 4×10 -3 S / m or less, approximately 3×10 -3 S / m or less, or approximately 2 x 10 -3 A combination of the above conductivities (e.g., at least about 1×10 -3 S / m and less than or equal to about 1 S / m, or at least about 2×10 -3 In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 260 has a viscosity of about 1×10 -3 S / m, approx. 2×10 -3 S / m, approx. 3×10 -3 S / m, approx. 4×10 -3 S / m, approx. 5×10 -3 S / m, approx. 6×10 -3 S / m, approx. 7×10 -3 S / m, approx. 8×10 -3 S / m, approx. 9×10 -3S / m, approx. 1×10 -2 S / m, approx. 2×10 -2 S / m, approx. 3×10 -2 S / m, approx. 4×10 -2 S / m, approx. 5×10 -2 S / m, approx. 6×10 -2 S / m, approx. 7×10 -2 S / m, approx. 8×10 -2 S / m, approx. 9×10 -2 S / m, about 0.1 S / m, about 0.2 S / m, about 0.3 S / m, about 0.4 S / m, about 0.5 S / m, about 0.6 S / m, about 0.7 S / m, about 0.8 S / m, about 0.9 S / m, or about 1 S / m.

[0095] In some embodiments, interlayer 260 can be electrically coupled to an external cathode of electrochemical cell 200. In some embodiments, the external cathode can have a higher resistance than interlayer 260. In some embodiments, interlayer 260 can be electrically coupled to an external anode of electrochemical cell 200. In some embodiments, the external anode can have a higher resistance than interlayer 260. In some embodiments, interlayer 260 can be electrically connected to an external electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, interlayer 260 can be electrically connected to an external capacitor. In some embodiments, interlayer 260 can be electrically connected to an external resistor.

[0096] In some embodiments, the potential of the intermediate layer 260 can be manipulated to dissolve or oxidize the dendrites 225 as they penetrate the intermediate layer 260. This is particularly effective when the intermediate layer 260 includes a cathode material therein. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between the anode 210 and the intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to at least about 1 V, at least about 1.5 V, at least about 2 V, at least about 2.5 V, at least about 3 V, at least about 3.5 V, at least about 4 V, or at least about 4.5 V. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between the anode 210 and the intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to about 5 V or less, about 4.5 V or less, about 4 V or less, about 3.5 V or less, about 3 V or less, about 2.5 V or less, about 2 V or less, or about 1.5 V or less. Combinations of the above voltage ranges (e.g., at least about 1 V and about 5 V or less, or at least about 2 V and about 4 V or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between the anode 210 and the intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V.

[0097] In some embodiments, the voltage difference between cathode 230 and intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to at least about 1 V, at least about 1.5 V, at least about 2 V, at least about 2.5 V, at least about 3 V, at least about 3.5 V, at least about 4 V, at least about 4.5 V, at least about 5 V, or at least about 5.5 V. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between cathode 230 and intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to about 6 V or less, about 5.5 V or less, about 5 V or less, about 4.5 V or less, about 4 V or less, about 3.5 V or less, about 3 V or less, about 2.5 V or less, about 2 V or less, or about 1.5 V or less. Combinations of the above voltage ranges are also possible (e.g., at least about 1 V and about 5 V or less, or at least about 2 V or more and about 4 V or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the voltage difference between the cathode 230 and the intermediate layer 260 can be adjusted to about 1V, about 1.5V, about 2V, about 2.5V, about 3V, about 3.5V, about 4V, about 4.5V, about 5V, about 5.5V, or about 6V.

[0098] In some embodiments, the impedance through the structural components of electrochemical cell 200 (i.e., anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, and separator 250) can be less than the impedance through resistor R1. In some embodiments, the impedance through the structural components of electrochemical cell 200 can be less than the impedance through diode D. In some embodiments, the ratio of the impedance through the structural components of electrochemical cell 200 to the impedance through resistor R1 can be less than about 1:2, less than about 1:3, less than about 1:4, less than about 1:5, less than about 1:6, less than about 1:7, less than about 1:8, less than about 1:9, less than about 1:10, less than about 1:20, less than about 1:30, less than about 1:40, less than about 1:50, less than about 1:60, less than about 1:70, less than about 1:80, less than about 1:90, or less than about 1:100. In some embodiments, the ratio of the impedance through the structural components of the electrochemical cell 200 to the impedance through the diode D can be less than about 1:2, less than about 1:3, less than about 1:4, less than about 1:5, less than about 1:6, less than about 1:7, less than about 1:8, less than about 1:9, less than about 1:10, less than about 1:20, less than about 1:30, less than about 1:40, less than about 1:50, less than about 1:60, less than about 1:70, less than about 1:80, less than about 1:90, or less than about 1:100.

[0099] In some embodiments, first separator 250a can have a first length, and second separator 250b can have a second length that is greater than the first length. In some embodiments, first separator 250a can have a first width, and second separator 250b can have a second width that is greater than the first width. In some embodiments, intermediate layer 260 can have a length and / or width that is greater than the first width and / or second width, such that a portion of intermediate layer 260 is adjacent to second separator 250b but not adjacent to first separator 250a. In some embodiments, a tab (not shown) can be attached to intermediate layer 260 (e.g., by welding). In some embodiments, a tab can be attached to a portion of intermediate layer 260 that extends beyond first separator 250a.

[0100] In some embodiments, a portion of first separator 250 a and / or second separator 250 b can be removed (e.g., first separator 250 a and / or second separator 250 b can be punched out) so that a tab can be attached to intermediate layer 260 through the removed portion of first separator 250 a and / or second separator 250 b. In some embodiments, electrochemical cell 200 can be housed within a pouch (not shown). In some embodiments, the pouch can include a first film attached to anode current collector 220 and a second film attached to cathode current collector 240. In some embodiments, a portion of the pouch can be removed (e.g., punched out) so that a tab can be attached to intermediate layer 260 through the removed portion of the pouch.

[0101] 3A and 3B are diagrams of an electrochemical cell 300 including an interlayer 360, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 300 includes an anode 310 disposed on an anode current collector 320, a cathode 330 disposed on a cathode current collector 340, and a first separator 350a and a second separator 350b disposed between the anode 310 and the cathode 330. The interlayer 360 is disposed between the first separator 350a and the second separator 350b. In some embodiments, the anode 310, anode current collector 320, cathode 330, cathode current collector 340, first separator 350 a, second separator 350 b, and intermediate layer 360 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 310, anode current collector 320, cathode 330, cathode current collector 340, first separator 350 a, second separator 350 b, and first intermediate layer 360 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0102] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 320 and intermediate layer 360, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 320 and cathode current collector 340. As shown, anode current collector 320 is coupled to cathode current collector 340 via resistor R1 and switch S. As shown, resistor R2 is coupled to intermediate layer 360 and cathode current collector 340 to block current flow in a direction from intermediate layer 360 to cathode current collector 340.

[0103] In Figure 3A, switch S is open and electrochemical cell 300 is functioning normally. In Figure 3B, dendrite 325 is forming. Dendrite 325 creates a short circuit between anode 320 and intermediate layer 360, thereby reducing voltage V1 below a threshold. Upon detecting that V1 has fallen below the threshold, switch S closes (see Figure 3B), and electrochemical cell 300 discharges through resistor R1.

[0104] As shown, resistor R1 connects intermediate layer 360 to cathode current collector 340. In some embodiments, resistor R1 can connect intermediate layer 360 to anode current collector 320 while measuring the voltage between intermediate layer 360 and cathode current collector 340. In other words, electrochemical energy can flow in the opposite direction from that shown in Figures 3A and 3B.

[0105] 4A and 4B are diagrams of an electrochemical cell 400 with multiple interlayers, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 400 includes an anode 410 disposed on an anode current collector 420, a cathode 430 disposed on a cathode current collector 440, and a first separator 450a, a second separator 450b, and a third separator 450c disposed between the anode 410 and the cathode 430. A first interlayer 460a is disposed between the first separator 450a and the second separator 450b. A second interlayer 460b is disposed between the second separator 450b and the third separator 450c. In some embodiments, the anode 410, anode current collector 420, cathode 430, cathode current collector 440, first separator 450a, second separator 450b, and first intermediate layer 460a can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 410, anode current collector 420, cathode 430, cathode current collector 440, first separator 450a, second separator 450b, and first intermediate layer 460a will not be described in further detail herein.

[0106] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 420 and the second intermediate layer 460b. Voltage V2 is measured between the second intermediate layer 460b and the first intermediate layer 460a. As shown, a first diode D1 is coupled to the second intermediate layer 460b and the cathode current collector 440 to direct current flow in a single direction from the second intermediate layer 460 to the cathode current collector 440. As shown, a second diode D2 is coupled to the first intermediate layer 460a and the cathode 440. The anode current collector 420 is coupled to the cathode current collector 440 via a resistor R1 and a switch S.

[0107] In FIG. 4A , switch S is open and electrochemical cell 400 is functioning normally. In FIG. 4B , dendrite 425 is forming. Dendrite 425 creates a short between anode 420 and first intermediate layer 460 a and / or second intermediate layer 460 b, thereby causing voltage V1 and / or voltage V2 to drop below a threshold. In some embodiments, the BMS can redirect current flow based on V1 dropping below a threshold. In some embodiments, the BMS can redirect current flow based on V2 dropping below a threshold. In some embodiments, the BMS can redirect current flow based on (V1 + V2) dropping below a threshold. In some embodiments, the threshold value can be about 0.001V, about 0.002V, about 0.003V, about 0.004V, about 0.005V, about 0.006V, about 0.007V, about 0.008V, about 0.009V, about 0.01V, about 0.02V, about 0.03V, about 0.04V, about 0.05V, about 0.06V, about 0.07V, about 0.08V, about 0.09V, about 0.1V, about 0.2V, about 0.3V, about 0.4V, about 0.5V, about 0.6V, about 0.7V, about 0.8V, about 0.9V, or about 1V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0108] As shown, electrochemical cell 400 includes three separators 450a, 450b, 450c (collectively referred to as separators 450). In some embodiments, electrochemical cell 400 can include at least about 3, at least about 4, at least about 5, at least about 6, at least about 7, at least about 8, at least about 9, at least about 10, at least about 15, at least about 20, at least about 25, at least about 30, at least about 35, at least about 40, at least about 45, at least about 50, at least about 55, at least about 60, at least about 65, at least about 70, at least about 75, at least about 80, at least about 85, at least about 90, or at least about 95 separators 450. In some embodiments, electrochemical cell 400 can include about 100 or less, about 95 or less, about 90 or less, about 85 or less, about 80 or less, about 75 or less, about 70 or less, about 65 or less, about 60 or less, about 55 or less, about 50 or less, about 45 or less, about 40 or less, about 35 or less, about 30 or less, about 25 or less, about 20 or less, about 15 or less, about 10 or less, about 9 or less, about 8 or less, about 7 or less, about 6 or less, about 5 or less, or about 4 or less separators 450. Combinations of the above numbers of separators 450 are also possible (e.g., at least about 3 and about 100 or less, or at least about 10 and about 40 or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 400 can include about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, or about 100 separators 450.

[0109] As shown, the electrochemical cell 400 includes two intermediate layers 460a, 460b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 460). The multiple intermediate layers 460 allow for multiple points along the electrochemical cell at which voltages and voltage differentials can be measured. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 400 includes at least about 2, at least about 3, at least about 4, at least about 5, at least about 6, at least about 7, at least about 8, at least about 9, at least about 10, at least about 15, at least about 20, at least about 25, at least about 30, at least about 35, at least about 40, at least about 45, at least about 50, at least about 55, at least about 60, at least about 65, at least about 70, at least about 75, at least about 80, at least about 85, at least about 90, or at least about 95 intermediate layers 460. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 400 can include about 100 or less, about 95 or less, about 90 or less, about 85 or less, about 80 or less, about 75 or less, about 70 or less, about 65 or less, about 60 or less, about 55 or less, about 50 or less, about 45 or less, about 40 or less, about 35 or less, about 30 or less, about 25 or less, about 20 or less, about 15 or less, about 10 or less, about 9 or less, about 8 or less, about 7 or less, about 6 or less, about 5 or less, about 4 or less, or about 3 or less intermediate layers 460. Combinations of the above numbers of intermediate layers 460 are also possible (e.g., at least about 3 and about 100 or less, or at least about 10 and about 40 or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell 400 can include about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, or about 100 intermediate layers 460.

[0110] As shown, diode D1 connects second intermediate layer 460b to cathode current collector 440, and diode D2 connects first intermediate layer 460a to cathode current collector 440. In some embodiments, diode D1 connects first intermediate layer 460a to anode current collector 420, and diode D2 connects second intermediate layer 460b to anode current collector 420, and simultaneously measures the voltage between first intermediate layer 460a and second intermediate layer 460b and between first intermediate layer 460a and cathode 430. In other words, electrochemical energy can flow in a direction opposite to that shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B .

[0111] In some embodiments, separator 450a, separator 450b, and / or separator 450c can include a solid electrolyte. In some embodiments, a solid electrolyte layer can be incorporated into electrochemical cell 400 in place of separator 450a, separator 450b, and / or separator 450c. In some embodiments, separator 450b can have a lower melting point than separator 450a. In some embodiments, separator 450c can have a lower melting point than separator 450a. In some embodiments, separator 450c can have a lower melting point than separator 450a. In some embodiments, separator 450a, separator 450b, and / or separator 450c can include a gel electrolyte. In some embodiments, a gel electrolyte can be included in electrochemical cell 400 in place of any of separators 450. In some embodiments, any separator 450 can include a non-ionically conductive powder.

[0112] In some embodiments, the resistance across diode D1 can be greater than the resistance across diode D2. This can allow more current to flow through intermediate layer 460a than intermediate layer 460b, potentially causing dendrites that penetrate intermediate layer 460b to dissipate more quickly. In some embodiments, if the V1 measurement is zero, a "caution" alert can be sent to the user (e.g., via the BMS). For example, the caution can be a yellow light. In some embodiments, if the V2 measurement is zero, a "warning" or "danger" alert can be sent to the user. For example, a red light can be switched on to indicate this to the user. In some embodiments, if the V2 measurement is zero, a safety measure can be triggered. In some embodiments, the safety measure can include an external short circuit via the BMS. In some embodiments, the safety measure can include rerouting the current through the heater (e.g., via the BMS).

[0113] In some embodiments, separator 450b and / or separator 450c can have a thickness of at least about 0.2 μm, at least about 0.3 μm, at least about 0.4 μm, at least about 0.5 μm, at least about 0.6 μm, at least about 0.7 μm, at least about 0.8 μm, at least about 0.9 μm, at least about 1 μm, at least about 1.5 μm, at least about 2 μm, or at least about 2.5 μm. In some embodiments, separator 450b and / or separator 450c can have a thickness of about 3 μm or less, about 2.5 μm or less, about 2 μm or less, about 1.5 μm or less, about 1 μm or less, about 0.9 μm or less, about 0.8 μm or less, about 0.7 μm or less, about 0.6 μm or less, about 0.5 μm or less, about 0.4 μm or less, or about 0.3 μm. Combinations of the above thickness values ​​are also possible (e.g., at least about 0.2 μm and not more than about 3 μm, or at least about 0.5 μm and not more than about 1 μm), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, separator 450b and / or separator 450c can have a thickness of about 0.2 μm, about 0.3 μm, about 0.4 μm, about 0.5 μm, about 0.6 μm, about 0.7 μm, about 0.8 μm, about 0.9 μm, about 1 μm, about 1.5 μm, about 2 μm, about 2.5 μm, or about 3 μm.

[0114] In some embodiments, separator 450b and / or separator 450c can be omitted from electrochemical cell 400. For example, electrochemical cell 400 can include a lithium metal anode with or without a mesh current collector. The lithium metal can be packed into a mesh current collector. In such a case, the ability to monitor V1 is lost, but V2 can still be monitored for safety purposes.

