Anode assembly for a battery cell

Abstract

The present disclosure provides an anode assembly for a battery cell. The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, a deposited layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral lithium compound. The present disclosure also provides methods of forming an anode assembly for a battery cell, and battery cells comprising anode assemblies.

Description

ANODE ASSEMBLY FOR A BATTERY CELL CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This PCT application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 552,773,filed on February 13, 2024, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The present invention relates to an anode assembly for a battery cell and methods offorming the same. BACKGROUND

[0003] Lithium (Li) metal is considered an ideal electrode (e.g., anode) material for nextgeneration energy storage systems (e.g., batteries) due to its low reduction potential (-3.04 V as compared to a standard hydrogen electrode) and high specific capacity (3860 mAh / g). However, lithium electrodes (e.g., anodes) have a tendency to form dendrites that may permeate between an anode and cathode, thereby creating short circuits. Moreover, organic liquid electrolytes are highlyflammable, creating safety concerns. As an alternative, solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) have been proposed due to their higher mechanical strength, which suppresses lithium dendrites, and their lack offlammability.

[0004] In addition, solid-state battery cell anodes (e.g., lithium-ion battery cell anodes) may befabricated with a metal material (e.g., lithium metal) disposed on a layer. Metal materials frequently disposed on the anode layer are sensitive to environmental conditions (e.g., moisture and oxygen). This sensitivity of the metal materials and the price associated with refining battery-grade metal materials increases costs for fabrication of the battery cells, since the manufacturing process must account for sourcing, storing, and handling of the metal materials. For anodes (or anode assemblies), wherein the lithium metal which forms the anode active material is generated upon the first charge of the cell from lithium originally disposed in the cathode, the electrochemistry attendant to this lithium formation may create excessive internal pressure within the anode, anode assembly, or battery cell, which can lead to failures in one or more battery cell components (e.g., seals, rigid SSE materials, and the like) and / or the battery cell itself.

[0005] As such, there remains a need to provide an improved anode assembly for a battery cell.1 59314257.1SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] In one aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell,comprising a separator layer; and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon monoxide (CO), wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of about 50% or less.

[0007] In some embodiments, the one or more gases has a relative humidity (RH) of less thanabout 45%. For example, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 40%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 40% (e.g., from about 2% to about 35%, from about 5% to about 30%, from about 6% to about 30%, or from about 10% to about 30%, or from about 20% to about 30). And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 35% (e.g., from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 20%, or from about 2% to about 10%).

[0008] In some embodiments, the one or more gases has a relative humidity (RH) of less thanabout 5.5%. For example, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 4.5% (e.g., from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, or from about 0.75% to about 1.5%). And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.2% to about 2% (e.g., from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%).

[0009] In some embodiments, the one or more gases is dry air. In other embodiments, the one ormore gases consists essentially of N2, O2, CO2, or CO. For example, the one or more gases consists essentially of N2. In other examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of O2. 2 59314257.1IN some examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of CO2. And, in some examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of CO.

[0010] In one aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell,comprising a separator layer; and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral lithium compound.

[0011] In some embodiments, the neutral lithium compound has the formula Lim(X)n, wherein Xis N, O, OH, C2O4, C2O3, C6, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. For example, Lim(X)n is LiOH, Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Li3N, LiC6, Li2C12, or any combination thereof. In other examples, Lim(X)n is Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, or Li3N.

[0012] In some embodiments, the interfacial layer additionally comprises carbon.

[0013] In some embodiments, the anode assembly comprises a separator layer; and an anodelayer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid- state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein an absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the coating of interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3.

[0014] In some embodiments, Lim(X)n is Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Li3N, or any combinationthereof. For example, Lim(X)nis Li2O. In other examples, Lim(X)nis Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, or any 3 59314257.1combination thereof. For instance, Lim(X)nis Li2CO3. In other instances, Lim(X)nis Li2C2O4. And, in some examples, Lim(X)n is Li3N.

[0015] In some embodiments, the coating of interfacial material further comprises domainsconsisting essentially of carbon.

[0016] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the coating of interfacial material has athickness of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm (e.g., from about 1 nm to about 5 nm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 5 nm to about 20 nm, from about 10 nm to about 20 nm, or from about 25 nm to about 50 nm).

[0017] In some embodiments, Ppores is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Ppores is fromabout 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In other examples, Pporesis from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some examples, Pporesis from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In other examples, Pporesis from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In still other examples, Ppores is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. And, in some examples, Ppores is from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. For instance, Pporesis from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa.

[0018] In some embodiments, a pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 100 Pato about 100,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

[0019] In some embodiments, the separator layer is substantially free of pores.

[0020] In some embodiments, the separator layer comprises a SSE material. For example, theSSE material of the separator layer comprises a polymer, a sulfide, an oxide, a chalcogenide, or any combination thereof.

[0021] In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about300 μm (e.g., from about 5 μm to about 275 μm, from about 10 μm to about 250 μm, or from about 20 μm to about 200 μm).

[0022] In some embodiments, the anode assembly comprises an anode material disposed on atleast a portion of the pores of the anode layer.

[0023] In some embodiments, the anode material comprises lithium metal.

[0024] In some embodiments, the anode layer comprises a garnet material.

[0025] In some of these embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm toabout 500 μm (e.g., from about 5 μm to about 450 μm, from about 10 μm to about 400 μm, from 4 59314257.1about 15 μm to about 375 μm, or from about 20 μm to about 350 μm). In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. And, in some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm.

[0026] In some embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises an anode current collectorcoupled to the second surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a metal foil. And, in some embodiments, the metal foil comprises copper, nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the metal foil (e.g., the copper, nickel, titanium, or stainless steel foil) has a tab configured to connect (e.g., electrically connect) with an external circuit.

[0027] In some embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises a deposited layer, whereinthe deposited layer is disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer and comprises a conductive material. In some examples, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For instance, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. In other instances, the deposited layer comprises graphene. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises graphite or carbon black. In some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises titanium or an oxide thereof. And, in some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises iron or an oxide or alloy (e.g., stainless steel) thereof.

[0028] In some embodiments, the anode assembly comprises a separator layer; an anode layer atleast partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein a least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein an absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the coating of interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 5 59314257.12, or 3; and a barrier disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defining an interior and exterior, wherein the barrier is impervious to liquid and gas, wherein the anode layer is disposed in the interior of the barrier, and wherein an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, under isothermal conditions.

[0029] In some of these embodiments, Lim(X)n is Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Li3N, or anycombination thereof.

[0030] In some of these embodiments, the coating of interfacial material further comprisesdomains consisting essentially of carbon.

[0031] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the coating of interfacial material has athickness of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm (e.g., from about 1 nm to about 5 nm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 5 nm to about 20 nm, from about 10 nm to about 20 nm, or from about 25 nm to about 50 nm).

[0032] In some of these embodiments, Ppores is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Ppores isfrom about 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In other examples, Pporesis from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some examples, Ppores is from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In other examples, Ppores is from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In still other examples, Ppores is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. And, in some examples, Pporesis from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. For instance, Ppores is from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa.

[0033] In some of these embodiments, a pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is fromabout 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pporesand Penvis from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

[0034] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer is disposed in the interior of thebarrier.

[0035] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer is substantially free of pores.

[0036] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer comprises a SSE material. And, insome embodiments, the SSE material comprises a polymer, a sulfide, an oxide, a chalcogenide, or any combination thereof.

[0037] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm toabout 300 μm (e.g., from about 5 μm to about 275 μm, from about 10 μm to about 250 μm, or from about 20 μm to about 200 μm). In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness 6 59314257.1of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm. And, in some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 10 μm.

[0038] In some of these embodiments, an anode material is disposed in at least a portion of thepores of the anode layer.

[0039] In some of these embodiments, the anode material comprises lithium metal.

[0040] In some of these embodiments, the anode layer comprises a garnet material.

[0041] In some of these embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm toabout 500 μm (e.g., from about 5 μm to about 450 μm, from about 10 μm to about 400 μm, from about 15 μm to about 375 μm, or from about 20 μm to about 350 μm). In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. And, in some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm.

[0042] In some of these embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the anode layer.

[0043] In some of these embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises a deposited layer,wherein the deposited layer is disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer and has a first surface facing the second surface of the anode layer and a second surface facing away from the anode layer, and wherein the deposited layer comprises a conductive material. In some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For instance, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. In other instances, the deposited layer comprises graphene. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises graphite or carbon black. In some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises titanium or an oxide thereof. And, in some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises iron or an oxide or alloy (e.g., stainless steel) thereof. 7 59314257.1

[0044] In some of these embodiments, the deposited layer is disposed in the interior of thebarrier.

[0045] In some of these embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the deposited layer.

[0046] In some of these embodiments, at least a portion of the anode current collector isdisposed in the interior of the barrier.

[0047] In some of these embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a metal foil. And,in some embodiments, the metal foil comprises copper, nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the metal foil (e.g., the copper, nickel, titanium, or stainless steel foil) has a tab configured to connect (e.g., electrically connect) with an external circuit.

[0048] In some of these embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a tab configured toconnect with an external circuit.

[0049] In some of these embodiments, the barrier is a seal, wherein the seal comprises a sealantmaterial.

[0050] In some of these embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the anode currentcollector.

[0051] In some of these embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the outer surfaceof the anode layer.

[0052] In some of these embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the second surfaceof the deposited layer.

[0053] In some of these embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the separatorlayer.

[0054] In some of these embodiments, the seal couples the anode current collector to the secondsurface of the anode layer (e.g., by bonding the anode current collector in contact with the second surface of the anode layer).

[0055] In some of these embodiments, electrically conductive tape couples the anode currentcollector to the second surface of the anode layer

[0056] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer has a front surface facing the anodelayer, a back surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the 8 59314257.1front surface to the back surface. And, in some of these embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the outer surface of the separator layer.

[0057] In some of these embodiments, the separator layer defines a recess, and wherein the sealis disposed in the recess of the separator layer.

[0058] In some of these embodiments, the anode layer defines a first porous region between acenter and the outer surface of the anode layer and a second porous region between the first porous region and the outer surface of the anode layer.

[0059] In some of these embodiments, the pores for the first porous region are substantially freeof the sealant material.

[0060] In some of these embodiments, at least a portion of the pores of the second porous regioncomprise the sealant material.

[0061] In some of these embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the anode layer; wherein the separator layer has a front surface facing the anode layer, a back surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the front surface to the back surface, and wherein the anode current collector has an interior surface facing the anode layer, an exterior surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the interior surface to the exterior surface; and wherein the seal is at least partially disposed on each of the outer surface of the anode layer, the outer surface of the separator layer, and the outer surface of the anode current collector.

[0062] In some of these embodiments, the sealant material comprises a non-conductive polymer,a non-conductive glass, or any combination thereof. For example, the sealant material comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

[0063] In some of these embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about1 µm to about 50 µm. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 20 µm. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a 9 59314257.1thickness of from about 1 µm to about 10 µm. And, in some embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 5 µm.

[0064] Another aspect of the present invention provides a method of forming a battery cell,wherein the method comprises: (a) providing a separator layer, and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material; (b) infiltrating at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer with one or more gases selected from N2, O2, CO2, and CO from an external source at a temperature of from about -20 °C to about 100 °C, a pressure of from about 100 Pa to about 1.1 MPa, and a relative humidity of less than about 50%; (c) coupling an anode current collector to the anode layer; (d) forming a barrier about the outer surface of the anode layer to form the anode assembly, wherein the barrier defines an interior and exterior, wherein the anode layer is disposed within the interior of the barrier, and wherein the barrier is impervious to liquid and gas; (e) coupling a cathode assembly to the anode assembly to form a battery cell; and (f) charging the battery cell with an electrical current to form an interfacial material within at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer infiltrated with the one or more gases thereby reducing an absolute pressure, Ppores, within the pores containing interfacial material.

[0065] In some implementations, the method further comprises:(a-i) depositing a deposited layer on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer.

[0066] In some implementations, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metalalloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For example, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. In other examples, the deposited layer comprises 10 59314257.1graphene. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises graphite or carbon black. In other instances, the deposited layer comprises titanium or an oxide thereof. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises iron or an oxide or alloy (e.g., stainless steel) thereof.

[0067] In some implementations, step (c) further comprises electrically coupling the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer. For instance, in some methods comprising step (a-i), step (c) further comprises (c-i) coupling the anode current collector to a surface of the deposited layer facing away from the anode layer. And, in some of these implementations, step (c-i) further comprises adhesively coupling the anode current collector to the deposited layer. In other implementations, step (c-i) further comprises brazing the anode current collector to the deposited layer.

[0068] In other implementations, step (c) further comprises adhesively coupling the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer. For example, electrically conductive tape couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer, or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer. In another example, an electrically conductive adhesive couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer, or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer.

[0069] In some implementations, step (d) is performed before or after the coupling of the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer.

[0070] In some implementations, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metalalloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For example, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof.

[0071] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by cold-pressing, hot-pressing, melting, 3D- printing, drop casting, painting, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer.

[0072] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by applying the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer with a paintbrush, a roller, a plastic applicator, a 11 59314257.1metal applicator, a shaping tool, a syringe dispenser, a dispenser valve, or any combination thereof.

[0073] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by dip-coating at least a portion of the outer surface of the anode layer in the sealant material.

[0074] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by injection molding, in-line extrusion, spray deposition, 3D-printing, wrapping, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer.

