Transmission electron microscopes with radiation detectors
The semiconductor radiation detector system in transmission electron microscopes addresses noise interference and power consumption issues by using a radiation absorption layer with diodes or resistors and a controller to manage time delays and thresholds, enabling accurate radiation particle detection and high-resolution imaging.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2024/075171
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Filing Date
- 2024-02-01
- Publication Date
- 2025-08-07
AI Technical Summary
Existing transmission electron microscopes face challenges in accurately capturing images of specimens due to noise interference and inefficiencies in detecting radiation particles, particularly when high fluxes are involved, which can lead to missed signals and increased power consumption.
A semiconductor radiation detector system is introduced, utilizing a radiation absorption layer with diodes or resistors, combined with a controller and voltage comparators, to manage time delays and thresholds for accurate detection of radiation particles, minimizing noise interference and optimizing power consumption.
The system effectively captures high-resolution images by accurately counting radiation particles and rejecting noise, while reducing power consumption, especially under high flux conditions.
Smart Images

Figure CN2024075171_07082025_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPES WITH RADIATION DETECTORSBackground
[0001] A transmission electron microscope can include an electron gun configured to generate an electron beam. The transmission electron microscope can also include lenses configured to guide the electron beam from the electron gun through a specimen and then to a fluorescent screen. As a result, an image of the specimen is projected on the fluorescent screen.Summary
[0002] Disclosed herein is a system, comprising: an electron source configured to generate an electron beam; a lens subsystem; and a radiation detector. The lens subsystem is configured to guide the electron beam from the electron source through a specimen and then toward the radiation detector. The radiation detector is configured to capture an image of the specimen based on an interaction between the electron beam and the specimen. The radiation detector comprises: a radiation absorption layer comprising an electrode; a first voltage comparator configured to compare a voltage of the electrode to a first threshold; a second voltage comparator configured to compare the voltage to a second threshold; a counter configured to register a number of electrons absorbed by the radiation absorption layer; and a controller. The controller is configured to start a time delay from a time at which the first voltage comparator determines that an absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds an absolute value of the first threshold. The controller is configured to activate the second voltage comparator during the time delay. The controller is configured to cause the number registered by the counter to increase by one, if the second voltage comparator determines that an absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds an absolute value of the second threshold.
[0003] In an aspect, the system is a transmission electron microscope.
[0004] In an aspect, each electron of the electron beam has an energy in a range of 1 KeV to 1 MeV.
[0005] In an aspect, the lens subsystem comprises an electrostatic lens or an electromagnetic lens.
[0006] In an aspect, the radiation detector further comprises a capacitor module electrically connected to the electrode, and the capacitor module is configured to collect charge carriers from the electrode.
[0007] In an aspect, the controller is configured to activate the second voltage comparator at a beginning or expiration of the time delay.
[0008] In an aspect, the radiation detector further comprises a voltmeter, and the controller is configured to cause the voltmeter to measure the voltage upon expiration of the time delay.
[0009] In an aspect, the controller is configured to determine an electron energy based on a value of the voltage measured upon expiration of the time delay.
[0010] In an aspect, the controller is configured to electrically connect the electrode to an electrical ground.
[0011] In an aspect, a rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero at expiration of the time delay.
[0012] In an aspect, a rate of change of the voltage is substantially non-zero at expiration of the time delay.
[0013] In an aspect, the radiation absorption layer comprises a diode.
[0014] In an aspect, the radiation absorption layer comprises silicon, germanium, GaAs, CdTe, CdZnTe, or a combination thereof.
[0015] In an aspect, the system does not comprise a scintillator.
[0016] In an aspect, the radiation absorption layer comprises an array of sensing elements.
[0017] Disclosed herein is a method of using the system above. The method comprising: generating an electron beam with the electron source; guiding with the lens subsystem the electron beam from the electron source through a specimen and then toward the radiation detector; and capturing with the radiation detector an image of the specimen based on an interaction between the electron beam and the specimen during an exposure.
[0018] In an aspect, a value of a pixel of the image is related to a number registered by the counter at expiration of the exposure.
[0019] In an aspect, a value of a pixel of the image is related to a number of times the voltage falls within a pre-specified voltage range at expiration of the time delay during the exposure.
[0020] In an aspect, the first and second thresholds are less than any point of the pre-specified voltage range in magnitude.
[0021] Brief Description of Figures
[0022] Fig. 1A schematically shows a semiconductor radiation detector, according to an embodiment.
[0023] Fig. 1B shows the semiconductor radiation detector 100, according to an alternative embodiment.
[0024] Fig. 2 shows an exemplary top view of a portion of the detector in Fig. 1A, according to an embodiment.
[0025] Fig. 3A and Fig. 3B each show a component diagram of an electronic system of the detector in Fig. 1A or Fig. 1B, according to an embodiment.
[0026] Fig. 4 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through an electrode (upper curve) of a diode or an electrical contact of a resistor of a radiation absorption layer exposed to radiation, the electric current caused by charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident on the radiation absorption layer, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , according to an embodiment.
[0027] Fig. 5 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by noise (e.g., dark current) , and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , in the electronic system operating in the way shown in Fig. 4, according to an embodiment.