[0115] 5 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 500 having an interlayer 560, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 500 includes an anode 510 disposed on an anode current collector 520, a cathode 530 disposed on a cathode current collector 540, and a first separator 550a and a second separator 550b disposed between the anode 510 and the cathode 530. The interlayer 560 is disposed between the first separator 550a and the second separator 550b. In some embodiments, the anode 510, anode current collector 520, cathode 530, cathode current collector 540, first separator 550 a, second separator 550 b, and intermediate layer 560 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 510, anode current collector 520, cathode 530, cathode current collector 540, first separator 550 a, second separator 550 b, and intermediate layer 560 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0116] As shown, the cathode 530 has a non-uniform thickness. Without the intermediate layer 560, variations in coating thickness or impedance could cause the SOC of the anode 510 and / or cathode 530 to vary. Lithium ions are attracted to migrate within the electrodes to equalize the same potential. However, depending on the SOC, the cathode material (e.g., LNO or NMC) may have a larger potential gradient than the anode material (e.g., graphite), allowing lithium ions to migrate faster within the cathode material than within the anode material. Adding lithium-reduced NMC (e.g., Li(l-x)NMC) to the intermediate layer 560 can reduce the SOC difference within the cathode 530. During charging, electrons can pass through the intermediate layer 560, but during discharging, the material does not migrate. The intermediate layer 560 can provide a buffering capacity to equalize the SOC difference within the cathode 530. In some embodiments, the thickness of the cathode 530 can be non-uniform to balance the distribution of lithium ions. In other words, the lithium ions can have a uniform or nearly uniform (e.g., within about 5%, within about 4%, within about 3%, within about 2%, or within about 1%) lithium ion volume density (i.e., lithium ions per unit volume of electrode material) throughout the length of the cathode 530.

[0117] As shown, the first side of the cathode 530 has a first thickness t1, and the second side of the cathode 530 has a second thickness t2. The variable thicknesses (t1 and t2) of the cathode 530 can facilitate alignment of the cathode and anode and prevent misalignment when the electrochemical cell 500 is rolled (i.e., placed in a can in a jelly-roll format). In some embodiments, the first side of the cathode 530 can be adjacent to the tab where the voltage is measured. In some embodiments, the second side of the cathode 530 can be adjacent to the tab where the voltage is measured. In other words, the cathode 530 can be thicker on the side closer to the side where the voltage is measured, or the cathode 530 can be thicker on the side farther from the side where the voltage is measured.

[0118] In some embodiments, t1 is at least about 100 μm, at least about 150 μm, at least about 200 μm, at least about 250 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 450 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 550 μm, at least about 600 μm, at least about 650 μm, at least about 700 μm, at least about 750 μm, at least about 800 μm, at least about 850 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least about 950 μm, at least about 1000 μm, at least about 1100 μm, at least about 1200 μm, at least about 1300 μm, at least about 1400 μm, at least about 1500 μm, at least about 1600 μm, at least about 1700 μm, at least about 1800 μm, at least about 1900 μm, at least about 2000 μm, at least about 2100 μm, at least about 2200 μm, at least about 2300 μm, at least about 2400 μm, at least about 2500 μm, at least about 2600 μm, at least about 2700 μm, at least about 2800 μm, at least about 2900 μm, at least about 3000 μm, at least about 3100 μm, at least about 3200 μm, at least about 3300 μm, at least about 3400 μm, at least about 3500 μm, at least about 3600 μm, at least about 3700 μm, at least about 3800 μm, at least about It can be about 800 μm, at least about 850 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least about 950 μm, at least about 1,000 μm, at least about 1,100 μm, at least about 1,200 μm, at least about 1,300 μm, at least about 1,400 μm, at least about 1,500 μm, at least about 1,600 μm, at least about 1,700 μm, at least about 1,800 μm, or at least about 1,900 μm. In some embodiments, t1 is about 2,000 μm or less, about 2,000 μm or less, about 2,000 μm or less, about 1,900 μm or less, about 1,800 μm or less, about 1,700 μm or less, about 1,600 μm or less, about 1,500 μm or less, about 1,400 μm or less, about 1,300 μm or less, about 1,200 μm or less, about 1,100 μm or less, about 1,000 μm or less, The thickness may be about 950 μm or less, about 900 μm or less, about 850 μm or less, about 800 μm or less, about 750 μm or less, about 700 μm or less, about 650 μm or less, about 600 μm or less, about 550 μm or less, about 500 μm or less, about 450 μm or less, about 400 μm or less, about 350 μm or less, about 300 μm or less, about 250 μm or less, about 200 μm or less, or about 150 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses are also possible (e.g., at least about 100 μm and about 2,000 μm or less, or at least about 150 μm and about 500 μm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween.In some embodiments, t1 can be a thickness of about 100 μm, about 150 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, about 500 μm, about 550 μm, about 600 μm, about 650 μm, about 700 μm, about 750 μm, about 800 μm, about 850 μm, about 900 μm, about 950 μm, about 1,000 μm, about 1,100 μm, about 1,200 μm, about 1,300 μm, about 1,400 μm, about 1,500 μm, about 1,600 μm, about 1,700 μm, about 1,800 μm, about 1,900 μm, or about 2,000 μm.

[0119] In some embodiments, t2 is at least about 100 μm, at least about 150 μm, at least about 200 μm, at least about 250 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 450 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 550 μm, at least about 600 μm, at least about 650 μm, at least about 700 μm, at least about 750 μm, at least about 800 μm, at least about 850 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least about 950 μm, at least about 1000 μm, at least about 1100 μm, at least about 1200 μm, at least about 1300 μm, at least about 1400 μm, at least about 1500 μm, at least about 1600 μm, at least about 1700 μm, at least about 1800 μm, at least about 1900 μm, at least about 2000 μm, at least about 2100 μm, at least about 2200 μm, at least about 2300 μm, at least about 2400 μm, at least about 2500 μm, at least about 2600 μm, at least about 2700 μm, at least about 2800 μm, at least about 2900 μm, at least about 3000 μm, at least about 3100 μm, at least about 3200 μm, at least about 3300 μm, at least about 3400 μm, at least about 3500 μm, at least about 3600 μm, at least about 3700 μm, at least about 3800 μm, at least about It can be about 800 μm, at least about 850 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least about 950 μm, at least about 1,000 μm, at least about 1,100 μm, at least about 1,200 μm, at least about 1,300 μm, at least about 1,400 μm, at least about 1,500 μm, at least about 1,600 μm, at least about 1,700 μm, at least about 1,800 μm, or at least about 1,900 μm. In some embodiments, t2 is about 2,000 μm or less, about 2,000 μm or less, about 2,000 μm or less, about 1,900 μm or less, about 1,800 μm or less, about 1,700 μm or less, about 1,600 μm or less, about 1,500 μm or less, about 1,400 μm or less, about 1,300 μm or less, about 1,200 μm or less, about 1,100 μm or less, about 1,000 μm or less, The thickness may be about 950 μm or less, about 900 μm or less, about 850 μm or less, about 800 μm or less, about 750 μm or less, about 700 μm or less, about 650 μm or less, about 600 μm or less, about 550 μm or less, about 500 μm or less, about 450 μm or less, about 400 μm or less, about 350 μm or less, about 300 μm or less, about 250 μm or less, about 200 μm or less, or about 150 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses are also possible (e.g., at least about 100 μm and about 2,000 μm or less, or at least about 150 μm and about 500 μm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween.In some embodiments, t2 can be a thickness of about 100 μm, about 150 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, about 500 μm, about 550 μm, about 600 μm, about 650 μm, about 700 μm, about 750 μm, about 800 μm, about 850 μm, about 900 μm, about 950 μm, about 1,000 μm, about 1,100 μm, about 1,200 μm, about 1,300 μm, about 1,400 μm, about 1,500 μm, about 1,600 μm, about 1,700 μm, about 1,800 μm, about 1,900 μm, or about 2,000 μm.

[0120] In some embodiments, t2 can be at least about 50 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 200 nm, at least about 300 nm, at least about 400 nm, at least about 500 nm, at least about 600 nm, at least about 700 nm, at least about 800 nm, at least about 900 nm, at least about 1 μm, at least about 2 μm, at least about 3 μm, at least about 4 μm, at least about 5 μm, at least about 6 μm, at least about 7 μm, at least about 8 μm, at least about 9 μm, at least about 10 μm, at least about 15 μm, at least about 20 μm, at least about 25 μm, at least about 30 μm, at least about 35 μm, at least about 40 μm, or at least about 45 μm greater than t1. In some embodiments, t2 can be about 50 μm or less, about 45 μm or less, about 40 μm or less, about 35 μm or less, about 30 μm or less, about 25 μm or less, about 20 μm or less, about 15 μm or less, about 10 μm or less, about 9 μm or less, about 8 μm or less, about 7 μm or less, about 6 μm or less, about 5 μm or less, about 4 μm or less, about 3 μm or less, about 2 μm or less, about 1 μm or less, about 900 nm or less, about 800 nm or less, about 700 nm or less, about 600 nm or less, about 500 nm or less, about 400 nm or less, about 300 nm or less, about 200 nm or less, or about 100 nm or less greater than t1. Combinations of the above thickness differences (e.g., at least about 50 nm and about 50 μm or less, or at least about 500 nm and about 10 μm or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween.

[0121] In some embodiments, t2 may be at least about 0.1%, at least about 0.2%, at least about 0.3%, at least about 0.4%, at least about 0.5%, at least about 0.6%, at least about 0.7%, at least about 0.8%, at least about 0.9%, at least about 1%, at least about 2%, at least about 3%, at least about 4%, at least about 5%, at least about 6%, at least about 7%, at least about 8%, or at least about 9% greater than t1. In some embodiments, t2 may be no more than about 10%, no more than about 9%, no more than about 8%, no more than about 7%, no more than about 6%, no more than about 5%, no more than about 4%, no more than about 3%, no more than about 2%, no more than about 1%, no more than about 0.9%, no more than about 0.8%, no more than about 0.7%, no more than about 0.6%, no more than about 0.5%, no more than about 0.4%, no more than about 0.3%, or no more than about 0.2% greater than t1. Combinations of the above thickness differences are also possible (e.g., at least about 0.1% and not more than about 10%, or at least about 0.5% and not more than about 5%), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, t2 can be about 0.1%, about 0.2%, about 0.3%, about 0.4%, about 0.5%, about 0.6%, about 0.7%, about 0.8%, about 0.9%, about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10% greater than t1.

[0122] As shown, the cathode 530 has a non-uniform thickness. In some embodiments, the anode 510 can have a non-uniform thickness. In some embodiments, the first separator 550a and / or the second separator 550b can have a non-uniform thickness to accommodate the non-uniform thickness of the cathode 530 and / or the anode 510. In other words, the first separator 550a and / or the second separator 550b can have a thinner thickness on a side of the electrochemical cell 200 that includes t1 and a thicker thickness on a side of the electrochemical cell 200 that includes t2. In some embodiments, the first separator 550a and / or the second separator 550b can include a malleable structure such that the non-uniform thickness of the cathode 530 and / or the anode 510 can be accommodated and not affect the thickness uniformity of the electrochemical cell 500.

[0123] 6 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 600 having an interlayer 660, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 600 includes an anode 610 disposed on an anode current collector 620 having a lithium metal layer 670 interposed therebetween, a cathode 630 disposed on a cathode current collector 640, and a first separator 650a and a second separator 650b disposed between the anode 610 and the cathode 630. The interlayer 660 is disposed between the first separator 650a and the second separator 650b. In some embodiments, the anode 610, anode current collector 620, cathode 630, cathode current collector 640, first separator 650 a, second separator 650 b, and intermediate layer 660 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 610, anode current collector 620, cathode 630, cathode current collector 640, first separator 650 a, second separator 650 b, and intermediate layer 660 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0124] A lithium metal layer 670 is disposed adjacent to the anode 610. In some embodiments, the lithium metal layer 670 can aid in the uniform distribution of electrons within the anode 610. In some embodiments, the anode 610 can include hard carbon coated on the lithium metal layer 670. In some embodiments, the anode 610 can include silicon coated on the lithium metal layer 670. In some embodiments, the anode 610 can include graphite coated on the lithium metal layer 670. In some embodiments, the anode 610 can include indium coated on the lithium metal layer 670.

[0125] In some embodiments, lithium metal layer 670 can have a thickness of at least about 50 μm, at least about 60 μm, at least about 70 μm, at least about 80 μm, at least about 90 μm, at least about 100 μm, at least about 150 μm, at least about 200 μm, at least about 250 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 350 μm, at least about 400 μm, or at least about 450 μm. In some embodiments, lithium metal layer 670 can have a thickness of about 500 μm or less, about 450 μm or less, about 400 μm or less, about 350 μm or less, about 300 μm or less, about 250 μm or less, about 200 μm or less, about 150 μm or less, about 100 μm or less, about 90 μm or less, about 80 μm or less, about 70 μm or less, or about 60 μm or less. Combinations of the above thicknesses are also possible (e.g., at least about 50 μm and not more than about 500 μm, or at least about 100 μm and not more than about 400 μm), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, lithium metal layer 670 can have a thickness of about 50 μm, about 60 μm, about 70 μm, about 80 μm, about 90 μm, about 100 μm, about 150 μm, about 200 μm, about 250 μm, about 300 μm, about 350 μm, about 400 μm, about 450 μm, or about 500 μm.

[0126] 7A and 7B show separators 750a, 750b (collectively referred to as separator 750) with an intermediate layer 760 disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. As shown, intermediate layer 760 is disposed on separator 750a. Frame 762 is disposed on intermediate layer 760 and around the outer edge of intermediate layer 760. Tabs 763 are coupled to frame 762 and extend beyond separator 750 so that tabs 763 may be coupled to a voltage source or voltage measurement leads. In FIG. 7A, a second separator 750b has been removed to show details of the components between separators 750. FIG. 7B shows second separator 750b in place so that the components between separators 750 are not visible. In some embodiments, first separator 750a, second separator 750b, and intermediate layer 760 can be the same as or substantially similar to first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of first separator 750a, second separator 750b, and intermediate layer 760 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0127] The frame 762 is disposed around the outer edge of the intermediate layer 760. In some embodiments, the frame 762 is made of a conductive material. In some embodiments, the frame 762 can be made of aluminum, copper, a conductive ceramic, a conductive polymer, carbon fiber paper, nickel, titanium, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the frame 762 can be bonded to the first separator 750a and / or the second separator 750b via an adhesive. In some embodiments, the adhesive can be applied during the manufacturing process of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the adhesive can be conductive. In some embodiments, the tab 763 can be welded to the frame 762. In some embodiments, the tab 763 can be ultrasonically welded to the frame 762. In some embodiments, the tab 763 can be bonded to a pouch tab (not shown) via an adhesive. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 760 can have multiple layers. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 760 can include gold, carbon, indium, tin, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 760 may be coated onto the tab 763, the first separator 750a, and / or the second separator 750b. In some embodiments, the tab 763 may be welded directly to the intermediate layer 760, the first separator 750a, and / or the second separator 750b.

[0128] As shown, the frame 762 overlaps the intermediate layer 760 by an overlap width w. The width w can be varied to reduce the resistance of the frame 762 and can be adjusted based on the material of the frame 762, the thickness of the frame 762, and / or the capacity of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, w can be at least about 250 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 750 μm, at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, w can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, about 1.5 mm or less, about 1 mm or less, about 750 μm or less, or about 500 μm or less. Combinations of the above values ​​for w are also possible (e.g., at least about 250 μm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 1 mm and about 5 mm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the width w can be about 250 μm, about 500 μm, about 750 μm, about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0129] As shown, intermediate layer 760 includes active area 761. The distance from the inner edge of the frame to the outer edge of the active area is represented as da. In some embodiments, the distance da can be at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, the distance da can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, or about 1.5 mm or less. Combinations of the distances listed above for da (e.g., at least about 1 mm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 2 mm and about 8 mm or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the distance da can be about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0130] 8A and 8B show separators 850a, 850b (collectively referred to as separator 850) with an intermediate layer 860 disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. As shown, intermediate layer 860 is disposed on separator 850a. Wire 862 is disposed around the outer periphery of intermediate layer 860. The end of wire 862 serves as tab 863, extending beyond separator 850 so that tab 863 may be coupled to a voltage source or voltage measurement lead. In FIG. 8A, second separator 850b has been removed to show details of the components between separators 850. FIG. 8B shows second separator 850b in place so that the components between separators 850 are not visible. In some embodiments, first separator 850a, second separator 850b, and intermediate layer 860 can be the same as or substantially similar to first separator 750a, second separator 750b, and intermediate layer 760 described above with reference to Figures 7A and 7B. Accordingly, certain aspects of first separator 850a, second separator 850b, and intermediate layer 860 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0131] In some embodiments, wire 862 can be made of aluminum. In some embodiments, wire 862 can be made of copper. In some embodiments, the gauge of wire 862 can be selected based on the capacity of the electrochemical cell (i.e., thicker wire can be incorporated into electrochemical cells with higher capacities). In some embodiments, wire 862 can have a 32 American Wire Gauge (AWG), 31 AWG, 30 AWG, 29 AWG, 28 AWG, 27 AWG, 26 AWG, 25 AWG, 24 AWG, 23 AWG, 22 AWG, 21 AWG, 20 AWG, 19 AWG, or 18 AWG, including all sizes in between. In some embodiments, wire 862 can be attached to first separator 850a and / or second separator 850b via an adhesive. In some embodiments, an adhesive can be applied to wire 862 during the manufacturing process of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the adhesive can be conductive.

