Atom-based electromagnetic field sensing elements and measurement systems

Abstract

To provide an atom-based electromagnetic field sensing element and a measurement system.SOLUTION: There are provided a method and apparatus for sensing or measuring an electromagnetic field. The method entails excitation into a distribution of Rydberg states of atoms of gas occupying a test volume coextensive with the electromagnetic field. Transmission along a path traversing the test volume of at least one probe beam of electromagnetic radiation is measured at one or more frequencies overlapping a spectral feature, and a physical characteristic of the electromagnetic field is derived on the basis of variation of the spectral feature. The electromagnetic field may be placed in interference relation with another electromagnetic field. Time-varying electric field amplitude, frequency, phase, and noise spectral distribution, and thus AM and FM modulated fields, as well as magnetic fields of about 1 Tesla, may be measured. The apparatus for measuring the electromagnetic field may be unilaterally coupled to a probe field and detector or an array of detectors.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] This invention was made in part with government support under Contract No. W911NF-17-C-0007 awarded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the U.S. Army. The government may have rights in certain aspects of this invention.

[0002] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 607,034, filed December 18, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 727,764, filed September 6, 2018. Both of the foregoing applications are incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] The present invention relates to atom-based field sensing elements and measurement systems and methods, and more particularly to elements, systems, and methods employing Rydberg atoms to measure, receive, or image RF field amplitude, polarization, or phase, modulated RF signals, incoherent RF, or RF noise, and to perform continuous frequency RF field detection. [Background technology]

[0004] Atoms with quasi-free electrons in high-lying Rydberg states (characterized by high principal quantum numbers, typically n>20) have approximately n 7 and about n 2 They exhibit large polarizabilities and electric dipole moments, corresponding to a principal quantum number n as , making them extremely sensitive to electric fields. According to our convention, states of the atom that are not Rydberg states may be referred to herein as "low-lying states."

[0005] The concept of applying the spectroscopic response of Rydberg states in atomic vapors to electric field measurements is at least as well known as "Rydberg States using Electromagnetically Induced Transparency" by Mohapatra et al. Phys.Rev.Lett., vol. 98, 113003 (2007), which is incorporated herein by reference. Previous work related to atom-based field sensing (all found in the prior art) is the subject of U.S. Patent No. 9,970,973 to Anderson et al. (hereinafter "Anderson's '973 patent"), which is incorporated herein by reference and is herein incorporated by reference. More specifically, the Floquet method is described, for example, in Anderson et al.'s "Two-photon microwave transitions and strong-field effects in a room-temperature Rydberg-atom gas" Phys.Rev.A , vol. 90, 043419 (2014) (incorporated herein by reference), has previously been established as a suitable means for modeling Rydberg atomic microwave spectra in vapor cell experiments.

[0006] Electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) is a quantum interference process in which two excitation paths in a three-level atomic system destructively interfere with a probe laser beam, producing an increase in its transmission. For example, in the Rydberg-EIT cascade scheme depicted in Figure 8B, transparency is formed by the coherent superposition of the ground and Rydberg states. Rydberg-EIT has been implemented in both cold atomic gases and room-temperature vapor cells. It has been widely used as a nondestructive optical detection technique for Rydberg spectra, quantum information processing, and measurements of both weak and strong microwave electric fields. AC Stark shifting of the Rydberg levels using electrodes in a vapor cell is described in "Enhanced electric field sensitivity of rf-dressed Rydberg dark states" by Bason et al. New J. Phys. , vol. 12, 065015 (2010) (incorporated herein by reference).

[0007] As used herein, the word "sensor" refers to any device that detects or measures a physical quantity and may exclude wiring or waveguides that couple electrical or electromagnetic energy to or from the sensor and a controller or processor used with the sensor. The term "monolithic sensor," as used herein, refers to a sensor that may be embodied in its entirety on a single substrate or whose components are permanently connected to form a single physical device. Examples of connections include micromachining, fusing, anodic bonding, and gluing. To the best of the inventors' knowledge, a monolithic Rydberg sensor has not previously been proposed.

[0008] The method of Rydberg spectroscopy has not been previously proposed, however, and has been suitable for measuring the phase of an electromagnetic field (relative to a phase reference), a void that, among other things, embodiments of the present invention described below address.

[0009] To realize a practical atom-based RF sensing, measurement, or imaging device, a suitable sensing element is required. All prior art sensing elements described or proposed in previous studies have limitations imposed by physical principles that are overcome by the insights described below in the present invention. Prior art sensing elements are taught, for example, by Anderson et al., "Optical measurements of strong microwave fields with Rydberg atoms in a vapor cell," https: / / arxiv.org / pdf / 1601.02535.pdf (January 11, 2016), which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0010] Other teachings of atom-based electromagnetic field sensing are Gordon et al., "Millimeter Wave Detection via Autler-Townes Splitting in Rubidium Rydberg Atoms," https: / / arxiv.org / pdf / 1406.2936.pdf (June 11, 2014), and Simons et al., "Using frequency detuning to improve the sensitivity of electric field measurements via electromagnetically induced transparency and Autler-Townes splitting in Rydberg atoms." Appl.Phys.Lett. , vol. 108, 174101 (2016) (both publications are also incorporated herein by reference).

[0011] Performance limitations of existing Rydberg's electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) technique include:

[0012] (1) Low sensitivity: The highest field sensitivity demonstrated to date, at the 1 mV / m level, is primarily limited by the EIT linewidth. Furthermore, this sensitivity level has been achieved only by monitoring small changes in the EIT peak lineshape. Unlike direct measurements of the Rydberg energy level splitting, where the field is traceable to fundamental constants and invariant atomic parameters, extracting the RF electric field from detailed EIT lineshape analysis requires relatively complex models that depend on experimental parameters such as laser beam power and vapor pressure, thereby making absolute field measurements impossible and unreliable in daily operation. To date, the most sensitive measurement sensitivity in the prior art is approximately 3 μV / cm / Hz. 1 / 2The shot noise limited sensitivity of Kμmar et al., "Rydberg-atom based radio-frequency electrometry using frequency modulation spectroscopy in room temperature vapor cells" Option Express , vol. 25, 284263 (January 21, 2017), and an improvement of about half the magnitude of that sensitivity has been demonstrated so far in Fan et al.'s "Effect of Vapor Cell Geometry on Rydberg-Atom-Based Measurements of Radio-Frequency Electric Fields." Phys.Rev.Appl. ,044015 (2015) (both papers are incorporated herein by reference). The latter work employs subtle RF-induced EIT enhancement of the Rydberg-EIT line by a weak resonant RF field, a method that is expected to be somewhat unreliable in day-to-day field measurement operations because subtle changes depend on many details such as laser power and cell pressure. A more robust means of enhancing sensitivity is desired.

[0013] (2) It is not possible to measure RF fields over a continuous frequency range. For weak RF fields, the method is limited to measuring RF fields that are resonant with dipole-allowed transitions between Rydberg states. Weak RF fields that are off- and far-resonant from any transition cannot be easily measured, if at all.

[0014] (3) RF polarimetry currently requires complex analysis of atomic spectra.

[0015] (4) While all prior art Rydberg-EIT measurements are necessarily field amplitude measurements, information about the phase of the RF field cannot be obtained, in part due to the physical constraints discussed herein.

[0016] (5) The form factors of measurement devices used today for Rydberg-EIT measurements necessarily require large, non-portable assemblies, i.e., with large dielectric footprints, thereby precluding the ability to perform measurements in many practical applications or to be integrated into existing RF measurement and transmission systems.

[0017] (6) Prior to the present invention described herein below, the Rydberg-EIT technique served only for measuring coherent fields. Previous methods were unable to measure either incoherent fields or noise.

[0018] RF measurement methods employing Rydberg-EIT in vapor cells typically employ counterpropagation of a laser beam through the atomic vapor, taking into account the Doppler shift of the spectroscopic laser beam within the thermal atomic sample. This aspect has previously presented challenges to implementing Rydberg-EIT in vapor cells in practical sensor designs for applications because it requires the laser beam to enter the cell and exit from both sides, either via free-space propagation or optical fibers on both sides of the cell. This can lead to sensor heads with large dielectric footprints and sizes that are undesirable for measurement applications. Furthermore, for extension to multi-pixel sensor arrays, the entrance of optical beams from both sides of the cell can limit the pixel packing density and resolution achievable within the array.

[0019] One-sided optical coupling into the vapor cell is described, for example, in "Pulsed high magnetic field measurements via a" by George et al. Rubidium Vapor Sensor" https: / / arxiv.org / pdf / 1704.00004.pdf (March 31, 2017) (incorporated herein by reference), where separate fibers are employed for the input and output beams and beams of the same or similar wavelengths. Furthermore, in the prior art, the probe beam always enters one side of the vapor cell and exits from a different side.

[0020] Although the majority of matter in the observable universe exists under plasma conditions, measuring or estimating the properties of the electric field within a region of plasma presents particular challenges to science unless the collective motion of the plasma can be observed or a physical probe can be inserted into the plasma. An example of the former technique is the estimation of the radial electric field in a tokamak, which is inferred from the poloidal rotation rate. In the absence of either of these probing modalities, an assumption must be made that an atomic probe be used. See, for example, Paris et al.'s "Intensity ratio of spectral bands of nitrogen as a measure of electric field in plasmas" J.Phys.D , vol. 38, pp. 3894-99 (2005) (incorporated herein by reference), if the intensity ratios of nitrogen spectral bands are used, the calculations require that the nitrogen molecule is excited from the ground state primarily by direct electron impact.

[0021] To date, optical diagnostic techniques for measuring plasma fields have primarily involved measuring Stark shifts in plasma molecules using emission and absorption spectroscopy, laser-induced fluorescence, and Raman spectroscopy. While existing methods provide passive, non-intrusive measurements, they may also require a priori knowledge of the optical absorption or emission spectra of plasma components. This can make it difficult to distinguish collective plasma phenomena of interest from few-body processes involving constituent plasma particles in diagnostic readouts. They also require customization of diagnostic tools specific to the plasma type under study, precluding generalized techniques that can be implemented on different plasma systems. Thus, some plasmas are expected to have emission profiles at frequencies and emission intensities that are difficult to detect using conventional detectors and spectrometers. Weak IR emissions from vibrational transitions in plasma components, for example, may provide useful information in some cases, but the detectors required to measure these low IR intensity levels are not readily available. Due to these limitations, applications may require plasmas to be engineered with certain atomic / ionic particles to implement well-characterized optical diagnostics. This can present a significant drawback to fundamental plasma research, where the nature of the plasma itself becomes the subject of study.

[0022] As long as a priori knowledge of the kind described above is not always available, science awaits a more versatile modality for remote measurement of electric fields in plasmas, such a modality being described in detail below in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention.

[0023] Probes for high-resolution sensing, measurement, and calibration of strong magnetic fields in the 1-100 Tesla range are becoming increasingly important in the research and development, production, and maintenance of strong magnet systems in various industries. However, atomic vapor or Rydberg-EIT systems for measuring such fields have not been provided and are now, for the first time, enabled using the present invention described below. Using hyperfine-level Zeeman splitting with Rydberg-EIT analysis as previously practiced, the maximum magnetic field strengths that can be measured based on the model of the Rydberg atom are up to about 10 3 Gauss. Measurement of stronger magnetic fields requires new strategies, as described herein in accordance with the present invention. Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0024] According to one embodiment of the present invention, there is provided a method for sensing or measuring a first electromagnetic field, the method comprising: exciting atoms of a gas occupying a test volume coextensive with the first electromagnetic field at least partially into a population of Rydberg states; structuring the first electromagnetic field by placing it in an interference relationship with at least one other electromagnetic field; measuring transmission along a path traversing the test volume of at least one probe beam of electromagnetic radiation at one or more frequencies overlapping a spectral feature of the atomic gas; deriving a physical property of the first electromagnetic field based on at least the change in the spectral characteristics; It has.

[0025] According to another embodiment of the present invention, the gas may be an atomic vapor, and the atoms of the atomic vapor may be selected from a group of atoms including rubidium, cesium, and other alkalis. Exciting the atoms into the distribution of Rydberg states may include optically exciting the atoms into the distribution of Rydberg states and at least one of electromagnetically induced transparency and electromagnetically induced absorption.

[0026] According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the change in the spectral characteristics may include Autler-Townes splitting and the physical property of the first electromagnetic field may be field amplitude.

[0027] The first electromagnetic field may be monochromatic, and the physical property of the first electromagnetic may be its phase relative to a reference phase.

[0028] According to another embodiment of the invention, the structuring of the first electromagnetic field may include modulating the electromagnetic field prior to the measuring step, wherein the modulation may be at least one of frequency, amplitude, and step modulation.

[0029] According to yet another embodiment of the present invention, the distribution of Rydberg states may include at least one pair of states with a non-zero dipole moment due to the interaction between the atom and the radio frequency field.

[0030] According to yet a further embodiment of the present invention, calculating predetermined Rydberg atomic energy levels or a Rydberg-EIT spectrum in the presence of an incoherent RF noise field present in or constituting the first electromagnetic field; Propagating light into an atomic vapor cell; measuring spectral features associated with light propagated through the atomic vapor cell; identifying the matched spectrum; deriving properties of the incoherent RF noise field; There may be additional steps of

[0031] According to another embodiment of the present invention, calculating predetermined atomic energy levels or spectra for atoms in a first electromagnetic field identical to a strong static or low frequency magnetic field; propagating at least one other electromagnetic field as an optical probe into the atomic vapor cell; measuring the spectral characteristics of light propagated through the atomic vapor cell; identifying the matched spectrum; Deriving physical properties of a strong magnetic field; There may be additional steps of

[0032] The light may be amplitude or frequency modulated in conjunction with lock-in detection at the modulation frequency or multiples thereof, and the predetermined atomic energy levels or spectrum may be for low-lying atomic states.