[0028] Fig. 6 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through an electrode (upper curve) of the radiation absorption layer exposed to radiation, the electric current caused by charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident on the radiation absorption layer, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , when the electronic system operates to detect incident radiation particles at a higher rate, according to an embodiment.
[0029] Fig. 7 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by noise (e.g., dark current) , and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , in the electronic system operating in the way shown in Fig. 6, according to an embodiment.
[0030] Fig. 8 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by charge carriers generated by a series of radiation particles incident on the radiation absorption layer, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode, in the electronic system operating in the way shown in Fig. 6 with RST expires before te, according to an embodiment.
[0031] Fig. 9A shows a flow chart for a method suitable for detecting radiation using a system such as the electronic system operating as shown in Fig. 4, according to an embodiment.
[0032] Fig. 9B shows a flow chart for a method suitable for detecting radiation using a system such as the electronic system operating as shown in Fig. 6, according to an embodiment.
[0033] Fig. 10 schematically shows a perspective view of a transmission electron microscope, according to an embodiment.
[0034] Fig. 11 is a flowchart generalizing the operation of the transmission electron microscope.Detailed Description
[0035] RADIATION DETECTOR
[0036] Fig. 1A schematically shows a semiconductor radiation detector 100, according to an embodiment. The semiconductor radiation detector 100 may include a radiation absorption layer 110 and an electronics layer 120 (e.g., an ASIC) for processing or analyzing electrical signals incident radiation generates in the radiation absorption layer 110. In an embodiment, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 does not comprise a scintillator. The radiation absorption layer 110 may include a semiconductor material such as, silicon, germanium, GaAs, CdTe, CdZnTe, or a combination thereof. The semiconductor may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for the radiation energy of interest. The radiation absorption layer 110 may include one or more diodes (e.g., p-i-n or p-n) formed by a first doped region 111, one or more discrete regions 114 of a second doped region 113. The second doped region 113 may be separated from the first doped region 111 by an optional the intrinsic region 112. The discrete regions 114 are separated from one another by the first doped region 111 or the intrinsic region 112. The first doped region 111 and the second doped region 113 have opposite types of doping (e.g., the first doped region 111 is p-type and the second doped region 113 is n-type, or the first doped region 111 is n-type and the second doped region 113 is p-type) . In the example in Fig. 1A, each of the discrete regions 114 of the second doped region 113 forms a diode with the first doped region 111 and the optional intrinsic region 112. Namely, in the example in Fig. 1A, the radiation absorption layer 110 has a plurality of diodes having the first doped region 111 as a shared electrode. The first doped region 111 may also have discrete portions.
[0037] Fig. 1B shows the semiconductor radiation detector 100, according to an alternative embodiment. The semiconductor radiation detector 100 may include a radiation absorption layer 110 and an electronics layer 120 (e.g., an ASIC) for processing or analyzing electrical signals incident radiation generates in the radiation absorption layer 110. In an embodiment, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 does not comprise a scintillator. The radiation absorption layer 110 may include a semiconductor material such as, silicon, germanium, GaAs, CdTe, CdZnTe, or a combination thereof. The semiconductor may have a high mass attenuation coefficient for the radiation energy of interest. The radiation absorption layer 110 may not include a diode but includes a resistor.
[0038] When a radiation particle hits the radiation absorption layer 110 including diodes, it may be absorbed and generate one or more charge carriers by a number of mechanisms. A radiation particle may generate 10 to 100000 charge carriers. The charge carriers may drift to the electrodes of one of the diodes under an electric field. The field may be an external electric field. The electrical contact (or electrode) 119B may include discrete portions each of which is in electrical contact with the discrete regions 114. In an embodiment, the charge carriers may drift in directions such that the charge carriers generated by a single radiation particle are not substantially shared by two different discrete regions 114 ( “not substantially shared” here means less than 5%, less than 2%or less than 1%of these charge carriers flow to a different one of the discrete regions 114 than the rest of the charge carriers) . In an embodiment, the charge carriers generated by a single radiation particle can be shared by two different discrete regions 114.
[0039] Fig. 2 shows an exemplary top view of a portion of the semiconductor radiation detector 100 with a 4-by-4 array of discrete regions 114. Charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident around the footprint of one of these discrete regions 114 are not substantially shared with another of these discrete regions 114. The area around a discrete region 114 in which substantially all (more than 95%, more than 98%or more than 99%of) charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident therein flow to the discrete region 114 is called a pixel (also called a sensing element) associated with that discrete region 114. Namely, less than 5%, less than 2%or less than 1%of these charge carriers flow beyond the pixel. By measuring the drift current flowing into each of the discrete regions 114, or the rate of change of the voltage of each of the discrete regions 114, the number of radiation particles absorbed (which relates to the incident radiation intensity) and / or the energies thereof in the pixels associated with the discrete regions 114 may be determined. Thus, the spatial distribution (e.g., an image) of incident radiation intensity may be determined by individually measuring the drift current into each one of an array of discrete regions 114 or measuring the rate of change of the voltage of each one of an array of discrete regions 114. The pixels may be organized in any suitable array, such as, a square array, a triangular array and a honeycomb array. The pixels may have any suitable shape, such as, circular, triangular, square, rectangular, and hexangular. The pixels may be individually addressable.