[0132] In some embodiments, a coating can be molded around wire 862. In some embodiments, the coating can include a polymer coating. In some embodiments, the coating can include polyethylene. In some embodiments, wire 862 can be directly connected to a diode (not shown). In some embodiments, wire 862 can be connected to the diode via soldering, a butt joint, or any other suitable connection. In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell including wire 862 can have less mass than an electrochemical cell including a frame (e.g., frame 762 described above with reference to FIG. 7).

[0133] As shown, wire 862 is offset from the edge of intermediate layer 860 by an offset distance d. In some embodiments, d can be the same or substantially similar on all sides of intermediate layer 860. In some embodiments, d can vary from one side of intermediate layer 860 to the other. In some embodiments, wire 862 can be disposed at the edge of intermediate layer 860 such that d is about 0 mm. In some embodiments, d can be at least about 0 mm, at least about 0.5 mm, at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, d can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, about 1.5 mm or less, about 1 mm or less, or about 0.5 mm or less. Combinations of the above values ​​for d (e.g., at least about 0 mm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 1 mm and about 5 mm or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, d can be about 0 mm, about 0.5 mm, about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0134] 9A and 9B show separators 950a, 950b (collectively referred to as separator 950) with an intermediate layer 960 disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. As shown, intermediate layer 960 is disposed on separator 950a. Wire 962 is disposed around a portion of the periphery of intermediate layer 960, with wire 962 patterned across intermediate layer 960. The end of wire 962 serves as tab 963 that extends beyond separator 950 so that tab 963 can be coupled to a voltage source or voltage measurement lead. In FIG. 9A, a second separator 950b has been removed to show details of the components between separators 950. FIG. 9B shows second separator 950b in place so that the components between separators 950 are not visible. In some embodiments, the first separator 950a, the second separator 950b, the intermediate layer 960, the wire 962, and the tab 963 can be the same as or substantially similar to the first separator 850a, the second separator 850b, the intermediate layer 860, the wire 862, and the tab 863 described above with reference to Figures 8A and 8B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the first separator 950a, the second separator 950b, the intermediate layer 960, the wire 962, and the tab 963 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0135] In some embodiments, the pattern of the wire 962 may be optimized to reduce the resistance of the electrochemical cell. For example, the pattern that the wire 962 follows along the intermediate layer 960 may minimize the distance from the dendrite to the wire 962, a diode, a resistor, a fuse, a transistor, or any combination thereof. This may minimize the amount of growth that the dendrite may experience in the intermediate layer 960 before redirecting the current and discharging the electrochemical cell. As shown, the wire 962 is formed in a serpentine pattern with rounded edges. In some embodiments, the wire 962 may be formed in a serpentine pattern with sharp edges. In some embodiments, the wire 962 may be formed in a spiral pattern.

[0136] 10A-10C illustrate separators 1050a, 1050b (collectively referred to as separators 1050) with an intermediate layer 1060 disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. As shown, intermediate layer 1060 is disposed on separator 1050a. A conductive coating 1065 is disposed on intermediate layer 1060, and tabs 1063 are bonded to intermediate layer 1060, conductive coating 1065, first separator 1050a, and / or second separator 1050b. In FIG. 10A, second separator 1050b and conductive coating 1065 have been removed. Second separator 1050b has been removed from FIG. 10B to show details of the components between separators 1050. FIG. 10C shows second separator 1050b in place so that the components between separators 1050 are not visible. In some embodiments, the first separator 1050a, the second separator 1050b, and the intermediate layer 1060 can be the same as or substantially similar to the first separator 750a, the second separator 750b, and the intermediate layer 760 described above with reference to Figures 7A and 7B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the first separator 1050a, the second separator 1050b, and the intermediate layer 1060 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0137] A conductive coating 1065 is disposed on the intermediate layer 1060. In some embodiments, the conductive coating 1065 can be composed of a conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the conductive coating 1065 can be composed of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS), polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPy), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the tab 1063 can be in the form of a wire (e.g., can be the same as or substantially similar to the tab 963 described above with reference to FIGS. 9A and 9B ). In some embodiments, the tab 1063 can be composed of aluminum, copper, a conductive ceramic, a conductive polymer, carbon fiber paper, or any combination thereof.

[0138] In some embodiments, the conductive coating 1065 may be coated on the second separator 1050b. In some embodiments, the tab 1063 may be adhered to the first separator 1050a and / or the second separator 1050b and be in electrical communication with the conductive coating 1065. In some embodiments, the tab 1063 may be coupled to the diode (not shown) via soldering, welding, butt jointing, or any other suitable coupling means. In some embodiments, the tab 1063 may be welded to a pouch tab (not shown) and connected to the diode. In some embodiments, the conductive coating 1065 may cover the entire active area of ​​the intermediate layer 1065. In some embodiments, the conductive coating 1065 may be installed without a frame (e.g., frame 762 described above with reference to FIGS. 7A and 7B).

[0139] 11A and 11B show separators 950a, 950b (collectively referred to as separator 1150) with an intermediate layer 1160 disposed therebetween, according to one embodiment. As shown, intermediate layer 1160 is disposed on separator 1150a. Tab 1163 is bonded directly to intermediate layer 1160. In FIG. 11, second separator 1150b has been removed to show details of the components between separators 1150. FIG. 11B shows second separator 1150b in place so that the components between separators 1150 are not visible. In some embodiments, first separator 1150a, second separator 1150b, intermediate layer 1160, and tab 1163 can be the same as or substantially similar to first separator 750a, second separator 750b, intermediate layer 760, and tab 763 described above with reference to Figures 7A and 7B. Accordingly, certain aspects of first separator 1150a, second separator 1150b, intermediate layer 1160, and tab 1163 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0140] In some embodiments, the tab 1163 can be composed of aluminum, copper, conductive ceramic, conductive polymer, carbon fiber paper, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the tab 1163 can be pressed into the intermediate layer 1160. For example, the intermediate layer 1160 can include a carbon / binder slurry, and the tab 1163 can be pressed into the carbon / binder slurry with such a force that the tab 1163 and / or the intermediate layer 1160 yield. In some embodiments, the tab 1163 can be attached to one of the separators 1150 via adhesive, staples, ultrasonic welding, adhesive tape, adhesive glue, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the tab 1163 can contact the intermediate layer 1160 via pressure applied to the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the configuration shown in FIGS. 11A and 11B can reduce the mass of the electrochemical cell and improve energy density compared to other embodiments.

[0141] In some embodiments, the distance from the sealing / adhesive area of ​​tab 1163 to the edge of intermediate layer 1160 can be at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, the distance from the sealing / adhesive area of ​​the tab 1163 to the edge of the intermediate layer 1160 can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, or about 1.5 mm or less. Combinations of the above distances (e.g., at least about 1 mm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 2 mm and about 8 mm or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the distance from the sealing / adhesive area of ​​the tab 1163 to the edge of the intermediate layer 1160 can be about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0142] In some embodiments, the width of the sealing / adhesive area of ​​tab 1163 (i.e., the distance along the length of tab 1163, or the distance up and down the page in FIG. 11A ) can be at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, the width of the sealing / adhesive region of tab 1163 can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, or about 1.5 mm or less. Combinations of the above widths (e.g., at least about 1 mm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 2 mm and about 8 mm or less) are also possible, including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the width of the sealing / adhesive area of ​​the tab 1163 can be about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0143] As shown, intermediate layer 1160 includes active area 1161. In some embodiments, the distance from the edge of tab 1163 to the edge of active area 1161 can be at least about 1 mm, at least about 1.5 mm, at least about 2 mm, at least about 2.5 mm, at least about 3 mm, at least about 3.5 mm, at least about 4 mm, at least about 4.5 mm, at least about 5 mm, at least about 5.5 mm, at least about 6 mm, at least about 6.5 mm, at least about 7 mm, at least about 7.5 mm, at least about 8 mm, at least about 8.5 mm, at least about 9 mm, or at least about 9.5 mm. In some embodiments, the distance from the edge of the tab 1163 to the edge of the active area 1161 can be about 10 mm or less, about 9.5 mm or less, about 9 mm or less, about 8.5 mm or less, about 8 mm or less, about 7.5 mm or less, about 7 mm or less, about 6.5 mm or less, about 6 mm or less, about 5.5 mm or less, about 5 mm or less, about 4.5 mm or less, about 4 mm or less, about 3.5 mm or less, about 3 mm or less, about 2.5 mm or less, about 2 mm or less, or about 1.5 mm. Combinations of the above distances are also possible (e.g., at least about 1 mm and about 10 mm or less, or at least about 2 mm and about 8 mm or less), including all values ​​and ranges therebetween. In some embodiments, the distance from the edge of the tab 1163 to the edge of the active area 1161 can be about 1 mm, about 1.5 mm, about 2 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5 mm, about 5.5 mm, about 6 mm, about 6.5 mm, about 7 mm, about 7.5 mm, about 8 mm, about 8.5 mm, about 9 mm, about 9.5 mm, or about 10 mm.

[0144] 12 is a flow diagram of a method 10 of operating an electrochemical cell, according to one embodiment. As shown, method 10 includes measuring a voltage between a first electrode and a second electrode in step 11 and measuring a voltage between the first electrode and a first interlayer in step 12. Method 10 optionally includes measuring a voltage between the first interlayer and a second electrode in step 13 and measuring a voltage between the first electrode and a second interlayer in step 14. Method 10 further includes closing a circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode in step 15.

[0145] In step 11, the voltage at which the electrochemical cell is operating is measured by measuring the voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode. In step 12, the voltage between the first electrode and the first intermediate layer is measured to provide a basis for comparison for detecting dendrites. If the voltage between the first electrode and the first intermediate layer falls below a threshold, this may indicate a short circuit between the first electrode and the first intermediate layer. In response, in step 15, the circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode is closed. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage may be the voltage difference between the first electrode and the first intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage can be about 0.001V, about 0.002V, about 0.003V, about 0.004V, about 0.005V, about 0.006V, about 0.007V, about 0.008V, about 0.009V, about 0.01V, about 0.02V, about 0.03V, about 0.04V, about 0.05V, about 0.06V, about 0.07V, about 0.08V, about 0.09V, about 0.1V, about 0.2V, about 0.3V, about 0.4V, about 0.5V, about 0.6V, about 0.7V, about 0.8V, about 0.9V, or about 1V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). In some embodiments, the threshold voltage can be a threshold voltage ratio between the voltage measured between the first electrode and the intermediate layer and the voltage measured between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage ratio can be about 0.001, about 0.002, about 0.003, about 0.004, about 0.005, about 0.006, about 0.007, about 0.008, about 0.009, about 0.01, about 0.02, about 0.03, about 0.04, about 0.05, about 0.06, about 0.07, about 0.08, about 0.09, about 0.1, about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, or about 0.5 (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0146] Method 10 optionally includes measuring a voltage between the first intermediate layer and the second electrode in step 13. In some embodiments, a circuit is closed in step 15 in response to the voltage measured between the first intermediate layer and the second electrode in step 13. In some embodiments, closing the circuit in step 15 may occur in response to the voltage measured between the first intermediate layer and the second electrode dropping below a threshold. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage may be a voltage difference between the first electrode and the second intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage may be a voltage difference between the first intermediate layer and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage can be about 0.001V, about 0.002V, about 0.003V, about 0.004V, about 0.005V, about 0.006V, about 0.007V, about 0.008V, about 0.009V, about 0.01V, about 0.02V, about 0.03V, about 0.04V, about 0.05V, about 0.06V, about 0.07V, about 0.08V, about 0.09V, about 0.1V, about 0.2V, about 0.3V, about 0.4V, about 0.5V, about 0.6V, about 0.7V, about 0.8V, about 0.9V, or about 1V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). In some embodiments, the threshold voltage can be a threshold voltage fraction between the voltage measured between the first electrode and the second intermediate layer and the voltage measured between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage can be a threshold voltage fraction between the voltage measured between the first intermediate layer and the second electrode and the voltage measured between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the threshold voltage fraction can be about 0.001, about 0.002, about 0.003, about 0.004, about 0.005, about 0.006, about 0.007, about 0.008, about 0.009, about 0.01, about 0.02, about 0.03, about 0.04, about 0.05, about 0.06, about 0.07, about 0.08, about 0.09, about 0.1, about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, or about 0.5 (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0147] Step 15 includes closing a circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, closing the circuit may include redirecting the current through a resistor. In some embodiments, closing the circuit may include redirecting the current through a separate device (e.g., a light bulb, an additional electrochemical cell, etc.).

[0148] 13 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 1300 having an interlayer 1360, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 1300 includes an anode 1310 disposed on an anode current collector 1320, a cathode 1330 disposed on a cathode current collector 1340, and a first separator 1350a and a second separator 1350b (collectively referred to as separators 1350) disposed between the anode 1310 and the cathode 1330. The interlayer 1360 is disposed between the first separator 1350a and the second separator 1350b. A first film 1380a is bonded to the anode current collector 1320, and a second film 1380b is bonded to the cathode current collector 1340. The first film 1380b and the second film 1380b combine to form a pouch, collectively referred to herein as pouch 1380. A tab 1363 extends from the intermediate layer 1360. A staple 1367 is wrapped around the separator 1350 and the intermediate layer 1360. In some embodiments, the anode 1310, the anode current collector 1320, the cathode 1330, the cathode current collector 1340, the first separator 1350a, the second separator 1350b, and the intermediate layer 1360 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, the anode current collector 220, the cathode 230, the cathode current collector 240, the first separator 250a, the second separator 250b, and the intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B . 7A-7B, certain aspects of the anode 1310, anode current collector 1320, cathode 1330, cathode current collector 1340, first separator 1350a, second separator 1350b, and intermediate layer 1360 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0149] As shown, tab 1363 protrudes from pouch 1380, allowing tab 1363 to be connected to a voltage source, a voltage measurement point, a diode, a resistor, a transistor, a fuse, or any combination thereof. Staple 1367 surrounds separator 1350 and tab 1363, thereby pressing separator 1350 and tab 1363 together. In some embodiments, staple 1367 partially surrounds separator 1350 and tab 1363. In some embodiments, staple 1367 completely surrounds separator 1350 and tab 1363. In some embodiments, staple 1367 can add structural stability to tab 1363 and separator 1350, thereby helping to prevent tab 1363 from becoming detached from electrochemical cell 1300. As shown, the staples 1367 are disposed on the inside of the first film 1380a and the second film 1380b. In other words, the staples 1367 are on the inside of the pouch 1380. In some embodiments, the staples 1367 can be disposed on the outside of the pouch 1380. In some embodiments, the staples 1367 can be constructed of metal. In some embodiments, the staples 1367 can be constructed of plastic. In some embodiments, the staples 1367 can create a sealed area around the separator 1350 and the tab 1363. In some embodiments, the sealed area can be formed by heat sealing. In some embodiments, the sealed area can be formed by pressing the staples 1367 against the separator 1350 with high pressure. In some embodiments, the sealed area can be formed by an adhesive between the staples 1367 and the separator 1350. In some embodiments, the sealed area can be formed by an adhesive between the staples 1367 and the pouch 1380.

[0150] As shown, tab 1363 is disposed between intermediate layer 1360 and first separator 1350a. In some embodiments, tab 1363 may be disposed between intermediate layer 1360 and second separator 1350b. In some embodiments, tab 1363 may be sealed to intermediate layer 1360, first separator 1350a, and / or second separator 1350b (e.g., via adhesive, heat sealing, etc.). In some embodiments, tab 1363 may be bonded to intermediate layer 1360 prior to assembly of electrochemical cell 1300. In some embodiments, tab 1363 may be bonded to intermediate layer 1360 after assembly of electrochemical cell 1300. In some embodiments, tab 1363 may protrude through a hole in pouch 1380. In some embodiments, a hole may be cut in pouch 1380 prior to installing tab 1363. In some embodiments, the first film 1380a and / or second film 1380b can be cut to a desired shape before bonding the first film 1380a and / or second film 1380b to the anode current collector 1320 and / or cathode current collector 1340. The anode current collector 1320 and cathode current collector 1340 can also have tabs connected to them. In some embodiments, the tabs connected to the anode current collector 1320 and cathode current collector 1340 can pass through pre-cut holes in the first film 1380a and / or second film 1380b.