[0075] In some implementations, the sealant material comprises a polymer, and wherein thepolymer comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene- octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene- acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

[0076] In some implementations, steps (c) and (d) are performed concurrently wherein thebarrier is a seal that couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer (e.g., by bonding the anode current collector in contact with the second surface of the anode layer or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer).

[0077] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a temperature offrom about 10 °C to about 40 °C. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a temperature of from about 15 °C to about 30 °C.

[0078] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a pressure of fromabout 1,000 Pa to about 510,000 Pa (e.g., from about 1,000 Pa to about 510,000 Pa). For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a pressure of from about 80,000 Pa to about 130,000 Pa. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a pressure of from about 102,000 Pa to about 110,000 Pa (e.g., from about 102,500 Pa to about 104,800 Pa).

[0079] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity ofless than about 45%. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity 12 59314257.1of from about 0.01% to about 40%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 40% (e.g., from about 2% to about 35%, from about 5% to about 30%, from about 6% to about 30%, or from about 10% to about 30%, or from about 20% to about 30). And, in some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 35% (e.g., from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 20%, or from about 2% to about 10%).

[0080] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity offrom about 0.01% to about 7%. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 6.5%.

[0081] In some implementations, the barrier forming of step (d) is performed in the presence ofthe one or more gases. In some examples, barrier forming step (d) further comprises sealing the one or more gases within at least a portion of the pores of the anode material.

[0082] In some implementations, the barrier forming of step (d) is performed at the sametemperature as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same pressure as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same relative humidity as the infiltration step (b), or any combination thereof.

[0083] In some implementations, step (d) further comprises forming a barrier, wherein at least aportion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 50 µm. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 20 µm. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 10 µm. And, in some embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 5 µm.

[0084] In some implementations, charging step (f) further comprises charging the battery cellwith at a charging rate of from about C / 50 to about 5C. For example, charging step (e) further comprises charging the battery cell with at a charging rate of from about C / 30 to about C / 5.

[0085] The present invention also provides a battery cell. The battery cell comprises the anodeassembly described herein and a cathode assembly. The cathode assembly comprises a cathode layer and a cathode current collector. The cathode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer of the anode assembly. The cathode current collector is coupled to the cathode layer. 13 59314257.1BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0086] The figures below are provided by way of example and are not intended to limit the scopeof the claimed invention.

[0087] FIG. 1 is a side view of one embodiment of an anode assembly for a battery cellaccording to the present invention.

[0088] FIG. 2A is a cross-sectional view of a second embodiment of an anode assembly for abattery cell according to the present invention.

[0089] FIG. 2B is a front view of the anode assembly of FIG. 2A.

[0090] FIGS. 3A and 3B are cross-sectional views of two (2) embodiments of anode assembliesaccording to the present invention.

[0091] FIG. 4A is a photograph of a separator layer and anode layer of an anode assemblyformed according to Anode Assembly Process 1 of Example 1, wherein a corner of the anode layer and separator layer is removed to provide a visual reference indicating the separator layer is top-facing.

[0092] FIG. 4B is a microscope image of a cross-section of a sample of the anode layer formedaccording to Anode Assembly Process 1 of Example 1 at a magnification of 2500x.

[0093] FIG. 5A is a photograph of a graphene-treated anode layer of the anode assembly formedaccording to Anode Assembly Process 1 of Example 1.

[0094] FIG. 5B is a photograph of a sealed anode assembly according to Anode AssemblyProcess 1 of Example 1.

[0095] FIG. 6A is a photograph of a separator layer and anode layer of an anode assemblyformed according to Anode Assembly Process 2 of Example 1, wherein a corner of the anode layer and separator layer is removed to provide a visual reference indicating the separator layer is top-facing.

[0096] FIG. 6B is a microscope image of a cross-section of a sample of the anode layer formedaccording to Anode Assembly Process 2 of Example 1 at a magnification of 2500x.

[0097] FIG. 7A is a photograph of a graphene-treated anode layer of the anode assembly formedaccording to Anode Assembly Process 2 of Example 1.

[0098] FIG. 7B is a photograph of a sealed anode assembly according to Anode AssemblyProcess 2 of Example 1. 14 59314257.1

[0099] FIG. 8 is line graphs of Coulombic efficiencies (CE) vs. cycle number for each of TestCells 1A-4A and 1B-3B according to Example 2A.

[0100] FIG. 9 is line graphs of discharge capacities (mAh / cm2) vs. cycle number for each of TestCells 1A-4A and 1B-3B according to Example 2A.

[0101] FIG. 10 is stacked electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots of impedance vs.resistance for each of Test Cells 1A-4A and 1B-3B according to Example 2A.

[0102] FIGS. 11A-11G are traces of cell voltage vs. charge capacity (mAh / cm2) for each of TestCells 1A-4A and 1B-3B according to Example 2A during the first charge cycle.

[0103] FIGS. 12A-12G are individual electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots ofimpedance vs. resistance for each of Test Cells 1A-4A and 1B-3B according to Example 2A.

[0104] FIG. 13 is stacked cyclic voltammetry traces for Test Cell 1B – Control 2 according toExample 2A for charge cycles 1-9 as charge capacity per unit change in voltage vs. cell voltage.

[0105] FIG. 14 is stacked cyclic voltammetry traces for Test Cell 3B according to Example 2Afor charge cycles 1-9 as charge capacity per unit change in voltage vs. cell voltage.

[0106] FIGS. 15A and 15B are traces of cell voltage vs. cell capacity (mAh / cm2) for each of TestCell 1A – Control 1 and Test Cell 3A according to Example 2A.

[0107] FIGS. 16A and 16B are traces of cell voltage vs. cell capacity (mAh / cm2) for each of TestCell 1A – Control 1 and Test Cell 3A according to Example 2A.

[0108] FIG. 17 is stacked cyclic voltammetry traces for Test Cell 1A – Control 1 and Test Cell3A according to Example 2A for each cell’s first charge cycle as charge capacity per unit change in voltage vs. cell voltage.

[0109] FIG. 18 is stacked cyclic voltammetry traces for Test Cell 1B – Control 2 and Test Cell3B according to Example 2A for each cell’s first charge cycle as charge capacity per unit change in voltage vs. cell voltage.

[0110] FIGS. 19A-19C are electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots of impedancevs. resistance for Test Cell 1A – Control 1 and Test Cell 3A according to Example 2A for the first two charge cycles for each cell.

[0111] FIGS. 20A and 20B are electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots ofimpedance vs. resistance for Test Cell 1B – Control 2 and Test Cell 3B according to Example 2A for the first two charge cycles for each cell. 15 59314257.1

[0112] FIG. 21 is line graphs of Coulombic efficiencies (CE) vs. charge cycles number for eachof Test Cells 2C-5C according to Example 2A.

[0113] FIG. 22 is line graphs of discharge capacities (mAh / cm2) vs. charge cycles number foreach of Test Cells 2C-5C according to Example 2A.

[0114] FIG. 23 is stacked electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots of impedance vs.resistance for each of Test Cells 1C and 3C-5C according to Example 2A.

[0115] FIGS. 24A and 24B are traces of cell voltage vs. charge capacity (mAh / cm2) for TestCells 1C and 3C according to Example 2A during charge cycles 1-9.

[0116] FIGS. 25A-25G are individual electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) plots ofimpedance vs. resistance for each of Test Cells 1C and 3C-5C according to Example 2A.

[0117] FIG. 26 is a line graph of mean charging efficiency for Test Cells 1C and 5C (SOPcontrol) and Test Cells 2C-4C (Air Sealed) vs. charge cycle number according to Example 2A.

[0118] FIG. 27 is line graphs of discharge capacity (mAh / cm2) vs. charge cycle number for TestCells 4C and 5C according to Example 2A.

[0119] FIG. 28 is plots of Coulombic efficiency (CE) vs. charge cycle number for Test Cells 1D-11D of according to Example 2B.

[0120] FIG. 29 is plots of discharge capacity (mAh / cm2) vs. charge cycle number for Test Cells1D-11D according to Example 2B.

[0121] FIG. 30 is a line graph of discharge capacity (mAh / cm2) vs. charge cycle number for eachof Test Cells 3D, 5D, 7D, 9D, and 10D according to Example 2B.

[0122] Like reference numerals in the various drawings indicate like elements. For example, theseparator layer may be referred to as 102 in FIG.1, as 602 in FIG.6A, and 802 FIG.8A. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0123] The present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery call, a battery cellcomprising such an anode assembly, and methods of forming such an anode assembly.

[0124] As used herein, the following definitions shall apply unless otherwise indicated.

[0125] I. DEFINITIONS

[0126] The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular exemplaryconfigurations only and is not intended to be limiting. As used herein, the singular articles “a,” “an,” and “the” may be intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. The terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “including,” and “having,” are 16 59314257.1inclusive and therefore specify the presence of features, steps, operations, elements, and / or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, steps, operations, elements, components, and / or groups thereof. The method steps, processes, and operations described herein are not to be construed as necessarily requiring their performance in the particular order discussed or illustrated, unless specifically identified as an order of performance. Additional or alternative steps may be employed.

[0127] The terms “first,” “second,” “third,” etc. may be used herein to describe various elements,components, regions, layers and / or sections. These elements, components, regions, layers and / or sections should not be limited by these terms. These terms may be only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer or section from another region, layer or section. Terms such as “first,” “second,” and other numerical terms do not imply a sequence or order unless clearly indicated by the context. Thus, a first element, component, region, layer or section discussed below could be termed a second element, component, region, layer or section without departing from the teachings of the example configurations.

[0128] As used herein, when an element is referred to as being “on,” “engaged to,” “connectedto,” “attached to,” or “coupled to” another element, it may be directly on, engaged, connected, attached, or coupled to the other element, or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on,” “directly engaged to,” “directly connected to,” “directly attached to,” or “directly coupled to” another element, there may be no intervening elements or layers present. Other words used to describe the relationship between elements should be interpreted in a like fashion (e.g., “between” versus “directly between,” “adjacent” versus “directly adjacent,” etc.). As used herein, the term “and / or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

[0129] As used herein, the term “battery cell” refers to a rechargeable secondary cell. In someembodiments, the battery cell may be a solid-state lithium-ion battery cell.

[0130] As used herein, the term “anode assembly” refers to an assembly comprising a separatorlayer and an anode layer. In some instances, the anode assembly optionally comprises an anode current collector and / or a barrier. For example, an anode assembly can comprise a separator layer, an anode layer, an anode current collector coupled to the anode layer, and a barrier (e.g., seal) that substantially (or hermetically) seals the anode layer. 17 59314257.1

[0131] As used herein, the term “separator layer” refers to a layer disposed between an anodelayer and a cathode layer in a battery cell and that permits cations (e.g., lithium cations) to flow between the anode and cathode layers. In some embodiments, the separator layer is substantially free of pores (e.g., having an apparent porosity of less than 50%, having an apparent porosity of less than 40%, having an apparent porosity of less than 30%, having an apparent porosity of less than 20%, having an apparent porosity of less than 15%, having an apparent porosity of less than 10%, having an apparent porosity of less than 5%, or having an apparent porosity of less than 1%). And, in some embodiments, the separator layer is free of pores.

[0132] As used herein, the term “anode layer” refers to a negative electrode layer from whichelectrons flow during the discharging phase of a battery cell. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer and a second surface facing away from the separator layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material having pores. In some embodiments, an absolute pressure within the pores, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions. In other embodiments, when the anode layer is disposed in an interior of a barrier, Ppores is substantially the same as an absolute pressure of the interior of the barrier, Pint, under isothermal conditions.

[0133] As used herein, the term “bi-layer” refers to the anode layer disposed on the separatorlayer.

[0134] As used herein, the term “deposited layer” refers to a layer at least partially disposed onthe surface of the anode layer facing away from the separator layer. In some embodiments, the deposited layer facilitates electronic conductance, while providing a physical barrier to at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the deposited layer electrochemically alloys and / or reacts with a metal material (e.g., lithium metal) at room temperature.

[0135] As used herein, the term “anode current collector” refers to a current collector coupled tothe anode layer (e.g., the second surface of the anode layer). In embodiments comprising a deposited layer (e.g., graphene), the anode current collector is electrically coupled to anode layer by virtue of being coupled to the deposited layer disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer. The anode current collector is configured to be coupled to the deposited layer during operation of the battery cell (e.g., charging and / or discharging of the 18 59314257.1battery cell). In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a metal foil. In other embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a tab configured to connect with an external circuit.

[0136] As used herein, the term “cathode assembly” refers to an assembly comprising a cathodelayer and cathode current collector.

[0137] As used herein, the term “cathode layer” refers to a positive electrode layer into whichelectrons flow during the discharging phase of the battery cell.

[0138] As used herein, the term “Ppores” refers to the absolute pressure within the pores of theanode layer when at least a portion of the anode layer pores are at least partially coated with the interfacial material. This pressure is determined when the anode layer and / or the anode assembly is hermetically sealed (e.g., by a barrier).

[0139] As used herein, the term “environment outside of the anode layer” refers to anenvironment having an absolute pressure that is greater than Ppores and that is separated from the anode layer by one or more barriers that are impervious to liquid and gas under isothermal conditions. For example, when the anode layer is disposed in a seal, the environment outside of the anode layer refers to the environment outside of the seal. In other embodiments, when the anode layer is disposed in a housing, the environment outside of the anode layer refers to the environment outside of the housing. In some embodiments, Penv is from about 90,000 Pa to about 110,000 Pa.