[0040] When a radiation particle hits the radiation absorption layer 110 including a resistor but not diodes, it may be absorbed and generate one or more charge carriers by a number of mechanisms. A radiation particle may generate 10 to 100000 charge carriers. The charge carriers may drift to the electrical contacts 119A and 119B under an electric field. The field may be an external electric field. The electrical contact 119B includes discrete portions. In an embodiment, the charge carriers may drift in directions such that the charge carriers generated by a single radiation particle are not substantially shared by two different discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B ( “not substantially shared” here means less than 5%, less than 2%or less than 1%of these charge carriers flow to a different one of the discrete portions than the rest of the charge carriers) . In an embodiment, the charge carriers generated by a single radiation particle can be shared by two different discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B. Charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident around the footprint of one of these discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B are not substantially shared with another of these discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B. The area around a discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B in which substantially all (more than 95%, more than 98%or more than 99%of) charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident therein flow to the discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B is called a pixel associated with the discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B. Namely, less than 5%, less than 2%or less than 1%of these charge carriers flow beyond the pixel associated with the one discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B. By measuring the drift current flowing into each of the discrete portion of the electrical contact 119B, or the rate of change of the voltage of each of the discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B, the number of radiation particles absorbed (which relates to the incident radiation intensity) and / or the energies thereof in the pixels associated with the discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B may be determined. Thus, the spatial distribution (e.g., an image) of incident radiation intensity may be determined by individually measuring the drift current into each one of an array of discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B or measuring the rate of change of the voltage of each one of an array of discrete portions of the electrical contact 119B. The pixels may be organized in any suitable array, such as, a square array, a triangular array and a honeycomb array. The pixels may have any suitable shape, such as, circular, triangular, square, rectangular, and hexangular. The pixels may be individually addressable.
[0041] The electronics layer 120 may include, for each pixel, an electronic system 121 suitable for processing or interpreting signals generated by radiation particles incident on the each pixel of the radiation absorption layer 110. The electronic system 121 may include an analog circuitry such as a filter network, amplifiers, integrators, and comparators, or a digital circuitry such as a microprocessors, and memory. The electronic system 121 may include components shared by the pixels or components dedicated to a single pixel. For example, the electronic system 121 may include an amplifier dedicated to each pixel and a microprocessor shared among all the pixels. The electronic system 121 may be electrically connected to the pixels by vias 131. Space among the vias may be filled with a filler material 130, which may increase the mechanical stability of the connection of the electronics layer 120 to the radiation absorption layer 110. Other bonding techniques are possible to connect the electronic system 121 to the pixels without using vias.
[0042] ELECTRONIC SYSTEM
[0043] Fig. 3A and Fig. 3B each show a component diagram of the electronic system 121, according to an embodiment. The electronic system 121 may include a first voltage comparator 301, a second voltage comparator 302, a counter 320, a switch 305, a voltmeter 306 and a controller 310.
[0044] The first voltage comparator 301 is configured to compare the voltage of an electrode (e.g., 119B of Fig. 1A or Fig. 1B) of a diode 300 to a first threshold. The diode may be a diode formed by the first doped region 111, one of the discrete regions 114 of the second doped region 113, and the optional intrinsic region 112. Alternatively, the first voltage comparator 301 is configured to compare the voltage of an electrical contact (e.g., a discrete portion of electrical contact 119B) to a first threshold. The first voltage comparator 301 may be configured to monitor the voltage directly, or calculate the voltage by integrating an electric current flowing through the diode or electrical contact over a period of time. The first voltage comparator 301 may be controllably activated or deactivated by the controller 310. The first voltage comparator 301 may be a continuous comparator. Namely, the first voltage comparator 301 may be configured to be activated continuously, and monitor the voltage continuously. The first voltage comparator 301 configured as a continuous comparator reduces the chance that the system 121 misses signals generated by an incident radiation particle. The first voltage comparator 301 configured as a continuous comparator is especially suitable when the incident radiation intensity is relatively high. The first voltage comparator 301 may be a clocked comparator, which has the benefit of lower power consumption. The first voltage comparator 301 configured as a clocked comparator may cause the system 121 to miss signals generated by some incident radiation particles. When the incident radiation intensity is low, the chance of missing an incident radiation particle is low because the time interval between two successive photons is relatively long. Therefore, the first voltage comparator 301 configured as a clocked comparator is especially suitable when the incident radiation intensity is relatively low. The first threshold may be 5-10%, 10%-20%, 20-30%, 30-40%or 40-50%of the maximum voltage one incident radiation particle may generate in the diode or the resistor. The maximum voltage may depend on the energy of the incident radiation particle (i.e., the wavelength of the incident radiation particle) , the material of the radiation absorption layer 110, and other factors. For example, the first threshold may be 50 mV, 100 mV, 150 mV, or 200 mV.