[0151] 14 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 1400 having an interlayer 1460, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 1400 includes an anode 1410 disposed on an anode current collector 1420, a cathode 1430 disposed on a cathode current collector 1440, and a first separator 1450a and a second separator 1450b (collectively referred to as separators 1450) disposed between the anode 1410 and the cathode 1430. The interlayer 1460 is disposed between the first separator 1450a and the second separator 1450b. A first film 1480a is bonded to the anode current collector 1420, and a second film 1480b is bonded to the cathode current collector 1440. The first film 1480b and the second film 1480b combine to form a pouch, collectively referred to herein as pouch 1480. A tab 1463 extends from the middle layer 1460 and is adhered to the first film 1480a and the second film 1480b via the first sealed area 1468a and the second sealed area 1468b, respectively. In some embodiments, the anode 1410, anode current collector 1420, cathode 1430, cathode current collector 1440, first separator 1450a, second separator 1450b, intermediate layer 1460, tab 1463, and pouch 1480 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 1310, anode current collector 1320, cathode 1330, cathode current collector 1340, first separator 1350a, second separator 1350b, intermediate layer 1360, tab 1363, and pouch 1380 described above with reference to FIG. 13 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 1410, anode current collector 1420, cathode 1430, cathode current collector 1440, first separator 1450a, second separator 1450b, intermediate layer 1460, tab 1463, and pouch 1480 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0152] In some embodiments, first sealing region 1468a and / or second sealing region 1468b (collectively referred to as heat sealing region 1468) can include a heat seal. In some embodiments, sealing region 1468 can include an adhesive layer that adheres tab 1463 to pouch 1480. In some embodiments, sealing region 1468 can include tape. In some embodiments, tape can be wrapped around the outside of first film 1480a and / or second film 1480b. In some embodiments, separator 1450 can include a ceramic separator. A more rigid ceramic material can improve the stability of sealing region 1468 and tab 1463 overall.

[0153] 15A-15B show an electrochemical cell 1500 disposed within a jelly roll assembly. The electrochemical cell 1500 includes a first separator 1550a and a second separator 1550b (collectively referred to as separators 1550) with an intermediate layer 1560 disposed therebetween. An anode (not shown) and a cathode (not shown) are disposed on either side of the separator 1550. As shown, the second separator 1550b has the intermediate layer 1560 coated thereon, and the second separator 1550b is longer than the first separator 1550a, resulting in a portion of the intermediate layer 1560 being exposed. An intermediate layer tab 1563 is bonded to the exposed portion of the intermediate layer 1560. FIG. 15A shows the components of the electrochemical cell 1500 without the casing 1590, while in FIG. 15B the components of the electrochemical cell 1500 are disposed within the casing 1590. The anode tab 1522 and the cathode tab 1542 extend from the inside to the outside of the casing 1590. The interlayer tab 1563 extends from the inside to the outside of the casing 1590. In some embodiments, multiple pairs of separators 1550 can be used to form a jelly roll. In some embodiments, multiple portions of the interlayer 1560 material can be exposed so that multiple tabs 1563 can be connected to the interlayer. Any of the tabs 1563 can be connected to a diode, transistor, fuse, voltage measurement, voltage source, etc., outside the casing 1590. In some embodiments, one or more of the separators 1550 can be made with a porous coating that may or may not include ceramic particles.In some embodiments, one or more of the separators 1550 may be composed of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene butadiene (SBR), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), polyethylene oxide (PEO), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), (perfluoroalkoxyalkane) PFA, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), polyolefin, polysulfone (PES), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), polybenzimidazole (PBI), polyamideimide (PAI), polyimide (PI), polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ultraviolet (UV) curable resin, urethane / epoxy acrylate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the ceramic may include Al2O3, boehmite, MgO, Al(HO)3, ZrO2.

[0154] 16A-16B illustrate a stack of electrochemical cells having an intermediate layer. As shown, the stack includes anodes 1610a, 1610b, and 1610c (collectively referred to as anodes 1610) and cathodes 1630a, 1630b, 1630c, and 1630d (collectively referred to as cathodes 1630). First and second separators 1650a and 1650b (collectively referred to as separators 1650) are woven in a serpentine or zigzag pattern between the anodes 1610 and cathodes 1630. An intermediate layer 1660 is disposed between the separators 1650. FIG. 16A illustrates a cross-sectional view of the separator 1650 with the intermediate layer 1660 sandwiched between the electrodes. As shown, the second separator 1650b is longer than the first separator 1650a, resulting in an exposed portion of the interlayer 1660 disposed on the second separator 1650b. Figure 16B shows a bottom view of the stack with the exposed portion of the interlayer 1660. An interlayer tab 1663 is bonded to the interlayer 1660 and extends outward. An anode tab 1622 and a cathode tab 1624 extend from the anode 1610 and the cathode 1630.

[0155] 17A and 17B are diagrams of an electrochemical cell 1700 with an interlayer 1760, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 1700 includes an anode 1710 disposed on an anode current collector 1720, a cathode 1730 disposed on a cathode current collector 1740, and a first separator 1750a and a second separator 1750b disposed between the anode 1710 and the cathode 1730. The interlayer 1760 is disposed between the first separator 1750a and the second separator 1750b. In some embodiments, the anode 1710, anode current collector 1720, cathode 1730, cathode current collector 1740, first separator 1750a, second separator 1750b, and intermediate layer 1760 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 1710, anode current collector 1720, cathode 1730, cathode current collector 1740, first separator 1750a, second separator 1750b, and intermediate layer 1760 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0156] As shown, the intermediate layer 1760 includes a solid electrolyte layer 1762. FIG. 17B shows the formation of dendrites 1725. The solid electrolyte layer 1762 blocks the dendrites 1725 and prevents the dendrites 1725 from penetrating through the intermediate layer 1762. As shown, the solid electrolyte layer 1762 is attached to the second separator 1750b. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte layer 1762 may be attached to the first separator 1750a. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte layer 1762 may be in a relatively central position of the intermediate layer 1760 such that the solid electrolyte layer 1762 is not attached to either the first separator 1750a or the second separator 1750b. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 1760 may include multiple solid electrolyte layers 1762.

[0157] 18 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 1800 having an interlayer 1860, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 1800 includes an anode 1810 disposed on an anode current collector 1820, a cathode 1830 disposed on a cathode current collector 1840, and a first separator 1850a and a second separator 1850b disposed between the anode 1810 and the cathode 1830. The interlayer 1860 is disposed between the first separator 1850a and the second separator 1850b. In some embodiments, the anode 1810, anode current collector 1820, cathode 1830, cathode current collector 1840, first separator 1850 a, second separator 1850 b, and intermediate layer 1860 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 1810, anode current collector 1820, cathode 1830, cathode current collector 1840, first separator 1850 a, second separator 1850 b, and intermediate layer 1860 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0158] As shown, the electrochemical cell 1800 includes a circuit between the cathode 1830 and the intermediate layer 1860, allowing for the transfer of electrical energy between the cathode 1830 and the intermediate layer 1860. By electrically connecting the cathode 1830 and the intermediate layer 1860, the voltage within the intermediate layer 1860 can be raised to a level that dissolves and / or oxidizes dendrites that have infiltrated the intermediate layer 1860. As shown, a voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 1820 and the intermediate layer 1860, and a voltage V2 is measured between the anode current collector 1820 and the cathode current collector 1840. Current flows from the intermediate layer 1860 to the cathode current collector 1840 via an electrical path that includes a resistor R1. The current can follow a path that includes a switch S. The current can also follow a path that includes a diode D and a resistor R2. In some embodiments, closing the switch while current is flowing can allow normal charging and discharging to occur within the cell. In some embodiments, switch S can be opened during controlled charging. During charging, when switch S is open, the voltage potential of the interlayer can rise by an amount equal to the voltage drop across diode D and resistor R2. In some embodiments, diode D can be selected and configured for a particular forward or reverse breakdown voltage. In some embodiments, the breakdown voltage of diode D can be about 0.4 V, about 0.5 V, about 0.6 V, about 0.7 V, about 0.8 V, about 0.9 V, about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0159] In some embodiments, the resistance of resistor R1 may be the same as or substantially similar to the resistance of resistor R2. In some embodiments, the resistance of resistor R1 may be different from the resistance of resistor R2. In some embodiments, resistors R1 and R2 may have resistances that represent other impedances inherent in electrochemical cell 1800. In some embodiments, switch S may be replaced with a diode, a metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET), a bipolar junction transistor (BJT), or other suitable component. In some embodiments, switch S may bypass the function of diode D to create a selective dendrite processing mode or normal operation.

[0160] 19 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 1900 having an interlayer 1960, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 1900 includes an anode 1910 disposed on an anode current collector 1920, a cathode 1930 disposed on a cathode current collector 1940, and a first separator 1950a and a second separator 1950b disposed between the anode 1910 and the cathode 1930. The interlayer 1960 is disposed between the first separator 1950a and the second separator 1950b. In some embodiments, the anode 1910, anode current collector 1920, cathode 1930, cathode current collector 1940, first separator 1950 a, second separator 1950 b, and intermediate layer 1960 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 1910, anode current collector 1920, cathode 1930, cathode current collector 1940, first separator 1950 a, second separator 1950 b, and intermediate layer 1960 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0161] As shown, current flow from intermediate layer 1960 to cathode current collector 1940 can be controlled via transistor Q. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 1920 and cathode current collector 1940, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 1920 and intermediate layer 1960. Current can flow from intermediate layer 1960 to cathode current collector 1940 through transistor Q (and optional resistor R). Transistor Q can function as a switching device. In some embodiments, transistor Q can be controlled by a BMS. In some embodiments, transistor Q can be controlled by local hardware circuitry or other system controller. In some embodiments, the resistance value can be from a discrete component or can represent other impedance inherent to electrochemical cell 1900. In some embodiments, transistor Q can include a BJT. In some embodiments, transistor Q can be replaced by a diode. In some embodiments, transistor Q can include a junction field effect transistor (JFET). In some embodiments, transistor Q may include a MOSFET. In some embodiments, transistor Q may be replaced by a switch.

[0162] 20 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2000 having an interlayer 2060, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2000 includes an anode 2010 disposed on an anode current collector 2020, a cathode 2030 disposed on a cathode current collector 2040, and a first separator 2050a and a second separator 2050b disposed between the anode 2010 and the cathode 2030. The interlayer 2060 is disposed between the first separator 2050a and the second separator 2050b. In some embodiments, the anode 2010, anode current collector 2020, cathode 2030, cathode current collector 2040, first separator 2050a, second separator 2050b, and intermediate layer 2060 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 2010, anode current collector 2020, cathode 2030, cathode current collector 2040, first separator 2050a, second separator 2050b, and intermediate layer 2060 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0163] As shown, current flow between the intermediate layer 1960 and the cathode current collector 1940 can be controlled via diode D. When the current through diode D is below a threshold, diode D can be “off,” preventing continuous current flow to the intermediate layer 1960. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 2020 and the cathode current collector 2040, and voltage V2 is measured between the anode current collector 2020 and the intermediate layer 2060. When the voltage across the intermediate layer 2060 drops below the forward voltage of the diode, current can flow through diode D (and optional resistor R), increasing the potential of the intermediate layer 2060. In some embodiments, the resistance value can represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 2000.

[0164] 21 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2100 having an interlayer 2160, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2100 includes an anode 2110 disposed on an anode current collector 2120, a cathode 2130 disposed on a cathode current collector 2140, and a first separator 2150a and a second separator 2150b disposed between the anode 2110 and the cathode 2130. The interlayer 2160 is disposed between the first separator 2150a and the second separator 2150b. In some embodiments, the anode 2110, anode current collector 2120, cathode 2130, cathode current collector 2140, first separator 2150a, second separator 2150b, and intermediate layer 2160 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 2110, anode current collector 2120, cathode 2130, cathode current collector 2140, first separator 2150a, second separator 2150b, and intermediate layer 2160 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0165] As shown, electrochemical cell 2100 is configured as a voltage multiplier, commonly referred to as a "charge pump." Common components such as a SEMTECH SC632A can be used to achieve this function or similar functions. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2120 and cathode current collector 2140. Electrochemical cell 2100 includes switches S1 and S2, resistor R, and capacitors C1 and C2. Voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 2120 and intermediate layer 2160. As shown, switches S1 and S2 control the flow of current through electrochemical cell 2100. By controlling the switching sequence of switches S1 and S2, a voltage equal to or twice the voltage of cathode 2130 relative to anode 2110 can be applied to intermediate layer 2160. For example, switch S1 can be switched to the up position while switch S2 is switched to the down position to charge capacitor C1. Capacitor C2 can be continuously charged through resistor R. To apply a doubled voltage, switch S1 can be moved to the down position to connect to intermediate layer 2160, and switch S2 can be moved to the up position to electrically connect capacitor C1 to the top side of capacitor C2. In such a case, the total voltage applied to intermediate layer 2160 is equal to C1 × V1 + C2 × V1, where V1 is the voltage applied to intermediate layer 2160. If C1 is equal to C2, this corresponds to 2 × V1. For example, if only cell voltage V1 is applied, switch S2 can remain in the down position, and switch S1 can alternate between the up and down positions. In some embodiments, the input voltage can be obtained from electrochemical cell 2100 or another power source. Capacitor C2 can be galvanically isolated from the cell or replaced by a secondary voltage source on a common reference.

[0166] The energy transferred to the intermediate layer 2160 may be controlled through the resistance of components of the electrochemical cell 2100 (including resistor R) and / or other resistors (not shown). In some embodiments, the energy transferred to the intermediate layer 2160 may be controlled by the selection of capacitor C1 or the use of other types of active components. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 2100. In some embodiments, switch S1 and / or switch S2 may be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a BJT, or other suitable device.

[0167] 22 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2200 having an interlayer 2260, according to one embodiment. As shown, electrochemical cell 2200 includes an anode 2210 disposed on an anode current collector 2220, a cathode 2230 disposed on a cathode current collector 2240, and a first separator 2250a and a second separator 2250b disposed between anode 2210 and cathode 2230. Interlayer 2260 is disposed between first separator 2250a and second separator 2250b. In some embodiments, anode 2210, anode current collector 2220, cathode 2230, cathode current collector 2240, first separator 2250a, second separator 2250b, and intermediate layer 2260 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2210, anode current collector 2220, cathode 2230, cathode current collector 2240, first separator 2250a, second separator 2250b, and intermediate layer 2260 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0168] As shown, the circuitry within electrochemical cell 2200 may include a bias circuit. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2200. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2220 and cathode current collector 2240, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 2220 and cathode current collector 2240. When the voltage across intermediate layer 2260 drops to a value lower than the voltage across cathode current collector 2240, current flows from cathode current collector 2240 to intermediate layer 2260, thereby increasing the potential of intermediate layer 2260. As shown, resistor R is disposed between intermediate layer 2260 and cathode current collector 2240. In some embodiments, the resistance of resistor R may be large enough to prevent self-discharge of electrochemical cell 2200.

[0169] 23 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2300 having an interlayer 2360, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2300 includes an anode 2310 disposed on an anode current collector 2320, a cathode 2330 disposed on a cathode current collector 2340, and first and second separators 2350a, 2350b disposed between the anode 2310 and the cathode 2330. The interlayer 2360 is disposed between the first and second separators 2350a, 2350b. In some embodiments, the anode 2310, anode current collector 2320, cathode 2330, cathode current collector 2340, first separator 2350 a, second separator 2350 b, and intermediate layer 2360 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250 a, second separator 250 b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 2310, anode current collector 2320, cathode 2330, cathode current collector 2340, first separator 2350 a, second separator 2350 b, and intermediate layer 2360 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0170] As shown, the circuitry within electrochemical cell 2300 can include a bias circuit. A first voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2320 and cathode current collector 2340. A second voltage V2 is measured between intermediate layer 2360 and cathode current collector 2340. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2300. As shown, resistor R and diode D are disposed between intermediate layer 2360 and cathode current collector 2340. If the voltage across intermediate layer 2360 drops below the voltage across current collector 2340, leakage current can flow through diode D, increasing the potential of intermediate layer 2360. In some embodiments, diode D can include a rectifying diode (a diode not intended to function at a reverse breakdown voltage). In embodiments in which diode D comprises a rectifying diode, current can be limited in two ways. The reverse bias leakage current of diode D (e.g., as defined by the diode D manufacturer) can be limited by the specifications of diode D. A standard diode can be used to allow only the reverse recovery current (specified by the diode manufacturer) to flow through the circuit. Once the recovery current is reached, diode D opens, allowing only the leakage current (specified by the manufacturer). Additionally, the reverse recovery current of diode D (e.g., as defined by the diode D manufacturer) can be limited by resistor R. If the voltage on intermediate layer 2360 exceeds the voltage on cathode 2340, diode D can allow the full rated current to flow and clamp the voltage potential to the voltage on cathode 2340 and the forward voltage of diode D.