[0140] As used herein, the term “cathode current collector” refers to a current collector coupledto the cathode layer. The cathode current collector is configured to be electrically coupled to the cathode layer during operation of the battery cell (e.g., charging and / or discharging of the battery cell). In some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises a metal foil. In other embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises a tab configured to connect with an external circuit.

[0141] As used herein, the term “apparent porosity” refers to the open (or accessible) porosity(i.e., porosity that excludes volume(s) from sealed or closed pores, cells, or voids). Apparent porosity can be represented as a fraction or percentage of the volume of open pores, cells, or voids over the total volume.

[0142] As used herein, the term “barrier” refers to a component disposed about the anode layerand that defines an interior and an exterior. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the 19 59314257.1barrier. The barrier is impervious to liquid and gas, thereby preventing flow of liquid and gas into, or out of, the anode layer. An absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the barrier is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the barrier. In some embodiments, the barrier is a seal. In other embodiments, the barrier is a housing.

[0143] As used herein, the term “seal” refers to a layer disposed about the anode layer and thatdefines an interior and an exterior. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the seal. The seal comprises a sealant material. In some embodiments, when the barrier is the seal, the seal is impervious to liquid and gas, thereby preventing flow of liquid and gas into, or out of, the anode layer. In some embodiments, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the seal is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the seal. In other embodiments, the seal is substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas.

[0144] As used herein, the term “dry air” refers to air having a relative humidity of less thanabout 30%. For example, dry air may have a relative humidity of less than about 10.5%, less than about 7.5%, less than about 5.5%, less than about 4.5%, less than about 3.5%, less than about 2.5%, less than about 1.5%, less than about 0.5%. less than about 0.25%, less than about 0.15%, or less than about 0.1%. In some embodiments, the one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO is dry air. Dry air may comprise, for example, one or more of nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), argon (Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2), neon (Ne), helium (He), methane (CH4), krypton (Kr), hydrogen (H), nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon monoxide (CO), xenon (Xe), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), iodine (I2), and ammonia (NH3). The terms “dry air” and “dry ambient air” are used interchangeably herein.

[0145] II. ANODE ASSEMBLY

[0146] In one aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.

[0147] Referring to FIG. 1, the anode assembly 100 comprises a separator layer 102 and ananode layer 104 at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface 114 facing the separator layer, a second surface 116 facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface 118 extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores 120 adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the 20 59314257.1anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO.

[0148] A. Separator Layer

[0149] The separator layer may be comprised of any suitable material that permits cations (e.g.,lithium cations) to flow between anode and cathode layers during operation (e.g., charging and / or discharging) of a battery cell. In some embodiments, the separator layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material. For example, the SSE material of the separator layer may comprise a polymer, a sulfide, an oxide, a chalcogenide, or any combination thereof. For example, the SSE material may comprise a sulfide. In some embodiments, the SSE material comprises LSS, LTS, LXPS, LXPSO, LATS, lithium garnets, or any combination thereof, wherein X is Si, Ge, Sn, As, Al, or any combination thereof, wherein S is S, Si, or any combination thereof, and wherein T is Sn.

[0150] As used herein, “LSS” refers to lithium silicon sulfide, which can be described asLi2S–SiS2, Li–SiS2, Li–S–Si, or a SSE material comprising Li, S, and Si. In some embodiments, LSS comprise LixSiySz, wherein 0.33≤x≤0.5, 0.1≤y≤0.2, and 0.4≤z≤0.55. In some embodiments, LSS may comprise up to 10 atomic % oxygen. In other embodiments, LSS may comprise a SSE material comprising Li, Si, and S. In some embodiments, LSS comprises a mixture of Li2S and SiS2. In some embodiments, a molar ratio of Li2S:SiS2 is 90:10, 85:15, 80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 2:1, 65:35, 60:40, 55:45, or 50:50. In some embodiments, LSS may further comprise a doped compound such as LixPOy, LixBOy, Li4SiO4, Li3MO4, Li3MO3, PS, and / or lithium halides such as, but not limited to, LiI, LiCl, LiF, or LiBr, wherein 0<x≤5 and 0<y≤5.

[0151] As used herein, “LTS” refers to a lithium tin sulfide compound, which can be describedas Li2S–SnS2, Li2S–SnS, Li–S–Sn, or an SSE material comprising Li, S, and Sn. In some embodiments, LTS may comprise LixSnySz, wherein 0.25≤x≤0.65, 0.05≤y≤0.2, and 0.25≤z≤0.65. In some embodiments, LTS may comprise a mixture of Li2S and SnS2 in a molar ratio (i.e., Li2S:SnS2) of 80:20, 75:25, 70:30, 2:1, or 1:1. In some embodiments, LTS may comprise up to 10 atomic % oxygen. In other embodiments, LTS may be doped with Bi, Sb, As, P, B, Al, Ge, Ga, In, or any combination thereof. As used herein, “LATS” refers to LTS, as used above, and further comprising Arsenic (As). 21 59314257.1

[0152] As used herein, “LXPS” refers to a material characterized by the formula LiaMPbSc,wherein M is Si, Ge, Sn, Al, or any combination thereof, and wherein 2≤a≤8, 0.5≤b≤2.5, and 4≤c≤12. “LSPS” refers to an electrolyte material characterized by the formula LaSiPbSc, where 2≤a≤8, 0.5≤b≤2.5, 4≤c≤12.

[0153] When M is Sn and Si (i.e., both Sn and Si are present), the LXPS material is referred toas “LSTPS”. As used herein, “LSTPSO” refers to LSTPS that is doped with, or has, O present. In some embodiments, “LSTPSO” is a LSTPS material with an oxygen content between 0.01 and 10 atomic %. As used herein, “LSPS” refers to an electrolyte material having Li, Si, P, and S chemical constituents. As used herein “LSTPS,” refers to an electrolyte material having Li, Si, P, Sn, and S chemical constituents. As used herein, “LSPSO,” refers to LSPS that is doped with, or has, O present. In some embodiments, “LSPSO” is an LSPS material with an oxygen content between 0.01 and 10 atomic %. As used herein, “LATP” refers to an electrolyte material having Li, As, Sn, and P chemical constituents. As used herein “LAGP” refers to an electrolyte material having Li, As, Ge, and P chemical constituents. As used herein, “LXPSO” refers to an electrolyte material comprising LiaMPbScOd, wherein M is Si, Ge, Sn, Al, or any combination thereof, and wherein 2≤a≤8, 0.5≤b≤2.5, 4≤c≤12, and d<3. LXPSO refers to LXPS, as defined above, and having oxygen doping at from 0.1 to about 10 atomic %. As used herein, “LPS” refers to an electrolyte material comprises Li2S–P2S5. As used herein, “LPSO” refers to LPS, as defined herein, and further comprising oxygen doping at from 0.1 to about 10 atomic %.

[0154] In some embodiments, the SSE material of the separator layer comprises a polymer. Forexample, the polymer may comprise polyolefins, natural rubbers, synthetic rubbers, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, epoxidized natural rubber, polyisobutylene, polypropylene oxide, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, polyesters, polyvinyl esters, polyurethanes, styrenic polymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, poly(bisphenol A-co-epichlorohydrin), vinyl polymers, polyvinyl halides, polyvinyl alcohol, polyethyleneimine, poly(maleic anhydride), silicone polymers, siloxane polymers, polyacrylonitrile, polyacrylamide, polychloroprene, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, polyepichlorohydrin, blends thereof, or copolymers thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyolefins. In some embodiments, the polymer is natural rubbers. In some embodiments, the polymer is synthetic rubbers. In some embodiments, the polymer is polybutadiene. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyisoprene. In some embodiments, the polymer is epoxidized natural rubber. In other embodiments, the polymer is polyisobutylene. In 22 59314257.1some embodiments, the polymer is polypropylene oxide. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyacrylates. In some embodiments, the polymer is polymethacrylates. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyesters. In other embodiments, the polymer is polyvinyl esters. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyurethanes. In some embodiments, the polymer is styrenic polymers. In some embodiments, the polymer is epoxy resins. In some embodiments, the polymer is epoxy polymers. In some embodiments, the polymer is poly(bisphenol A-co- epichlorohydrin). In some embodiments, the polymer is vinyl polymers. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyvinyl halides. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyvinyl alcohol. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyethyleneimine. In other embodiments, the polymer is poly(maleic anhydride). In some embodiments, the polymer is silicone polymers. In some embodiments, the polymer is siloxane polymers. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyacrylonitrile. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyacrylamide. In some embodiments, the polymer is polychloroprene. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyvinylidene fluoride. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyvinyl pyrrolidone. In some embodiments, the polymer is polyepichlorohydrin. In some embodiments, a molecular weight of the polymer is greater than about 50,000 g / mol.

[0155] In some embodiments, the polymer is preformed and selected from the group consistingof polypropylene, polyethylene, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, epoxidized natural rubber, poly(butadiene-co-acrylonitrile), polyethyleneimine, polydimethylsiloxane, and poly(ethylene- co-vinyl acetate). In other embodiments, a molecular weight of the polymer is greater than about 50,000 g / mol.

[0156] When the SSE material comprises a polymer, the SSE material may further comprise ametal salt (e.g., a lithium salt (e.g., LiPF6)).

[0157] In some embodiments, the SSE material of the separator layer comprises a lithiumperovskite material, Li3N, Li-β-alumina, Lithium Super-ionic Conductors (LISICON), Li2.88PO3.86N0.14 (LiPON), Li9AlSiO8, Li10GeP2S12, lithium garnet SSE materials, doped lithium garnet SSE materials, lithium garnet composite materials, or any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the lithium garnet SSE material is cation-doped Li5La3M12O12, where M1is Nb, Zr, Ta, or any combination thereof, cation-doped Li6La2BaTa2O12, cation-doped Li7La3Zr2O12, and cation-doped Li6BaY2M12O12, where cation dopants are barium, yttrium, zinc, or combinations thereof, and the like. In various other embodiments, the lithium garnet SSE 23 59314257.1material is Li5La3Nb2O12, Li5La3Ta2O12, Li7La3Zr2O12, Li6La2SrNb2O12, Li6La2BaNb2O12, Li6La2SrTa2O12, Li6La2BaTa2O12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.4Y3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12, Li6.5La2.5Ba0.5TaZrO12, Li6BaY2M12O12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.75BaLa2Nb1.75Zn0.25O12, Li6.75BaLa2Ta1.75Zn0.25O12, or any combination thereof.

[0158] In some embodiments, the SSE material of the separator layer and the SSE material of theanode layer are the same (e.g., the SSE material of the separator layer may be any SSE material described herein for the anode layer). In other embodiments, the SSE material of the separator layer and the SSE material of the separator layer are different.

[0159] In some embodiments, the separator layer is substantially free of pores (e.g., having anapparent porosity of less than 50%, having an apparent porosity of less than 40%, having an apparent porosity of less than 30%, having an apparent porosity of less than 20%, having an apparent porosity of less than 15%, having an apparent porosity of less than 10%, having an apparent porosity of less than 5%, or having an apparent porosity of less than 1%). And, in some embodiments, the separator layer is free of pores.

[0160] In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about300 μm. In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. In some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm. And, in some embodiments, the separator layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 10 μm.

[0161] As illustrated in FIG. 1, the separator layer has a front surface 106 facing the anode layer,a back surface 108 facing away from the anode layer and an outer surface 110 extending from the front surface to the back surface.

[0162] B. Anode Layer

[0163] Referring to FIG. 1, the anode layer 104 is at least partially disposed on the separatorlayer. In some embodiments, the anode layer has a first surface 114 facing the separator layer, a second surface 116 facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface 118 extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a SSE material defining pores 120 adapted to receive an anode material, as shown in FIG.1, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute 24 59314257.1pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO.

[0164] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 50% (e.g., less than about 45%). In some examples, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and ambient atmospheric gases having a relative humidity of from about 10% to about 44.99%. In other examples, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 40%. In some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 40% (e.g., from about 2% to about 35%, from about 5% to about 30%, from about 6% to about 30%, or from about 10% to about 30%, or from about 20% to about 30). And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 35% (e.g., from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 20%, or from about 2% to about 10%).

[0165] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 5.5%. For example, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 4.5% (e.g., from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, or from about 0.75% to about 1.5%). And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.2% to about 2% (e.g., from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%).

[0166] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 10.5%. For example, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 7.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 5.5%. In some examples, the one or 25 59314257.1more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 4.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 3.5%. In some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 2.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of less than about 0.5% (e.g., less than about 0.25%, less than about 0.15%, or less than about 0.1%).

[0167] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 10.5%. For example, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 7.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 5.5%. In some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 4.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 3.5%. In some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 2.5%. In other examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the one or more gases has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 0.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 0.25%, from about 0.01% to about 0.15%, or from about 0.01% to about 0.1%).

[0168] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases, wherein the one or more gases is dry air, and wherein the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 10.5%. For example, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 7.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 5.5%. In some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 4.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 3.5%. In some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 2.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of less than about 0.5% (e.g., less than about 0.25%, less than about 0.15%, or less than about 0.1%).

[0169] In some embodiments, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metalliclithium and one or more gases, wherein the one or more gases is dry air, and wherein the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 10.5%. For example, the dry air has a 26 59314257.1relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 7.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 5.5%. In some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 4.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 3.5%. In some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 2.5%. In other examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the dry air has a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 0.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 0.25%, from about 0.01% to about 0.15%, or from about 0.01% to about 0.1%).