[0045] The second voltage comparator 302 is configured to compare the voltage to a second threshold. The second voltage comparator 302 may be configured to monitor the voltage directly, or calculate the voltage by integrating an electric current flowing through the diode or the electrical contact over a period of time. The second voltage comparator 302 may be a continuous comparator. The second voltage comparator 302 may be controllably activate or deactivated by the controller 310. When the second voltage comparator 302 is deactivated, the power consumption of the second voltage comparator 302 may be less than 1%, less than 5%, less than 10%or less than 20%of the power consumption when the second voltage comparator 302 is activated. The absolute value of the second threshold is greater than the absolute value of the first threshold. As used herein, the term “absolute value” or “modulus” |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x|= x if x >=0, and |x| = -x if x <0.
[0046] The second threshold may be 200%-300%of the first threshold. The second threshold may be at least 50%of the maximum voltage one incident radiation particle may generate in the diode or resistor. For example, the second threshold may be 100 mV, 150 mV, 200 mV, 250 mV or 300 mV. The second voltage comparator 302 and the first voltage comparator 301 may be the same component. Namely, the system 121 may have one voltage comparator that can compare a voltage with two different thresholds at different times.
[0047] The first voltage comparator 301 or the second voltage comparator 302 may include one or more op-amps or any other suitable circuitry. The first voltage comparator 301 or the second voltage comparator 302 may have a high speed to allow the system 121 to operate under a high flux of incident radiation. However, having a high speed is often at the cost of power consumption.
[0048] The counter 320 is configured to register a number of radiation particles reaching the diode or resistor. The counter 320 may be a software component (e.g., a number stored in a computer memory) or a hardware component (e.g., a 4017 IC and a 7490 IC) .
[0049] The controller 310 may be a hardware component such as a microcontroller and a microprocessor. The controller 310 is configured to start a time delay from a time at which the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold (e.g., the absolute value of the voltage increases from below the absolute value of the first threshold to a value equal to or above the absolute value of the first threshold) . The absolute value is used here because the voltage may be negative or positive, depending on whether the voltage of the cathode or the anode of the diode or which electrical contact is used. The controller 310 may be configured to keep deactivated the second voltage comparator 302, the counter 320 and any other circuits the operation of the first voltage comparator 301 does not require, before the time at which the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold. The time delay may expire before or after the voltage becomes stable, i.e., the rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero. The phase “the rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero” means that temporal change of the voltage is less than 0.1% / ns. The phase “the rate of change of the voltage is substantially non-zero” means that temporal change of the voltage is at least 0.1% / ns.
[0050] The controller 310 may be configured to activate the second voltage comparator during (including the beginning and the expiration) the time delay. In an embodiment, the controller 310 is configured to activate the second voltage comparator at the beginning of the time delay. The term “activate” means causing the component to enter an operational state (e.g., by sending a signal such as a voltage pulse or a logic level, by providing power, etc. ) . The term “deactivate” means causing the component to enter a non-operational state (e.g., by sending a signal such as a voltage pulse or a logic level, by cut off power, etc. ) . The operational state may have higher power consumption (e.g., 10 times higher, 100 times higher, 1000 times higher) than the non-operational state. The controller 310 itself may be deactivated until the output of the first voltage comparator 301 activates the controller 310 when the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold.
[0051] The controller 310 may be configured to cause the number registered by the counter 320 to increase by one, if, during the time delay, the second voltage comparator 302 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold.
[0052] The controller 310 may be configured to cause the voltmeter 306 to measure the voltage upon expiration of the time delay. The controller 310 may be configured to connect the electrode to an electrical ground, so as to reset the voltage and discharge any charge carriers accumulated on the electrode. In an embodiment, the electrode is connected to an electrical ground after the expiration of the time delay. In an embodiment, the electrode is connected to an electrical ground for a finite reset time period. The controller 310 may connect the electrode to the electrical ground by controlling the switch 305. The switch may be a transistor such as a field-effect transistor (FET) .
[0053] In an embodiment, the system 121 has no analog filter network (e.g., a RC network) . In an embodiment, the system 121 has no analog circuitry.
[0054] The voltmeter 306 may feed the voltage it measures to the controller 310 as an analog or digital signal.
[0055] The system 121 may include a capacitor module 309 electrically connected to the electrode of the diode 300 or the electrical contact. The capacitor module is configured to collect charge carriers from the electrode. The capacitor module can include a capacitor in the feedback path of an amplifier. The amplifier configured as such is called a capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA) . CTIA has high dynamic range by keeping the amplifier from saturating and improves the signal-to-noise ratio by limiting the bandwidth in the signal path. Charge carriers from the electrode accumulate on the capacitor over a period of time ( “integration period” ) (e.g., as shown in Fig. 4, between t0 to t1, or t1-t2) . After the integration period has expired, the capacitor voltage is sampled and then reset by a reset switch. The capacitor module can include a capacitor directly connected to the electrode.