[0171] 24 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2400 having an interlayer 2460, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2400 includes an anode 2410 disposed on an anode current collector 2420, a cathode 2430 disposed on a cathode current collector 2440, and a first separator 2450a and a second separator 2450b disposed between the anode 2410 and the cathode 2430. The interlayer 2460 is disposed between the first separator 2450a and the second separator 2450b. In some embodiments, anode 2410, anode current collector 2420, cathode 2430, cathode current collector 2440, first separator 2450a, second separator 2450b, and intermediate layer 2460 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2410, anode current collector 2420, cathode 2430, cathode current collector 2440, first separator 2450a, second separator 2450b, and intermediate layer 2460 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0172] As shown, electrochemical cell 2400 can function as an isolated DC-DC cell. A first voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2420 and cathode current collector 2440. A second voltage V2 is measured between intermediate layer 2460 and cathode current collector 2440. As shown, electrochemical cell 2400 includes resistor R and converter BB, which is powered by module M. The converter can be configured as a buck converter, a boost converter, or a buck-boost converter, depending on the needs of the system. As used with reference to FIG. 24 , the term “buck-boost” can be understood to include any type of switching regulator. The regulator can include a transformer or be a transformerless topology. The buck-boost converter BB is a DC-DC converter with an output voltage swing greater or less than the input voltage swing, defined by the needs of the system, including pre-selection and real-time control. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter BB can be powered via an independent DC power source. In some embodiments, the resistance can represent another impedance inherent to the electrochemical cell 2400. When the voltage of the intermediate layer 2460 drops below a predetermined level (e.g., about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)), current can be applied to the buck-boost converter BB (e.g., via the module M) to apply a predetermined voltage potential (e.g., about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)) to the intermediate layer 2460. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter BB can be replaced with a buck converter. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter BB can be replaced with a boost converter. In some embodiments, the buck-boost converter BB can be switched on or off via a BMS, a local hardware circuit, or other suitable system control method. Buck, boost, and buck-boost converter topologies can be implemented in many ways by those skilled in the art.

[0173] 25 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2500 having an interlayer 2560, according to one embodiment. As shown, electrochemical cell 2500 includes an anode 2510 disposed on an anode current collector 2520, a cathode 2530 disposed on a cathode current collector 2540, and first and second separators 2550a and 2550b disposed between anode 2510 and cathode 2530. Interlayer 2560 is disposed between first and second separators 2550a and 2550b. In some embodiments, anode 2510, anode current collector 2520, cathode 2530, cathode current collector 2540, first separator 2550a, second separator 2550b, and intermediate layer 2560 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2510, anode current collector 2520, cathode 2530, cathode current collector 2540, first separator 2550a, second separator 2550b, and intermediate layer 2560 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0174] As shown, the electrochemical cell 2500 can have an isolated AC-DC converter attached to the cell. A first voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 2520 and the cathode current collector 2540. A second voltage V2 is measured between the intermediate layer 2560 and the cathode current collector 2540. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2500 includes a resistor R and a converter BB powered by an AC device. The converter can be configured as a buck converter, a boost converter, or a buck-boost converter based on the needs of the system. As used with reference to FIG. 24 , the term “buck-boost” can be understood to include any type of switching regulator. The regulator can include a transformer or can be a transformerless topology. In some embodiments, the AC device can include a rectifier. In some embodiments, the AC device can include a transformer with a rectifier. If the voltage of the intermediate layer 2560 drops below a specified level (e.g., about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)), current can be applied to the buck-boost converter BB (e.g., via an AC power source) to apply a voltage potential to the intermediate layer 2460 defined by the needs of the system, including pre-selection and real-time control. In some embodiments, the resistance value can be from a discrete component or can represent other impedance inherent to the electrochemical cell 2500.

[0175] 26 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2600 having an interlayer 2660, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2600 includes an anode 2610 disposed on an anode current collector 2620, a cathode 2630 disposed on a cathode current collector 2640, and a first separator 2650a and a second separator 2650b disposed between the anode 2610 and the cathode 2630. The interlayer 2660 is disposed between the first separator 2650a and the second separator 2650b. In some embodiments, anode 2610, anode current collector 2620, cathode 2630, cathode current collector 2640, first separator 2650a, second separator 2650b, and intermediate layer 2660 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2610, anode current collector 2620, cathode 2630, cathode current collector 2640, first separator 2650a, second separator 2650b, and intermediate layer 2660 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0176] As shown, electrochemical cell 2600 can include a voltage regulator. A first voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2620 and cathode current collector 2640. A second voltage V2 is measured between intermediate layer 2660 and cathode current collector 2640. Current flows from intermediate layer 2660 through regulator RG (with optional resistors R1 and R2 on either side of regulator RG) to cathode current collector 2640. In some embodiments, regulator RG can include a linear regulator. In some embodiments, regulator RG can include a switching regulator or an active regulator. When the voltage of intermediate layer 2660 drops below a predetermined level (e.g., about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween)), regulator RG can pass current through intermediate layer 2660 to increase or decrease the voltage of intermediate layer 2660. In some embodiments, regulator RG can be controlled by a BMS, a local hardware circuit, or other suitable system control mechanism. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2600.

[0177] In some embodiments, resistors R1 and R2 can represent other impedances inherent to the system. When the voltage on intermediate layer 2660 drops below a threshold, current from regulator RG can flow (e.g., via a BMS) and a voltage potential can be applied to intermediate layer 2660. In some embodiments, regulator RG can be controlled via a BMS or by a local hardware circuit or other system control method.

[0178] 27 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2700 having an interlayer 2760, according to one embodiment. As shown, electrochemical cell 2700 includes an anode 2710 disposed on an anode current collector 2720, a cathode 2730 disposed on a cathode current collector 2740, and first and second separators 2750a and 2750b disposed between anode 2710 and cathode 2730. Interlayer 2760 is disposed between first and second separators 2750a and 2750b. In some embodiments, anode 2710, anode current collector 2720, cathode 2730, cathode current collector 2740, first separator 2750a, second separator 2750b, and intermediate layer 2760 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2710, anode current collector 2720, cathode 2730, cathode current collector 2740, first separator 2750a, second separator 2750b, and intermediate layer 2760 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0179] As shown, electrochemical cell 2700 includes a voltage amplification system including switches S1, S2, S3, and S4. This circuit represents devices known as "charge pumps" and boost converters used in switching power supply applications, such as the LT3482 and MAX633. These converters are used to generate boost voltages for use in electronic devices. For clarity, the basic function of a simplified charge pump is described herein. Capacitor C1 is disposed between switches S1 and S2. Capacitor C2 is disposed between switches S3 and S4. Electrochemical cell 2700 also includes capacitor C3 and resistor R in the current path. A first voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2720 and cathode current collector 2740. A second voltage V2 is measured between intermediate layer 2660 and anode current collector 2740. Depending on the configuration of switches S1, S2, S3, and S4, a voltage at least approximately twice or at least three times the voltage difference between anode current collector 2720 and cathode current collector 2740 can be applied to intermediate layer 2760. For example, when switches S1 and S3 are in the up position and switches S2 and S4 are in the down position, capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. Then, when switches S1 and S3 are switched to the down position and switches S2 and S4 are switched to the up position, three times voltage V1 is applied to intermediate layer 2760. This is sometimes referred to as a “charge pump” procedure. In some embodiments, any of switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 may be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a BJT, or other suitable device. In some embodiments, any of switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 may be controlled by a BMS, a hardware device, a control chip, an oscillator, or other suitable controller device.

[0180] In some embodiments, the energy transferred to intermediate layer 2760 may be controlled by the resistance of the system or other resistors. In some embodiments, the energy transferred to intermediate layer 2760 may be controlled by the selection of capacitance or the use of other types of active components. In some embodiments, further stages of voltage amplification may be added to increase the total voltage applied to intermediate layer 2760. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2700.

[0181] 28 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2800 having an interlayer 2860, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2800 includes an anode 2810 disposed on an anode current collector 2820, a cathode 2830 disposed on a cathode current collector 2840, and a first separator 2850a and a second separator 2850b disposed between the anode 2810 and the cathode 2830. The interlayer 2860 is disposed between the first separator 2850a and the second separator 2850b. In some embodiments, anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2750a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0182] As shown, the current and voltage potential between cathode current collector 2840 and intermediate layer 2860 can be controlled via transistor Q1 (and optional resistor R1). As shown, the current flow between intermediate layer 2860 and cathode current collector 2840 can be controlled via transistor Q2 (and optional resistor R2). As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2820 and cathode current collector 2840, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 2820 and intermediate layer 2860. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 can function as switching devices. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 can be controlled by a BMS. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 can be controlled by local hardware circuitry or other system controller. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from discrete components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2800. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 may include BJTs in PNP or NPN configurations. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 may be replaced with diodes. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 may include JFETs. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 may include MOSFETs. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and / or transistor Q2 may be replaced with switches. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 may be the same type of transistor or circuit device as transistor Q2. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 may be a different type of transistor or circuit device than transistor Q2. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and transistor Q2 may operate independently. In some embodiments, transistor Q1 and transistor Q2 may operate in conjunction.In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2800.

[0183] 29 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 2900 having an interlayer 2960, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 2900 includes an anode 2910 disposed on an anode current collector 2920, a cathode 2930 disposed on a cathode current collector 2940, and first and second separators 2950a and 2950b disposed between the anode 2910 and the cathode 2930. The interlayer 2960 is disposed between the first and second separators 2950a and 2950b. In some embodiments, anode 2910, anode current collector 2920, cathode 2930, cathode current collector 2940, first separator 2950 a, second separator 2950 b, and intermediate layer 2960 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850 a, second separator 2850 b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to Figure 28. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 2910, anode current collector 2920, cathode 2930, cathode current collector 2940, first separator 2950 a, second separator 2950 b, and intermediate layer 2960 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0184] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 2920 and cathode current collector 2940, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 2920 and intermediate layer 2960. As shown, electrochemical cell 2900 includes transistors Q1 and Q2 and resistors R1 and R2. As shown, resistor R2 is located upstream of transistor Q2, while resistor R2 is located downstream of transistor Q1. This differs from FIG. 28, in which resistor R2 is located downstream of transistor Q2. Otherwise, the components of electrochemical cell 2900 may be the same or substantially similar to the components of electrochemical cell 2800 described above with reference to FIG. 28. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 2900.

[0185] 30 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3000 having an interlayer 3060, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3000 includes an anode 3010 disposed on an anode current collector 3020, a cathode 3030 disposed on a cathode current collector 3040, and a first separator 3050a and a second separator 3050b disposed between the anode 3010 and the cathode 3030. The interlayer 3060 is disposed between the first separator 3050a and the second separator 3050b. In some embodiments, the anode 3010, anode current collector 3020, cathode 3030, cathode current collector 3040, first separator 3050a, second separator 3050b, and intermediate layer 3060 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to Figure 28. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3010, anode current collector 3020, cathode 3030, cathode current collector 3040, first separator 3050a, second separator 3050b, and intermediate layer 3060 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0186] As shown, the electrochemical cell includes transistors Q1 and Q2 and resistors R1, R2, and R3. This circuit is commonly referred to as a "push-pull" amplifier. Voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 3020 and the cathode current collector 3040, and voltage V2 is measured between the anode current collector 3020 and the intermediate layer 3060. As shown, resistor R1 is located upstream of transistor Q1, and resistor R2 is located downstream of transistor Q2. Resistor R3 limits the current through the bases of transistors Q1 and Q2. The emitters are connected to intermediate layer 3060 to pass current through intermediate layer 3060 relative to the cathode current collector 3040 and the anode current collector 3020. This circuit can be used to set any desired voltage potential between the cathode current collector 3040 and the anode current collector 3020 by selecting the voltage potential of resistor R3 and the applied current. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 3000.

[0187] 31 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3100 having an intermediate layer 3160, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3100 includes an anode 3110 disposed on an anode current collector 3120, a cathode 3130 disposed on a cathode current collector 3140, and first and second separators 3150a, 3150b disposed between the anode 3110 and the cathode 3130. The intermediate layer 3160 is disposed between the first and second separators 3150a, 3150b. In some embodiments, the anode 3110, anode current collector 3120, cathode 3130, cathode current collector 3140, first separator 3150a, second separator 3150b, and intermediate layer 3160 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to Figure 28. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3110, anode current collector 3120, cathode 3130, cathode current collector 3140, first separator 3150a, second separator 3150b, and intermediate layer 3160 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0188] As shown, a diode D is placed in circuit between the cathode current collector 3140 and the intermediate layer 3160 to provide a continuous bias potential, and a transistor Q is placed in circuit between the intermediate layer 3160 and the anode current collector 3120 (with optional resistors R1, R2) to provide a variable potential. As shown, a voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 3120 and the cathode current collector 3140, and a voltage V2 is measured between the anode current collector 3120 and the intermediate layer 3160. This circuit can be used to bring the potential of the intermediate layer 3160 closer to that of the current collector 3120. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 3100.

[0189] 32 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3200 having an interlayer 3260, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3200 includes an anode 3210 disposed on an anode current collector 3220, a cathode 3230 disposed on a cathode current collector 3240, and first and second separators 3250a, 3250b disposed between the anode 3210 and the cathode 3230. The interlayer 3260 is disposed between the first and second separators 3250a, 3250b. In some embodiments, the anode 3210, anode current collector 3220, cathode 3230, cathode current collector 3240, first separator 3250a, second separator 3250b, and intermediate layer 3260 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to Figure 28. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3210, anode current collector 3220, cathode 3230, cathode current collector 3240, first separator 3250a, second separator 3250b, and first intermediate layer 3260 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0190] As shown, transistor Q is placed in circuit between intermediate layer 3160 and anode current collector 3120 (with optional resistors R1 and R2). As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3220 and cathode current collector 3240, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3220 and intermediate layer 3260. Electrochemical cell 3200 does not include diodes. Otherwise, the components of electrochemical cell 3200 can be the same or substantially similar to electrochemical cell 3100 described above with reference to FIG. 31 . In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3200.

[0191] 33 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3300 having an interlayer 3360, according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3300 includes an anode 3310 disposed on an anode current collector 3320, a cathode 3330 disposed on a cathode current collector 3340, and first and second separators 3350a, 3350b disposed between the anode 3310 and the cathode 3330. The interlayer 3360 is disposed between the first and second separators 3350a, 3350b. In some embodiments, the anode 3310, anode current collector 3320, cathode 3330, cathode current collector 3340, first separator 3350a, second separator 3350b, and intermediate layer 3360 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, first separator 2850a, second separator 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to Figure 28. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3310, anode current collector 3320, cathode 3330, cathode current collector 3340, first separator 3350a, second separator 3350b, and intermediate layer 3360 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0192] As shown, electrochemical cell 3300 includes diodes D1 and D2. An optional switch S can bypass diode D2 to create a selective dendrite treatment mode or normal operation. In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell may not have switch S. In some embodiments, switch S can be replaced with a transistor, MOSFET, JFET, or any other device capable of bypassing diode D2. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3320 and cathode current collector 3340, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3320 and intermediate layer 3360. As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3320 and cathode current collector 3340, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3320 and intermediate layer 3360. As shown, the circuit design of electrochemical cell 3300 can function as a charging diode with a bypass. In some embodiments, switch S can be open during a controlled charging method. Diode D2 can make the voltage drop across intermediate layer 3360 relative to cathode 3330 equal to the forward voltage drop of diode D2. In some embodiments, the voltage drop can be about 0.1 V, about 0.2 V, about 0.3 V, about 0.4 V, about 0.5 V, about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). Diode D1 can make the voltage drop across intermediate layer 3360 relative to cathode 3330 equal to the forward voltage drop of diode D2 plus the voltage of cathode current collector 3340, making the voltage across intermediate layer 3360 higher than the voltage of cathode current collector 3340. In some embodiments, the voltage drop can be about 0.1 V, about 0.2 V, about 0.3 V, about 0.4 V, about 0.5 V, about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). Closing switch S can allow normal flow of current to electrochemical cell 3300 without imparting a voltage change to intermediate layer 3360.Switch S can be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a JFET, or other suitable device, or a combination thereof. Switch S can also be removed from the circuit, using only a diode or other device that applies a voltage potential to the current flow. In some embodiments, diodes D1 and D2 can be replaced with switch diodes, MOSFETs, JFETs, or other suitable devices, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 3300.