[0170] In some embodiments, the one or more gases is dry air. In other embodiments, the one ormore gases consists essentially of N2, O2, CO2, or CO. For example, the one or more gases consists essentially of N2. In other examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of O2. In some examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of CO2. And, in some examples, the one or more gases consists essentially of CO. For instance, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and dry air having a relative humidity of less than about 5.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%). In other instances, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and N2 having a relative humidity of less than about 5.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%). In other instances, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and O2 having a relative humidity of less than about 5.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%). In other instances, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and CO2 having a relative humidity of less than about 5.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or 27 59314257.1from about 0.5% to about 1%). In other instances, the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and CO having a relative humidity of less than about 5.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%).

[0171] In some embodiments, the anode assembly comprises a separator layer; and an anodelayer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid- state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein an absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the coating of interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound (i.e., a neutral lithium compound). In some embodiments, the neutral compound is a neutral lithium compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, OH, C2O4, C2O3, C6, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. For example, Lim(X)nis LiOH, Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Li3N, LiC6, Li2C12, or any combination thereof. In other examples, Lim(X)n is Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, or Li3N.

[0172] In some embodiments, the interfacial layer additionally comprises carbon. For example,the coating of interfacial material further comprises domains consisting essentially of carbon.

[0173] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the coating of interfacial material has athickness of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm (e.g., from about 1 nm to about 5 nm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 5 nm to about 20 nm, from about 10 nm to about 20 nm, or from about 25 nm to about 50 nm).

[0174] In some embodiments, Ppores is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Ppores is fromabout 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In other examples, Pporesis from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some examples, Ppores is from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In other examples, Ppores is from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In still other examples, Ppores is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. And, in some examples, Pporesis from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. For instance, Pporesis from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa. 28 59314257.1

[0175] In some embodiments, a pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 100 Pato about 100,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Ppores and Penv is from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pporesand Penvis from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

[0176] In some embodiments, the anode layer is disposed on an entire surface (e.g., the entirefront surface) of the separator layer. In other embodiments, the anode layer is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of a surface of the separator layer. And, in other embodiments, the anode layer is disposed only on a portion of a surface of the separator layer.

[0177] In some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 20% toabout 80%. In other embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 35% to about 75%. In some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 45% to about 65%. In some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 50% to about 60%. In some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 60% to about 80%. In some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 20% to about 95%. And, in some embodiments, the anode layer has an apparent porosity of from about 50% to about 90%.

[0178] In some embodiments, the SSE material of the anode layer and the SSE material of theseparator layer are the same. In other embodiments, the SSE material of the anode layer and the SSE material of the separator layer are different. In some embodiments the SSE material comprises a lithium conductor.

[0179] In some embodiments, the SSE material of the anode layer may comprise a garnetmaterial. Non-limiting examples of garnet materials include lithium garnet materials, doped lithium garnet materials, lithium garnet composite materials, and combinations thereof. Non- limiting examples of lithium garnet materials include Li3-phase lithium garnet SSE materials (e.g., Li3M1Te2O12, where M1is a lanthanide such as Y, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Zr, Ta, or a combination thereof and Li3+xNd3Te2-xO12, where x is 0.05 to 1.5; Li5-phase lithium garnet SSE materials (e.g., Li5La3M22O12, where M2is Nb, Zr, Ta, Sb, or a combination thereof, cation-substituted Li5La3M22O12 such as, for example, Li6M1La3M22O12, where M1is Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, or combinations thereof, and Li7La3M22O12, where M2is Zr, Sn, or a combination thereof); Li6-phase lithium garnet SSE materials (e.g., Li6M1La2M22O12, where M129 59314257.1is Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, or a combination thereof and M2is Nb, Ta, or a combination thereof); cation- doped Li6La2BaTa2O12; cation-doped Li6BaY2M22O12, where M2is Nb, Ta, or a combination thereof and the cation dopants are barium, yttrium, zinc, or combinations thereof, an Li7-phase lithium garnet SSE material (e.g., cubic Li7La3Zr2O12and Li7Y3Zr2O12); cation-doped Li7La3Zr2O12; Li5+2xLa3, Ta2-xO2, where x is 0.1 to 1, Li6.8(La2.95Ca0.5)(Zr1.75Nb0.25)O12 (LLCZN), Li6.4Y3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12, Li6.5La2.5Ba0.5TaZrO12, Li6BaY2M12O12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.75BaLa2Nb1.75Zn0.25O12, or Li6.75BaLa2Ta1.75Zn0.25O12), lithium garnet composite materials (e.g., lithium garnet-conductive carbon matrix or composites with other materials). Other examples of lithium-ion-conducting SSE materials include cubic garnet-type materials such as 3 mol % YSZ-doped Li7.6La3Zr1.94Y0.06O12and 8 mol % YSZ-doped Li7.16La3Zr1.94Y0.06O12. Additional examples of suitable lithium garnet SSE materials include, but are not limited to, Li5La3Nb2O12, Li5La3Ta2O12, Li7La3Zr2O12, Li6La2SrNb2O12, Li6La2BaNb2O12, Li6La2SrTa2O12, Li6La2BaTa2O12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.4Y3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12, Li6.5La2.5Ba0.5TaZrO12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.75BaLa2Nb1.75Zn0.25O12, or Li6.75BaLa2Ta1.75Zn0.25O12. In some embodiments, the garnet material is, for example, Li7-xLa3-yM1yZr2-zM2zO12, wherein x greater than 0 and less than 2, M1is chosen from Ba, Ca, Y, and combinations thereof, and M2is chosen from Nb, Ta, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the garnet material is Li6.75La3Zr1.75Ta0.25O12(LLZT), Li6.75La2.75Zr1.75Ca0.25Nb0.25O12 (LLZCN), Li5La3Nb2O12 (LLZNO), Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZ), Li5La3Ta2O12, Li6La2SrNb2O12, Li6La2BaNb2O12, Li6La2SrTa2O12, Li6La2BaTa2O12, Li7Y3Zr2O12, Li6.4Y3Zr1.4Ta0.6O12, Li6.5La2.5Ba0.5TaZrO12, Li6BaY2M12O12, Li6.75BaLa2Nb1.75Zn0.25O12, Li6.75BaLa2Ta1.75Zn0.25O12, or any combination thereof.

[0180] In some embodiments, the garnet material comprises a composition of Formula (I):M17-xD1aM23-yD2bM32-zD3cO12-wD4d (I) wherein M1 is Li; M2 is La; M3 is Zr; D1 is H, Be, B, Al, Fe, Zn, Ga, Ge, or any combination thereof; D2 is Na, K, Ca, Rb, Sr, Y, Ag, Ba, Bi, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Zn, Ce, or any combination thereof; 30 59314257.1D3 is Mg, Si, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Ge, As, Se, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Cd, In, Sn, Sb, Hf, Ta, W, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Ce, Eu, Te, Y, Sr, Ca, Ba, Gd, Ge, or any combination thereof; and D4 is F, Cl, Br, I, S, Se, Te, N, P, or any combination thereof; provided that 0 ≤ w ≤ 2; -0.5 < x ≤ 3; 0 ≤ y ≤ 3; 0 ≤ z ≤ 2; 0 ≤ a ≤ 2; 0 ≤ b ≤ 3; 0 ≤ c ≤ 2; and 0 ≤ d ≤ 2; wherein at least one of a, b, c, and d is > 0.

[0181] In some of these embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm toabout 500 μm (e.g., from about 5 μm to about 450 μm, from about 10 μm to about 400 μm, from about 15 μm to about 375 μm, or from about 20 μm to about 350 μm). In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. And, in some embodiments, the anode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm.

[0182] In some embodiments, the anode material comprises lithium metal.

[0183] In some embodiments, the anode layer comprises a garnet material.

[0184] In some embodiments, the outer surface of the anode layer comprises a

[0185] C. Deposited Layer

[0186] In some embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises a deposited layer, whereinthe deposited layer is disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer and comprises a conductive material. In some examples, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For instance, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. In other instances, the deposited layer 31 59314257.1comprises graphene. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises graphite or carbon black. In other instances, the deposited layer consists essentially of graphene. In some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises titanium or an oxide thereof. And, in some embodiments, the deposited layer comprises iron or an oxide or alloy (e.g., stainless steel) thereof.

[0187] In some embodiments, the deposited layer is disposed on an entire surface (i.e., thesecond surface) of the anode layer. In other embodiments, the deposit layer is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of a surface (e.g., the second surface) of the anode layer. When the deposited layer is substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas, the deposited layer may restrict flow of a catholyte into the anode layer while permitting venting of gases from the anode layer.

[0188] In other embodiments, the deposited layer is disposed only on a portion of a surface ofthe separator layer. In other examples, the deposited layer, comprising graphene, is disposed on all or substantially all of the second surface of the anode layer.

[0189] D. Anode Current Collector

[0190] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 2A, the anode assembly 200 further comprisesan anode current collector 230. The anode current collector is coupled to the anode layer (e.g., coupled to the second surface of the anode layer). In some embodiments, the anode current collector has an interior surface 232 facing the anode layer, an exterior surface facing 234 away from the anode layer, and an outer surface 236 extending from the interior surface to the exterior surface.

[0191] In some embodiments, the anode current collector is at least partially disposed on thesecond surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the anode current collector is disposed on the entire second surface of the anode layer. In other embodiments, the anode current collector is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the second surface of the anode layer. And, in other embodiments, the anode current collector is disposed only on a portion of the second surface of the anode layer.

[0192] As shown in FIG. 2B, in some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises ametal foil 238. In such embodiments, the metal foil is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the metal foil is disposed on the entire second surface of the anode layer. In other embodiments, the metal foil is disposed on substantially all 32 59314257.1(e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the second surface of the anode layer. And, in other embodiments, the metal foil is disposed only on a portion of the second surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the metal foil has a tab 240 configured to connect with an external circuit. In the illustrated embodiment, the tab is integral with the metal foil. In other embodiments, the tab is coupled (e.g., welded) to the metal foil.

[0193] In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a tab configured to connectwith an external circuit. In such embodiments, the anode current collector may comprise a tab alone and not the metal foil. For example, the anode current collector may comprise the tab and the tab may be coupled to the seal (e.g., disposed in the seal).

[0194] The anode current collector may be comprised of any suitable material. In someembodiments, the anode current collector (e.g., the metal foil and / or the tab) comprises copper, nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises copper. In other embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a copper alloy. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises nickel. In other embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a nickel alloy. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises titanium. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a titanium alloy. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises stainless steel. And, in some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a stainless steel alloy.

[0195] In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises an electronically conductivefilm. For example, the electronically conductive film may comprise a polymer material and a conductive material. For example, the conductive material may be a metal material. In some embodiments, the conductive material comprises copper, nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof. 33 59314257.1

[0196] In some embodiments, electronically conductive tape couples the anode current collectorto the anode layer. During operation of the battery cell (e.g., charging and / or discharging of the battery cell), the electronically conductive tape may electrically couple the anode current collector to the anode layer.

[0197] In some embodiments, wherein the anode assembly comprises a deposited layer, such asany of the deposited layers described herein, the anode current collector electrically couples to the anode layer by coupling directly to the deposited layer. In some examples, the anode assembly comprises a deposited layer, wherein the deposited layer comprises graphene disposed on all or substantially all of the second surface of the anode layer, and an anode current collector, such as any of the anode current collectors described herein, coupled to the deposited layer.

[0198] E. Barrier

[0199] Referring to FIGS. 3A and 3B, in some embodiments, the anode assembly 300, 300’further comprises a barrier 350, 350’. The barrier is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer. The barrier defines an interior 352, 352’ and an exterior 353, 353’. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the barrier. The barrier is impervious to liquid and gas. And, the absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the barrier is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the barrier. When only a single barrier is present, it will be appreciated that Ppores is substantially the same as Pint of the barrier. However in embodiments where a deposited layer is disposed on all or substantially all of the second surface of the anode layer, Ppores can be less than, equal to, or greater than Pintof the barrier, provided that Pporesis less than Penv.

[0200] In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Pintof the barrier may be from about 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 100 Pa to about 200 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 200 Pa to about 300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 300 Pa to about 400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 400 Pa to about 500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 500 Pa to about 600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 600 Pa to about 700 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 700 Pa to about 800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 800 Pa to about 900 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 900 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 100 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some 34 59314257.1embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 500 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 250 Pa to about 750 Pa.

[0201] In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In otherembodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 200 Pa to about 1,800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 300 Pa to about 1,700 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 400 Pa to about 1,600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 600 Pa to about 1,400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 700 Pa to about 1,300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 800 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 850 Pa to about 1,150 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 900 Pa to about 1,100 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is about 1,000 Pa.

[0202] In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. Forexample, Pint of the barrier may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 2,000 Pa to about 3,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 3,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 4,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 6,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 7,000 Pa to about 8,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 8,000 Pa to about 9,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 9,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 1,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 5,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 2,500 Pa to about 7,500 Pa.

[0203] In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa.For example, Pintof the barrier may be from about 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 50,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In some 35 59314257.1embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0204] In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 0.1 Pa to about 100 Pa. Forexample, Pint of the barrier may be from about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 10 Pa to about 20 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 20 Pa to about 30 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 30 Pa to about 40 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 50 Pa to about 60 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 60 Pa to about 70 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 70 Pa to about 80 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 80 Pa to about 90 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 90 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the barrier is from about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 50 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is from about 25 Pa to about 75 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the barrier is less than about 1 Pa.