[0033] According to another aspect of the invention, a monolithic sensor for detecting and / or measuring parameters characterizing an electromagnetic field is provided, the sensor comprising an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure, an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a distribution of Rydberg states, and at least one waveguide for coupling a probe beam or more beams into the atomic vapor and collecting the probe beam after interaction of the probe beam with the atomic vapor.

[0034] According to another embodiment of the present invention, the at least one waveguide may be an optical fiber. At least one of the at least one waveguide may couple radiation from both the excitation source and the probe beam into the atomic vapor. The enclosure may include a dielectric material or a glass vapor cell. The enclosure may be compartmentalized, more specifically, linearly or areally compartmentalized.

[0035] In further embodiments, distinct probe beams may be coupled into each of the array of compartments, such as via an array of optical elements, and collected after interacting with the atomic vapor and coupled to detector elements via an array of optical elements. The enclosure may include a light absorbing surface and may have a temperature regulator.

[0036] According to a further aspect of the present invention, a unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor for detecting and / or measuring parameters characterizing an electromagnetic field is provided. The unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor includes an atomic vapor contained within a dielectric enclosure and an excitation source for generating an excitation beam for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a distribution of Rydberg states. Additionally, the unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor includes a first prism for coupling the excitation beam into the atomic vapor and a probe beam out of the atomic vapor, and a second prism for coupling the probe beam into the atomic vapor. The excitation beam and the probe beam may be incident on the respective first and second prisms in substantially parallel directions.

[0037] According to yet a further aspect of the present invention, there is provided a sensor for detecting and / or measuring a parameter characterizing an electromagnetic field. The sensor includes at least one of a material or structure for conditioning the electromagnetic field and an atomic vapor contained in an enclosure disposed within the conditioning material or structure. The sensor also includes an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a distribution of Rydberg states, a detector for detecting the probe beam after traversing the atomic vapor and generating a detector signal, and a processor for deriving at least the parameter characterizing the electromagnetic field based on the detector signal.

[0038] In other embodiments, the material or structure for tailoring the electromagnetic field may be an RF resonator or a waveguide, or may be a meta-material.

[0039] The material or structure for adjusting the electromagnetic field may include an antenna or one or more electrodes. The material or structure may be conductive, and the electromagnetic field may be adjusted by converting a current or voltage signal into an electromagnetic field within the atomic vapor cell. Attributes of the current or voltage signal may be derived from the detector signal.

[0040] In other embodiments of the present invention, the excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into Rydberg states may comprise one or more light beams to establish electromagnetic wave-induced transparency or electromagnetic wave-induced absorption in the atomic vapor. The enclosure containing the atomic vapor may be a glass vapor cell.

[0041] In yet another embodiment of the present invention, the material or structure for adjusting the electromagnetic field may include a filter or reflector for the electromagnetic field entering or exiting the atomic vapor enclosure. A detector may be used to detect the electromagnetic field generated by the excitation and emission of the atomic vapor. The electromagnetic field may be associated with at least one of a standing electromagnetic wave and a traveling electromagnetic wave.

[0042] According to another aspect of the present invention, a sensor for detecting and / or measuring parameters characterizing an electromagnetic field is provided. The sensor has an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure, which in turn has a light-absorbing surface. The sensor also has a heating beam source incident on the light-absorbing surface and an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a distribution of Rydberg states. The sensor also has a detector for detecting the probe beam after traversing the atomic vapor and generating a detector signal, and a processor for applying the heating beam to the light-absorbing surface in a manner to adjust the temperature that characterizes the atomic vapor.

[0043] In further embodiments of the present invention, the light absorbing surface may be a film, a polymer, or glass.

[0044] According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for measuring an electric field within a region of a plasma contained within an enclosure, the method comprising: incorporating tracer particles of a defined species into the plasma; Exciting tracer particles into defined Rydberg states; applying at least a probe beam and a coupler beam and deriving an EIT transmission spectrum of the plasma; comparing the EIT transmission spectrum of the plasma with the spectral model and estimating an electric field associated with the region of the plasma based on at least one of a field-induced spectral shape change and a field-induced spectral shift; It has.

[0045] According to a further embodiment of the present invention, the method may further include applying a magnetic or RF field to the plasma. The tracer particles may be atoms, more specifically including rubidium atoms. The method may also include generating the tracer particles from a cold atom source. For example, the present application provides the following: (Item 1) 1. A method for sensing or measuring a first electromagnetic field, the method comprising: a. exciting atoms of a gas occupying a test volume coextensive with said first electromagnetic field at least partially into a population of Rydberg states; b. structuring the first electromagnetic field by placing it in an interference relationship with at least one other electromagnetic field; c. measuring transmission along a path traversing the test volume of at least one probe beam of electromagnetic radiation at one or more frequencies overlapping a spectral feature of said atomic gas; d. deriving physical properties of the first electromagnetic field based on at least the change in the spectral characteristics; A method comprising: (Item 2) Item 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the gas is an atomic vapor. (Item 3) 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the atoms of the atomic vapor are selected from the group of atoms including rubidium, cesium, alkali, and alkaline earth atoms. (Item 4) 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of exciting the atoms into a population of Rydberg states comprises optically exciting the atoms into a population of Rydberg states. (Item 5) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein the step of exciting the atoms into a population of Rydberg states comprises at least one of electromagnetically induced transparency and electromagnetically induced absorption. (Item 6) 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the change in spectral characteristics comprises Autler-Townes splitting. (Item 7) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein the physical property of the first electromagnetic field is a field amplitude. (Item 8) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein the first electromagnetic field is monochromatic and the physical property of the first electromagnetic field is its phase relative to a reference phase. (Item 9) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein the physical property of the first monochromatic electromagnetic field is its phase relative to a reference point phase of an RF field that modulates one of the other electromagnetic fields using a nonlinear optical element. (Item 10) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein structuring the first electromagnetic field comprises superimposing an additional static or radio frequency field to place the first electromagnetic field in resonance with an atomic transition. (Item 11) Item 10. The method of item 1, wherein the structuring the first electromagnetic field comprises modulating the first electromagnetic field prior to the measuring step. (Item 12) Item 12. The method of item 11, wherein the modulation is at least one of frequency, amplitude, and step modulation. (Item 13) 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the distribution of Rydberg states includes at least one pair of states with a non-zero dipole moment due to an interaction between the atom and a radio frequency field. (Item 14) a. calculating predetermined Rydberg atomic energy levels or a Rydberg-EIT spectrum in the presence of an incoherent RF noise field present in or constituting said first electromagnetic field; b. Propagating light into an atomic vapor cell; c. measuring spectral features associated with light propagated through said atomic vapor cell; d. identifying the matched spectrum; e. deriving attributes of the incoherent RF noise field; Item 1, the method of claim 1 further comprising: (Item 15) a. calculating predetermined Rydberg atomic energy levels or spectra for atoms in a first electromagnetic field identical to a strong static or low frequency magnetic field; b. propagating at least one other electromagnetic field into the atomic vapor cell as an optical probe; c. measuring the spectral characteristics of light propagated through the atomic vapor cell; d. identifying the matched spectrum; e. Deriving physical properties of the strong magnetic field; Item 1, the method of claim 1 further comprising: (Item 16) Item 16. The method of item 15, wherein the light is amplitude or frequency modulated. (Item 17) 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the predetermined atomic energy levels or spectra are for Rydberg atomic states or low-lying atomic states. (Item 18) 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the small field change in the strong magnetic field is derived using one or more atomic isotopes or species. (Item 19) 1. A monolithic sensor for detecting and / or measuring a parameter characterizing an electromagnetic field, said sensor comprising: a. an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure; b. an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a population of Rydberg states; c. at least one waveguide for coupling a probe beam or more beams into the atomic vapor, and the same or a different waveguide for collecting the probe beam after interaction of the probe beam with the atomic vapor; A sensor comprising: (Item 20) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the at least one waveguide is an optical fiber. (Item 21) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein at least one waveguide couples radiation from both the excitation source and the probe beam into the atomic vapor. (Item 22) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the enclosure comprises a dielectric material or a glass vapor cell. (Item 23) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the enclosure is compartmentalized. (Item 24) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the enclosure is linearly compartmentalized. (Item 25) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the enclosure is areally compartmentalized. (Item 26) 20. A monolithic sensor according to item 19, wherein distinct probe beams are coupled into each of the array of compartments. (Item 27) 27. The monolithic sensor of claim 26, wherein the distinct probe beams are coupled into each of the array of compartments via an array of optical elements. (Item 28) 28. The monolithic sensor of claim 27, wherein the distinct probe beams are collected after interaction with the atomic vapor and coupled to a detector element via the array of optical elements. (Item 29) 20. The monolithic sensor of claim 19, wherein the enclosure includes a light-absorbing surface and further comprises a temperature regulator. (Item 30) 1. A unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor for detecting and / or measuring a parameter characterizing an electromagnetic field, said unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor comprising: an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure; an excitation source for generating an excitation beam for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a population of Rydberg states; at least one optical component that redirects the propagation direction of at least one of the pump beam and the probe beam into or out of the atomic vapor; 1. A unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor comprising: (Item 31) Item 31. The unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor of item 30, wherein the excitation beam and the probe beam are incident on the at least one optical component in a substantially parallel direction. (Item 32) Item 31. The unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor of item 30, wherein the at least one optical component is a prism. (Item 33) 33. The unilaterally coupled monolithic sensor of claim 32, wherein a first prism redirects the excitation beam to couple into the atomic vapor and the probe beam to couple out of the atomic vapor, and a second prism couples the probe beam into the atomic vapor. (Item 34) 1. A sensor for detecting and / or measuring a parameter characterizing an electromagnetic field, said sensor comprising: a. at least one of a material and a structure for modulating an electromagnetic field; b. an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure disposed within said conditioning material or structure; c. an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a population of Rydberg states; d. a detector for detecting the probe beam after traversing the atomic vapor and generating a detector signal; e. a processor for deriving parameters characterizing the electromagnetic field based on at least the detector signals; A sensor comprising: (Item 35) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of the materials and structures for adjusting the electromagnetic field is an RF resonator. (Item 36) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of the material and structure for adjusting the electromagnetic field is a waveguide. (Item 37) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of a material and a structure for adjusting the electromagnetic field is a meta-material. (Item 38) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of the materials and structures for adjusting the electromagnetic field includes an antenna. (Item 39) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of the materials and structures for adjusting the electromagnetic field is one or more electrodes. (Item 40) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein at least one of the materials and structures is conductive and modulates the electromagnetic field by converting a current or voltage into an electromagnetic field in the atomic vapor, and the associated power through the current or voltage or resistance is derived from the detector signal. (Item 41) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein the excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into Rydberg states comprises one or more light beams to establish electromagnetic wave-induced transparency or electromagnetic wave-induced absorption in the atomic vapor. (Item 42) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein the enclosure containing the atomic vapor is a glass vapor cell. (Item 43) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein the material or structure for adjusting the electromagnetic field comprises a frequency selective filter or reflector for electromagnetic fields entering or exiting the atomic vapor enclosure. (Item 44) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein the detector is used to detect an electromagnetic field generated by excitation of and emission from the atomic vapor. (Item 45) Item 35. The sensor of item 34, wherein the electromagnetic field is associated with at least one of a standing electromagnetic wave and a traveling electromagnetic wave. (Item 46) 1. A sensor for detecting and / or measuring parameters characterizing an electromagnetic field using Rydberg atoms, said sensor comprising: a. an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure including a dielectric light-absorbing material; b. a heating beam source incident on said dielectric light-absorbing material; c. an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a population of Rydberg states; d. a detector for detecting the probe beam after traversing the atomic vapor and generating a detector signal; e. a processor for applying the heating beam to the dielectric light-absorbing material in a manner to regulate a temperature that characterizes the atomic vapor; A sensor comprising: (Item 47) Item 47. The sensor of item 46, wherein the dielectric light-absorbing surface is a film. (Item 48) Item 47. The sensor of item 46, wherein the dielectric light-absorbing surface is a polymer. (Item 49) Item 41. The sensor of item 40, wherein the dielectric light-absorbing surface is glass. (Item 50) 1. A method for measuring an electric field within a region of a plasma contained within an enclosure, the method comprising: a. incorporating tracer particles of a defined species into said plasma; b. exciting the tracer particles into defined Rydberg states; c. applying at least a probe beam and a coupler beam and deriving an EIT transmission spectrum of tracer particles in said plasma; d. comparing the EIT transmission spectrum of the plasma with a spectral model and estimating an electric field associated with a region of the plasma based on at least one of a field-induced spectral shape change and a field-induced spectral shift; A method comprising: (Item 51) Item 51. The method of item 50, further comprising applying a magnetic field or an RF field to the plasma. (Item 52) 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the tracer particles are atoms. (Item 53) 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the tracer particles are rubidium atoms. (Item 54) Item 51. The method of item 50, further comprising generating the tracer particles from a cold atom source. (Item 55) 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the estimated electric field is a distribution of an electric field. (Item 56) 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the estimated electric field is obtained in one, two, or three dimensions. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0046] The foregoing features of the present invention will be more readily understood by reference to the following detailed description, considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

[0047] [Figure 1]FIG. 1 diagrammatically depicts a single-sided optically coupled RF sensing element in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

[0048] [Figure 2A] FIG. 2A shows an EIT spectrum of the 30D Rydberg state of 87Rb obtained using a pen-like retro-EIT configuration according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0049] [Figure 2B] FIG. 2B shows a single-sided atomic vapor sensor in which the excitation and probe beams are coupled into the vapor cell via a prism, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0050] [Figure 3] FIG. 3 shows a microwave imaging array consisting of single-sided bonded individual vapor cell sensor elements according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0051] [Figure 4A] Figure 4A shows a calculation of the RF field enhancement factor along the axis of a 125 μm diameter tip for several frequencies according to an embodiment of the present invention, and Figure 4B shows the skin depth associated with a conductive tip. [Figure 4B] Figure 4A shows a calculation of the RF field enhancement factor along the axis of a 125 μm diameter tip for several frequencies according to an embodiment of the present invention, and Figure 4B shows the skin depth associated with a conductive tip.