[0193] 34 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3400 having multiple intermediate layers 3460a, 3460b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3460), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3400 includes an anode 3410 disposed on an anode current collector 3420, a cathode 3430 disposed on a cathode current collector 3440, and a first separator 3450a, a second separator 3450b, and a third separator 3450c disposed between the anode 3410 and the cathode 3430. The intermediate layer 3460a is disposed between the first separator 3450a and the second separator 3450b, and the second intermediate layer 3460b is disposed between the second separator 3450b and the third separator 3450c. In some embodiments, the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3460 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 2810, anode current collector 2820, cathode 2830, cathode current collector 2840, separators 2850a, 2850b, and intermediate layer 2860 described above with reference to FIG. 28 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450, and intermediate layer 3460 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0194] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3420 and cathode current collector 3440, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3420 and intermediate layer 3460a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3440 and intermediate layer 3460b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3400 is connected to a switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. As shown, switch S 1a controls the flow of current between the anode current collector 3440 and the intermediate layer 3460a. As shown, switch S 1bcontrols the flow of current between the anode current collector 3440 and the intermediate layer 3460b. As shown, switch S 2a controls the flow of current between intermediate layer 3460a and cathode current collector 3420. As shown, switch S 2b controls the flow of current between intermediate layer 3460b and cathode current collector 3420.

[0195] In some embodiments, the switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b Any of the switches S may be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a JFET, or other suitable devices, or a combination thereof. 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b can each be replaced by the same device. In some embodiments, the switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b Any of the switches S can be replaced with different devices. 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b Either of the switches S can be controlled by the BMS. 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b Any of the intermediate layers 3460 may be controlled by local hardware circuitry or other system control methods. In some embodiments, the intermediate layers 3460 may be controlled in a coordinated manner by electrically connecting any of the anode 3410, the cathode 3440, the intermediate layer 3460a, and / or the intermediate layer 3460b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to the electrochemical cell 3400.

[0196] 35 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3500 having multiple intermediate layers 3560a, 3560b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3560), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3500 includes an anode 3510 disposed on an anode current collector 3520, a cathode 3530 disposed on a cathode current collector 3540, and a first separator 3550a, a second separator 3550b, and a third separator 3550c disposed between the anode 3510 and the cathode 3530. The intermediate layer 3560a is disposed between the first separator 3550a and the second separator 3550b, and the second intermediate layer 3560b is disposed between the second separator 3550b and the third separator 3550c. In some embodiments, the anode 3510, anode current collector 3520, cathode 3530, cathode current collector 3540, first separator 3550a, second separator 3550b, third separator 3550c, and intermediate layer 3560 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3460 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3510, anode current collector 3520, cathode 3530, cathode current collector 3540, first separator 3550a, second separator 3550b, third separator 3550, and intermediate layer 3560 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0197] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3520 and cathode current collector 3540, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3520 and intermediate layer 3560a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3540 and intermediate layer 3560b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3500 includes transistors Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6. The emitters are connected to intermediate layer 3560a to pass current through intermediate layer 3560a relative to anode current collector 3520 and cathode current collector 3540. This circuit can be used to set a desired voltage potential between cathode current collector 3540 and anode current collector 3520 by selecting the voltage potential of R3 and the current applied through R3. The emitter is connected to intermediate layer 3560b to pass current through intermediate layer 3560b relative to cathode current collector 3540 and anode current collector 3520. This circuit can be used to set a desired voltage potential between cathode current collector 3540 and anode current collector 3520 by selecting the voltage potential of R3 and the current applied through R3. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3600. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit can be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 3000 described above with reference to FIG. 30.

[0198] 36 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3600 having multiple intermediate layers 3660a, 3660b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3660), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3600 includes an anode 3610 disposed on an anode current collector 3620, a cathode 3630 disposed on a cathode current collector 3640, and a first separator 3650a, a second separator 3650b, and a third separator 3650c disposed between the anode 3610 and the cathode 3630. The intermediate layer 3660a is disposed between the first separator 3650a and the second separator 3650b, and the second intermediate layer 3660b is disposed between the second separator 3650b and the third separator 3650c. In some embodiments, the anode 3610, the anode current collector 3620, the cathode 3630, the cathode current collector 3640, the first separator 3650a, the second separator 3650b, the third separator 3650c, and the intermediate layer 3660 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3460 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3610, anode current collector 3620, cathode 3630, cathode current collector 3640, first separator 3650a, second separator 3650b, third separator 3650, and intermediate layer 3660 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0199] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3620 and cathode current collector 3640, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3620 and intermediate layer 3660a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3640 and intermediate layer 3660b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3600 includes transistors Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, and R6. Resistor R2 controls the flow of current between transistor Q1 and transistor Q2. Resistor R3 controls the flow of current between transistor Q3 and transistor Q4. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3600.

[0200] 37 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3700 having multiple intermediate layers 3760a, 3760b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3760), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3700 includes an anode 3710 disposed on an anode current collector 3720, a cathode 3730 disposed on a cathode current collector 3740, and a first separator 3750a, a second separator 3750b, and a third separator 3750c disposed between the anode 3710 and the cathode 3730. The intermediate layer 3760a is disposed between the first separator 3750a and the second separator 3750b, and the second intermediate layer 3760b is disposed between the second separator 3750b and the third separator 3750c. In some embodiments, the anode 3710, anode current collector 3720, cathode 3730, cathode current collector 3740, first separator 3750a, second separator 3750b, third separator 3750c, and intermediate layer 3760 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3460 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3710, anode current collector 3720, cathode 3730, cathode current collector 3740, first separator 3750a, second separator 3750b, third separator 3750, and intermediate layer 3760 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0201] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3720 and cathode current collector 3740, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3720 and intermediate layer 3760a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3740 and intermediate layer 3760b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3700 includes transistors Q1 and Q2 and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. As shown, transistor Q1 and resistor R3 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3760a and anode current collector 3720. As shown, transistor Q2 and resistor R4 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3760b and anode current collector 3720. As shown, resistor R1 is disposed in circuit between cathode current collector 3740 and intermediate layer 3760a. As shown, resistor R2 is disposed in the circuit between cathode current collector 3740 and intermediate layer 3760b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3700. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit may be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 3200 described above with reference to FIG. 32.

[0202] 38 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3800 having multiple intermediate layers 3860a, 3860b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3860), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3800 includes an anode 3810 disposed on an anode current collector 3820, a cathode 3830 disposed on a cathode current collector 3840, and a first separator 3850a, a second separator 3850b, and a third separator 3850c disposed between the anode 3810 and the cathode 3830. The intermediate layer 3860a is disposed between the first separator 3850a and the second separator 3850b, and the second intermediate layer 3860b is disposed between the second separator 3850b and the third separator 3850c. In some embodiments, the anode 3810, anode current collector 3820, cathode 3830, cathode current collector 3840, first separator 3850a, second separator 3850b, third separator 3850c, and intermediate layer 3860 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3810, anode current collector 3820, cathode 3830, cathode current collector 3840, first separator 3850a, second separator 3850b, third separator 3850, and intermediate layer 3860 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0203] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3820 and cathode current collector 3840, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3820 and intermediate layer 3860a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3840 and intermediate layer 3860b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3800 includes transistors Q1 and Q2 and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. As shown, transistor Q1 and resistor R1 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3860a and cathode current collector 3840. As shown, transistor Q2 and resistor R2 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3860b and cathode current collector 3840. As shown, resistor R3 is disposed in circuit between anode current collector 3820 and intermediate layer 3860a. As shown, resistor R4 is disposed in circuit between anode current collector 3820 and intermediate layer 3860b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3800.

[0204] 39 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 3900 having multiple intermediate layers 3960a, 3960b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 3960), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 3900 includes an anode 3910 disposed on an anode current collector 3920, a cathode 3930 disposed on a cathode current collector 3940, and a first separator 3950a, a second separator 3950b, and a third separator 3950c disposed between the anode 3910 and the cathode 3930. The intermediate layer 3960a is disposed between the first separator 3950a and the second separator 3950b, and the second intermediate layer 3960b is disposed between the second separator 3950b and the third separator 3950c. In some embodiments, the anode 3910, anode current collector 3920, cathode 3930, cathode current collector 3940, first separator 3950a, second separator 3950b, third separator 3950c, and intermediate layer 3960 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 3910, anode current collector 3920, cathode 3930, cathode current collector 3940, first separator 3950a, second separator 3950b, third separator 3950, and intermediate layer 3960 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0205] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 3920 and cathode current collector 3940, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 3920 and intermediate layer 3960a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 3940 and intermediate layer 3960b. As shown, electrochemical cell 3900 includes transistors Q1 and Q2, diodes D1 and D2, and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. As shown, diode D1 and resistor R1 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3960a and cathode current collector 3940. As shown, diode D2 and resistor R2 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 3960b and cathode current collector 3940. As shown, resistor R3 and transistor Q1 are disposed in circuit between anode current collector 3920 and intermediate layer 3960a. As shown, transistor Q2 and resistor R4 are disposed in circuit between anode current collector 3920 and intermediate layer 3960b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 3900. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit may be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 3100 described above with reference to FIG. 31 .

[0206] 40 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4000 having multiple intermediate layers 4060a, 4060b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4060), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4000 includes an anode 4010 disposed on an anode current collector 4020, a cathode 4030 disposed on a cathode current collector 4040, and a first separator 4050a, a second separator 4050b, and a third separator 4050c disposed between the anode 4010 and the cathode 4030. The intermediate layer 4060a is disposed between the first separator 4050a and the second separator 4050b, and the second intermediate layer 4060b is disposed between the second separator 4050b and the third separator 4050c. In some embodiments, the anode 4010, anode current collector 4020, cathode 4030, cathode current collector 4040, first separator 4050a, second separator 4050b, third separator 4050c, and intermediate layer 4060 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4010, anode current collector 4020, cathode 4030, cathode current collector 4040, first separator 4050a, second separator 4050b, third separator 4050, and intermediate layer 4060 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0207] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between the anode current collector 4020 and the cathode current collector 4040, voltage V2 is measured between the anode current collector 4020 and the intermediate layer 4060a, and voltage V3 is measured between the anode current collector 4040 and the intermediate layer 4060b. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4000 includes transistors Q1 and Q2, diodes D1 and D2, and optional resistors R1, R2, R3, and R4. As shown, transistor Q1 and resistor R1 are disposed in circuit between the intermediate layer 4060a and the cathode current collector 4040. As shown, transistor Q2 and resistor R2 are disposed in circuit between the intermediate layer 4060b and the cathode current collector 4040. As shown, resistor R3 and diode D1 are disposed in circuit between the anode current collector 4020 and the intermediate layer 4060a. As shown, diode D2 and resistor R4 are disposed in circuit between anode current collector 4020 and intermediate layer 4060b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4000.

[0208] 41 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4100 having multiple intermediate layers 4160a, 4160b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4160), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4100 includes an anode 4110 disposed on an anode current collector 4120, a cathode 4130 disposed on a cathode current collector 4140, and a first separator 4150a, a second separator 4150b, and a third separator 4150c disposed between the anode 4110 and the cathode 4130. The intermediate layer 4160a is disposed between the first separator 4150a and the second separator 4150b, and the second intermediate layer 4160b is disposed between the second separator 4150b and the third separator 4150c. In some embodiments, the anode 4110, anode current collector 4120, cathode 4130, cathode current collector 4140, first separator 4150a, second separator 4150b, third separator 4150c, and intermediate layer 4160 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4110, anode current collector 4120, cathode 4130, cathode current collector 4140, first separator 4150a, second separator 4150b, third separator 4150, and intermediate layer 4160 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0209] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4120 and cathode current collector 4140, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4120 and intermediate layer 4160a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4140 and intermediate layer 4160b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4100 includes resistors R1 and R2. As shown, resistor R1 is disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 4160a and cathode current collector 4140. As shown, transistor Q2 and resistor R2 are disposed in circuit between intermediate layer 4160b and cathode current collector 4140. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4100. When the voltage of any of the intermediate layers 4160 drops to a voltage lower than the voltage of the cathode 4130, current may flow from the cathode 4130 to any of the intermediate layers 4160, allowing the potential of the intermediate layer 4160 to increase.

[0210] 42 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4200 having multiple intermediate layers 4260a, 4260b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4260), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4200 includes an anode 4210 disposed on an anode current collector 4220, a cathode 4230 disposed on a cathode current collector 4240, and a first separator 4250a, a second separator 4250b, and a third separator 4250c disposed between the anode 4210 and the cathode 4230. The intermediate layer 4260a is disposed between the first separator 4250a and the second separator 4250b, and the second intermediate layer 4260b is disposed between the second separator 4250b and the third separator 4250c. In some embodiments, the anode 4210, the anode current collector 4220, the cathode 4230, the cathode current collector 4240, the first separator 4250a, the second separator 4250b, the third separator 4250c, and the intermediate layer 4260 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4210, anode current collector 4220, cathode 4230, cathode current collector 4240, first separator 4250a, second separator 4250b, third separator 4250, and intermediate layer 4260 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0211] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4220 and cathode current collector 4240, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4220 and intermediate layer 4260a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4240 and intermediate layer 4260b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4200 includes regulators RG1 and RG2 and optional resistors R1, R2, and R3. In some embodiments, regulator RG1 and / or regulator RG2 may include a buck converter, a buck-boost converter, and / or a boost converter. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4200. When the voltage of any of the intermediate layers 4260 drops below a predetermined level, regulator RG1 and / or regulator RG2 can conduct current and apply a voltage potential to one or more of the intermediate layers 4260. In some embodiments, the switching of regulators RG1, RG2 can be controlled by a BMS or local hardware circuitry or other system control methods. In some embodiments, regulators RG1, RG2 can operate in coordination. In some embodiments, regulators RG1, RG2 can operate independently. In some embodiments, the circuit functionality can be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2500 described above with reference to FIG. 25 .

[0212] In some embodiments, resistances R1, R2, and R3 may represent actual resistors or may represent impedances inherent to the system (i.e., electrochemical cell 4200). When the voltage of intermediate layer 4260 drops below a threshold, current can flow from regulators RG1 and RG2, applying a potential to intermediate layer 4260. Regulators RG1 and / or RG2 may be controlled via one or more switching devices (not shown). In some embodiments, the switching devices may be controlled by a BMS or local hardware circuitry or other system control methods. In some embodiments, each component of electrochemical cell 4200 may operate in coordination or independently. In some embodiments, voltages V1, V2, and / or V3 may be monitored in real time.

[0213] 43 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4300 having multiple intermediate layers 4360a, 4360b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4360), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4300 includes an anode 4310 disposed on an anode current collector 4320, a cathode 4330 disposed on a cathode current collector 4340, and a first separator 4350a, a second separator 4350b, and a third separator 4350c disposed between the anode 4310 and the cathode 4330. The intermediate layer 4360a is disposed between the first separator 4350a and the second separator 4350b, and the second intermediate layer 4360b is disposed between the second separator 4350b and the third separator 4350c. In some embodiments, the anode 4310, anode current collector 4320, cathode 4330, cathode current collector 4340, first separator 4350a, second separator 4350b, third separator 4350c, and intermediate layer 4360 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4310, anode current collector 4320, cathode 4330, cathode current collector 4340, first separator 4350a, second separator 4350b, third separator 4350, and intermediate layer 4360 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0214] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4320 and cathode current collector 4340, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4320 and intermediate layer 4360a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4340 and intermediate layer 4360b. Electrochemical cell 4300 includes an isolated DC circuit. As shown, electrochemical cell 4300 includes buck-boost BB1, BB2 and optional resistors R1, R2. As shown, buck-boost BB1, BB2 are coupled to modules M1, M2. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4300. When the voltage of any of the intermediate layers 4360 drops below a predetermined level, buck-boost BB1 and / or buck-boost BB2 can conduct current and apply a voltage potential to one or more of the intermediate layers 4360. In some embodiments, either of buck-boost BB1, BB2 can be replaced with a buck, boost, charge pump, voltage multiplier, and / or diode ladder. In some embodiments, the switching of buck-boost converters BB1, BB2 can be controlled by a BMS, or local hardware circuitry or other system control methods. In some embodiments, buck-boost BB1, BB2 can operate in coordination. In some embodiments, buck-boost BB1, BB2 can operate independently. In some embodiments, either of modules M1, M2 can include a battery or battery pack or other DC energy source. In some embodiments, the circuit functionality can be the same as or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2400 described above with reference to FIG. 24 .