[0205] In some embodiments, a pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is fromabout 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. For example, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is greater than about 100,000 Pa (e.g., from about 100,000 to about 150,000 Pa).

[0206] In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is fromabout 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from 36 59314257.1about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pext of the barrier is from about 50,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the barrier is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pextof the barrier is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the barrier is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0207] Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, in some embodiments, the barrier is a seal 242. In otherembodiments, such as those illustrated in FIGS.3A and 3B, the barrier is a housing. When the anode assembly comprises each of a seal 342 and a housing 350, such as the embodiment depicted in FIG.3A, as it will be appreciated that at least one of the seal and the housing is impervious to liquid and gas (i.e., the barrier is at least one of the seal and the housing). For example, in some embodiments, the seal is substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas, and the housing is impervious to liquid and gas (i.e., the barrier is the housing). In other embodiments, the seal is impervious to liquid and gas and the housing is substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas (i.e., the barrier is the seal).

[0208] In some embodiments, each of the seal and the housing is a barrier (i.e., each of the sealand the housing are impervious to liquid and gas). In such embodiments, it will be appreciated that Pporesis substantially the same as Pintof the inner barrier (i.e., the barrier disposed within the other barrier). Moreover, in such embodiments, it will be appreciated that Pint of the inner barrier is less than Pext of the outer barrier. Furthermore, in such embodiments, Pint of the inner barrier may be less than, equal to, or greater than Pintof the outer barrier.

[0209] Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the barrier ensures that Pint, andtherefore Ppores, remain less than Pext once the interfacial coating is formed during the first charging cycle of any battery cell comprising the anode layer. In later charging cycles, as the anode layer is plated with an anode material (e.g., lithium) during operation of the battery cell, 37 59314257.1thereby resulting in increased pressure within the anode layer, the lower initial absolute pressure within the barrier offsets or at least partially offsets any potential pressure increase caused by the plating lithium and prevents failure of the barrier (e.g., rupturing) as a result of the increased pressure.

[0210] 1. Seal

[0211] With reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B, in some embodiments, the barrier is a seal 242. Theseal is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defines an interior 244 and an exterior 246. The seal comprises a sealant material. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the seal.

[0212] When the barrier is the seal, the seal is impervious to liquid and gas. However, it will beappreciated that when the anode assembly includes a seal, and the barrier is other than the seal (e.g., a housing), the seal may be impervious to liquid and pervious to gas. In some embodiments, the seal ensures that metal plating (e.g., lithium plating) is confined to the pores of the anode layer during charging. In other words, the seal layer restricts metal (e.g., lithium metal) from plating in locations other than the pores of the anode layer during charging. The seal may also restrict flow of a catholyte into the anode layer during operation of the battery cell. And, in some embodiments, the seal layer couples or bonds the anode current collector to the anode layer (or deposited layer when present).

[0213] In some embodiments, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the seal is less than anabsolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the seal. When the seal is present, and the seal is impervious to liquids and gases, it will be appreciated that Pporesis substantially the same as Pintof the seal.

[0214] In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Pint ofthe seal may be from about 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 100 Pa to about 200 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 200 Pa to about 300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 300 Pa to about 400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 400 Pa to about 500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 500 Pa to about 600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 600 Pa to about 700 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 700 Pa to about 800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 800 Pa to about 900 Pa. In some embodiments, 38 59314257.1Pintof the seal is from about 900 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 100 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 500 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 250 Pa to about 750 Pa.

[0215] In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In otherembodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 200 Pa to about 1,800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 300 Pa to about 1,700 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 400 Pa to about 1,600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 600 Pa to about 1,400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 700 Pa to about 1,300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 800 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 850 Pa to about 1,150 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 900 Pa to about 1,100 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pintof the seal is about 1,000 Pa.

[0216] In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. Forexample, Pint of the seal may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 2,000 Pa to about 3,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 3,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 4,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 6,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 7,000 Pa to about 8,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 8,000 Pa to about 9,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 9,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 1,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 5,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 2,500 Pa to about 7,500 Pa.

[0217] In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. Forexample, Pint of the seal may be from about 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 39 59314257.150,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0218] In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 0.1 Pa to about 100 Pa. For example,Pint of the seal may be from about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 10 Pa to about 20 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 20 Pa to about 30 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 30 Pa to about 40 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 50 Pa to about 60 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 60 Pa to about 70 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 70 Pa to about 80 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 80 Pa to about 90 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 90 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the seal is from about 50 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the seal is from about 25 Pa to about 75 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the seal is less than about 1 Pa.

[0219] In some embodiments, a pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is fromabout 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. For example, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal is greater than about 100,000 Pa (e.g., from about 100,000 to about 150,000 Pa).

[0220] In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is fromabout 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pext of the seal is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal is from about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand 40 59314257.1Pextof the seal is from about 50,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the seal is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the seal is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0221] In some embodiments, the separator layer is disposed in the interior of the seal. In otherembodiments, the anode current collector is disposed in the interior of the cell. And, in some embodiments, the separator layer and the anode current collector are disposed in the interior of the seal.

[0222] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the outer surface of theanode layer. In some embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface of the anode layer. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the outer surface of the anode layer. And, in other embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the outer surface of the anode layer.

[0223] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the second surface of thedeposited layer. In some examples, the seal layer is disposed on an entire surface of the deposited layer that faces away from the anode layer. In other examples, the seal is at least partially disposed on an outer surface of the deposited layer. In some examples, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface of the deposited layer. And, in other embodiments, the seal is only partially disposed on the outer surface of the deposited layer.

[0224] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the second surface of thedeposited layer. In some examples, the seal layer is disposed on an entire surface of the deposited layer that faces away from the anode layer. In other examples, the seal is at least partially disposed on an outer surface of the deposited layer. In some examples, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface of the deposited layer. And, in other embodiments, the seal is only partially disposed on the outer surface of the deposited layer. 41 59314257.1

[0225] When the anode layer defines a recess, the seal may be disposed in the recess. When theseparator layer defines a recess, the seal may be disposed in the recess. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the recesses of the anode layer and / or separator layer increase a bonding surface area for the seal.

[0226] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. Insome embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the outer surface of the separator layer. In some embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface of the separator layer. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the outer surface of the separator layer. And, in some embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the outer surface of the separator layer.

[0227] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the second back surface ofthe separator layer. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the back surface of the separator layer. And, in other embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the back surface of the separator layer.

[0228] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the front surface of theseparator layer. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the front surface of the separator layer. And, in other embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the front surface of the separator layer.

[0229] In some embodiments, the seal is disposed at least partially on the outer surface and theback surface of the separator layer. In the illustrated embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface and only a portion of the back surface of the separator layer. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed at least partially on the outer surface, the front surface, and the back surface of the separator layer. As illustrated, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface and only a portion of the front and back surfaces of the separator layer.

[0230] In other embodiments, the separator layer is free of the seal. In other words, the seal isnot disposed on any surface (e.g., the front surface, the back surface, and / or the outer surface) of the separator layer. 42 59314257.1

[0231] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the anode currentcollector. In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the outer surface of the anode current collector. In some embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire outer surface of the anode current collector. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the outer surface of the anode current collector. And, in some embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the outer surface of the anode current collector.

[0232] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the interior surface of theanode current collector. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the interior surface of the anode current collector. And, in other embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the interior surface of the anode current collector.

[0233] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the exterior surface of theanode current collector. In some embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire exterior surface of the anode current collector. In other embodiments, the seal is disposed on substantially all (e.g., at least 60 %, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95%) of the exterior surface of the anode current collector. And, in other embodiments, the seal is disposed only on a portion of the outer surface of the anode current collector.

[0234] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on the exterior surface andthe outer surface of the anode current collector. In the illustrated embodiments, the seal is disposed on the entire exterior and outer surfaces of the anode current collector.

[0235] In other embodiments, the anode current collector is free of the seal. In other words, theseal is not disposed on any surface (e.g., the interior surface, the exterior surface, and / or the outer surface) of the anode current collector.

[0236] In some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on each of the outer surfaceof the anode layer, the outer surface of the separator layer, and the outer surface of the anode current collector. In other embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on each of the outer surface of the anode layer, the outer surface of the separator layer, the outer surface of the anode current collector, and the exterior surface of the anode current collector, as shown in. And, in some embodiments, the seal is at least partially disposed on each of the outer surface of 43 59314257.1the anode layer, the outer surface of the separator layer, and the interior surface of the anode current collector.

[0237] In some embodiments, the seal may be at least partially disposed on the outer surface ofthe anode layer and in the pores of the second porous region of the anode layer. In embodiments where the seal is disposed in the pores of the anode layer (e.g., a portion of the pores of the second porous region), the seal may also restrict flow of anode active material (e.g., lithium metal) outside of the anode layer.

[0238] The sealant material may be any material suitable for restricting flow of a liquids and / orgases into, or out of, the anode layer. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises a non-conductive (e.g., non-ionically conductive and non-electronically conductive) polymer, a non-conductive (e.g., non-ionically conductive and non-electronically conductive) glass, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises a non-conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises a non-conductive glass. For example, the sealant material may be a glass having a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). As another example, the sealant material may be a glass ceramic.

[0239] In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polypropylene, polyethylene,polyimide, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ethylene-vinyl acetate, polyamide, polypropylene, polyurethane, copolymers thereof, or any combination thereof. For example, the sealant material may comprise polypropylene. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyethylene. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyimide. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises PVC. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene-vinyl acetate. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyamide. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polypropylene. And, in some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyurethane.

[0240] In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polypropylene, polyethylene,polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the sealant 44 59314257.1material comprises polypropylene. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyethylene. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises polymethylpentene. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polybutene-1. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene-octene copolymers. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises propylene-butane copolymers. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyisobutylene. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises poly(α-olefin). In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene propylene rubber. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene-vinyl acetate. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises ethylene-acrylate copolymers. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyamides. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyesters. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyurethanes. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises styrene block copolymers. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polycaprolactone. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyimide. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyvinyl chloride. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polycarbonates. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polyacrylates. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises polymethacrylates. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises fluoropolymers. In some embodiments, the sealant material comprises epoxy resins. In other embodiments, the sealant material comprises epoxy polymers. And, in some embodiments, the sealant material comprises silicone rubber.

[0241] In some embodiments, the seal may comprise a conductive material. For example, theconductive material may be a metal material. In some embodiments, the conductive material comprises copper, aluminum nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof.

[0242] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm toabout 50 µm. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 20 µm. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 10 µm. And, in some embodiments, at least a portion of the seal has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 5 µm. 45 59314257.1

[0243] It will be appreciated that, when the seal is disposed on the outer surface of the anodelayer, the seal, the separator layer, and / or the anode current collector may cooperate with the separator layer and / or the anode current collector to prevent flow of liquids and gases into, or out of, the anode layer.

[0244] 2. Housing

[0245] Referring to FIGS. 3A and 3B, in some embodiments, the barrier is a housing 348, 348’.The housing has a plurality of interior walls 350, 350’ defining an interior 352, 352’ and an exterior 353, 333’. The separator layer, the anode layer, the anode current collector, and / or the seal may be disposed in the interior of the housing.

[0246] When the barrier is the housing, the housing is impervious to liquid and gas. However, itwill be appreciated that when the anode assembly includes a housing, and the barrier is other than the housing (e.g., a seal), the housing may be substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas. In some embodiments, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the housing is less than an absolute pressure the exterior, Pext, of the housing. When the housing is present, the barrier is the housing (i.e., the housing is impervious to liquid and gas), and the anode assembly is free of a seal, it will be appreciated that Ppores is substantially the same as Pint of the housing. In other embodiments, when the anode assembly comprises a seal substantially impervious to liquid and pervious to gas, and the barrier is the housing (i.e., the housing is impervious to liquid and gas), it will be appreciated that Ppores and Pint of the seal are substantially the same as Pint of the housing.

[0247] In some embodiments (e.g., as shown in FIG. 3A), a seal 342 is disposed in the interior ofthe housing. When the housing is impervious to liquid and gas, the seal may be substantially impervious to liquid and previous to gas. In such embodiments, Ppores is substantially the same as Pintof the housing.

[0248] In other embodiments, the seal may be impervious to liquid and impervious to gas, andPpores is substantially the same as an interior formed by the plurality of walls of the housing and the seal. In such embodiments, the housing and the seal cooperate to form a barrier about the anode layer.

[0249] In other embodiments, such as the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3B, when the housingis present the seal may be absent. In such embodiments, the housing is impervious to liquid and gas, and Pporesis substantially the same as Pintof the housing. 46 59314257.1

[0250] In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is less than about 101,325 Pa. For example, Pintof the housing may be from about 1 Pa to about 101,324 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 100 Pa to about 200 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 200 Pa to about 300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 300 Pa to about 400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 400 Pa to about 500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 500 Pa to about 600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 600 Pa to about 700 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 700 Pa to about 800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 800 Pa to about 900 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 900 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 100 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 500 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 250 Pa to about 750 Pa.

[0251] In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. Inother embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 200 Pa to about 1,800 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 300 Pa to about 1,700 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 400 Pa to about 1,600 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 500 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 600 Pa to about 1,400 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 700 Pa to about 1,300 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 750 Pa to about 1,250 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 800 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 850 Pa to about 1,150 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 900 Pa to about 1,100 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pintof the housing is about 1,000 Pa.

[0252] In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 1,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. Forexample, Pint of the housing may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 2,000 Pa to about 3,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 3,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 4,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 6,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some 47 59314257.1embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 7,000 Pa to about 8,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 8,000 Pa to about 9,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 9,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 1,000 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 5,000 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 2,500 Pa to about 7,500 Pa.