[0056] ELECTRODE CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
[0057] Fig. 4 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident on the diode or the resistor, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) . The voltage may be an integral of the electric current with respect to time. At time t0, the radiation particle hits the diode or the resistor, charge carriers start being generated in the diode or the resistor, electric current starts to flow through the electrode of the diode or the resistor, and the absolute value of the voltage of the electrode or electrical contact starts to increase. At time t1, the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold V1, and the controller 310 starts the time delay TD1 and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the beginning of TD1. If the controller 310 is deactivated before t1, the controller 310 is activated at t1. During TD1, the controller 310 activates the second voltage comparator 302. The term “during” a time delay as used here means the beginning and the expiration (i.e., the end) and any time in between. For example, the controller 310 may activate the second voltage comparator 302 at the expiration of TD1. If during TD1, the second voltage comparator 302 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold V2 at time t2, the controller 310 causes the number registered by the counter 320 to increase by one. At time te, all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle drift out of the radiation absorption layer 110. At time ts, the time delay TD1 expires. In the example of Fig. 4, time ts is after time te; namely TD1 expires after all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle drift out of the radiation absorption layer 110. The rate of change of the voltage is thus substantially zero at ts. The controller 310 may be configured to deactivate the second voltage comparator 302 at expiration of TD1 or at t2, or any time in between.
[0058] The controller 310 may be configured to cause the voltmeter 306 to measure the voltage upon expiration of the time delay TD1. In an embodiment, the controller 310 causes the voltmeter 306 to measure the voltage after the rate of change of the voltage becomes substantially zero after the expiration of the time delay TD1. The voltage at this moment is proportional to the amount of charge carriers generated by a radiation particle, which relates to the energy of the radiation particle. The controller 310 may be configured to determine the energy of the radiation particle based on voltage the voltmeter 306 measures. One way to determine the energy is by binning the voltage. The counter 320 may have a sub-counter for each bin. When the controller 310 determines that the energy of the radiation particle falls in a bin, the controller 310 may cause the number registered in the sub-counter for that bin to increase by one. Therefore, the system 121 may be able to detect a radiation image and may be able to resolve radiation energies of each radiation particle.
[0059] After TD1 expires, the controller 310 connects the electrode to an electric ground for a reset period RST to allow charge carriers accumulated on the electrode to flow to the ground and reset the voltage. After RST, the system 121 is ready to detect another incident radiation particle. Implicitly, the rate of incident radiation particles the system 121 can handle in the example of Fig. 4 is limited by 1 / (TD1+RST) . If the first voltage comparator 301 has been deactivated, the controller 310 can activate it at any time before RST expires. If the controller 310 has been deactivated, it may be activated before RST expires.
[0060] Fig. 5 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by noise (e.g., dark current, background radiation, scattered X- rays, fluorescent X-rays, shared charges from adjacent pixels) , and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , in the system 121 operating in the way shown in Fig. 4. At time t0, the noise begins. If the noise is not large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V1, the controller 310 does not activate the second voltage comparator 302. If the noise is large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V1 at time t1 as determined by the first voltage comparator 301, the controller 310 starts the time delay TD1 and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the beginning of TD1. During TD1 (e.g., at expiration of TD1) , the controller 310 activates the second voltage comparator 302. The noise is very unlikely large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V2 during TD1. Therefore, the controller 310 does not cause the number registered by the counter 320 to increase. At time te, the noise ends. At time ts, the time delay TD1 expires. The controller 310 may be configured to deactivate the second voltage comparator 302 at expiration of TD1. The controller 310 may be configured not to cause the voltmeter 306 to measure the voltage if the absolute value of the voltage does not exceed the absolute value of V2 during TD1. After TD1 expires, the controller 310 connects the electrode to an electric ground for a reset period RST to allow charge carriers accumulated on the electrode as a result of the noise to flow to the ground and reset the voltage. Therefore, the system 121 may be very effective in noise rejection.
[0061] Fig. 6 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by charge carriers generated by a radiation particle incident on the diode or the resistor, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , when the system 121 operates to detect incident radiation particles at a rate higher than 1 / (TD1+RST) . The voltage may be an integral of the electric current with respect to time. At time t0, the radiation particle hits the diode or the resistor, charge carriers start being generated in the diode or the resistor, electric current starts to flow through the electrode of the diode or the electrical contact of resistor, and the absolute value of the voltage of the electrode or the electrical contact starts to increase. At time t1, the first voltage comparator 301 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold V1, and the controller 310 starts a time delay TD2 shorter than TD1, and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the beginning of TD2. If the controller 310 is deactivated before t1, the controller 310 is activated at t1. During TD2 (e.g., at expiration of TD2) , the controller 310 activates the second voltage comparator 302. If during TD2, the second voltage comparator 302 determines that the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold V2 at time t2, the controller 310 causes the number registered by the counter 320 to increase by one. At time te, all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle drift out of the radiation absorption layer 110. At time th, the time delay TD2 expires. In the example of Fig. 6, time th is before time te; namely TD2 expires before all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle drift out of the radiation absorption layer 110. The rate of change of the voltage is thus substantially non-zero at th. The controller 310 may be configured to deactivate the second voltage comparator 302 at expiration of TD2 or at t2, or any time in between.
[0062] The controller 310 may be configured to extrapolate the voltage at te from the voltage as a function of time during TD2 and use the extrapolated voltage to determine the energy of the radiation particle.