[0052] [Figure 5] 5A and 5B show a type of hybrid atomic cavity structure according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0053] [Figure 6] FIG. 6 shows a calculation of the electric field within the hybrid atomic cavity structure shown in FIGS. 5A-5B for a near-resonant 4 GHz incident RF field of 1 V / m.

[0054] [Figure 7] 7A-7D show a hybrid atomic resonator device according to one embodiment of the present invention: Fig. 7A shows the resonator electrodes / cavity inside a spectroscopy cell, Fig. 7B is a top view of the resonator showing ceramic pins for electrode alignment and stabilization, Fig. 7C is a side view of the resonator showing the glass spacer and gap, and Fig. 7D shows the resonator electrode / cavity structure inside a rubidium vapor cell with wire leads connected for external voltage / current control or to ground / short the electrodes.

[0055] [Figure 8] FIG. 8A shows an experimental setup for measuring field properties according to an embodiment of the present invention, while FIG. 8B shows the associated Rydberg-EIT energy level diagram.

[0056] [Figure 9] Figures 9A-9D demonstrate hybrid atomic-cavity field enhancement according to one embodiment of the present invention. Figure 9A plots the 31S Rydberg-EIT spectrum measured as a function of RF / microwave frequency at a fixed -10 dBm injection power. Figure 9B plots the Stark map calculated around the 31S Rydberg state for the applied root-mean-square electric field ERMS. Figure 9C plots the microwave ERMS versus frequency obtained using Figures 9A and 9B, while Figure 9D plots the EIT lines measured for 2.5 and 4.35 GHz microwaves, respectively.

[0057] [Figure 10] 10A and 10B show side and end views of a field measurement system with an atomic vapor cell inside a waveguide according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0058] [Figure 11]Figure 11A shows the experimental 31S Rydberg AC-Stark shift as a function of applied microwave frequency at a fixed injection power for different angular positions Θ relative to the vertical axis, and Figure 11B plots the microwave electric field at 4.35 GHz as a function of Θ for the data shown in Figure 11A.

[0059] [Figure 12] FIG. 12A shows the results of calculations of the electric field amplitude, and FIGS. 12B-12D are the electric field vector directions within the hybrid atomic cavity structure of FIGS. 7A-7D, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0060] [Figure 13] 13A and 13B show the experimental and calculated DC Stark maps, respectively, of the 30D Rydberg state with respect to an applied DC electric field.

[0061] [Figure 14] FIG. 14 depicts a Floquet calculation of the AC-Stark shifts of the rubidium 47S and 47P levels in a 100 MHz RF field.

[0062] [Figure 15] FIG. 15 plots the RF intensity and electric field calibration for the rubidium 47S state.

[0063] [Figure 16] FIG. 16 plots the measured EIT spectrum of the 47S state at a fixed −14 dBI microwave intensity (separate calibration) versus microwave frequency detuning from 37.51663492 GHz for four different injected RF powers.

[0064] [Figure 17] FIG. 17 plots the measured pseudo-crossing centers as a function of applied RF field for a range of values ​​up to about 200 V / cm.

[0065] [Figure 18A] FIG. 18A shows the simulated electric field generated inside four different split-ring cavity structures for a 1 V / m incident field as a function of applied frequency. [Figure 18B] FIG. 18B illustrates a measurement channel within the gap of a split ring cavity structure, according to an embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 18C] 18C and 18D show simulated resonance curves for a split-ring resonator with a geometry that leads to a resonance near 100 GHz. [Figure 18D] 18C and 18D show simulated resonance curves for a split-ring resonator with a geometry that leads to a resonance near 100 GHz.

[0066] [Figure 19] Figures 19A and 19B show an IR-glass capsule 1901 enclosing a 4 mm inner diameter atomic vapor cell 1903. Figure 19C shows the all-optical heating test platform.

[0067] [Figure 20] Figure 20A schematically depicts the sensing element back end and operating principle for phase-sensitive measurement of RF electric fields according to an embodiment of the present invention, and Figure 20B depicts the quantum mechanical level scheme and optical / RF excitation path used in phase-sensitive RF electric field measurements.

[0068] [Figure 21] FIG. 21 is a flowchart depicting steps in Rydberg-EIT measurements of magnetic field properties, now possible for the first time, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0069] [Figure 22] FIG. 22 is a flowchart depicting steps in Rydberg-EIT measurement of RF noise attributes over a defined spectral range, which is now possible for the first time, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

[0070] [Figure 23] 23A-23C are schematic depictions of probing electromagnetic fields in a plasma employing EIT of Rydberg atomic tracers, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

[0071] [Figure 24] 24A-24C graphically depict measurements of strong magnetic fields using saturated absorption spectroscopy of a two-level Rydberg quantum system, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0072] [Figure 25] 25A-25C graphically depict measurements of strong magnetic fields using saturated absorption spectroscopy of a three-level Rydberg quantum system, according to an embodiment of the present invention.

[0073] [Figure 26] FIG. 26A schematically depicts a hybrid atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter and sensor according to one embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 26B shows plots of signals acquired at various levels of voltage applied across the electrodes of the converter and sensor.

[0074] [Figure 27] Figure 27A is a schematic depiction of an atomic vapor cell compartment with opposing windows for wavelength-selective transmission of electromagnetic waves, according to an embodiment of the present invention. Figure 27B shows an image of the atomic vapor cell compartment of Figure 27A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0075] Definitions: The following terms shall have the meanings indicated unless the context dictates otherwise.

[0076] Certain embodiments of the present invention relate to atom-based field sensing elements, which may be referred to interchangeably herein as "sensing elements," "field sensing elements," and "sensors."

[0077] "Modulation," as used herein and in any accompanying claims, refers to the confinement, directing, manipulation, or filtering of an electromagnetic field or the physical attributes of an EM field, including its mode, electric field amplitude, polarization, frequency, phase, and spectral content.

[0078] The term "enhancement," when referring to electromagnetic waves, shall be defined as the modification of the electromagnetic wave in such a manner as to increase the value of any physical attribute of the electromagnetic wave.

[0079] "Minor field" shall refer to either a static or electromagnetic field characterized by a range of frequencies less than or equal to 1% of the center frequency.

[0080] An electromagnetic field is said to be "structured" if, and only if, it is a monochromatic field and is in an interference relationship with at least one other electromagnetic field. Thus, to "structuring" an electromagnetic field is to place the field into an interference relationship with one or more other electromagnetic fields.

[0081] An atomic-based field-sensing element will be referred to herein as "integrated" if and only if it contains at least one material or structure that acts to modulate the RF field, the term "modulation" being defined above. The RF field that is modulated may be referred to herein as the "RF field of interest."

[0082] As used herein, the word "distribution," when referring to a set, whether continuous or discrete, is intended to include the single-element case. Thus, a distribution of an atomic population among Rydberg states, for example, encompasses a single state as well.

[0083] As used herein, in a spectrum, where the term refers herein to any function of frequency ν, "spectral characteristics" shall refer to the behavior of that function over a defined continuous frequency subdomain, the values ​​of the function at the boundaries of the subdomain constituting the minima or maxima of the function.

[0084] "Splitting" of a spectral feature refers to a reduction in the maximum of a function due to a functional physical effect, resulting in the appearance of two new maxima, one at a frequency above that of the original maximum and one at a frequency below that of the original maximum. The term "splitting" may also, where appropriate in the context, refer to the difference in frequency between the loci of the new maxima that appear in place of the original maximum.

[0085] The term "electromagnetic field" encompasses both DC and AC fields.

[0086] "RF" may interchangeably refer herein to "microwave," "millimeter-wave," "terahertz," or any electromagnetic radiation with frequencies above DC to THz.

[0087] The magnetic field is about 10 -3 Above Tesla (10 G), it shall be designated as "strong", at which point the m-degeneracy of some atomic hyperfine levels, broken down by the magnetic field, begins to transition from the weak-field (linear Zeeman) regime to the Paschen-Back regime.

[0088] "Electromagnetically induced transparency" (EIT) refers to the physical phenomenology in which a coherent optical field tuned to interact with (at least) three states of an optical system produces transparency at wavelengths corresponding to otherwise absorptive quantum transitions in the medium. The physics and terminology of EIT are described in Marangos's "Topical review: Electromagnetically induced transparency" J.Mod.Opt. , vol. 45, pp. 471-503 (1998) (incorporated herein by reference).

[0089] A "dielectric," as the term is used herein, is defined as a material or substance that transmits electrical force without conduction, i.e., an insulator. Atom-based electromagnetic field sensing elements and measurement systems

[0090] In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, a single-sided optically coupled RF sensing element (also referred to herein as a “sensor” and a “pen-like configuration”) is provided, generally designated by the numeral 100, and described with reference to FIG. 1. The pen-like linear sensor design depicted in FIG. 1 provides for the use of a single inlet port 102 for optically coupling the required laser beams 103, 104 into and out of a vapor cell volume 108, otherwise referred to herein as a “vapor cell” or “atomic vapor cell,” contained within an enclosure 106. Vapor cell volume 108 contains atomic or molecular gas. The region of gas within vapor cell volume 108 that is probed by beams 103 and 104 may be referred to herein and in any accompanying claims as a “test volume.”

[0091] 1 leaves the active measurement volume 110 unobstructed to the incident RF / microwave field 112 from all sides except one. In the implementation depicted in FIG. 1, the linearly polarized probe 103 and coupler 104 beams are transmitted through a single polarization-maintaining fiber 120 and collimated by a lens 122 to a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of approximately 200 μm within the vapor cell 106. The probe and coupler beams 103, 104 co-propagate through the atomic vapor cell 106, with the probe beam 103 then selectively retroreflected back through the cell by a short-pass dichroic mirror coating 130, while the coupler beam passes through and is blocked by a thin dielectric absorber beam block 132. The retroreflected probe beam 134 retraces its path, overlaps with the outgoing coupler beam, and is recombined by lens 122 back into fiber 120. A quarter-wave plate 140, positioned before retroreflection (between the lens and the vapor cell in FIG. 1), ensures that the linearly polarized incoming probe beam is rotated 90 degrees on the retroreflected outgoing beam so that it can be selectively split using a polarization-selective element (not shown) for readout after the polarization-maintaining (PM) fiber.

[0092] Sensor 100 as depicted in FIG. 1 may offer several advantages over other implementations of vapor cell EIT prior to the present invention. First, the linear, single-sided design allows for a compact, low-profile probe tip and sensor element with a small dielectric footprint. This design also eliminates the need for any optical elements to redirect the optical beam out of the fiber and into the cell. Compared to typical implementations of vapor cell EIT, utilizing a single lens for input and output coupling of a larger beam diameter may advantageously improve measurement accuracy and sensitivity by providing not only less interaction time spread and therefore higher achievable spectral resolution, but also improved operational stability by reducing device sensitivity to misalignment by back-coupling the readout probe beam into the same fiber.

[0093] FIG. 2A illustrates a pen-like recursive EIT configuration 100 of FIG. 1, generally designated by the numeral 200. 87 Figure 2 shows the EIT spectrum of the 30D Rydberg state of Rb. The one-sided EIT configuration may be referred to herein as the "recursive EIT configuration." Splitting of the fine structure feature 204 is evident. Internal reflection of the coupler beam 104 from the inner cell wall leads to a replicated EIT spectrum 202. The spectrum is obtained without lock-in detection of the signal on a Si photodiode.

[0094] The replica spectrum 202 is blue-shifted from the primary EIT line 200 by an amount equal to the frequency detuning of the probe beam 103 for atoms with velocity v=0 at the center of the Doppler profile. Replica spectra due to internal reflections within the vapor cell are commonly observed in vapor cell EIT experiments. These can be avoided by placing the cell at an angle from normal incidence of the EIT beam or by having the cell window at an angle to the incident optical beam.

[0095] 2B shows an embodiment of a sensing element, generally designated by the numeral 230, that is coupled to a fiber on one side through a rubidium vapor capsule 232. In accordance with another embodiment of the present invention, an implementation of the sensing element involves a first prism 212 and a second prism 214 that redirect a fiber-coupled pump beam 216 on one side and a fiber-coupled probe beam 218 on the other side into the vapor capsule 232. Prisms 212 and 214 combine into separate fiber-guided beams 216 and 218 by lens 235.