[0253] In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 10,000 Pa to about 101,324 Pa.For example, Pint of the housing may be from about 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 50,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0254] In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 0.1 Pa to about 100 Pa. Forexample, Pintof the housing may be from about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 10 Pa to about 20 Pa. In other embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 20 Pa to about 30 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 30 Pa to about 40 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 50 Pa to about 60 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 60 Pa to about 70 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 70 Pa to about 80 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 80 Pa to about 90 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 90 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some embodiments, Pint of the housing is from about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In other embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 50 Pa to about 100 Pa. In some 48 59314257.1embodiments, Pintof the housing is from about 25 Pa to about 75 Pa. And, in some embodiments, Pint of the housing is less than about 1 Pa.

[0255] In some embodiments, a pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is fromabout 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. For example, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the housing may be from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the housing is greater than about 100,000 Pa (e.g., from about 100,000 to about 150,000 Pa).

[0256] In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing isfrom about 10,000 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the housing is from about 20,000 Pa to about 30,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 30,000 Pa to about 40,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 40,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 50,000 Pa to about 60,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 60,000 Pa to about 70,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pext of the housing is from about 70,000 Pa to about 80,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 80,000 Pa to about 90,000 Pa. In other embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the housing is from about 90,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 10,000 Pa to about 50,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pint and Pext of the housing is from about 50,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa. And, in some embodiments, the pressure differential between Pintand Pextof the housing is from about 25,000 Pa to about 75,000 Pa.

[0257] The housing may be comprised of any suitable material. For example, the housingmaterial may comprise any sealant material described herein. In some embodiments, the housing comprises a non-conductive (e.g., non-ionically conductive and non-electronically conductive) polymer, a non-conductive (e.g., non-ionically conductive and non-electronically conductive) glass, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the housing comprises a non- conductive polymer. In some embodiments, the housing comprises a non-conductive glass. For 49 59314257.1example, the housing may be a glass having a low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). As another example, the housing may be a glass ceramic.

[0258] In some embodiments, the housing comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polyimide,polyvinyl chloride (PVC), ethylene-vinyl acetate, polyamide, polypropylene, polyurethane, copolymers thereof, or any combination thereof. For example, the housing may comprise polypropylene. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyethylene. In other embodiments, the housing comprises polyimide. In some embodiments, the housing comprises PVC. In some embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene-vinyl acetate. In other embodiments, the housing comprises polyamide. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polypropylene. And, in some embodiments, the housing comprises polyurethane.

[0259] In some embodiments, the housing comprises polypropylene, polyethylene,polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polypropylene. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyethylene. In other embodiments, the housing comprises polymethylpentene. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polybutene-1. In some embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene-octene copolymers. In some embodiments, the housing comprises propylene-butane copolymers. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyisobutylene. In some embodiments, the housing comprises poly(α-olefin). In some embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene propylene rubber. In other embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber. In some embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene-vinyl acetate. In some embodiments, the housing comprises ethylene-acrylate copolymers. In other embodiments, the housing comprises polyamides. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyesters. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyurethanes. In some embodiments, the housing comprises styrene block copolymers. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polycaprolactone. In other embodiments, the housing comprises polyimide. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyvinyl chloride. In some embodiments, the housing 50 59314257.1comprises polycarbonates. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polyacrylates. In some embodiments, the housing comprises polymethacrylates. In some embodiments, the housing comprises fluoropolymers. In some embodiments, the housing comprises epoxy resins. In other embodiments, the housing comprises epoxy polymers. And, in some embodiments, the housing comprises silicone rubber.

[0260] In some embodiments, the housing may comprise a conductive material. For example,the conductive material may be a metal material. In some embodiments, the conductive material comprises copper, nickel, aluminum, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof.

[0261] In some embodiments, the anode assembly is free of a component applying a substantialmechanical force on one or more of the anode layer, the separator layer, and the anode current collector.

[0262] In another aspect, the present inventions provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator, an anode layer, and a barrier. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. The barrier is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defines an interior and exterior. The barrier is impervious to liquid and gas. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the barrier. And, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the barrier is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the barrier.

[0263] In some embodiments, the anode assembly is free of a component applying a substantialmechanical force on one or more of the anode layer, the separator layer, and the anode current collector.

[0264] In another aspect, the present inventions provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator, an anode layer, and a seal. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface 51 59314257.1extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. The seal is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defines an interior and exterior. The seal comprises a sealant material. The seal is impervious to liquid and gas. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the seal. And, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the seal is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the seal.

[0265] In a further aspect, the present inventions provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a housing, a separator, and an anode layer. The housing comprises a plurality of interior walls defining an interior and an exterior. The separator layer is disposed in the interior of the housing. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the housing and is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The housing is impervious to liquid and gas. And, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the housing is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the housing.

[0266] In some embodiments, the anode assembly is free of a component applying a substantialmechanical force on one or more of the anode layer, the separator layer, and the anode current collector.

[0267] In another aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. The anode current collector is coupled to 52 59314257.1the second surface of the anode layer. And, an absolute pressure within the pores coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv.

[0268] In some embodiments, the anode assembly is free of a component applying a substantialmechanical force on one or more of the anode layer, the separator layer, and the anode current collector.

[0269] In one aspect, the present inventions provides an anode assembly for a battery cell. Theanode assembly comprises a separator, an anode layer, an anode current collector, and a barrier. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. The anode current collector is coupled to the second surface of the anode layer. The barrier is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defines an interior and exterior. The barrier is impervious to liquid and gas. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the barrier. And, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the barrier is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the barrier.

[0270] In yet another aspect, the present inventions provides an anode assembly for a batterycell. The anode assembly comprises a separator, an anode layer, an anode current collector, and a seal. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer. The anode layer has a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface. A layer of deposited material (e.g., graphite) is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material. The pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, C2O4, or CO3; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. The anode current collector is coupled to the layer of deposited material disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The seal is disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and 53 59314257.1defines an interior and exterior. The seal comprises a sealant material. The seal is impervious to liquid and gas. The anode layer is disposed in the interior of the seal. And, an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, of the seal is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, of the seal.

[0271] In some embodiments, the anode assembly is free of a component applying a substantialmechanical force on one or more of the anode layer, the separator layer, and the anode current collector.

[0272] In some embodiments, the anode assembly further comprises an anode current collectorcoupled to the second surface of the anode layer. In some embodiments, the anode current collector comprises a metal foil. And, in some embodiments, the metal foil comprises copper, nickel, titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the metal foil (e.g., the copper, nickel, titanium, or stainless steel foil) has a tab configured to connect (e.g., electrically connect) with an external circuit.

[0273] F. Barrier Films

[0274] The anode assembly may comprise a barrier film. The barrier film electrically separatestwo or more anode assemblies from each other. The barrier film may comprise any suitable material for electrically separating one anode assembly from another anode assembly. For example, the barrier film may comprise any polymer described herein for the seal layer. In some embodiments, the barrier film comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene- vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

[0275] In some embodiments, the barrier film is at least partially disposed on the deposited layer.In the illustrated embodiment, the barrier film is disposed on an entire surface of the deposited layer. In other embodiments, the barrier film is disposed on only a portion of the deposited layer.

[0276] In some embodiments, the barrier film is at least partially disposed on the anode currentcollector. In the illustrated embodiment, the barrier film is disposed on an entire surface of the anode current collector. In other embodiments, the barrier film is disposed on only a portion of the anode current collector. 54 59314257.1

[0277] In some embodiments, the barrier film is substantially impervious to liquid. In otherembodiments, the barrier film is pervious to liquid.

[0278] G. Other Embodiments

[0279] In another aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, a deposited layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer and a second surface facing away from the separator layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material having pores. The deposited layer is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The anode current collector is coupled to the deposited layer.

[0280] In yet another aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, an electrically conductive layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer and a second surface facing away from the separator layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material having pores. The electrically conductive layer is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The electrically conductive layer comprises a conductive material. The anode current collector is coupled to the electrically conductive layer.

[0281] In another aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, a nucleation layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer and a second surface facing away from the separator layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material having pores. The nucleation layer is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The nucleation layer comprises a nucleation material. The anode current collector is coupled to the nucleation layer.

[0282] In a further aspect, the present invention provides an anode assembly for a battery cell.The anode assembly comprises a separator layer, an anode layer, an electrically conductive layer, a nucleation layer, and an anode current collector. The anode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer and has a first surface facing the separator layer and a second surface facing away from the separator layer. The anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) 55 59314257.1material having pores. The nucleation layer is at least partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer. The nucleation layer comprises a nucleation material. The electrically conductive layer is at least partially disposed on a surface of the nucleation layer that faces away from the anode layer. The electrically conductive layer comprises a conductive material. The anode current collector is coupled to the electrically conductive layer.

[0283] III. MULTI-LAYER ANODE ASSEMBLY

[0284] Another aspect of the present provides a multi-layer anode assembly. The multi-layeranode assembly combines two anode assemblies described herein such that at least one component is common to each anode assembly. For example, the multi-layer anode assembly may comprise a common anode current collector. In other embodiments, the multi-layer anode assembly comprises a common seal layer. In other embodiments, the multi-layer anode assembly may comprise a common barrier film. In some embodiments, the multi-layer anode assembly comprises a common deposited layer and anode current collector. And, in some embodiments, the multi-layer anode assembly comprises a common electrically conductive layer and anode current collector.

[0285] IV. BATTERY CELL

[0286] Another aspect of the present invention provides a battery cell. The battery cellcomprises an anode assembly and a cathode assembly. The anode assembly may be any anode assembly described herein. The cathode assembly comprises a cathode layer and a cathode current collector.

[0287] A. Cathode Layer

[0288] The cathode layer is at least partially disposed on the separator layer of the anodeassembly. In some embodiments, the cathode layer is disposed entirely on a surface of the separator layer that faces away from the anode layer. In other embodiments, the cathode layer is disposed only partially on a surface of the separator layer that faces away from the anode layer.

[0289] The cathode layer may be comprised of any suitable material. In some embodiments, thecathode layer comprises a lithium ion-conducting material. For example, the lithium ion- conducting material may be lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC, LiNixMnyCozO2, wherein x+y+z=1), such as LiCoO2, LiNi1 / 3Co1 / 3Mn1 / 3O2, LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2; lithium manganese oxides (LMOs), such as LiMn2O4, LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4; lithium iron phosphates (LFPs) such as LiFePO4, LiMnPO4, and LiCoPO4, and Li2MMn3O8, wherein M is selected from Fe, Co, 56 59314257.1or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the ion-conducting cathode material is a high energy ion-conducting cathode material such as Li2MMn3O8, wherein M is selected from Fe, Co, or any combination thereof.

[0290] In some embodiments, the cathode comprises a sodium ion-conducting material. Forexample, the sodium ion-conducting material may be Na2V2O5, P2-Na2 / 3Fe1 / 2Mn1 / 2O2, Na3V2(PO4)3, NaMn1 / 3Co1 / 3Ni1 / 3PO4, or any composite material (e.g., composites with carbon black) thereof (e.g., Na2 / 3Fe1 / 2Mn1 / 2O2@graphene composite).

[0291] In some embodiments, the cathode layer comprises a magnesium ion-conductingmaterial. For example, the magnesium ion-conducting material may be doped manganese oxide (e.g., MgxMnO2.yH2O).

[0292] In some embodiments, the cathode layer comprises an organic sulfide or a polysulfide.For example, the organic sulfide or polysulfide may be carbynepolysulfide and copolymerized sulfur.

[0293] In some embodiments, the cathode layer comprises an air electrode. For example, the airelectrode may be large surface area carbon particles (e.g., Super P (i.e., a conductive carbon black)) and catalyst particles (e.g., alpha-MnO2 nanorods) bound in a mesh (e.g., a polymer binder such as PVDF binder).

[0294] In some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 500μm. In some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 200 μm. In other embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 100 μm. In some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 50 μm. In some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 1 μm to about 20 μm. In some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 10 μm to about 150 μm. In other embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 40 μm to about 100 μm. And, in some embodiments, the cathode layer has a thickness of from about 60 μm to about 80 μm.

[0295] B. Cathode Current Collector

[0296] The cathode current collector is coupled to the cathode layer. In some embodiments, thecathode current collector comprises a metal foil. In such embodiments, the metal foil is at least partially disposed on a surface of the cathode layer that faces away from the separator layer. For example, the metal foil may be disposed on the entire surface of the cathode layer that faces 57 59314257.1away from the separator layer. And, in some embodiments, the metal foil is only partially disposed on the surface of the cathode layer that faces away from the deposited layer.

[0297] In some embodiments, the metal foil has a tab configured to connect with an externalcircuit. In some embodiments, the tab is integral with the metal foil. In other embodiments, the tab is coupled (e.g., welded) to the metal foil. And, in some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises a tab configured to connect with an external circuit.

[0298] The cathode current collector may be comprised of any suitable material. In someembodiments, the cathode current collector (e.g., the metal foil and / or the tab) comprises aluminum, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises aluminum. In some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises an aluminum alloy. In other embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises stainless steel. And, in some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises a stainless steel alloy.

[0299] In some embodiments, the cathode current collector comprises a film. For example, thefilm may comprise a polymer material and a conductive material. The conductive material may be any conductive material described herein. For example, the conductive material may be a metal material. In some embodiments, the conductive material comprises aluminum, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof. When the cathode current collector comprises a film, the cathode current collector may be substantially impervious to liquid.