[0063] After TD2 expires, the controller 310 connects the electrode to an electric ground for a reset period RST to allow charge carriers accumulated on the electrode to flow to the ground and reset the voltage. In an embodiment, RST expires before te. The rate of change of the voltage after RST may be substantially non-zero because all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle have not drifted out of the radiation absorption layer 110 upon expiration of RST before te. The rate of change of the voltage becomes substantially zero after te and the voltage stabilized to a residue voltage VR after te. In an embodiment, RST expires at or after te, and the rate of change of the voltage after RST may be substantially zero because all charge carriers generated by the radiation particle drift out of the radiation absorption layer 110 at te. After RST, the system 121 is ready to detect another incident radiation particle. If the first voltage comparator 301 has been deactivated, the controller 310 can activate it at any time before RST expires. If the controller 310 has been deactivated, it may be activated before RST expires.
[0064] Fig. 7 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by noise (e.g., dark current, background radiation, scattered radiations, fluorescent X-rays, shared charges from adjacent pixels) , and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , in the system 121 operating in the way shown in Fig. 6. At time t0, the noise begins. If the noise is not large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V1, the controller 310 does not activate the second voltage comparator 302. If the noise is large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V1 at time t1 as determined by the first voltage comparator 301, the controller 310 starts the time delay TD2 and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the beginning of TD2. During TD2 (e.g., at expiration of TD2) , the controller 310 activates the second voltage comparator 302. The noise is very unlikely large enough to cause the absolute value of the voltage to exceed the absolute value of V2 during TD2. Therefore, the controller 310 does not cause the number registered by the counter 320 to increase. At time te, the noise ends. At time th, the time delay TD2 expires. The controller 310 may be configured to deactivate the second voltage comparator 302 at expiration of TD2. After TD2 expires, the controller 310 connects the electrode to an electric ground for a reset period RST to allow charge carriers accumulated on the electrode as a result of the noise to flow to the ground and reset the voltage. Therefore, the system 121 may be very effective in noise rejection.
[0065] Fig. 8 schematically shows a temporal change of the electric current flowing through the electrode (upper curve) caused by charge carriers generated by a series of radiation particles incident on the diode or the resistor, and a corresponding temporal change of the voltage of the electrode (lower curve) , in the system 121 operating in the way shown in Fig. 6 with RST expires before te. The voltage curve caused by charge carriers generated by each incident radiation particle is offset by the residue voltage before that photon. The absolute value of the residue voltage successively increases with each incident photon. When the absolute value of the residue voltage exceeds V1 (see the dotted rectangle in Fig. 8) , the controller starts the time delay TD2 and the controller 310 may deactivate the first voltage comparator 301 at the beginning of TD2. If no other radiation particle incidence on the diode or the resistor during TD2, the controller connects the electrode to the electrical ground during the reset time period RST at the end of TD2, thereby resetting the residue voltage. The residue voltage thus does not cause an increase of the number registered by the counter 320.
[0066] OPERATION FLOWCHARTS
[0067] Fig. 9A shows a flow chart for a method suitable for detecting radiation using a system such as the system 121 operating as shown in Fig. 4. In step 901, compare, e.g., using the first voltage comparator 301, avoltage of an electrode of a diode or an electrical contact of a resistor exposed to radiation, to the first threshold. In step 902, determine, e.g., with the controller 310, whether the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold V1. If the absolute value of the voltage does not equal or exceed the absolute value of the first threshold, the method goes back to step 901. If the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold, continue to step 903. In step 903, start, e.g., using the controller 310, the time delay TD1. In step 904, activate, e.g., using the controller 310, a circuit (e.g., the second voltage comparator 302 or the counter 320) during the time delay TD1 (e.g., at the expiration of TD1) . In step 905, compare, e.g., using the second voltage comparator 302, the voltage to the second threshold V2. In step 906, determine, e.g., using the controller 310, whether the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold V2. If the absolute value of the voltage does not equal or exceed the absolute value of the second threshold, the method goes to step 910. If the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold, continue to step 907. In step 907, cause, e.g., using the controller 310, the number registered in the counter 320 to increase by one. In optional step 908, measure, e.g., using the voltmeter 306, the voltage upon expiration of the time delay TD1. In optional step 909, determine, e.g., using the controller 310, the radiation particle energy based the voltage measured in step 908. There may be a counter for each of the energy bins. After measuring the radiation particle energy, the counter for the bin to which the photon energy belongs can be increased by one. The method goes to step 910 after step 909. In step 910, reset the voltage to an electrical ground, e.g., by connecting the electrode of the diode or an electrical contact of a resistor to an electrical ground. Steps 908 and 909 may be omitted, for example, when neighboring pixels share a large portion (e.g., >30%) of charge carriers generated from a single photon.