[0096] According to other embodiments of the present invention, the one-sided optically coupled vapor cell RF / microwave sensing elements may be expanded into multi-sensor arrays, with one-sided coupling of the array of cells achieved using a large single beam for the coupler and probe that collectively impinge on a microarray lens. One such embodiment is now described with reference to FIG. 3. Again, the single-sided entrance of the coupler 104 and probe 103 beams allows for high-density packing of single elements within the array, leaving the active measurement volume / surface unobstructed to the incident RF / microwave radiation to be measured or imaged. For lower density arrays, grids of individual one-sided elements, such as those shown in FIGS. 1 and 3, may be employed within the scope of the present invention.

[0097] FIG. 3 shows a microwave imaging array, generally designated by the numeral 300. The microwave imaging array 300 consists of a single-sided coupling of individual vapor cell sensor elements 302 arranged in a linear or areal (two-dimensional) array. The optical coupler 304 and probe 306 EIT beams are split from each other using a dichroic mirror 308. The laser-beam array 310 is derived from a large-diameter laser beam 312 passed through an array of microlenses (ML array) 314. Microlens arrays are commercially available. The laser beam array is matched with a planar array of subcells 316 containing atomic vapor (layer thickness a fraction of the RF wavelength of interest, with a subcell period of less than 1 mm). A dielectric coating 318 on the vapor cell array reflects the 780-nm probe laser beam and transmits the 480-nm coupler and microwave fields. The probe beam image reflected by the polarizing beam splitter contains microwave information. This is recorded using a CCD camera 320 and analyzed with an image processor 322. A polarizing beam splitter (PBS) 324 is also shown. Cavity-enhanced field sensitivity

[0098] A hybrid atomic detector concept is now presented for RF detection, in which an atomic Rydberg vapor, as defined above, is integrated with a different resonant material or structure to tailor the RF field of interest. A hybrid atomic detector according to the present invention can advantageously achieve detection capabilities.

[0099] The near-field effect is well known to generate regions of enhanced electric fields. The aforementioned concept of a hybrid atomic detector, described for the first time in accordance with the present invention, may be advantageously used, for example, in plasmon resonances within nanoparticles. One embodiment of a hybrid atomic detector according to the present invention employs a split-ring resonator. A simple near-field field enhancement device is a subwavelength diameter metal tip. The tip enhances the RF electric field, similar to a lightning rod enhancing the electric field in the vicinity of a rod in a thunderstorm. Figure 4A shows the calculation of the RF field enhancement factor along the axis of a 125 μm diameter tip 401 for several frequencies. The illustration and plot show that a simple structure such as a metal tip integrated into an atomic vapor cell can enhance the field by a factor of about 3, corresponding to an intensity of 9.5 dB. For enhancement, it is important that the tip diameter exceeds the skin depth depicted in Figure 4B, which for the examples of interest (Cr, beryllium copper, etc.) is about 1 μm in the 10-100 GHz range (and 1 / frequency 0.5 It follows that hybrid devices, such as metal tips embedded in atomic vapor cells, enhance the field sensitivity via local near-field enhancement.

[0100] Cavity structures that resonate with the RF field provide another means for local field enhancement. Cavity structures can easily provide additional control over RF field parameters, such as RF field polarization and frequency. Within the scope of the present invention, cavities can be engineered to reduce field inhomogeneities within the atomic RF field interaction volume, which may be desirable in some applications and is difficult to achieve when utilizing near-field effects with tip-like structures.

[0101] A novel concept of a hybrid atomic cavity structure employed for Rydberg-EIT sensing is now described with reference to FIGS. 5A and 5B , which show an exemplary type of hybrid atomic cavity structure, generally designated by the numeral 500, and its operating principle for RF field enhancement. Structure 500 consists of two solid metal frames 502, which may also be referred to herein as “electrodes,” separated by a gap 504 in front of a rubidium vapor cell 506. Referring to FIG. 5B , gap 504 between the two metal frames 502 forms a cavity 510 that resonantly couples to an impinging RF field 508 and locally compresses a corresponding RF electric field 512 within the cavity volume. The word “cavity” is used herein in a general sense to refer to any structure that imposes any kind of boundary condition on the solution of Maxwell's equations over a defined volume of space. A “cavity” may also be interchangeably referred to herein as a “resonator” or “resonant structure.”

[0102] The Rydberg atomic vapor inner cavity 510 is optically interrogated for measurement of the field 512. Figure 6 shows a calculation of the field enhancement provided by the hybrid atomic-cavity structure 500 shown and described with reference to Figure 5A and Figures 7A-7D, with conventional machined electrodes inside the rubidium vapor cell. The structure 500 has a gap size of 460 μm, which locally enhances the electric field 512 of a 4 GHz microwave linearly polarized along Y (vertical direction in Figure 5B) by approximately 10 times, corresponding to an intensity of 20 dB, within the gap 504. With an EIT laser beam waist in the range of 50-100 microns, the enhanced electric field remains highly homogeneous within the active measurement volume inside the measurement channel with dimensions of approximately 0.46 x 0.5 x 9 mm. The 9 mm long "cavity channel" (a term used herein synonymously with both "gap" and "cavity") provides a sufficiently long interaction volume for higher optical absorption during measurements and also advantageously provides an improved signal-to-noise ratio in the EIT spectra.

[0103] A hybrid atomic resonator device according to one embodiment of the present invention, generally designated by the numeral 700, will now be described with reference to FIGS. 7A-7D. The perspective view shown in FIG. 7A highlights a spectroscopic cell 702 (alternatively referred to as an "atomic vapor capsule" of "vapor capsule") with internal structure corresponding to a Stark tuner / compressor 704. FIG. 7B is a top view of the hybrid atomic resonator device 700. The side view in FIG. 7C shows a top electrode 706 and a bottom electrode 707, separated by a spacer 708 and forming a gap 710, also referred to as a "cavity." The perspective view of the hybrid atomic resonator device 700 depicted in FIG. 7D shows electrode wire leads 712 coupled into the vapor capsule 702 via electrode connections 714.

[0104] To demonstrate field enhancement using a hybrid atomic cavity device for sensitive atom-based RF field measurements, the hybrid atomic resonator device 700 of Figures 7A-7D can be deployed in the experimental setup shown in Figure 8A. The RF field within the cavity 710 85 Rydberg-EIT is used as a highly efficient, non-destructive optical probe of field-induced level shifts of high-lying Rydberg states of Rb atoms. The relevant rubidium Rydberg-EIT energy level diagram is shown in the inset of FIG. 8B. Two laser beams with λ = 780 nm (720) and 480 nm (722) are counter-propagating and overlapped through the center of cavity 710 as illustrated in FIGS. 5B and 8A. In an exemplary embodiment of the invention, 780 nm beam 720 is focused to a half-width of 70 microns at the center of cell 702 and has a power of 8 μW, while 480 nm beam 722 is focused to a half-width of 70 microns and has a power of 40 mW. Rydberg-EIT spectroscopy is performed while the frequency of the 480 nm laser is linearly scanned across selected Rydberg levels at a repetition rate of several Hz. 85 Rb5S 1 / 2 (F=3)~5P 3 / 2This is performed by monitoring the 780 nm transmission through the vapor using a laser frequency stabilized to the (F = 4) transition. An optical frequency reference is derived from the 480 nm laser beam 720 to calibrate the Rydberg-EIT spectrum.

[0105] For improved signal-to-noise ratio in EIT spectra, modulation spectroscopy may be implemented according to certain embodiments of the present invention. As used herein, modulation encompasses any of frequency, amplitude, and step modulation, or a combination thereof. For example, the 480 nm beam 720 may be amplitude modulated with approximately 20 kHz square pulses at a 50 / 50 duty cycle, and the 780 nm signal 730 derived by detecting the 780 nm beam with a photodetector 732 may be demodulated, for example, using a lock-in amplifier (not shown). The hybrid atomic cavity structure 700 is maintained at an ambient temperature of approximately 45°C for increased rubidium vapor density and 780 nm absorption. The two electrodes 706 and 707 forming the cavity 710 are both electrically coupled to ground outside the cell 702. In one embodiment, the RF field is generated using a signal generator and amplified by a 20 dB feed into a WR229 open-ended waveguide (2.577-5.154 GHz) 735 (also referred to herein as the "guide"). The measurement channel / cavity 710, through which the Rydberg-EIT laser beams 720, 722 pass, is placed approximately 1 cm from the front of the guide 735. In the embodiment shown, the RF and optical beams are linearly polarized, with the polarizations oriented parallel along the short axis (Y) of the cavity 710.

[0106] FIG. 9A shows the relative 31S Rydberg-EIT spectral line shifts as a function of RF / microwave frequency for a fixed −10 dBm of injected microwave power. The Rydberg levels are chosen so that, for the 2.5-5.2 GHz microwave frequency range covered in the experiment, the applied microwave is far-resonant from any Rydberg transition and the 31S state exhibits an AC-Stark shift proportional to the microwave field amplitude. At the far left of the plot shown in Figure 9A, the laser frequency axis is centered on the 31S line for the applied 2.5-GHz microwave field. As the microwave frequency increases, the 31S level begins to shift substantially from approximately 3.5 GHz to 4.35 GHz (4.37 + / - 0.01 GHz in a higher-resolution scan not shown here). Other features are also evident in the spectrum, including a prominent resonance at 4.85 GHz. Multiple resonances are not expected from this device due to the complexity of the bulk cavity structure (e.g., three holes 740 (shown in Figure 7B)), which contains alumina rods for electrode / cavity matching and long electrode wires 712 on the backside of each electrode 706, 707.

[0107] FIG. 9B shows the applied root mean square (RMS) electric field E RMS Regarding 31S 1 / 2 Figure 9C plots the calculated Stark map centered on the Rydberg state, obtained using Figures 9A and 9B. RMS 9B plots the EIT lines versus frequency, while FIG. 9D plots the measured EIT lines for 2.5 (trace 902) and 4.35 GHz (trace 904) microwaves, respectively.

[0108] The examples discussed herein illustrate the suitability, as a matter of design choice by those skilled in the art, of hybrid device geometry for high electric field measurement sensitivity at desired application-specific RF / microwave frequencies. In this example, the microwave electric field amplitude is obtained by fitting the spectroscopically measured microwave-induced AC Stark shift lines to a Gaussian function and converting the peak frequency shift to an electric field value using the calculated Stark shift of the rubidium 31S Rydberg state. Figure 9B shows the field-free 31S with respect to the applied electric field. 1 / 2 Figure 9C shows the calculated Stark map centered on the Rydberg state. Figure 9C shows the resulting microwave electric field measured inside the cavity as a function of microwave frequency. At the 4.35 + / - 0.05 GHz resonance, the cavity-enhanced microwave field E RMS >=13.5 V / cm was measured with a relative uncertainty of <0.3 V / cm given by the <0.1 MHz fit uncertainty of the peak position.

[0109] In Figure 9A, the EIT linewidth increases from 21.7 MHz at 2.5 GHz to 84.0 MHz at 4.35 GHz (see also Figure 9D). This increase is due to field inhomogeneities within the measurement volume, which arise because the EIT beams 720, 722 and the cavity channel 710 are comparable in size and near-field effects at the cavity edges are sampled by the optical beam. Edges and corners at the ends of the 9 mm-long cavity channel 710, where the EIT beam enters and exits the cavity within the atomic vapor, may also contribute. For measurement applications requiring narrower spectral linewidths, the inhomogeneous field broadening can be mitigated by implementing a cavity structure with a larger cavity volume and / or by using a smaller beam size for more spatially localized measurements.

[0110] To estimate the cavity enhancement factor for the electric field, the cavity-enhanced 4.35 GHz field measurements described above with reference to FIGS. 9A-9D can be compared to the field measured outside the cavity 710. To do this, the EIT beams 720, 722 are moved Δz=−0.9 mm from the center of the cavity 710 toward the front of the vapor cell 702 and waveguide 735. To obtain a measurable line shift at this position outside the cavity, the injected microwave power is increased from −10 to −5 dBm. This is 3.16 times higher in power (and 1.78 times higher in field) compared to that used in the discussion of FIGS. 9A-9D. Under these conditions, E RMS A 4.35 GHz microwave field-induced AC-Stark shift of -3.80 MHz is measured, corresponding to =1.47 V / cm. Using this value for the RF field outside the cavity, taking into account the increased injection power, and neglecting changes in the field emitted from the waveguide over small Δz (|Δz| / d=0.03<<1, where |Δz|=0.9 mm is the beam position relative to the cavity and d=29.1 mm is the minor axis of the waveguide), this corresponds to a 24 dB increase in sensitivity. [ka] The cavity field enhancement factor of is obtained.

[0111] A simulation simulating the field inside the hybrid atomic cavity structure for an incident 4.37 GHz microwave field with an amplitude of 1 V / m linearly polarized along y is discussed below with reference to FIG. 12. The simulation yields an enhancement factor of 18.6, which is about 14% higher than the value measured for the 4.35 GHz field. The difference can be explained by the 0.02 GHz difference in frequency between the measured and simulated fields. The simulation does not consider microwave losses due to the dielectric cell 702, which depend on the exact cell geometry, including wall dimensions and material dielectric constants, for the microwave frequency of interest.

[0112] In a complementary implementation of a hybrid device, instead of inserting the resonant structure 510 into a cell containing atomic vapor, the atomic vapor may also be incorporated into the resonant structure within the scope of the present invention. This may be desirable, for example, in applications where atomic measurements need to be incorporated into existing RF systems (horn receivers, waveguides, etc.) for absolute RF power and field equalization. As an example, in the sensing element 100 discussed with reference to FIG. 1, a similar narrow dielectric capsule 232 containing atomic vapor may be incorporated into the measurement channel 710 of the resonant structure 510, such as those shown in FIGS. 5A-5B or 7A-7D. Within the scope of the present invention, the resonant structure 510 may be any type of RF resonator or component.