[0215] 44 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4400 having multiple intermediate layers 4460a, 4460b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4460), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4400 includes an anode 4410 disposed on an anode current collector 4420, a cathode 4430 disposed on a cathode current collector 4440, and a first separator 4450a, a second separator 4450b, and a third separator 4450c disposed between the anode 4410 and the cathode 4430. The intermediate layer 4460a is disposed between the first separator 4450a and the second separator 4450b, and the second intermediate layer 4460b is disposed between the second separator 4450b and the third separator 4450c. In some embodiments, the anode 4410, anode current collector 4420, cathode 4430, cathode current collector 4440, first separator 4450a, second separator 4450b, third separator 4450c, and intermediate layer 4460 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3460 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4410, anode current collector 4420, cathode 4430, cathode current collector 4440, first separator 4450a, second separator 4450b, third separator 4450, and intermediate layer 4460 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0216] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4420 and cathode current collector 4440, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4420 and intermediate layer 4460a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4440 and intermediate layer 4460b. Electrochemical cell 4400 includes an isolated DC circuit. As shown, electrochemical cell 4400 includes buck-boost converters BB1 and BB2 and optional resistors R1 and R2. As shown, buck-boost converters BB1 and BB2 are coupled to an AC power source. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4400. When the voltage of any of the intermediate layers 4460 drops below a predetermined level, buck-boost BB1 and / or buck-boost BB2 can conduct current and apply a voltage potential to one or more of the intermediate layers 4460. In some embodiments, the switching of the AC power sources can be controlled by a BMS, or local hardware circuitry or other system control methods. In some embodiments, the AC power sources can operate in coordination. In some embodiments, the AC power sources can operate independently. In some embodiments, the circuit functionality can be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2500 described above with reference to FIG. 25 .

[0217] 45 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4500 having multiple intermediate layers 4560a, 4560b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4560), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4500 includes an anode 4510 disposed on an anode current collector 4520, a cathode 4530 disposed on a cathode current collector 4540, and a first separator 4550a, a second separator 4550b, and a third separator 4550c disposed between the anode 4510 and the cathode 4530. The intermediate layer 4560a is disposed between the first separator 4550a and the second separator 4550b, and the second intermediate layer 4560b is disposed between the second separator 4550b and the third separator 4550c. In some embodiments, the anode 4510, the anode current collector 4520, the cathode 4530, the cathode current collector 4540, the first separator 4550a, the second separator 4550b, the third separator 4550c, and the intermediate layer 4560 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4510, anode current collector 4520, cathode 4530, cathode current collector 4540, first separator 4550a, second separator 4550b, third separator 4550, and intermediate layer 4560 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0218] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4520 and cathode current collector 4540, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4520 and intermediate layer 4560a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4540 and intermediate layer 4560b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4500 includes switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b , capacitors C1, C2, C3, and an optional resistor R. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4500 is configured as a voltage multiplier. 1a , S1b , S 2a , S 2b By controlling the switching sequence of the switches S 1 , a voltage equal to or twice the voltage of the cathode 4530 relative to the anode 4510 can be applied to the intermediate layer 4560a and / or the intermediate layer 4560b. 1a can be switched to the up position, switch S 1b Switch S to the down position to charge capacitor C1. Capacitor C3 can be continuously charged through resistor R. To apply the doubled voltage, switch S 1a down position to connect to the middle tier 4560a, and switch S 1b is moved to the up position to electrically connect capacitor C1 to the top side of capacitor C3. In such a case, the total voltage applied to middle layer 4560a is equal to C1 x V1 + C2 x V1, where V1 is the voltage applied to middle layer 4560a. If C1 is equal to C3, this corresponds to 2 x V1. For example, if only cell voltage V1 is applied, switch S 1b Switch S may remain in the down position. 1a can be alternately switched between an up position and a down position.

[0219] The energy transferred to intermediate layer 4560a and / or intermediate layer 4560b may be controlled through the resistance of components of electrochemical cell 4500 (including resistor R) and / or other resistors (not shown). In some embodiments, the energy transferred to intermediate layer 4560 may be controlled by the selection of capacitors C1, C2, or the use of other types of active components. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4500. In some embodiments, switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2bAny of the elements in the circuit may be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a BJT, or other suitable device. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit may be the same as or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2100 described above with reference to FIG.

[0220] 46 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4600 having multiple intermediate layers 4660a, 4660b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4660), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4600 includes an anode 4610 disposed on an anode current collector 4620, a cathode 4630 disposed on a cathode current collector 4640, and a first separator 4650a, a second separator 4650b, and a third separator 4650c disposed between the anode 4610 and the cathode 4630. The intermediate layer 4660a is disposed between the first separator 4650a and the second separator 4650b, and the second intermediate layer 4660b is disposed between the second separator 4650b and the third separator 4650c. In some embodiments, the anode 4610, the anode current collector 4620, the cathode 4630, the cathode current collector 4640, the first separator 4650a, the second separator 4650b, the third separator 4650c, and the intermediate layer 4660 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4610, anode current collector 4620, cathode 4630, cathode current collector 4640, first separator 4650a, second separator 4650b, third separator 4650, and intermediate layer 4660 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0221] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4620 and cathode current collector 4640, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4620 and intermediate layer 4660a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4640 and intermediate layer 4660b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4600 includes switch S1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b , S 3a , S 3b , S 4a , S 4b , capacitors C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and an optional resistor R. Capacitor C5 can be continuously charged through resistor R.

[0222] Switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b , S 3a , S 3b , S 4a , S 4b Depending on how switch S is configured, a voltage can be applied to intermediate layer 4660a and / or intermediate layer 4660b that is at least about two times, or at least about three times, the voltage difference between anode current collector 4620 and cathode current collector 4640. For example, switch S 1a and switch S 2a is in the up position and switch S 1b and switch S 2b With the switch S in the down position, the capacitors C1 and C2 charge. 1a and switch S 2a Switch to the down position and switch S 1b and switch S 2b Switching switch S to the up position applies three times the voltage V1 to the middle layer 4660. This is a charge pump procedure. In some embodiments, switch S 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b , S 3a , S 3b , S 4a , S 4b Any of the switches S may be replaced with a diode, a MOSFET, a BJT, or other suitable devices. 1a , S 1b , S 2a , S 2b , S 3a , S 3b , S4a , S 4b Any of the current paths may be controlled by a BMS, a hardware device, a control chip, an oscillator, or other suitable controller device. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4600. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit may be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2700 described above with reference to FIG. 27.

[0223] 47 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4700 having multiple intermediate layers 4760a, 4760b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4760), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4700 includes an anode 4710 disposed on an anode current collector 4720, a cathode 4730 disposed on a cathode current collector 4740, and a first separator 4750a, a second separator 4750b, and a third separator 4750c disposed between the anode 4710 and the cathode 4730. The intermediate layer 4760a is disposed between the first separator 4750a and the second separator 4750b, and the second intermediate layer 4760b is disposed between the second separator 4750b and the third separator 4750c. In some embodiments, the anode 4710, the anode current collector 4720, the cathode 4730, the cathode current collector 4740, the first separator 4750a, the second separator 4750b, the third separator 4750c, and the intermediate layer 4760 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4710, anode current collector 4720, cathode 4730, cathode current collector 4740, first separator 4750a, second separator 4750b, third separator 4750, and intermediate layer 4760 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0224] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4720 and cathode current collector 4740, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4720 and intermediate layer 4760a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4740 and intermediate layer 4760b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4700 includes diodes D1 and D2 and optional resistors R1 and R2. As shown, diodes D1 and D2 conduct current from cathode current collector 4740 to intermediate layer 4760a and from cathode current collector 4740 to intermediate layer 4760b, respectively. Electrochemical cell 4700 functions as a diode conductance cell. When the voltage across intermediate layer 4760a and / or intermediate layer 4760b drops to a value less than the forward voltage of diodes D1, D2, current flows through either diode D1, D2, increasing the potential of intermediate layer 4760a and / or intermediate layer 4760b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path may be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​may be from separate components or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4700. In some embodiments, the circuit functionality may be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 200 described above with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B .

[0225] 48 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4800 having multiple intermediate layers 4860a, 4860b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4860), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4800 includes an anode 4810 disposed on an anode current collector 4820, a cathode 4830 disposed on a cathode current collector 4840, and a first separator 4850a, a second separator 4850b, and a third separator 4850c disposed between the anode 4810 and the cathode 4830. The intermediate layer 4860a is disposed between the first separator 4850a and the second separator 4850b, and the second intermediate layer 4860b is disposed between the second separator 4850b and the third separator 4850c. In some embodiments, the anode 4810, the anode current collector 4820, the cathode 4830, the cathode current collector 4840, the first separator 4850a, the second separator 4850b, the third separator 4850c, and the intermediate layer 4860 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4810, anode current collector 4820, cathode 4830, cathode current collector 4840, first separator 4850a, second separator 4850b, third separator 4850, and intermediate layer 4860 will not be described in further detail herein. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuitry can be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 2000 described above with reference to FIG.

[0226] As shown, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 4820 and cathode current collector 4840, voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 4820 and intermediate layer 4860a, and voltage V3 is measured between anode current collector 4840 and intermediate layer 4860b. As shown, electrochemical cell 4800 includes diodes D1 and D2 and optional resistors R1 and R2. As shown, diodes D1 and D2 conduct current from intermediate layer 4860a to cathode current collector 4840 and from intermediate layer 4860b to cathode current collector 4840, respectively. Electrochemical cell 4800 includes a reverse current circuit bias. When the voltage of intermediate layer 4860a and / or intermediate layer 4860b drops to a value less than the forward voltage of diodes D1, D2, current flows through either diode D1, D2, increasing the potential of intermediate layer 4860a and / or intermediate layer 4860b. In some embodiments, if either diode D1, D2 comprises a rectifying diode (i.e., a diode not intended to function at its reverse breakdown voltage), the current can be limited in two ways. First, the reverse bias leakage current can be defined by the component manufacturer. Second, the reverse recovery current of diode D1 and / or diode D2 can be defined by the component manufacturer. If the current exceeds a threshold, diode D1 and / or diode D2 can turn off, preventing excessive current flow to intermediate layer 4860a and / or intermediate layer 4860b. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance may be from a discrete component or may represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4800. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuit may be the same as or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 200 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B.

[0227] 49 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 4900 having multiple intermediate layers 4960a, 4960b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 4960), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 4900 includes an anode 4910 disposed on an anode current collector 4920, a cathode 4930 disposed on a cathode current collector 4940, and a first separator 4950a, a second separator 4950b, and a third separator 4950c disposed between the anode 4910 and the cathode 4930. The intermediate layer 4960a is disposed between the first separator 4950a and the second separator 4950b, and the second intermediate layer 4960b is disposed between the second separator 4950b and the third separator 4950c. In some embodiments, the anode 4910, the anode current collector 4920, the cathode 4930, the cathode current collector 4940, the first separator 4950a, the second separator 4950b, the third separator 4950c, and the intermediate layer 4960 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, the anode current collector 3420, the cathode 3430, the cathode current collector 3440, the first separator 3450a, the second separator 3450b, the third separator 3450c, and the intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 4910, anode current collector 4920, cathode 4930, cathode current collector 4940, first separator 4950a, second separator 4950b, third separator 4950, and intermediate layer 4960 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0228] As shown, electrochemical cell 4900 includes diodes D1 and D2 and optional resistors R1, R2, and R3. Electrochemical cell 4900 includes a charging diode function. Diode D2 can cause the voltage drop across intermediate layer 4960a relative to cathode 4930 to be equal to the forward voltage drop of diode D2. This voltage drop can be about 0.1 times, about 0.2 times, about 0.3 times, about 0.4 times, about 0.5 times, about 0.6 times, about 0.7 times, about 0.8 times, about 0.9 times, or about 1 time (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween) of the total voltage difference between cathode 4930 and anode 4910. Diode D2 can operate in forward breakdown, reverse breakdown, and / or any other topology. Diode D1 can be selected for a particular forward or reverse voltage, can be configured for a forward or reverse voltage, and can be configured for a forward or reverse breakdown voltage. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or can represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 4900. In some embodiments, the circuit functionality can be the same or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 3300 described above with reference to FIG. 33 . In some embodiments, intermediate layers 4960 can be connected to each other as shown, or intermediate layers 4960 can be connected to different types of circuitry as described above in other embodiments, or to other types of circuitry used to set the voltage potential of intermediate layers 4960.

[0229] 50 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 5000 having multiple intermediate layers 5060a, 5060b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 5060), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell 5000 includes an anode 5010 disposed on an anode current collector 5020, a cathode 5030 disposed on a cathode current collector 5040, and a first separator 5050a, a second separator 5050b, and a third separator 5050c disposed between the anode 5010 and the cathode 5030. The intermediate layer 5060a is disposed between the first separator 5050a and the second separator 5050b, and the second intermediate layer 5060b is disposed between the second separator 5050b and the third separator 5050c. In some embodiments, the anode 5010, anode current collector 5020, cathode 5030, cathode current collector 5040, first separator 5050a, second separator 5050b, third separator 5050c, and intermediate layer 5060 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 3410, anode current collector 3420, cathode 3430, cathode current collector 3440, first separator 3450a, second separator 3450b, third separator 3450c, and intermediate layer 3560 described above with reference to FIG. 34 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 5010, anode current collector 5020, cathode 5030, cathode current collector 5040, first separator 5050a, second separator 5050b, third separator 5050, and intermediate layer 5060 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0230] As shown, the electrochemical cell 5000 includes diodes D1 and D2, a switch S, and optional resistors R1, R2, and R3. The electrochemical cell 5000 includes a charging diode function. The diode D2 can make the voltage drop across the intermediate layer 5060a relative to the cathode 5030 equal to the forward voltage drop of the diode D2. This voltage drop can be about 0.1 times, about 0.2 times, about 0.3 times, about 0.4 times, about 0.5 times, about 0.6 times, about 0.7 times, about 0.8 times, about 0.9 times, or about 1 time (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween) of the total voltage difference between the cathode 5030 and the anode 5010. The diode D2 can operate in forward breakdown, reverse breakdown, and / or any other topology. Diode D1 can be selected for a particular forward or reverse voltage, can be configured for a forward or reverse voltage, and can be configured for a forward or reverse breakdown voltage. During charging, when switch S is open, the voltage across intermediate layer 5060a and / or intermediate layer 5060b can increase by an amount equal to the voltage drop across either diode D1, D2 or resistor R1, R2, R3. In some embodiments, switch S can bypass the function of diodes D1, D2 to create a selective dendrite processing mode or normal operation. In some embodiments, switch S2 can be replaced with a transistor, MOSFET, JFET, or any other device used to bypass the function of diodes D1, D2. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be the same or substantially similar. In some embodiments, the resistance through each current path can be different from one another. In some embodiments, the resistance values ​​can be from separate components or represent other impedances inherent to electrochemical cell 5000. In some embodiments, the functionality of the circuitry can be the same as or substantially similar to that of electrochemical cell 3000 described above with reference to FIG.In some embodiments, the intermediate layers 5060 can be connected to each other as shown, or the intermediate layers 4960 can be connected to different types of circuitry as described above in other embodiments, or to other types of circuitry used to set the voltage potential of the intermediate layers 4960.

[0231] 51A-51C are diagrams of a method of manufacturing a pre-lithiated electrochemical cell 5100, according to one embodiment. As shown in FIG. 51A, electrochemical cell 5100 includes an anode 5110 disposed on an anode current collector 5120, a cathode 5130 disposed on a cathode current collector 5140, and first and second separators 5150a, 5150b disposed between anode 5110 and cathode 5130. An intermediate layer 5160 is disposed between first and second separators 5150a, 5150b. In some embodiments, the anode 5110, anode current collector 5120, cathode 5130, cathode current collector 5140, first separator 5150a, second separator 5150b, and intermediate layer 5160 can be the same as or substantially similar to the anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260 described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 5110, anode current collector 5120, cathode 5130, cathode current collector 5140, first separator 5150a, second separator 5150b, and intermediate layer 5160 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0232] As shown in FIG. 51A, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 5120 and cathode current collector 5140, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 5120 and intermediate layer 5160. As shown in FIG. 51A, switch S is placed in circuit, connecting intermediate layer 5160 to cathode current collector 5140 and anode current collector 5120 (with optional resistors R1, R2). Cathode 5130 includes a lithium-rich cathode material (i.e., a cathode material that includes a greater stoichiometric amount of lithium than the anode). The cathode material is capable of forming a lithium-rich salt (i.e., when the cathode material has multiple lithium atoms per ionic compound). In some embodiments, the cathode material can include LiN, LiO, LiPO, LiS, or any combination thereof.