[0068] Fig. 9B shows a flow chart for a method suitable for detecting radiation using the system such as the system 121 operating as shown in Fig. 6. In step 1001, compare, e.g., using the first voltage comparator 301, a voltage of an electrode of a diode or an electrical contact of a resistor exposed to radiation, to the first threshold. In step 1002, determine, e.g., with the controller 310, whether the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold V1. If the absolute value of the voltage does not equal or exceed the absolute value of the first threshold, the method goes back to step 1001. If the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the first threshold, continue to step 1003. In step 1003, start, e.g., using the controller 310, the time delay TD2. In step 1004, activate, e.g., using the controller 310, a circuit (e.g., the second voltage comparator 302 or the counter 320) during the time delay TD2 (e.g., at the expiration of TD2) . In step 1005, compare, e.g., using the second voltage comparator 302, the voltage to the second threshold. In step 1006, determine, e.g., using the controller 310, whether the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold V2. If the absolute value of the voltage does not equal or exceed the absolute value of the second threshold, the method goes to step 1010. If the absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds the absolute value of the second threshold, continue to step 1007. In step 1007, cause, e.g., using the controller 310, the number registered in the counter 320 to increase by one. The method goes to step 1010 after step 1007. In step 1010, reset the voltage to an electrical ground, e.g., by connecting the electrode of the diode or an electrical contact of a resistor to an electrical ground.
[0069] The semiconductor radiation detector 100 may be used for phase-contrast X-ray imaging (PCI) (also known as phase-sensitive X-ray imaging) . PCI encompasses techniques that form an image of an object at least partially using the phase shift (including the spatial distribution of the phase shift) of an X-ray beam caused by that object. One way to obtain the phase shift is transforming the phase into variations in intensity.
[0070] PCI can be combined with tomographic techniques to obtain the 3D-distribution of the real part of the refractive index of the object. PCI is more sensitive to density variations in the object than conventional intensity-based X-ray imaging (e.g., radiography) . PCI is especially useful for imaging soft tissues.
[0071] TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
[0072] Fig. 10 schematically shows a perspective view of a transmission electron microscope 1000, according to an embodiment. In an embodiment, the transmission electron microscope 1000 may include an electron source 1011, a lens subsystem 1020a+1020b, and the semiconductor radiation detector 100.
[0073] In an embodiment, the electron source 1011 may be configured to generate an electron beam 1012. The electron source 1011 may be an electron gun. In an embodiment, each electron of the electron beam 1012 may have an energy in the range of 1 KeV to 1 MeV.
[0074] In an embodiment, the lens subsystem 1020a+1020b may include an upstream portion 1020a and a downstream portion 1020b. In an embodiment, a specimen 1030 may be positioned between the upstream portion 1020a and the downstream portion 1020b.
[0075] In an embodiment, the upstream portion 1020a of the lens subsystem 1020a+1020b may include one or more condenser lenses configured to shape the electron beam 1012 so as to direct the electron beam 1012 from the electron source 1011 onto the specimen 1030. Each of the condenser lenses may be an electrostatic lens or an electromagnetic lens.
[0076] In an embodiment, the downstream portion 1020b of the lens subsystem 1020a+1020b may include (A) one or more objective lenses configured to focus the electron beam 1012 that has come through the specimen 1030, and (B) one or more projector lenses configured to expand the electron beam 1012 (that has come through the objective lenses) onto the semiconductor radiation detector 100. Each of the objective lenses and the projector lenses may be an electrostatic lens or an electromagnetic lens.
[0077] In short, the lens subsystem 1020a+1020b is configured to guide the electron beam 1012 from the electron source 1011 through the specimen 1030 and then toward the semiconductor radiation detector 100.
[0078] In an embodiment, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 may (A) receive the electron beam 1012 that has passed through the upstream portion 1020a, the specimen 1030, and the downstream portion 1020b, and (B) capture an image of the specimen 1030 based on the interaction between the electron beam 1012 and the specimen 1030.
[0079] FLOWCHART FOR GENERALIZING OPERATION OF TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
[0080] Fig. 11 shows a flowchart 1100 generalizing the operation of the transmission electron microscope 1000 of Fig. 10, according to an embodiment.
[0081] In step 1102, the operation may include generating an electron beam with the electron source. For example, in the embodiments described above, with reference to Fig. 10, the electron source 1011 generates the electron beam 1012.
[0082] In step 1104, the operation may include guiding with the lens subsystem the electron beam from the electron source through a specimen and then toward the radiation detector. For example, in the embodiments described above, with reference to Fig. 10, the lens subsystem 1020a+1020b guides the electron beam 1012 from the electron source 1011 through the specimen 1030 and then toward the semiconductor radiation detector 100.
[0083] In step 1106, the operation may include capturing with the radiation detector an image of the specimen based on an interaction between the electron beam and the specimen during an exposure. For example, in the embodiments described above, with reference to Fig. 10, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 captures the image of the specimen 1030 based on the interaction between the electron beam 1012 and the specimen 1030 during the exposure.
[0084] ELECTRON COUNTING MODE
[0085] In an embodiment, with reference to Fig. 10, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 may operate in the electron counting mode. Specifically, the value of each pixel of the image captured by the semiconductor radiation detector 100 may be related to the number registered by the counter 320 of the sensing element corresponding to the each pixel at the expiration of the exposure. In an embodiment, the value of the each pixel may be the number registered by the counter 320.