[0113] Another implementation within the scope of the present invention, having a vapor cell 1002 inside a waveguide 1004, will now be described with reference to FIGS. 10A and 10B, which show side and end views, respectively, of a field measurement system, generally designated by the numeral 1000. A hole 1006 in the waveguide 1004 provides passage for an EIT coupler 1008 and a probe 1010 beam. This system has been used for high-intensity field measurements inside a waveguide. Such hybrid systems can be advantageously inserted into existing RF circuits for absolute power equalization throughout the circuit. As examples, hybrid devices incorporating atomic vapor within horns, diodes, waveguide structures, or coaxial cables provide versatile, compact internal modules for measurement, calibration, or power equalization, etc., in microwave sources, transmission systems, and other instruments in terrestrial, maritime, air, and space-based applications.

[0114] The absolute sensitivity achievable using the hybrid atomic resonator device 700 as described herein can be tailored and further increased by implementing Rydberg levels with higher principal and / or orbital quantum numbers and Rydberg states resonantly coupled to the cavity-enhanced RF field, all within the design capabilities of one skilled in the art. All such enhancements are within the scope of the present invention. Field enhancement and sensitivity may be further customized by engineering the hybrid device, for example, with resonant structures other than those previously described and with modules and metamaterials known in the art or discovered in the future. Complementary implementations, also within the scope of the present invention, in which atomic vapors are incorporated into the resonant structures may be of particular advantage when integrating atomic measurement capabilities into existing RF systems (horn receivers, waveguides, etc.) and DC circuits / components. Polarization selectivity in hybrid systems

[0115] Another feature of hybrid devices such as the one described above is their ability to distinguish between different RF / microwave polarizations and achieve polarization-sensitive atom-based field measurements. For the cavity structures shown in Figures 5A-5B7A-7D, cavity 710 acts as an RF polarization filter, such that only RF fields with a linear polarization component along the cavity axis Y are coupled into the cavity and field-enhanced within the active measurement volume.

[0116] Figure 11A shows the experimental 31S Rydberg AC-Stark shift as a function of applied microwave frequency at fixed injection power for different angular positions Θ of the microwave field polarization vector relative to the vertical (Y-axis). 0 Step by step, Θ=0 0 (minor axis of the waveguide along Y) to 90 0 This is done by rotating the waveguide 735 (shown in FIG. 8A) counterclockwise about the Z axis in the XY-plane by Θ=0 degrees (the minor axis of the waveguide along X). 0, the microwave polarization is aligned with the cavity axis of cavity 710 for maximum coupling into the cavity, as is evident from curve 1102 shown in FIG. 11A. As Θ increases, the signal becomes linear with the microwave field parallel to the cavity axis (Θ=0 0 ) component decreases. Figure 10B plots the microwave electric field at 4.35 GHz as a function of Θ for the data shown in Figure 10A (obtained from the 31S line shift and calculated Stark maps as described above). As Θ increases, the field decreases due to the Θ=0 component of the microwave field vector. 0 The cosine fit to the data, given by the dashed curve 1110 in FIG. 10B, confirms this prediction, but the 4.35 GHz field inside the cavity decreases as Θ=90°C due to some electrode mismatch and cavity imperfections such as surface quality. 0 The power of a linearly polarized resonant electromagnetic wave coupled into the resonator and detected by atoms in the resonator gap is cos 2 It follows that the cavity resonator has a Θ dependence (Θ is the microwave polarization angle as defined above). It can therefore be seen that such a cavity resonator mimics the functionality of an integrated microwave polarizer. DC field tuning capability using an electrode-integrated vapor cell

[0117] A major limitation of weak RF-field Rydberg-atom-based measurements is that they generally require the RF field to resonate with a dipole-allowed Rydberg transition, resulting in a large electric dipole moment and a strong atomic response to the electric field. As a result, weak-field measurements can only be performed for a discrete set of RF frequencies that resonate with one of a finite number of discrete transitions within a given atom. To overcome this limitation, it is desirable to use an external field to tune atomic-level energies and transitions to resonate or near-resonate with the RF field of interest, resulting in sufficient atomic sensitivity for the measurement. The hybrid atomic resonator proposed for the first time in accordance with the present invention provides a practical means for applying a local field to atoms using the cavity / antenna / electrode structure itself for this purpose.

[0118] Using the hybrid atomic resonator 700 described above, according to a further embodiment of the present invention, the same electrodes described above in the context of RF field enhancement are used, simultaneously or separately, to apply a DC electric field and Stark tune the Rydberg transition frequency to resonate with a weak RF field. Figures 13A and 13B show experimental and calculated DC Stark maps, respectively, of a 30D Rydberg state with an applied DC electric field. Note that the Stark maps are symmetric about the zero field. The experimental spectral map in Figure 13A is obtained using a cavity by grounding one electrode, applying a voltage on the other electrode, and generating a DC field within the measurement channel 710 (shown in Figure 5B). The map in Figure 13A shows both the three |mj|=0.5, 1.5, and 2.5 sublevels of the j=2.5 fine structure component and the |mj|=0.5 and 1.5 sublevels of the j=1.5 fine structure component. In zero-field and a linearly polarized optical beam, the rubidium EIT ladder scheme illustrated in Figure 5B optically excites the |mj|=0.5 and 1.5 Rydberg sublevels due to m-mixing by the 5P3 / 2 hyperfine structure. The appearance of the weak j=2.5, i.e., |mj|=2.5 Rydberg level in the experimental spectrum may be due to a slight mismatch or ellipticity of the optical-beam polarization.

[0119] 13A and 13B provide a demonstration of tuning Rydberg levels and transitions using DC electric fields within hybrid atomic cavities or similar structures with electrodes integrated with atomic vapors or gases. 5 / 2 and 30D 3 / 2 A two-RF photon transition between the mj=1.5 levels can be considered. With an applied electric field of 0 V / cm, this corresponds to a transition that is resonant at about 540 MHz and is dipole-allowed in the second order using two about 270 MHz RF photons. With an electric field of + / -10 V / cm, the energy difference between the states increases to about h*700 MHz (h is the Planck constant in appropriate units), and the transition is dipole-allowed using two about 350 MHz RF photons. By applying a DC field of 0 to + / -10 V / cm, the transition can be continuously tuned to resonate with RF photons from about 270 to 350 MHz. The range of tunability can be extended within the scope of the present invention, for example, by using higher field values, different atomic states with different polarization ratios and electric dipole moments, and multiphoton excitation processes. AC-Stark tuning using external electrodes

[0120] Continuous frequency measurements of weak Ka-band microwave fields can similarly be performed by AC-Stark tuning the Rydberg transition using low-frequency RF, both applied using internal or external tuning electrodes as described above. In one embodiment of the present invention, an AC-Stark tuning 100 MHz RF field is applied to the vapor cell using external electrodes to Stark tune the transition from a RF-field-free transition to off-resonance with the microwave. Figure 14 shows calculated Floquet spectral maps for both the 47S state (1401) and the 47P state (1403) modulated by a 100 MHz RF field. The 47S and 47P maps are overlaid and referenced to the same zero-field frequency, showing the RF-induced differential shift of the 47S1 / 2 to 47P3 / 2 transitions. Thus, with an applied 100 MHz RF field between 0 and 200 V / cm, the resonant microwave transition can be expected to be continuously downtuned by approximately 200 MHz.

[0121] The RF intensity and electric field calibration in the 47S state is shown in Figure 15, mapping incident RF power to the shift of the 47S state at different Stark detunings of the pump beam. The experimental and calculated maps are in good agreement, with a dBI / dBm conversion of dBI = dBm + 50.5 and I = I0 * 10. dBI / 10 =1 / 2εcE0 2 (In the formula, I0=1W / m 2 where ε is the free space permittivity and c is the speed of light). The calibration in FIG. 15 then yields an electric (E) field calibration using K a A bandpass microwave is employed to set the RF electric field tuned to the resonance for the desired differential shift of the 47S to 47P transition (curve 1405 in FIG. 14).

[0122] Pseudocrossings are reported, for example, in "Stark-induced L-mixing interferences in ultracold cesium Rydberg atoms" by Zhang et al. Phys.Rev.A, vol. 87, pp. 333-3405 (2013), has been used in the interpretation of the electric-field-induced l-mixing population in the high l state. Figure 16 shows the measured EIT spectra of the 47S state at a fixed -14 dBI microwave intensity (separate calibration) versus microwave frequency detuning from 37.51663492 GHz (RF-free transition frequency) for four different injected RF powers / field strengths in the cell. With no RF applied (top plot in Figure 16), the 47S line exhibits the expected Autler-Townes behavior as the microwave frequency is scanned across the RF-field-free resonant transition. The pseudo-crossing is centered at 0 MHz detuning, and the Autler-Townes splitting peaks split symmetrically. As the RF power / field is increased (bottom plot in the figure), the pseudo-crossing shifts to larger microwave detunings, tracking the AC-Stark tuning transition frequency. At -38.2 dBm RF application (bottom plot in Figure 16), the microwave resonates with a transition at about 60 MHz detuning.

[0123] In Figure 17, the measured pseudo-crossing center is plotted as a function of applied RF field for a range of values ​​up to approximately 200 V / cm. The uncertainty bar is set to the approximate EIT linewidth of ±10 MHz. The calculated differential shift shown in Figure 14 is again plotted here by curve 1701 for comparison with the experimental shift. The agreement between experiment and calculation is good over nearly the entire range, and the measured AC-Stark shift exhibits the expected quadratic dependence on the applied RF field. At the highest RF fields, coupling between the modulation sidebands of the 47S and 47P states, along with variations in atomic microwave field coupling strength, makes it difficult to determine the pseudo-crossing center in the spectrum under certain experimental conditions (large optical Rabi frequency and EIT linewidth), leading to deviations between the plotted measured and calculated values. Continuous AC-Stark tuning beyond the approximately 200 MHz microwave detuning measured here is considered possible, and transitions between the modulation sidebands and other Floquet states in strong fields may also be used.

[0124] It is to be understood that within the scope of the present invention, AC-Stark tuning may also be used with electrodes within the sensing element but external to the vapor cell for continuous frequency microwave electric field measurements. Integrated Split Ring Resonator

[0125] One example of a field tuning structure within the scope of the present invention is provided by a split-ring resonator 1801, described with reference to Figures 18A-18D. The split-ring resonator 1801 is a simple resonant structure commonly used for metamaterials in the microwave, mm-wave, and THz regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Split-ring field amplifiers share conceptual similarities with the plasmon resonances of microspheres used in the optical and infrared spectral ranges for spectroscopy and light harvesting applications. In atom-based RF electric field sensing applications, atomic vapor cells within quantum RF sensing elements with integrated split-ring structures engineered to achieve low-noise field amplification, high sensitivity, and polarization selectivity constitute another embodiment of an atomic cavity structure for advanced sensing capabilities.

[0126] Figure 18A illustrates the structure of one basic type of split-ring structure: a tubular ring with a single slit. At resonance, the electric field of the incident mm-wave field 1803 becomes compressed at the slit (or "gap") 1805. The gap 1805 also defines the measurement channel 710, where the atomic vapor is optically probed for measurement of the amplified field. This principle of operation is illustrated in Figure 18b for a slit / gap with 1 x 0.2 x 0.2 mm dimensions for the split ring shown in the inset and a vertically polarized microwave field incident on the cavity from the right. In Figure 18a, simulated electric field values ​​inside the slit of this resonator type are plotted as a function of incident microwave field frequency (fixed 1 V / m incident field amplitude) for three different gap sizes and geometries. These split rings exhibit resonances at 14, 44, and 54 GHz, with field amplification factors of 46.8×, 74.1×, and 27.3×, respectively. The resonant frequencies are engineered using simple geometric parameters of the split rings. In Figures 18C and 18D, simulated resonance behaviors of other split ring resonator structures, including a square tubular structure, are plotted, which provide amplification at 42.5, 125, and 94 GHz, with individual amplification factors of 81.9×, 12.5×, and 9.4×. These amplification factors correspond to intrinsic non-electronic gains ranging from approximately 20 dB to 35 dB. Using 1 mV / m as an upper limit for target field measurement sensitivity without amplification, a hybrid device yielding 81.9× field amplification of 42.5 GHz microwaves can achieve effective sensitivity at the 0.01 mV / m level (with respect to the incident field).

[0127] Other split ring resonator structures as well as other types of resonators, such as concentric high Q microwave cavities, applied to field enhancement in vapor cells are also within the scope of the present invention. Non-contact optical heating of vapor cells for temperature stabilization.

[0128] Contactless all-optical vapor cell heating, described herein with reference to Figures 19A-19C, can be an essential component as an active vapor pressure control system for Rydberg RF sensors and hybrid devices, where temperature control hardware (electronics, metal wires) must not alter the detector's RF field response. According to embodiments of the present invention, one or more optically absorbing materials are incorporated into the cell. The optically absorbing material heats via absorption or inelastic scattering of the incident light beam, which in turn heats the atomic vapor (or solid metal) within the cell for higher atomic vapor density. The atoms may be heated indirectly by an optically absorbing material element in conductive thermal contact with the optically heated element or in thermal contact with the vapor enclosure, for example, by using a cell constructed from IR-absorbing glass.