[0233] During the initial cycle and gas formation shown in FIG. 51A, current flows from cathode current collector 5140 to intermediate layer 5160. In other words, a short circuit is formed between cathode 5130 and intermediate layer 5160. This results in lithium ion migration from cathode current collector 5140 to intermediate layer 5160 (as shown in FIG. 51B), resulting in the formation of lithium plating 5161 on intermediate layer 5160. In some embodiments, the current flowing from cathode current collector 5140 to intermediate layer 5160 can increase the voltage of intermediate layer 5160a relative to cathode current collector 5140 to about 0.5 V, about 1 V, about 1.5 V, about 2 V, about 2.5 V, about 3 V, about 3.5 V, about 4 V, about 4.5 V, about 5 V, about 5.5 V, or about 6 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). The short circuit between the cathode current collector 5140 and the intermediate layer 5160 serves to form a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer on the particles in the intermediate layer 5160. This stabilizes the intermediate layer 5160 and makes the intermediate layer 5160 more effective at limiting dendrite growth through the intermediate layer 5160. This prevents short circuits during operation of the electrochemical cell.

[0234] FIG. 51C shows a switch S configured to allow current to pass between the intermediate layer 5160 and the anode current collector 5120. This can help balance the SOC between the intermediate layer 5160 and the anode 5110. This balancing can improve stability during operation or dendrite detection. This can also help prevent the intermediate layer 5160 from reacting with lithium. In some embodiments, the intermediate layer 5160 can include a mesh. In some embodiments, a tab (e.g., a welded tab) can be connected to the mesh of the intermediate layer 5160.

[0235] 52A-52C are diagrams of a method of manufacturing a pre-lithiated electrochemical cell 5200, according to one embodiment. As shown in FIG. 52A, electrochemical cell 5200 includes an anode 5210 disposed on an anode current collector 5220, a cathode 5230 disposed on a cathode current collector 5240, and first and second separators 5250a and 5250b disposed between anode 5210 and cathode 5230. An intermediate layer 5260 is disposed between first separator 5250a and second separator 5250b. In some embodiments, anode 5210, anode current collector 5220, cathode 5230, cathode current collector 5240, first separator 5250a, second separator 5250b, and intermediate layer 5260 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 5110, anode current collector 5120, cathode 5130, cathode current collector 5140, first separator 5150a, second separator 5150b, and intermediate layer 5160 described above with reference to Figures 51A-51C. Accordingly, certain aspects of anode 5210, anode current collector 5220, cathode 5230, cathode current collector 5240, first separator 5250a, second separator 5250b, and intermediate layer 5260 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0236] 52A, voltage V1 is measured between anode current collector 5220 and cathode current collector 5240, and voltage V2 is measured between anode current collector 5220 and intermediate layer 5260. As shown in FIG. 52A, switch S is placed in the circuit, connecting intermediate layer 5260 to anode current collector 5220 and anode current collector 5120 (with optional resistors R1, R2). In other words, a short circuit is formed between anode 5210 and intermediate layer 5260. Anode 5210 comprises lithium. In some embodiments, anode 5210 can comprise lithium metal. In some embodiments, anode 5210 can comprise lithium intercalated in graphite.

[0237] While anode 5210 is electrically connected to intermediate layer 5260, lithium ions and electrons transfer from anode 5210 to intermediate layer 5260. As shown in FIG. 52B , the size of anode 5210 is reduced as lithium ions transfer to the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, the transfer of lithium ions from anode 5210 to intermediate layer 5260 can reduce the mass of anode 5210 by about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 100% (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween). In some embodiments, all or substantially all of the mass of anode 5210 can be depleted by the transfer of lithium ions.

[0238] In Figure 52B, switch S is flipped to create a short circuit between intermediate layer 5260 and cathode 5230, which aids in the growth and stabilization of an SEI on the particles in intermediate layer 5260 and gas generation. In Figure 52C, switch S is flipped back to a position that creates a short circuit between intermediate layer 5260 and anode 5210, which can help balance the charge states between intermediate layer 5260 and anode 5210.

[0239] In some embodiments, the sequence shown in Figures 51A-51C and the sequence shown in Figures 52A-52C can be performed in parallel. In other words, lithium from both the anode and the cathode can be used to plate the intermediate layer. In some embodiments, any of the electrochemical cells described herein can be subjected to a hipot test. In some embodiments, the hipot test can include driving a thin conductive rod through a tab electrically connected to the anode tab, the cathode tab, and the intermediate layer. A high voltage is then applied across the rod. A stably formed SEI layer on the intermediate layer can help prevent failure of any components within the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the voltage can be about 5 V, about 6 V, about 7 V, about 8 V, about 9 V, or about 10 V (including all values ​​and ranges therebetween).

[0240] FIG. 53 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme for a separator 5350, according to one embodiment. As shown, the separator 5350 is a carbon-coated separator. In some embodiments, the carbon coating on the separator can include CNTs, CNFs, carbon black, and / or graphene. The carbon-coated surface of the separator 5350 can be in contact with an intermediate layer (not shown). The intermediate layer can be the same as or substantially similar to any of the intermediate layers described above. A metal portion 5364 is bonded to the separator 5350 and in contact with the carbon coating. In some embodiments, the metal portion 5364 can include a folded metal foil. The folded metal foil can support the welding process. In some embodiments, the folded metal foil can be composed of aluminum, copper, and / or any other suitable material. In some embodiments, the metal portion 5364 can include sputtered metal. The sputtered metal can serve as a substrate for welding the tab 5363.

[0241] The tab 5363 is welded to the metal portion 5364 via the weld region W. In some embodiments, the welding can be performed by ultrasonic welding. In some embodiments, the tab 5363 can be a mesh tab. The mesh tab can be lightweight to avoid tearing due to welding on the separator 5350. In some embodiments, the tab 5363 can include PE or a conductive polymer that is laminated to the intermediate layer after heat treatment. In some embodiments, the tab 5363 can be laminated to the separator 5350. In some embodiments, the tab 5363 can be sewn to the intermediate layer via a wire or thread including a metal wire, polyamide thread, polyester thread, or other polymer-based material. In some embodiments, a male / female pinch can be used, and a bolt can be tightened to secure the tab 5363 to the separator 5350.

[0242] FIG. 54 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme for a separator 5450, according to one embodiment. As shown, the tab 5463 is attached to the separator 5450 via a sealing region S. In some embodiments, the separator 5450 and tab 5463 can be the same as or substantially similar to the separator 5350 and tab 5363 described above with reference to FIG. 53 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the separator 5450 and tab 5463 will not be described in further detail herein. The separator 5450 may be carbon coated. In some embodiments, the tab 5463 may be bonded to the separator via an adhesive. In some embodiments, the adhesive may include a conductive adhesive. If the adhesive dissolves over time, externally applied pressure may hold the tab 5463 in place for an extended period of time. In other words, in some embodiments, the adhesive may be used to hold the tab in place only during assembly. In some embodiments, the tab 5463 may be soldered to the separator 5450.

[0243] FIG. 55 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme for a separator 5550, according to one embodiment. As shown, tab 5563 is attached to separator 5550 via sealing region S. In some embodiments, separator 5550 and tab 5563 can be the same as or substantially similar to separator 5350 and tab 5363 described above with reference to FIG. 53. Accordingly, certain aspects of separator 5550 and tab 5563 will not be described in further detail herein. As shown, separator 5550 includes extension 5551 that provides an additional surface for sealing or welding. Extension 5551 is also carbon coated.

[0244] FIG. 56 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme for a separator 5650, according to one embodiment. As shown, the tab 5663 is attached to the separator 5650 via double-sided tape 5666 and heat seal. In some embodiments, the separator 5650 and tab 5663 can be the same as or substantially similar to the separator 5350 and tab 5363 described above with reference to FIG. 53 . Accordingly, certain aspects of the separator 5650 and tab 5663 will not be described in further detail herein. During manufacturing, a heat seal is applied to the double-sided tape 5666 and around the periphery of the separator 5650. A sealing area 5652 is formed around the periphery of the separator 5650. The double-sided tape 5666 melts during the sealing process. The tab is aligned so that the double-sided tape 5666 is located in the sealing area 5652.

[0245] FIG. 57 is a diagram of a tab welding scheme for separator 5650, according to one embodiment. As shown, tab 5763 is attached to a metal foil strip 5764 that is bonded to separator 5750. A carbon coating coats separator 5650 up to line L. In other words, the carbon coating overlaps but does not cover metal foil strip 5764. In some embodiments, separator 5750 and tab 5763 can be the same as or substantially similar to separator 5350 and tab 5363 described above with reference to FIG. 53 . Accordingly, certain aspects of separator 5750 and tab 5763 will not be described in further detail herein. Tab 5763 is welded to metal foil strip 5764.

[0246] FIG. 58 is a diagram of an electrochemical cell 5800 having a tab sealing scheme, according to one embodiment. Not shown in FIG. 58 are the anode, anode current collector, cathode, cathode current collector, and separator of the electrochemical cell. These components may have the characteristics of any of the cells described in the previous embodiments. An anode tab 5822, a cathode tab 5842, and an interlayer tab 5863 each extend outward from their respective electrodes and / or current collectors and are held in place via unit cell sealing area 5852. An anode tab extender 5824 is welded to the anode tab 5822 via weld area W1. A cathode tab extender 5844 is welded to the cathode tab 5842 via weld area W2. An interlayer tab extender 5864 is welded to the interlayer tab 5862 via weld area W3. Pouch heat seal area 5871 is shown sealing in place anode tab extender 5824, cathode tab extender 5844, and interlayer tab extender 5864. Pouch heat seal area 5871 is part of a pouch (e.g., an aluminum pouch that houses multiple unit cells).

[0247] In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 53-56 , the interlayer tab 5863 can extend from the bond to the carbon-coated separator. In some embodiments, the interlayer tab 5863 can include a thin foil tab. In some embodiments, the interlayer tab 5863, anode tab 5822, and cathode tab 5842 can include thin metal tabs, and the interlayer tab extender 5864, anode tab extender 5824, and cathode tab extender 5844 can be thicker, more robust tabs that protrude from the pouch. This scheme can be used not only with cells having a single interlayer, but also with cells having multiple interlayers. In some embodiments, the separator can include a carbon-coated region that extends outside the heat-sealed unit cell area. This facilitates attaching the interlayer tab 5863 and / or interlayer tab extender 5864 to the separator during manufacturing.

[0248] 59A-59C are diagrams of an electrochemical cell stack 5900 with multiple intermediate layers 5960a, 5960b (collectively referred to as intermediate layers 5960), according to one embodiment. As shown, the electrochemical cell stack 5900 includes anodes 5910a, 5910b (collectively referred to as anodes 5910) disposed on an anode current collector 5920, cathodes 5930a, 5930b, 5930c, 5950d (collectively referred to as cathodes 5930) disposed on cathode current collectors 5940a, 5940b (collectively referred to as cathode current collectors 5940), a first separator 5950a and a second separator 5950b disposed between the anode 5910a and the cathode 5930b, and a third separator 5950c and a fourth separator 5950d disposed between the anode 5910b and the cathode 5930c. Intermediate layer 5960a is disposed between first separator 5950a and second separator 5950b, and intermediate layer 5960b is disposed between third separator 5950c and fourth separator 5950d. In some embodiments, anode 5910, anode current collector 5920, cathode 5930, cathode current collector 5940, first separator 5950a, second separator 5950b, third separator 5950c, fourth separator 5950c, and intermediate layer 5960 can be the same as or substantially similar to anode 210, anode current collector 220, cathode 230, cathode current collector 240, first separator 250a, second separator 250b, and intermediate layer 260, as described above with reference to Figures 2A and 2B. Accordingly, certain aspects of the anode 5910, anode current collector 5920, cathode 5930, cathode current collector 5940, first separator 5950a, second separator 5950b, third separator 5950c, fourth separator 5950c, and intermediate layer 5960 will not be described in further detail herein.

[0249] As shown in FIG. 59A, intermediate layer 5960a and second separator 5950b extend a distance d from separator 5950a. This offset helps detect misalignment between anode 5910 and cathode 5930. As shown in FIG. 59B, anode 5910a is misaligned with cathode 5930b. In FIG. 59C, intermediate layer 5960a and separator 5950b bend toward cathode 5930b, causing intermediate layer 5960a to contact cathode 5930b. This creates a short circuit between cathode 5930b and intermediate layer 5960a. This misalignment is detected by zero or a significantly reduced voltage difference between intermediate layer 5960a and cathode 5930b.

[0250] In some embodiments, the distance d can be at least about 50 μm, at least about 100 μm, at least about 200 μm, at least about 300 μm, at least about 400 μm, at least about 500 μm, at least about 600 μm, at least about 700 μm, at least about 800 μm, at least about 900 μm, at least ...

Claims

1. an anode disposed on an anode current collector; a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector, the cathode having a first thickness at a proximal end of the cathode and a second thickness at a distal end of the cathode, the second thickness being greater than the first thickness; a first separator disposed on the anode; a second separator disposed on the cathode; an intermediate layer disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the intermediate layer including an electroactive material and having a proximal end and a distal end; a power source electrically connected to the proximal end of the cathode and the proximal end of the intermediate layer and configured to maintain a voltage difference between the cathode and the intermediate layer below a threshold value.

2. 10. The electrochemical cell of claim 1, wherein the threshold is 0.01V.

3. 3. The electrochemical cell of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the cathode comprises at least one of LFP, LNO, or NMC.

4. Electrochemical cell according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the intermediate layer comprises Li(1-x)xNMC, where x is an integer.

5. 10. An electrochemical cell according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the anode comprises at least one of graphite, lithium metal, or silicon.

6. Electrochemical cell according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the second thickness is between about 500 nm and about 5 μm greater than the first thickness.

7. Electrochemical cell according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the intermediate layer comprises an LFP.

8. 10. The electrochemical cell of claim 1, further comprising a tab extending from the intermediate layer and extending beyond the first separator and the second separator.

9. 9. The electrochemical cell of claim 8, wherein the tab extends in a first direction beyond the first separator and the second separator and extends in a second direction opposite the first direction to a point less than about 10 mm from an edge of the first separator.

10. a first film bonded to the anode current collector and contacting the tab; a second film bonded to the anode current collector and contacting the tab; 10. The electrochemical cell of claim 8 or claim 9, wherein the first film and the second film together form a pouch.

11. 11. The electrochemical cell of claim 10 further comprising a staple at least partially surrounding the first separator, the second separator, and the tab.

12. 12. The electrochemical cell of claim 11, wherein the staple at least partially surrounds the first film and the second film.

13. 1. A method of operating an electrochemical cell, the electrochemical cell comprising: an anode disposed on an anode current collector; a cathode disposed on a cathode current collector; a first separator disposed on the anode; a second separator disposed on the cathode; and an intermediate electrode disposed between the first separator and the second separator, the method comprising: measuring a first voltage between the anode and the cathode; measuring a second voltage between the anode and the intermediate layer; and closing a circuit between the anode and the cathode in response to the second voltage being measured to be less than a threshold voltage.

14. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the threshold voltage is 0.1V.

15. the intermediate layer is a first intermediate layer, the electrochemical cell further comprises a second intermediate layer and a third separator disposed between the second separator and the cathode, and the method further comprises:

15. The method of claim 13 or claim 14, further comprising measuring a third voltage between the anode and the second intermediate layer.

16. The method of any one of claims 13 to 15, wherein the intermediate layer comprises a solid electrolyte.

17. The method of any one of claims 13 to 16, wherein the intermediate layer comprises Li(1-x)xNMC, where x is an integer.

18. The method of any one of claims 13 to 17, wherein the anode comprises at least one of graphite, lithium metal, or silicon.

19. The method of any one of claims 13 to 18, wherein the intermediate layer comprises an LFP.

20. 20. The electrochemical cell of any one of claims 13 to 19, wherein the cathode comprises at least one of LFP, LNO, or NMC.

Images