[0086] For example, assume the counter 320 of a particular sensing element of the semiconductor radiation detector 100 registers a number 10 at the expiration of the exposure. As a result, the value of the pixel of the image captured by the semiconductor radiation detector 100 corresponding to the particular sensing element is 10.
[0087] ENERGY RESOLUTION IN IMAGING
[0088] In the embodiments described above, with reference to Fig. 10, the counter 320 of each sensing element increases its content by 1 whenever the voltage of the electrical contact 119B of the each sensing element exceeds the second threshold in magnitude. In an alternative embodiment, for each sensing element, the semiconductor radiation detector 100 may include another counter (not shown) that increments its content by 1 whenever the voltage of the electrical contact 119B of the each sensing element falls within a pre-specified voltage range at the expiration of the time delay (e.g., ts of Fig. 4) .
[0089] In an embodiment, both the first and second thresholds may be less than any point of the pre-specified voltage range in magnitude. For example, the first and second thresholds can be 1V and 2V respectively, and the pre-specified voltage range can be from 3V to 4V.
[0090] In an embodiment, the value of each pixel of the image captured by the semiconductor radiation detector 100 may be related to the number registered by the other counter of the sensing element corresponding to the each pixel at the expiration of the exposure. In other words, the value of the each pixel is related to the number of times the voltage of the electrical contact 119B of the sensing element corresponding to the each pixel falls within the pre-specified voltage range at the expiration of the time delay during the exposure.
[0091] In an embodiment, the value of the each pixel may be the number registered by the other counter at the expiration of the exposure. For example, assume the other counter of a particular sensing element of the semiconductor radiation detector 100 registers a number 6 at the expiration of the exposure. As a result, the value of the pixel of the image captured by the semiconductor radiation detector 100 corresponding to the particular sensing element is 6.
[0092] While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.
Claims
1.A system, comprising:an electron source configured to generate an electron beam;a lens subsystem; anda radiation detector,wherein the lens subsystem is configured to guide the electron beam from the electron source through a specimen and then toward the radiation detector,wherein the radiation detector is configured to capture an image of the specimen based on an interaction between the electron beam and the specimen,wherein the radiation detector comprises:a radiation absorption layer comprising an electrode;a first voltage comparator configured to compare a voltage of the electrode to a first threshold;a second voltage comparator configured to compare the voltage to a second threshold;a counter configured to register a number of electrons absorbed by the radiation absorption layer; anda controller,wherein the controller is configured to start a time delay from a time at which the first voltage comparator determines that an absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds an absolute value of the first threshold,wherein the controller is configured to activate the second voltage comparator during the time delay, andwherein the controller is configured to cause the number registered by the counter to increase by one, if the second voltage comparator determines that an absolute value of the voltage equals or exceeds an absolute value of the second threshold.2.The system of claim 1, wherein the system is a transmission electron microscope.3.The system of claim 1, wherein each electron of the electron beam has an energy in a range of 1 KeV to 1 MeV.4.The system of claim 1, wherein the lens subsystem comprises an electrostatic lens or an electromagnetic lens.5.The system of claim 1,wherein the radiation detector further comprises a capacitor module electrically connected to the electrode, andwherein the capacitor module is configured to collect charge carriers from the electrode.6.The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to activate the second voltage comparator at a beginning or expiration of the time delay.7.The system of claim 1,wherein the radiation detector further comprises a voltmeter, andwherein the controller is configured to cause the voltmeter to measure the voltage upon expiration of the time delay.8.The system of claim 7, wherein the controller is configured to determine an electron energy based on a value of the voltage measured upon expiration of the time delay.9.The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to electrically connect the electrode to an electrical ground.10.The system of claim 1, wherein a rate of change of the voltage is substantially zero at expiration of the time delay.11.The system of claim 1, wherein a rate of change of the voltage is substantially non-zero at expiration of the time delay.12.The system of claim 1, wherein the radiation absorption layer comprises a diode.13.The system of claim 1, wherein the radiation absorption layer comprises silicon, germanium, GaAs, CdTe, CdZnTe, or a combination thereof.14.The system of claim 1, wherein the system does not comprise a scintillator.15.The system of claim 1, wherein the radiation absorption layer comprises an array of sensing elements.16.A method of using the system of any one of claims 1 –15, the method comprising:generating an electron beam with the electron source;guiding with the lens subsystem the electron beam from the electron source through a specimen and then toward the radiation detector; andcapturing with the radiation detector an image of the specimen based on an interaction between the electron beam and the specimen during an exposure.17.The method of claim 16, wherein a value of a pixel of the image is related to a number registered by the counter at expiration of the exposure.18.The method of claim 16, wherein a value of a pixel of the image is related to a number of times the voltage falls within a pre-specified voltage range at expiration of the time delay during the exposure.19.The method of claim 18, wherein the first and second thresholds are less than any point of the pre-specified voltage range in magnitude.
Citation Information
Patent Citations
Semiconductor x-ray detector
CN108271415A
Dark noise compensation in a radiation detector
CN109716165A
Dark noise compensation in radiation detector
CN111226136A
Semiconductor x-ray detector
CN113544546A
Transmission Electron Microscope and Method of Operating a Transmission Electron Microscope
US20130092836A1