[0129] In addition to heating, it is important to stabilize the cell temperature during operation. This can be important when measurements are performed in an environment where the external air temperature can significantly alter the cell temperature. This is particularly a concern when using small cells (approximately mm or less), whose atomic temperature and density are more susceptible to environmental temperature fluctuations due to their smaller volume. To address this, active stabilization may be implemented within the scope of the present invention by actively monitoring changes in atomic vapor temperature or density via optical absorption through the cell of a second laser beam resonant with the atomic transition. This absorption signal provides active feedback on the amount of optical heating power required to reach the desired temperature and density. Furthermore, the cell can be thermally insulated from its environment, for example, by incorporating an insulating vacuum layer between the optically heated cell and the environment.

[0130] Referring to Figures 19A-19C, according to the all-optical vapor cell heating method integrated into the Rydberg RF sensor, an IR-absorbing glass capsule is illuminated by a bright light source to increase the internal temperature where the atomic vapor cell is located. Figures 19A and 19B show an IR-glass capsule 1901 enclosing a 4 mm inner diameter atomic vapor cell 1903. Figure 19C shows an all-optical heating test platform. A light source 1905, such as a 50-watt halogen bulb, is imaged on the capsule, and the temperature of the IR glass capsule 1901 is monitored using a temperature sensor, such as a thermistor (not shown), placed within the IR glass capsule volume. A feedback loop between the thermistor and the light source intensity is implemented to regulate the temperature inside the capsule and provide a stabilized operating temperature for uniform heating of the atomic vapor cell. A steady-state temperature of up to 130°C, uniformly distributed within the capsule, is achieved in one embodiment. Active temperature stabilization of the capsule temperature at 50°C (a typical operating temperature when using a small 4mm inner diameter Rb cell) has also been achieved. RF phase measurement capabilities using modulated laser fields.

[0131] A method for employing sensing elements to extract the phase of an RF field is now described. According to embodiments of the present invention, phase-sensitive recording of coherent electromagnetic fields on a surface can advantageously enable reconstruction of the field in all space. Applications of this reconstruction principle are abundant and include holography in optics, radar based on interferometric schemes such as SAR and InSAR, and far-field characterization of antenna radiation patterns based on near-field measurements of the amplitude and phase of the field emitted by the antenna under test. In the last listed application, measurements are performed on the surface, and a near-field / far-field transformation is applied to calculate the field in all space.

[0132] To achieve phase sensitivity in field measurements, holographic methods are typically employed, in which a reference wave interferes with the wave emitted by the object. In this case, the object is considered to be an antenna under test, emitting an RF field that needs to be fully characterized. The reference wave, with a well-defined amplitude and phase, is preferably a planar RF field that interferes with the object wave in an atomic vapor cell or hybrid atomic cavity cell structure. Here, the cell is fabricated so that the atomic field interaction volume measures less than one RF wavelength across in any given direction. The atomic field interaction volume is given by the overlap between the atomic vapor, the probe laser beam, and the coupler laser beam. The magnitude of the coherent electric field sum of the object and reference mm-wave or microwave fields is then measured using well-established methods.

[0133] The measured magnitude depends on the phase difference between the reference and object waves. In principle, such readings can be obtained on the surface surrounding the object. This can be achieved, for example, by moving the vapor cell sensor unit over a suitable grid with a spatial resolution much smaller than the RF wavelength. The phase-sensitive electric field values ​​measured over the grid then allow for a full three-dimensional reconstruction of the object wave. To obtain the far-field distance of the antenna under test, known algorithms for near-field / far-field conversion can be used. This measurement method can easily be extended to include full polarization sensitivity for electric field vectors utilizing hybrid atomic cavity structures (see above) or other spectroscopic techniques.

[0134] In RF field phase measurements, generating a well-characterized reference wave presents a major challenge. For comparison, we first consider optical holography, where the reference wave is typically an expanded, nearly perfect, plane-wave laser beam interfering with scattering objects within a layer of photographic emulsion (or equivalent material). It is well known that the purity of the reference wave is important in optical holography. The system should be primarily free of diffraction rings caused by dust particles and other imperfections. Spurious reflections of the reference wave from smooth glass surfaces are an even greater problem. In the context of RF measurements, this condition is very difficult to encounter, even when using state-of-the-art anechoic chambers. For quantitative studies, it will also be important that the reference wave have a fixed amplitude, or at least a known, slowly varying amplitude function. Preparing a defect-free RF reference wave with smooth amplitude behavior over a large surface presents a major challenge and is not always possible.

[0135] FIG. 20A diagrammatically depicts the sensing element back end, generally designated by the numeral 2000, and the operating principle for phase-sensitive measurement of RF electric fields, according to one embodiment of the present invention. Microwave horn 2002 (MW) represents an optional antenna under test or other object of interest. Driven by RF source 2006, fiber modulator 2004 phase-coherently transfers an RF reference beat onto coupler beam 104, which is transmitted to atoms in vapor cell 106. The RF reference beat replaces the reference beam typically required in phase-sensitive (holographic) field measurements. Vapor cell 106 in the atom-based RF sensing element measures approximately 1 mm and is fiber-coupled to 780 nm and 480 nm laser beams. One-sided fiber-coupled sensing element 100 is mounted on a sensor stick (not shown) with a minimal dielectric profile. The sensing element and stick are the only parts of the detector actually within the RF field. The fiber modulator and optical phase control element are integrated with a remote sensor control station (not shown) external to the sensing element 100, which includes the laser, signal readout electronics, and a computing unit for analysis. Figure 20B depicts the quantum mechanical level scheme and optical / RF excitation pathway used in phase-sensitive RF electric field measurements.

[0136] To address these practical measurement needs, a solution is integrated into atom-based RF sensing elements and measurements. The principle of operation is to transfer a phase-coherent RF reference onto an optically coupled laser beam via electro-optic modulation techniques. Using a commercially available fiber-optic high-frequency modulator, the coupler beam is modulated at the same frequency ω as the frequency of the RF field to be measured. RF In one implementation, the field frequency is chosen to be equal to half the separation between two nearby S-type Rydberg levels. The level energies and their separations are known to a very high degree of accuracy. There are many options for such transitions. Furthermore, the carrier frequency of the coupler laser beam 104 is chosen to be equal to half the separation between the S-type Rydberg levels nP 3 / 2The Rydberg nP level is tuned to resonate with the transition 2010 to the S Rydberg level. The Rydberg nP level is not midway between the two S Rydberg levels, leading to a detuning Δ of the modulation coupler frequency 2012 from the S state resonance. For rubidium, these detunings are approximately 100 MHz, typically greater than the Rabi frequency of either of the transitions involved. Thus, the two-photon Rabi frequency, which accounts for the 5P to nP transition via absorption of one coupled laser photon as well as absorption of an RF photon (channel B in FIG. 20B) or stimulated emission (channel A in FIG. 20B), is given by: [ka]

[0137] There, [ka] and [ka] is the Rabi frequency of the optical coupler laser transition to the S Rydberg level, [ka] is the S Rydberg level to nP 3 / 2 is the Rabi frequency of the RF transition to a Rydberg level, [ka] is the phase of the RF field, and [ka] and [ka] is the phase of the modulation sidebands of the coupled laser. [ka] Note that there is an important difference in the sign before . Furthermore, the RF field amplitude E RF teeth, [ka] Therefore, [ka] Included within the formula: [ka] is the well-known RF electric dipole transition matrix element for the RF Rydberg / Rydberg transition. The net coupling between the 5P and nP Rydberg states is [ka] is then given by the coherent sum of channels A and B in FIG. 20B. [ka] During the ceremony, for convenience, [ka] and [ka] are assumed to be identical and both RF Rabi frequencies are identical (to a good approximation). These assumptions are not critical, but they help clarify the mathematics. [ka] and [ka] is well-defined and less susceptible to drift because all frequency components of the modulated combined laser beam follow the exact same geometric path. A useful optical component is a four-prism phase control element or equivalent in the modulated coupler laser beam to control the optical phase. [ka] and [ka] From the previous equations, it can be seen that the net coupling takes the form [ka] During the ceremony, [ka] is the (complex) phase-independent pre-factor, and Φ is the offset phase that can be adjusted using the dispersion control element 2003 in the coupler beam (in FIG. 20A this is done by shifting the prism unit 2005 left / right). The intensity of the Rydberg-EIT lines observed in the spectrum is generally [ka] Since the EIT line intensity is proportional to [ka] The EIT line intensity therefore carries phase information about the RF field. Note that the 5P to nP transition is forbidden. Therefore, the coupler beam carrier (light blue line in Figure 24b) does not introduce an additional term into the analysis. In the more general case, such a term can, of course, be included. Furthermore, the prefactor [ka] The magnitude of can be determined by finding the peak EIT line intensity while varying Φ along with the dispersion control element in the coupler beam. [ka] The peak value obtained for is then [ka] This in turn gives the magnitude of the RF electric field. RF and [ka] Both can be measured.

[0138] In this description, RF field phase (and amplitude) measurement capability is accomplished by introducing an RF reference wave via optical frequency modulation. The novelty of this approach lies in eliminating the need for an external RF reference wave by replacing it with optical modulation of a laser beam applied directly to the atoms within the quantum RF sensing element. In fact, a reference wave can also be introduced at the location of the sensing atoms within the atom-based RF sensing element using cell-integrated electrodes or cavity structures (hybrid systems) as illustrated in Figures 5A and 5B, or by using an external reference wave. Modulated RF detection in an atomic vapor cell

[0139] For telecommunications applications, the detection of a modulated RF field is desired. Due to an EIT response time of <100 ns, the amplitude and frequency modulation of a high-frequency field can be detected directly, without relying on quantum interference, using an atom-based sensing element as an RF / optical converter. Similarly, RF phase modulation detection is obtained from the phase detection capabilities described above. A typical scenario is described below.

[0140] AM modulation at acoustic frequencies : Most Rydberg states in the Floquet map at any carrier frequency from about 100 MHz to several 100 GHz exhibit differential dynamic dipole moments with magnitudes extending over thousands of devices. The EIT lines on the map have linewidths given by the coupler and probe Rabi frequencies. For modulation purposes, moderate probe and large coupler Rabi frequencies may be used to maintain a fast EIT response time for AM and broaden the EIT line up to several 10 MHz. When a carrier RF is applied to the EIT test cell and an operating point of the coupler laser frequency is selected on one of the inflection points of the Rydberg-EIT line, the AM of the RF signal will lead to a direct response in the photodiode reading of the EIT sensing element. For the differential dipole moment d, the AM depth dE in the field must be dE < h×dL / d, where dL is the EIT linewidth. Thus, the relative modulation depth is dE / E < h×dL / (Ed). This value can range from several 10% to 1% depending on the exact conditions and sensitivity requirements.

[0141] According to one embodiment of the present invention, a microphone, linear amplifier, and voltage-controlled RF attenuator may be used to convert the EIT test signal into an acoustic signal and produce an AM-modulated RF test field. The EIT test signal is transmitted using an antenna or microwave horn. An EIT cell is used as a receiver. By selecting the operating point as described, the EIT probe photodiode signal is sent through a bandpass filter, transmitting the acoustic frequency range. The detected signal is amplified and transmitted to a recording device and / or loudspeaker. Note that in this method, no demodulation is required on the receiver side (processing of the EIT cell and EIT probe laser signal). EIT physics serves as a demodulator. The same receiver principle can also be applied when detecting AM-modulated transmissions from other locations. Because the EIT sensor cell incorporated into the antenna receiver is optically coupled, the AM receiver based thereon is highly EMI- and EMP-resistant and can withstand high-voltage spikes while still forming a sensitive AM radio receiver under normal operating conditions. FM field modulation can be implemented in a similar manner. Incoherent RF field and RF noise measurement capabilities

[0142] Prior to the present invention, Rydberg-EIT systems were only able to characterize coherent RF fields because Autler-Townes splitting requires coherent field interaction. That physical constraint has only been removed in accordance with the present invention, as described herein. The steps in quantifying RF noise attributes according to an embodiment of the present invention will now be described with reference to FIG. 22. In a first step 2201, a predetermined Rydberg atomic energy level or Rydberg-EIT spectrum in the presence of an incoherent RF noise field is calculated. A model for Rydberg-EIT in the presence of noise is presented in the following section. Measurement light is propagated in an atomic vapor cell (2203), and spectral features of the atomic vapor are measured (2205). The measured and calculated spectral features are compared (2207), and matching spectra are identified (2209). This provides a step (2211) of quantifying the presence and attributes of incoherent RF noise, including spectral noise density, spectral power, electric field amplitude, polarization, RF noise field propagation direction, and source characteristics such as the gain of a horn antenna that may emit such RF noise.

[0143] In RF electric field measurements using Rydberg-EIT and Autler-Townes in atomic vapors, the EIT probe beam couples two atomic levels |1> and |2>, the EIT coupling beam couples level |2> to the Rydberg level |3>, and the RF field to be measured couples level |3> to another Rydberg level |4>. The Rabi frequency Ω of the RF-driven transition RFThis then becomes evident in the Autler-Towns (AT) splitting of the two lines observed in the EIT spectrum, which in turn, via fundamental atomic physics calculations, connects to the electric field. To account for the impact of broadband RF field noise in this type of atom-based RF electric field measurement, a quantitative description of the impact of broadband microwave noise is required. The considered situation may be quite general, since microwave amplifiers typically add broadband noise to the amplifier output; i.e., the noise will therefore affect the atom-based electric field measurement.