[0300] C. Liquid

[0301] In some embodiments, the battery cell comprises a liquid. The liquid comprises anelectrolyte, an anolyte, a catholyte, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the liquid comprises a lithium salt, a linear carbonate, a cyclic carbonate, an ionic liquid, or any combination thereof. For example, the liquid may comprise a mixture of lithium 58 59314257.1bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide and N-propyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide. In other embodiments, the liquid comprises or a mixture of lithium hexafluorophosphate, ethylene carbonate, and ethyl methyl carbonate.

[0302] V. METHODS OF FORMING AN ANODE ASSEMBLY

[0303] Another aspect of the present invention provides a method of forming a battery cell,wherein the method comprises: (a) providing a separator layer, and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material; (b) infiltrating at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer with one or more gases selected from N2, O2, CO2, and CO from an external source at a temperature of from about -20 °C to about 100 °C, a pressure of from about 100 Pa to about 1.1 MPa, and a relative humidity of less than about 50%; (c) coupling an anode current collector to the anode layer; (d) forming a barrier about the outer surface of the anode layer to form the anode assembly, wherein the barrier defines an interior and exterior, wherein the anode layer is disposed within the interior of the barrier, and wherein the barrier is impervious to liquid and gas; (e) coupling a cathode assembly to the anode assembly to form a battery cell; and (f) charging the battery cell with an electrical current to form an interfacial material within at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer infiltrated with the one or more gases thereby reducing an absolute pressure, Ppores, within the pores containing interfacial material.

[0304] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity ofless than about 45%. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 40%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 40% (e.g., from about 2% to about 35%, from about 5% to about 30%, from about 6% to about 30%, or from about 10% to about 30%, or from 59 59314257.1about 20% to about 30). And, in some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 35% (e.g., from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 20%, or from about 2% to about 10%).

[0305] In some implementations, the method further comprises:(a-i) depositing a deposited layer on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer.

[0306] In the methods of the present invention, it will be appreciated that the coating ofinterfacial material is formed as lithium metal plates and reacts with the gas within the pores of the anode material thereby removing the gas from the pore environment and reducing the pressure therein.

[0307] In some implementations, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metalalloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For example, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. In other examples, the deposited layer comprises graphene. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises graphite or carbon black. In other instances, the deposited layer comprises titanium or an oxide thereof. And, in some instances, the deposited layer comprises iron or an oxide or alloy (e.g., stainless steel) thereof.

[0308] In some implementations, step (a-i) comprises disposing the deposited layer at leastpartially on the second surface of the anode layer. For example, the deposited layer may be disposed on the entire second surface of the anode layer. In other implementations, the deposited layer is only partially disposed on the second surface of the anode layer.

[0309] In some implementations, step (a-i) further comprises:(a-ii) depositing a mixture of a solvent and precursor material onto the second surface of the anode material to form a wet deposited layer; and (a-iii) removing substantially all of the solvent to form a dried deposited layer.

[0310] In some implementations, step (a-iii) further comprises subjecting the wet deposited layerto a temperature of from about 40 °C to about 200 °C for a period of from about 2 min to about 30 min. For example, step (a-iii) further comprises subjecting the wet deposited layer to a temperature of from about 70 °C to about 180 °C for a period of from about 4 min to about 20 min. In another example, step (a-iii) further comprises subjecting the wet deposited layer to a temperature of from about 100 °C to about 150 °C for a period of from about 5 min to about 15 60 59314257.1min. And, in another example, step (a-iii) further comprises subjecting the wet deposited layer to a temperature of from about 120 °C to about 160 °C for a period of from about 8 min to about 12 min.

[0311] In some implementations, the solvent comprises an organic solvent. For example, thesolvent comprises a polar organic solvent. In other examples, the solvent comprises acetonitrile, chloroform, 1,2-dichloroethene, N,N-dimethylacetamide, chlorobenzene, N,N- dimethylformamide, formamide, acetone, dimethylsulfoxide, ethylacetate, tetrahydrofurane, or any combination thereof.

[0312] In some implementations, step (a-i) further comprises(a-iv) annealing the dried deposited layer to form an annealed deposited layer.

[0313] In some implementations the annealing of step (a-iv) comprises subjecting the drieddeposited layer to a temperature of from 150 °C to about 250 °C for a period of from about 15 min to about 60 min. For example, the annealing of step (a-iv) comprises subjecting the dried deposited layer to a temperature of from 175 °C to about 225 °C for a period of from about 20 min to about 40 min. In another example, the annealing of step (a-iv) comprises subjecting the dried deposited layer to a temperature of from 190 °C to about 210 °C for a period of from about 20 min to about 40 min.

[0314] In some implementations, step (a-i) further comprises(a-v) sintering the annealed deposited layer to form a sintered deposited layer.

[0315] In some implementations the sintering of step (a-v) comprises subjecting the drieddeposited layer to a temperature of from 400 °C to about 1000 °C for a period of from about 1 hr to about 3 hrs in an inert atmosphere. For example, the sintering of step (a-v) comprises subjecting the annealed deposited layer to a temperature of from 450 °C to about 800 °C for a period of from about 1.5 hr to about 2.5 hr. In another example, the sintering of step (a-v) comprises subjecting the annealed deposited layer to a temperature of from 500 °C to about 700 °C for a period of from about 1.75 hr to about 2.25 hr.

[0316] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a temperature offrom about 10 °C to about 40 °C. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a temperature of from about 15 °C to about 30 °C.

[0317] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a pressure of fromabout 1,000 Pa to about 510,000 Pa (e.g., from about 76,000 Pa to about 510,000). For example, 61 59314257.1the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a pressure of from about 80,000 Pa to about 130,000 Pa.

[0318] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity ofless than about 45% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 44.9% or from about 10% to about 44.99%). In other implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 40%. And, in some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 40% (e.g., from about 2% to about 35%, from about 5% to about 30%, from about 6% to about 30%, or from about 10% to about 30%, or from about 20% to about 30). In other implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 35% (e.g., from about 10% to about 30%, from about 10% to about 20%, or from about 2% to about 10%).

[0319] In other implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity offrom about 0.01% to about 7% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 6.5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%). For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.1% to about 6.5%.

[0320] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity ofless than about 10.5%. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 7.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 5.5%. In some examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 4.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 3.5%. In some examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 2.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of less than about 0.5% (e.g., less than about 0.25%, less than about 0.15%, or less than about 0.1%).

[0321] In some implementations, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity offrom about 0.01% to about 10.5%. For example, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 7.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 5.5%. In some examples, 62 59314257.1the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 4.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 3.5%. In some examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 2.5%. In other examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 1.5%. And, in some examples, the infiltrating of step (b) is performed at a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 0.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 0.25%, from about 0.01% to about 0.15%, or from about 0.01% to about 0.1%).

[0322] In some implementations, step (b) further comprises subjecting the anode layer to anatmosphere comprising at least about 70% (e.g., from about 70% to about 99.99%, from about 80% to about 99.99%, from about 85% to about 99.99%, from about 90% to about 99.99%, or from about 95% to about 99.99%) of one or more gases selected from N2, O2, CO2, and CO at a temperature of from about -20 °C to about 100 °C (e.g., from about 10 °C to about 50 °C, from about 15 °C to about 40 °C, or from about 20 °C to about 30 °C), a pressure of from about 100 Pa to about 1.1 MPa, and a relative humidity of less than about 7.5% (e.g., from about 0.01% to about 5%, from about 0.1% to about 4.5%, from about 0.25% to about 4%, from about 0.5% to about 4%, from about 0.75% to about 2.5%, from about 0.75% to about 1.5%, from about 0.2% to about 2%, from about 0.3% to about 1.5% or from about 0.5% to about 1%).

[0323] In some implementations, step (c) further comprises electrically coupling the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer. For instance, in some methods comprising step (a-i), step (c) further comprises (c-i) coupling the anode current collector to a surface of the deposited layer facing away from (e.g., the second surface of the deposited layer) anode layer. And, in some of these implementations, step (c-i) further comprises adhesively coupling the anode current collector to the deposited layer. In other implementations, step (c-i) further comprises brazing the anode current collector to the deposited layer.

[0324] In other implementations, step (c) further comprises adhesively coupling the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer. For example, electrically conductive tape couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer, or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer. In another example, an electrically conductive 63 59314257.1adhesive couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer, or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer.

[0325] In some implementations, step (d) is performed before or after the coupling of the anodecurrent collector to the second surface of the anode layer.

[0326] In some implementations, the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, a metalalloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof. For example, the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof.

[0327] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises disposing a seal material at least partially on the anode layer (or, if present, the deposited layer), wherein the seal layer is substantially impervious to liquid. In some implementations, step (d) comprises disposing a seal material at least partially on the deposited layer. In some implementations, step (d) comprises disposing a seal material at least partially on the anode layer and the deposited layer.

[0328] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by cold-pressing, hot-pressing, melting, 3D- printing, drop casting, painting, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer.

[0329] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by applying the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer with a paintbrush, a roller, a plastic applicator, a metal applicator, a shaping tool, a syringe dispenser, a dispenser valve, or any combination thereof.

[0330] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by dip-coating at least a portion of the outer surface of the anode layer in the sealant material.

[0331] In some implementations, the barrier of step (d) is a seal, and the forming of step (d)comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by injection molding, in-line extrusion, spray deposition, 3D-printing, wrapping, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer. 64 59314257.1

[0332] In some implementations, the sealant material comprises a polymer, and wherein thepolymer comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene- octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene- acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

[0333] In some implementations, forming step (d) further comprises(d-i) disposing a seal at least partially on the deposited layer, wherein the seal is substantially impervious to liquid.

[0334] In some implementations, steps (c) and (d) are performed concurrently wherein thebarrier is a seal that couples the anode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer (e.g., by bonding the anode current collector in contact with the second surface of the anode layer or, if present, the second surface of the deposited layer).

[0335] In some implementations, the barrier forming of step (d) is performed in the presence ofthe one or more gases. In some examples, barrier forming step (d) further comprises sealing the one or more gases within at least a portion of the pores of the anode material.

[0336] In some implementations, the barrier forming of step (d) is performed at the sametemperature as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same pressure as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same relative humidity as the infiltration step (b), or any combination thereof.

[0337] In some implementations, step (d) further comprises forming a barrier, wherein at least aportion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 50 µm. In other embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 20 µm. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 10 µm. And, in some embodiments, at least a portion of the barrier has a thickness of from about 1 µm to about 5 µm.

[0338] In some implementations, charging step (f) further comprises charging the battery cellwith at a charging rate of from about C / 50 to about 5C. For example, charging step (e) further comprises charging the battery cell with at a charging rate of from about C / 30 to about C / 5. 65 59314257.1

[0339] VI. EXAMPLES

[0340] In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the followingexamples are set forth. The examples described in this application are offered to illustrate the methods and anode assemblies provided herein and are not to be construed in any way as limiting their scope.

[0341] Example 1: Anode Assemblies

[0342] Anode Assembly Process 1 – Anode Assemblies with Nitrogen-filled Pores

[0343] Referring to FIGS. 1, 4A and 4B, separator layers and anode layers at least partiallydisposed on the separator layers and having first surfaces facing the separator layers and a second surfaces facing away from the separator layers were provided. The separator layers and the anode layers measured 1 cm x 1 cm. The separator layers comprised a lithium lanthanum zirconium oxide (LLZO) solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material. The anode layers comprised a LLZO SSE material. The pores of the anode layers were substantially free of lithium metal.

[0344] Referring to FIGS. 5A and 5B, a solution of graphene in DMF (0.2 mg / mL) (SigmaAldrich) was placed under 3Å molecular sieves for at least 2 weeks. The filtrate was decanted and vortexed for ~5 min with a benchtop vortex mixer prior to use. In an argon-filled glove box, 30 μl of the resulting solution was drop cast onto the center of the porous surfaces (i.e., the second surface) of the anode layers using a micropipette. The treated anode layers were dried at 140 °C for ~10 min to remove the DMF, and the work pieces were heated at 200 °C for ~ 30 min to anneal the deposited graphene. The dried graphene-treated anode layers and separator layers were placed in a box furnace (treatment side up) in an inert environment (argon, nitrogen) with no external pressure applied and sintered at a temperature of 500-700 ^C for ~ 2 hrs using a heat ramp of 30 ^C / min. The furnace was cooled (30 ^C / min) to room temperature, and the sintered graphene-treated anode layers and separator layers were removed from the furnace, allowed to cool, and transferred to a nitrogen-filled glovebox providing a nitrogen atmosphere, a temperature of ~ 22 ^C, a relative humidity of ~ 5.7%, and a pressure of between about 101,605 Pa and 101,815 Pa (providing an environment of > ~90% nitrogen gas). Inside the nitrogen- filled glovebox, the work pieces were placed on copper foil current collectors, and the edges (i.e., the outer surface) of the anode layer were sealed with a polymer via a melt process, forming a sealed anode assembly with trapped nitrogen in at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer. The adhesive was cured for ~1hr at ~65 ^C. 66 59314257.1

[0345] The sealed anode assembly was returned to the argon-filled glovebox where a nickel tabwas welded to the metal foil of the anode current collector to complete the sealed anode assembly.