[0144] To conform to a general experimental test situation, the present process assumes that both the coherent microwave signal whose amplitude is to be measured and the noise signal are transmitted from a common microwave horn located at a distance beyond the far-field limit of the horn. The basic theory described herein is sufficient to present the physics of noise-induced effects. The theory can later be extended to cover more general types of field geometries and made more widely usable (without adding substantially new fundamental physics insights).

[0145] The effect of broadband noise on Rydberg-atom systems consists of two main parts. The Rydberg levels |3> and |4>, captured by a coherent source (laser, coherent microwave radiation), can transition to other Rydberg levels due to frequency components in the noise spectrum that resonate with the transitions between Rydberg states. This process is similar to the decay driven by blackbody radiation. The usual treatment, in which the radiation field is quantized and the transition rate is obtained from Fermi's golden rule and summation over the possible field polarizations and available final angular momentum states, needs to be modified to apply to noise fields with well-defined polarizations and propagation directions (given by the geometry of the microwave horn). Also, the blackbody energy density of the field must be replaced by the situation-specific noise characteristics. At the atomic site, the noise is expressed as a spectral intensity, i.e., W / (m2 The noise power per frequency interval is measured in Hz. [ka]

[0146] To model a hypothetical RF field test scenario in which the coherent microwave field and noise to be measured are applied to the atoms through the same microwave horn, with the atoms located at a far distance from the horn, we quantize the field in only one dimension (the direction of propagation of the microwave field emanating from the horn) and assume a fixed field polarization. The noise-induced transition rate R from the initial state |i> to the final state |f> is fi With respect to , the analysis shows that: [ka] where n is the field polarization unit vector, and v fi is the transition frequency (E f -E i ) / h, and E f and E i denotes the energy of the initial and final Rydberg levels. These rates are in SI units and have units "per atom per second". R if =R fi Note that for a given state of interest (in this case labeled |3> and |4>), the known noise spectrum I ν Rate R with respect to (|ν|) fi Calculate.

[0147] In the assumed measurement scenario, the coherent microwave field to be measured drives the transition between the Rydberg states |3> and |4>. If the noise spectrum covers the transitions |3> and |4>, then the noise-induced transitions occur at equal rates R 34 =R 43Furthermore, the coherence decay rate of any off-diagonal density matrix element with levels |3> or |4> or both must be included in the Master equation in the form of two noise-induced bidirectional decay terms with R 34 and R 43 It is necessary to include

[0148] For the coherently driven |3>←→|4> transition and the different transitions |3>→|f> and |4>→|f>, the noise is R f3 =R 3f and R f4 =R 4f The noise-induced transitions drive the transitions at a per-atom rate of . Note that the noise-incorporated levels |f> have no coherence with each other or with levels |1>-|4> because the noise-induced transitions have random quantum phases. Therefore, all levels |f> that are in a noise-incorporated state from level |3> can be collapsed into hypothetical level |d>. Similarly, all levels |f> that are in a noise-incorporated state from level |4> can be collapsed into hypothetical level |e>. Due to the electric dipole selection rule, there is no overlap between the levels collapsed into hypothetical level |d> (in a noise-incorporated state from |3>) and the levels collapsed into hypothetical level |e> (in a noise-incorporated state from |4>).

[0149] The net rate to the hypothetical level is: [ka] Also, R d3 =R 3d and R e4 =R 4e The noise also induces AC shifts, which are calculated using second-order perturbation theory based on the same-field quantization model. The shifts for levels |i>=|3> or |4> are found as follows: [ka]

[0150] Integral limit ν min and ν max is chosen to be wide enough so that the entire noise spectrum is covered. fi 3 Note that due to the terms, the sign of the transition frequency is significant (as expected). The AC shifts of levels |3> and |4> will need to be added into the Master equation as noise-induced detuning terms. The noise-induced AC shifts of all other Rydberg levels, which are included in the model via lumping them into hypothetical levels |d> and |e>, are insignificant.

[0151] Comparing the three equations above, it can be seen that AC shifts are more difficult to calculate than attenuation. For attenuation, only transitions with frequencies within the noise band have an effect, and noise spectral density is required only at these frequencies. Typically, only a few (and sometimes none at all) Rydberg-Rydberg transitions with levels |3> or |4> are within the noise band. In contrast, all allowed transitions with levels |3> or |4>, including transitions with frequencies outside the noise band, are in principle relevant in the above equation. Furthermore, for each of these transitions, the integral over the entire noise band must be evaluated. For transitions within the noise band, some consideration must be given to polarity.

[0152] To evaluate the above equation, we use the noise spectral intensity function I ν (ν). In many scenarios, the user will be able to use a spectrum analyzer to measure the power spectral density function dP / dν of the noise injected into the horn. The propagation equation available in textbooks then gives I ν This gives us an equation for (ν). [ka] where dP / dν is in units of W / Hz and interpolated for the distance x from the horn in meters. The spectral power dP / dν is normalized to integrate with the total noise power injected into the horn (in watts). The linear gain g for the horn is L(ν) is typically provided by the horn manufacturer's specifications. ν The result of (ν) is then input into the above equations to determine the noise-induced attenuation rate and AC level shift.

[0153] Using the results of the above equation, the fourth-order Master equation for the present problem can be expanded to include the effects of noise up to second order. The state space of the Master equation is the net collective ρ propagated by noise from the individual levels |3> and |4> (the levels whose electric fields are coupled by the coherent microwave signal to be measured). dd and ρ ee The revised Master equation is revised by the hypothetical "levels" |d> and |e>, which would hold. The revised Master equation includes additional terms in the equation for the level populations of Rydberg states |3> and |4>. [ka]

[0154] The equations for the decay of coherence with levels |3> and / or |4> also hold true if they are true for all R 3d , R 3e , and R 34 The new equations for the hypothetical levels |d> and |e> are: [ka] The modified Master equation does not include any equation for coherence with hypothetical levels (coherence with hypothetical levels is always the identity zero). After revising the standard fourth-order Master equation with all these terms, it can be solved using standard methods to obtain the coherence ρ as a function of the coupler laser frequency. 12 is obtained, which is required to extract the EIT spectrum.

[0155] Model EIT spectra can be calculated, for example, by the coupler laser detuning α (Δ C ) can be obtained by calculating the Beer absorption coefficient in the medium as a function of the coupler and probe beam. Note that this involves integrating over the Maxwellian velocity distribution in the cell, since each velocity class has its own Doppler shift of the coupler and probe beams. The ratio of the input and output probe powers is then given by e -αL where L is the cell length. The calculated atom-specific matrix elements for all experimentally available inputs and all noise-driven transitions are given by<f|r|i> Note that after using , there are no fitting parameters remaining to adjust the model results. This leads to an absolute no-fit agreement when comparing the measured and modeled Rydberg-EIT-AT spectra under the influence of broadband noise. Continuous frequency RF electric field measurement capability using the strong atomic field interaction region.

[0156] As used herein, the term "strong atomic-field interaction region" refers to a microwave field characterized by an electric field strength exceeding that of the Autler-Townes region, where the two-step process is sufficient to explain the observed spectral line splitting. To measure the RF electric field within the strong atomic-field interaction region, the Floquet state is considered to exhibit a high density of states, a differential dynamic dipole moment that varies throughout, and multiple pseudocrossings. Such a process is proposed for the first time in accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention. Plasma Diagnostics

[0157] A method according to an embodiment of the present invention may be referred to as plasma diagnostics using electromagnetic wave-induced transparency on plasma-embedded particles or plasma components for measurement of plasma fields, particle interactions, and parameters. A method for plasma field measurement and diagnostics is described that employs electromagnetic wave-induced transparency (EIT) or electromagnetic wave-induced absorption (EIA) as a high-resolution quantum optical probe of energy level shifts of plasma-embedded Rydberg atoms, which serves as a highly sensitive local electric field sensor with a large dynamic range.

[0158] One embodiment of EIT-based plasma diagnostics is now described with reference to Figures 23A-23C. Rubidium or another species of tracer particle suitable for EIT is incorporated into the plasma 2300 during its generation. The tracer atoms are optically interrogated using EIT, and an EIT beam 2303 is spatially overlapped with the tracer atoms in the plasma, as shown. The relevant atomic-level structure and Rydberg-EIT configuration are illustrated for rubidium atoms in Figure 23C, consisting of a 780 nm probe laser beam 2320, whose frequency is resonant with the 5S1 / 2 to 5P3 / 2D2 transition, and a counter-propagating 480 nm coupler beam 2322, whose frequency is scanned around the 5P3 / 2 to Rydberg state transition. In this example, the 58S Rydberg state is chosen. The EIT beams are overlapped and focused to a beam waist to optimize EIT signal intensity and the desired spatial resolution within the plasma 2300 (typically about 100 micrometers). The probe beam transmission is detected on a photodetector 2306 for readout. As the coupler beam is scanned across the Rydberg state resonance, the coupler frequency matches the 5P to Rydberg state resonance, and a reduction in the probe beam transmission is detected, causing the tracer atoms to become transparent to the probe light. In this way, Rydberg-EIT spectroscopy is performed on tracer atoms within the plasma, which are subject to the plasma environment (fields, particles). From the EIT spectrum, information about the plasma fields and particles is then obtained from the plasma-induced Rydberg line shifts and line shape changes, which can be calculated to high precision.

[0159] The polarization rate of low angular momentum Rydberg states is approximately n 7 where n is the principal quantum number. This strong scaling leads to a large measurement and sensitivity range for diagnostics by tuning the coupler laser frequency and targeting the desired Rydberg level for measurement.

[0160] In plasma science and applications, plasmas can be confined using magnetic fields, which directly affect the plasma's properties. Furthermore, the magnetic field itself, resulting from charge currents inside the plasma, is of interest. EIT plasma diagnostics can also be used to measure the plasma magnetic field, following the same methodology. The calculated spectrum of Rydberg atoms in a magnetic field and the spectrum in the combined magnetic and electric fields allows, for example, the EIT spectrum measured from tracer atoms in a magnetically confined plasma to be mapped onto its corresponding electric and / or magnetic fields.

[0161] In another embodiment of diagnostics, described with reference to FIG. 23B , tracer atoms 2330 are generated from a cold atom source 2332, such as atoms collected in a magneto-optical trap and injected into the plasma of interest using a pulsed pusher beam 2334. Similarly, a pulsed beam of hot atoms or molecules can be used. The atoms are seeded into the plasma, where they can interact with the plasma and its environment. The atoms are then optically interrogated using a Rydberg-EIT optical probe 2336, which is spatially and temporally overlapped with the atoms in the plasma. The optical probe transmission is also detected on a photodetector 2306 for readout and analysis. In this configuration, a particle collector / detector 2340, such as a microchannel plate (MCP), can also be integrated and used to measure atomic flux, providing additional information about the plasma density via collision-induced losses from the atoms as they pass through and interact with the plasma, or similarly by detection of charges / molecules resulting from interactions between atoms and plasma components. Atomic high magnetic field sensor and measurement method

[0162] According to a further embodiment of the present invention, a method is disclosed that is the basis for a new probe technology for high magnetic field sensing and measurement.

[0163] The field measurement method described herein is based on atomic spectroscopy of low-density atomic vapors encapsulated in small (approximately 1 cm diameter or less) glass cells. In atom-based field measurement methods, a laser beam is used to measure magnetic-field-induced atomic energy level shifts caused by the Zeeman effect. Advanced implementations are also proposed to exploit the enhanced diamagnetic response of highly excited Rydberg atoms to magnetic fields to reach higher sensitivity in strong fields. Magnetic fields several times above 0.1 T for several hours split the hyperfine levels of Rydberg states into multiple Zeeman sublevels, transitioning them from the weak-field (linear Zeeman) regime into the Paschen-Back regime. The resulting saturated absorption spectrum exhibits significantly more diffuse lines, and cross-resonances disappear due to nuclear separation and electron spin. The absolute line positions and relative separations between them are excellent magnetic field markers.

[0164] Saturation spectroscopy, depicted in Figure 25A, is a well-known method for eliminating inhomogeneous line broadening caused by the Doppler effect. It has a wide range of applications in science and technology, where obtaining precise spectroscopic information about atomic and molecular transitions and their shifts caused by external fields is required. In saturation spectroscopy of alkali atoms in a weak magnetic field, the hyperfine levels of excited states, symbolically shown as |2> and |2'> in Figure 25A, are split by less than the Doppler width, leading to multiple saturation peaks and cross-resonances in the probe laser spectrum of a given Doppler-broadened absorption line. As is known from textbook quantum mechanics, at magnetic fields above several times 0.1 T, the hyperfine levels split into multiple Zeeman sublevels and transition from the weak-field (linear Zeeman) region into the Paschen-Back region. The resulting saturated absorption spectrum exhibits significantly more diffuse lines, and the cross-resonances disappear due to nuclear separation and electron spin. The absolute line positions and relative separation between them are excellent magnetic field markers.

[0165] According to the present invention, strong magnetic fields may be measured either by standard Rydberg level saturation spectroscopy, as depicted in Figures 24A-24C, or by quantum interference processes, as shown in Figures 25A-25C, in which two excitation paths within a three-level atomic structure destructively interfere with the transmission of one of the utilized laser beams, producing an increase in its intensity. In separate cases, Figures 24A and 25A show separate quantum level schemes for two- and three-level systems, while Figures 24B and 25B show the coupling of electromagnetic fields into atomic vapor cell 106. Figure 24C plots the saturation spectrum of rubidium in a 0.7 T magnetic field. The line positions and their relative separation reveal the magnetic field present within the spectroscopy cell.

[0166] The EIT spectroscopy method depicted in Figures 25A-25C utilizes a quantum interference process in which two excitation paths within a three-level atomic structure destructively interfere with the transmission of one of the utilized laser beams, producing an increase in the transmission. The resulting EIT transmission window provides a convenient optical readout for the atomic energy levels and their response to any external field (here, a magnetic field). In the Rydberg-EIT cascade scheme, transparency is formed by the coherent superposition of the ground state and the Rydberg state. Rydberg-EIT has been implemented in both cold atomic gases and room-temperature vapor cells, such as the one depicted in Figure 1.

[0167] The atomic state most relevant to saturation and EIT spectroscopy of rubidium is the 5S state of rubidium. 1 / 2 Basal, 5P 3 / 2 Excitation, as well as nS 1 / 2 , nD 5 / 2 , and nD 3 / 2 These are Rydberg states. At the magnetic field of interest, they are all in the Paschen-Back region of the hyperfine structure. While the intermediate states are in the (linear) Zeeman region of the fine structure, the Rydberg states are typically in the Paschen-Back region of the fine structure. Also, the Rydberg states typically have strong shifts due to atomic diamagnetism.

[0168] Due to their large size, Rydberg atoms undergo large diamagnetic shifts. For S-type Rydberg states, the Rydberg state energy shift, in atomic units, is: [ka] In the formula, n, l, m l , m s are the principal quantum, angular momentum, magnetic orbital, and spin quantum numbers, respectively. For the S state, [ka] The coordinates r and q are the spherical coordinates of the Rydberg electron (field point along z). The deviation consists of a spin Zeeman term (first term on the right-hand side) and a diamagnetic term (second term on the right-hand side). The individual differential magnetic moments are negative derivatives with respect to the magnetic field B. The Bohr magnetron is 1 / 2 in atomic units, and the radial matrix elements are n 4 and the diamagnetic differential magnetic moment in the Bohr magnetron scales as n 4 Note that the energy of a 1 Tesla field (4.25 × 10 in atomic units) is B / 2. -6 ), the diamagnetism exceeds the paramagnetic (spin) differential dipole moment when n is greater than about 25. At n=50, which is easily accessible, the diamagnetism exceeds the paramagnetic differential dipole moment by a factor of about 16. Thus, in strong magnetic fields, the diamagnetic effect of Rydberg atoms leads to an increase in sensitivity to small magnetic field fluctuations by several orders of magnitude. Additional aspects, including the role of quantum chaotic behavior, have been discussed by Ma et al. “Paschen-Back effects and Rydberg-state diamagnetism in vapor-cell electromagnetically induced transparency” by al. Phys.Rev.A. , vo. 95, 061804(R) (June 27, 2017) (incorporated herein by reference).

[0169] Steps in quantifying magnetic field attributes according to an embodiment of the present invention will now be described with reference to Figure 21. In a first step 2101, a Rydberg atomic energy level or Rydberg-EIT spectrum of a given magnetic field is calculated. FM-modulated measurement light is propagated in an atomic vapor cell (2103), and spectral features of the atomic vapor are measured (2105). The measured spectral features are compared (2107) with the calculated spectral features, and matched spectra are identified (2109). This provides a step (2111) of quantifying magnetic field attributes. Atom-based optical RF power / voltage converters and sensors

[0170] Another aspect of the present invention will now be described with reference to Figures 26A and 26B. Figure 26A diagrammatically depicts a hybrid atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter and sensor, generally designated by the numeral 2600. Hybrid atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter and sensor 2600 employs an atomic vapor cell 2602 with integrated electrodes 2604 embedded within an RF receiver or circuit 2608 for conversion of an RF signal of interest into an intra-cell electric field that is measured optically via spectroscopy of field-sensitive atomic states. Through direct conversion of an RF electrical signal to an atom-mediated optical readout, the atom-based converter provides high-bandwidth (DC to THz) absolute (atomic) measurement of power or voltage. A demonstration of such an atom-based converter in a 60 Hz electrical signal measurement is shown in Figure 26B, which may advantageously be employed as an RF receiver element in the basis of an antenna for microwave interception. In both the measurement and receiver cases, the spectroscopic readout of the atomic cell is used to detect and determine the power-equivalent field of the electrical or electromagnetic signal of interest.

[0171] Figure 26B shows a plot of the readings from an atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter of a 60 Hz electrical signal applied to the electrode for six voltage levels. An optical laser is near-resonant with the field-sensitive atomic Rydberg states, and transmission of the probe laser through the vapor is detected. The field-equivalent power is then determined by comparison of the detected transmitted signal with the known atomic response. Depending on the detailed geometry of the selected electrodes and structures and the electrical and thermal properties of the selected materials used, the atomic detector readings may be used for atomic calibration of the RF power / voltage.

[0172] An atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter and sensor, generally designated by the numeral 2700, is described with reference to FIGS. 27A and 27B. The atom-based optical RF power / voltage converter and sensor 2700 consists of a small cylindrical cesium vapor cell with an integrated internal conductive plate. The conductive plates, or electrodes, are spaced 4 mm apart and are each 0.5 mm thick rings fused to the cell body on one of its sides and to a window on the other. As a result, the total path length through the cell is 5 mm. The inner and outer diameters of the cell are 3.4 mm and 5 mm, respectively, while the inner and outer diameters of the electrode rings are 2 mm and 5 mm, respectively. Thus, two 0.7-mm thick ring electrodes are embedded within the vapor cell, to which external electrical connections are made.

[0173] The atomic vapor 2701 is contained within an atomic vapor cell compartment 2703 with a window 2705 transparent to the optical beam used for excitation of the atoms into Rydberg states, and another integrated window 2707 that is transparent to the EM field generated by the optically excited atomic medium for extraction of the generated EM field. An EM filter 2710 disables transmission of the Rydberg-EIT probe and coupler beams 103 and 104.

[0174] The embodiments of the invention described herein are intended to be exemplary only, and variations and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art. All such variations and modifications are intended to be within the scope of the present invention as defined in any appended claims.

[0175] Additional teachings related to the subject matter of the present invention may also be found in the following publications, which are incorporated herein by reference: · Anderson et al., “A vapor-cell atomic sensor for radio-frequency field detection using a polarization-selective field enhancement resonator,” Appl. Phys. Lett. , vol. 113, 073501 (2018) · Simons et al., “Electromagnetically Induced Transparency (EIT) and Autler-Townes (AT) splitting in the presence of band-limited white Gaussian noise,” J. Appl. Phys. , vol. 123, 203105 (2018).

Claims

1. a sensor for one of detecting and measuring a parameter characterizing a first electromagnetic field, the sensor comprising: a. an excitation source; b. an enclosure containing a gas of atoms and / or molecules, at least a subset of the gas being capable of being excited into a distribution of Rydberg states by the excitation source; c. a detector positioned to detect the probe beam after it traverses the gas, the detector for producing a phase-sensitive detection signal; d. a processor configured to derive a parameter characterizing the first electromagnetic field based on an effect of the parameter on the distribution of Rydberg states; Equipped with The phase-sensitive detection signal is sensitive to a phase characterization of the first electromagnetic field.

2. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the phase-sensitive detection signal is sensitive to the phase of a transition between Rydberg states characterized by a particular Rabi frequency.

3. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter varies continuously in time.

4. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the gas comprises a molecular vapor.

5. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the excitation source is specially configured to induce transitions between Rydberg states at specific Rabi frequencies.

6. 10. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the atoms are selected from a group of atoms including rubidium, cesium, alkali, and alkaline earth atoms.

7. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is a direction of propagation.

8. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is at least one of amplitude, frequency, phase, or polarization.

9. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is a modulation of at least one of amplitude, frequency, phase, or polarization.

10. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is a phase of the first electromagnetic field relative to a reference phase.

11. The sensor of claim 1 , further comprising a second electromagnetic field positioned in interference relationship with the first electromagnetic field.

12. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the phase of the first electromagnetic field is relative to a radio frequency (RF) modulated light beam.

13. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is a time-varying electric field amplitude.

14. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein traversing the enclosure with the probe beam comprises reflecting the probe beam.

15. The sensor of claim 14 , wherein traversing the enclosure with the probe beam comprises retroreflecting the probe beam.

16. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the excitation source for exciting the gas into the distribution of Rydberg states comprises at least one light beam.

17. 17. The sensor of claim 16, wherein the at least one light beam establishes one of electromagnetically induced transparency and electromagnetically induced absorption in the gas.

18. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the probe beam is a light beam.

19. 20. The sensor of claim 18, wherein the probe beam is a laser beam.

20. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the probe beam enters and exits the enclosure on the same side.

21. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the enclosure includes a vapor cell containing a dielectric material.

22. 22. The sensor of claim 21, wherein the dielectric material is glass.

23. The sensor of claim 1 , further comprising a light-absorbing surface thermally coupled to the gas.

24. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the first electromagnetic field is an incoherent field.

25. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is noise.

26. The sensor of claim 1 , wherein the enclosure is compartmentalized.

27. 27. The sensor of claim 26, wherein the enclosure is linearly compartmentalized.

28. 27. The sensor of claim 26, wherein the enclosure is areally compartmentalized.

29. 10. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising: a first waveguide for coupling at least one beam into the gas; and a second waveguide for collecting the probe beam after it interacts with the gas.

30. 30. The sensor of claim 29, wherein the second waveguide and the first waveguide are identical.

31. 30. The sensor of claim 29, wherein at least one of the first waveguide and the second waveguide is an optical fiber, an optical waveguide, or a meta-material waveguide.

32. 30. The sensor of claim 29, wherein the first waveguide couples the probe beam and radiation from the excitation source into the gas.

33. A system for imaging parameters of a radio frequency (RF) field, the system comprising: a. an excitation source; b. an enclosure containing a gas of atoms and / or molecules configured to interact with the RF field, at least a subset of the gas being capable of being excited by the excitation source into a distribution of Rydberg states; c. a detector positioned to detect the probe beam after it traverses the gas, the detector for producing a phase-sensitive detection signal; d. a processor configured to analyze the parameters of the RF field based on the effect of the RF field on the distribution of the Rydberg states; Equipped with The system wherein the phase-sensitive detection signal is sensitive to phase characterizing the RF field.

34. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the parameter of the RF field is one of an amplitude, a frequency, a modulation, a polarization, or a phase of the RF field.

35. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the RF field comprises an incoherent RF field characterized by a spatial distribution.

36. 36. The system of claim 35, wherein the incoherent RF field comprises noise.

37. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the RF field is an RF signal or waveform characterized by two or more frequency, phase, amplitude, polarization, direction, modulation, or time-varying parameters.

38. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the detector is a photodetector.

39. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the detector is a camera.

40. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein the enclosure is compartmentalized.

41. 41. The system of claim 40, wherein the enclosure is linearly compartmentalized.

42. 41. The system of claim 40, wherein the enclosure is areally compartmentalized.

43. 34. The system of claim 33, wherein traversing the enclosure with the probe beam comprises reflecting the probe beam.

44. 44. The system of claim 43, wherein traversing the enclosure with the probe beam comprises retroreflecting the probe beam.

45. 1. A monolithic sensor for detecting and / or measuring a parameter characterizing an electromagnetic field, said sensor comprising: a. an atomic vapor contained within an enclosure comprising a dielectric material; b. an excitation source for exciting atoms of the atomic vapor into a population of Rydberg states; c. a first waveguide for coupling the beam into the atomic vapor and a second waveguide for collecting the beam after it interacts with the atomic vapor; A monolithic sensor comprising:

46. 46. ​​The monolithic sensor of claim 45, wherein the second waveguide is the first waveguide.

47. 46. ​​The monolithic sensor of claim 45, wherein the beam coupled into the atomic vapor comprises a probe beam.

48. 46. ​​The monolithic sensor of claim 45, wherein multiple beams are coupled into the atomic vapor by the first waveguide.

49. 46. ​​The monolithic sensor of claim 45, wherein the enclosure is compartmentalized.

50. 50. The monolithic sensor of claim 49, wherein the enclosure is linearly compartmentalized.

51. 50. The monolithic sensor of claim 49, wherein the enclosure is areally compartmentalized.

52. 50. The monolithic sensor of claim 49, wherein a different probe beam is coupled into each of the array of compartments.

53. 53. The monolithic sensor of claim 52, wherein the different probe beams are coupled into each of the array of compartments via an array of optical elements.

54. 53. The monolithic sensor of claim 52, wherein the different probe beams are collected after interacting with the atomic vapor and coupled to a detector element via an array of optical elements.

55. 46. ​​The monolithic sensor of claim 45, wherein the enclosure includes a light-absorbing surface, and the monolithic sensor further comprises a temperature regulator.

56. A sensor for one of detecting and measuring a parameter characterizing a first electromagnetic field, the sensor comprising: a. an excitation source; b. an enclosure containing a gas of atoms and / or molecules, at least a subset of the gas being capable of being excited into a distribution of Rydberg states by the excitation source; c. a detector positioned to detect the probe beam after it has traversed the gas; d. a processor configured to derive a parameter characterizing the first electromagnetic field based on an effect of the parameter on the distribution of Rydberg states; Equipped with The sensor, wherein the parameter of the first electromagnetic field is a modulation of at least one of amplitude, frequency, phase, or polarization.

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