[0346] Anode Assembly Process 2 – Anode Assemblies with Air-filled Pores

[0347] Referring to FIGS. 6A-6B and 7A-7B, anode assemblies were prepared according toAnode Assembly Process 1, with one deviation: the sealing step was completed in ambient air (at about room temperature, at about 1 atm, with a relative humidity of ~17%). Accordingly, at least a portion of the pores of anode assemblies prepared according to this procedure were filled with ambient air having ambient concentrations of nitrogen and other atmospheric gases (as opposed to a gas comprising > ~90% nitrogen gas).

[0348] Anode Assembly Process 3 – Anode Assemblies with Argon-filled Pores (ControlAssemblies)

[0349] Anode assemblies were prepared according to Anode Assembly Process 1, with onedeviation: all processes were performed in an argon-filled glovebox. Accordingly, at least a portion of the pores of anode assemblies prepared according to this procedure were filled with argon (as opposed to a gas comprising > ~90% nitrogen gas or ambient air).

[0350] Anode Assembly Process 4 – Anode Assemblies with Dry-air-filled Pores

[0351] Anode assemblies were prepared according to Anode Assembly Process 1, with onedeviation: the sealing step was completed in dry air (air temperature of about room temperature, at about 1 atm, with a relative humidity of ~0.09%). Accordingly, at least a portion of the pores of anode assemblies prepared according to this procedure were filled with dry ambient air having ambient concentrations of nitrogen and other atmospheric gases (as opposed to a gas comprising > ~90% nitrogen gas or argon).

[0352] Example 2A: Battery Test Cells Sealed under Nitrogen, Air, and Argon

[0353] Each cathode assembly was prepared with a cathode layer comprising lithium nickelmanganese cobalt oxide (NMC) and a cathode current collector comprising an aluminum metal foil (NANOMYTE® BE-56E) (6 mm × 6 mm, 2.0 mAh / cm2cathode loading). Aluminum tabs were welded to the aluminum metal foil of the cathode current collectors.

[0354] Each cathode layer was pressed against the separator layer of an anode assembly andintegrated into an aluminum foil / polypropylene pouch. Each cathode layer was wetted with a 67 59314257.1liquid catholyte (50 µL of catholyte (e.g., 1M LiPF6in 1:1 EC:DMC)). The pouch was sealed under vacuum conditions via an impulse / heat sealing process to complete the battery cell.

[0355] Battery cells were formed with anode assemblies prepared according to the proceduresset forth for Anode Assembly Process 1, Anode Assembly Process 2, and Anode Assembly Process 3. These battery cells were cycled at constant current and constant voltage (CCCV) at C / 20 to 4.2V and analyzed for battery cell performance properties. Tables 1-3 below provide certain data from these analyses including the initial open circuit voltage (OCV) for tested battery cells, and as assessed at charge cycle 2, the HF impedance, LF impedance, 1kHz real impedance, 1kHz imaginary impedance, and 1kHz frequency. The Coulombic efficiency (CE) and discharge capacities are also given for the first and second charge cycles.

[0356] Table 1:HF LF e ,68 59314257.1

[0357] Table 2:1kHz Real 1kHz Imag. 1kHz Impedance Impedance Frequency

[0358] Table 3:Discharge Discharge )69 59314257.1Discharge Discharge Capacity 1st Capacity )g g . , , , gcapacities (FIGS.9, 22, and 27), impedance vs. resistance (FIG.8), voltage vs. charge capacity (FIGS.9A-9G), impedance vs. resistance for individual cells (FIGS.10, 12A-12G, 19A-19C, 20A-20B, 23, and 25A-25G), and cell voltage vs. charge capacity (FIGS.11A-11G, 15A-15B, 16A-16B, and 24A-24B) are provided for the battery cells cycled as described above, as well as cyclic voltammetry profiles (FIGS.13, 14, 17, and 18).

[0360] Example 2B: Battery Test Cells Sealed under Dry Air

[0361] Battery test cells were formed with anode assemblies prepared according to theprocedures set forth for Anode Assembly Process 4 and Anode Assembly Process 3. These battery cells were cycled according to the procedure provided in Example 2A and analyzed for battery cell performance properties. Tables 4-8 below provide certain data from these analyses including the initial open circuit voltage (OCV) for tested battery cells, HF impedance, LF impedance, maximum imaginary impedance at charge cycle 1, charging and discharging capacities, and Coulombic efficiency (CE).

[0362] Table 4Max e ,70 59314257.1Max Initial HF LF Imaginary e ,

[0363] Table 5Charge Discharge Charge Discharge ,71 59314257.1

[0364] Table 6CE 1st CE 2nd CE 3rd CE 4th CE 5th Test No. Cycle (%) Cycle (%) Cycle (%) Cycle (%) Cycle (%)

[0365] Table 7Discharge Discharge Discharge Discharge Discharge ),72 59314257.1Discharge Discharge Discharge Discharge Discharge Capacity Capacity Capacity Capacity Capacity ),[036Last M n CE (%) N rm liz d R t in d

[0367] Plots of Coulombic efficiencies (FIG. 28) and discharge capacities (FIGS. 29 and 30) areprovided for the battery test cells of Example 2B, cycled as described above. EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

[0368] In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unlessindicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The 73 59314257.1invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

[0369] Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations inwhich one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is / are referred to as comprising particular elements and / or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and / or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub–range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0370] This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journalarticles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art. 74 59314257.1

[0371] Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routineexperimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims. 75 59314257.1

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. An anode assembly for a battery cell, comprising:a separator layer; and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a reaction product of metallic lithium and one or more gases selected from the group consisting of N2, O2, CO2, and CO having a relative humidity of less than about 50%.

2. The anode assembly of claim 1, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity offrom about 0.01% to about 40%.

3. The anode assembly of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the one or more gases has a relativehumidity of from about 5% to about 30%.

4. The anode assembly of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the one or more gases has a relativehumidity of from about 2% to about 10%.

5. The anode assembly of claim 1, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity ofless than about 5.5%.

6. The anode assembly of claim 1, wherein the one or more gases is dry air.76 59314257.

17. The anode assembly of claim 6, wherein the one or more gases has a relative humidity ofless than about 5.5%.

8. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the one or more gases consistsessentially of N2.

9. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the one or more gases consistsessentially of CO2.

10. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the one or more gases consistsessentially of O2.

11. An anode assembly for a battery cell, comprising:a separator layer; and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein at least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral lithium compound.

12. The anode assembly of claim 11, wherein the neutral lithium compound has the formulaLim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, OH, C2O4, C2O3, C6, or CO3; each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3. 77 59314257.

113. The anode assembly of claim 11 or claim 12, wherein Lim(X)n is LiOH, Li2O, Li2CO3,Li2C2O4, Li3N, LiC6, Li2C12, or any combination thereof.

14. The anode assembly of claim 13, wherein Lim(X)n is Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, or Li3N.

15. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-14, wherein at least a portion of the coatingof interfacial material has a thickness of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm.

16. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-15, wherein at least a portion of the coatingof interfacial material has a thickness of from about 1 nm to about 10 nm.

17. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-16, wherein Ppores is less than about 101,325Pa.

18. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-17, wherein Ppores is from about 1 Pa to about101,324 Pa.

19. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18, wherein Ppores is from about 100 Pa toabout 1,000 Pa.

20. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18, wherein Ppores is from about 1,000 Pa toabout 10,000 Pa.

21. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18, wherein Ppores is from about 10,000 Pa toabout 101,324 Pa.

22. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18, wherein Ppores is from about 100 Pa toabout 2,000 Pa.

23. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18, wherein Ppores is from about 500 Pa toabout 1,500 Pa. 78 59314257.

124. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-18 or 23, wherein Ppores is from about 750 Pato about 1,250 Pa.

25. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-16, wherein a pressure differential betweenPpores and Penv is from about 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

26. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-16 or 25, wherein the pressure differentialbetween Ppores and Penv is from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

27. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-16, 25, or 26, wherein the pressuredifferential between Ppores and Penv is from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

28. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-27, wherein the separator layer issubstantially free of pores.

29. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-28, wherein the separator layer comprises aSSE material.

30. The anode assembly of claim 29, wherein the SSE material of the separator layercomprises a polymer, a sulfide, an oxide, a chalcogenide, or any combination thereof.

31. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-30, wherein the separator layer has athickness of from about 1 μm to about 300 μm.

32. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-31, further comprising an anode materialdisposed on at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer.

33. The anode assembly of claim 32, wherein the anode material comprises lithium metal.79 59314257.

134. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-33, wherein the anode layer comprises agarnet material.

35. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-34, wherein the anode layer has a thicknessof from about 1 μm to about 500 μm.

36. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-35, further comprising an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the anode layer.

37. The anode assembly of claim 36, wherein the anode current collector comprises a metalfoil.

38. The anode assembly of claim 37, wherein the metal foil comprises copper, nickel,titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof.

39. The anode assembly of claim 37 or claim 38, wherein the metal foil has a tab configuredto connect with an external circuit.

40. The anode assembly of any one of claims 1-39, further comprising a deposited layer,wherein the deposited layer is disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer and comprises a conductive material.

41. The anode assembly of claim 40, wherein the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metaloxide, a metal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof.

42. The anode assembly of claim 41, wherein the deposited layer comprises an oxide ofcopper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof.

43. An anode assembly for a battery cell, comprising:a separator layer; 80 59314257.1an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material, wherein a least a portion of the pores are at least partially coated with a coating of interfacial material, wherein an absolute pressure within the pores at least partially coated with the coating of interfacial material, Ppores, is less than an absolute pressure of an environment outside of the anode layer, Penv, under isothermal conditions, and wherein the interfacial material comprises a neutral lithium compound having the formula Lim(X)n, wherein X is N, O, OH, C2O4, C2O3, C6, or CO; and each of m and n is independently 1, 2, or 3; and a barrier disposed about the outer surface of the anode layer and defining an interior and exterior, wherein the barrier is impervious to liquid and gas, wherein the anode layer is disposed in the interior of the barrier, and wherein an absolute pressure of the interior, Pint, is less than an absolute pressure of the exterior, Pext, under isothermal conditions.

44. The anode assembly of claim 43, wherein Lim(X)n is LiOH, Li2O, Li2CO3, Li2C2O4, Li3N,LiC6, Li2C12, or any combination thereof.

45. The anode assembly of claim 43 or claim 44, wherein at least a portion of the coating ofinterfacial material has a thickness of from about 1 nm to about 100 nm.

46. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-45, wherein at least a portion of the coatingof interfacial material has a thickness of from about 1 nm to 10 nm.

47. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-46, wherein Pint is less than about 101,325Pa.

48. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-47, wherein Pint is from about 1 Pa to about101,324 Pa. 81 59314257.

149. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48, wherein Pint is from about 100 Pa toabout 1,000 Pa.

50. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48, wherein Pint is from about 1,000 Pa toabout 10,000 Pa.

51. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48, wherein Pint is from about 10,000 Pa toabout 101,324 Pa.

52. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48, wherein Pint is from about 100 Pa toabout 2,000 Pa.

53. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48 or 52, wherein Pint is from about 500 Pato about 1,500 Pa.

54. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-48, 52, or 53, wherein Pint is from about 750Pa to about 1,250 Pa.

55. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-46, wherein a pressure differential betweenPintand Pextis from about 100 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

56. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-46 or 55, wherein the pressure differentialbetween Pintand Pextis from about 1,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

57. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-46 or 55, wherein the pressure differentialbetween Pintand Pextis from about 10,000 Pa to about 100,000 Pa.

58. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-57, wherein the separator layer is disposedin the interior of the barrier. 82 59314257.

159. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-58, wherein the separator layer issubstantially free of pores.

60. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-59, wherein the separator layer comprises aSSE material.

61. The anode assembly of claim 60, wherein the SSE material of the separator layercomprises a polymer, a sulfide, an oxide, a chalcogenide, or any combination thereof.

62. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-61, wherein the separator layer has athickness of from about 1 μm to about 300 μm.

63. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-62, further comprising an anode materialdisposed in at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer.

64. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-63, wherein the anode material compriseslithium metal.

65. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-64, wherein the anode layer comprises agarnet material.

66. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-65, wherein the anode layer has a thicknessof from about 1 μm to about 500 μm.

67. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-66, further comprising a deposited layer,wherein the deposited layer is disposed on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer and has a first surface facing the second surface of the anode layer and a second surface facing away from the anode layer, and wherein the deposited layer comprises a conductive material. 83 59314257.

168. The anode assembly of claim 67, wherein the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metaloxide, a metal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof.

69. The anode assembly of claim 68, wherein the deposited layer comprises an oxide ofcopper, nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof.

70. The anode assembly of any one of claims 67-69, wherein the deposited layer is disposedin the interior of the barrier.

71. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-70, further comprising an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the anode layer.

72. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-70, further comprising an anode currentcollector coupled to the second surface of the deposited layer.

73. The anode assembly of claim 71 or claim 72, wherein at least a portion of the anodecurrent collector is disposed in the interior of the barrier.

74. The anode assembly of any one of claims 71-73, wherein the anode current collectorcomprises a metal foil.

75. The anode assembly of claim 74, wherein the metal foil comprises copper, nickel,titanium, stainless steel, alloys thereof, or any combination thereof.

76. The anode assembly of claim 74 or claim 75, wherein the metal foil has a tab configuredto connect with an external circuit.

77. The anode assembly of any one of claims 43-76, wherein the barrier is a seal, andwherein the seal comprises a sealant material. 84 59314257.

178. The anode assembly of claim 77, wherein the seal is at least partially disposed on theanode current collector.

79. The anode assembly of claim 77 or claim 78, wherein the seal is at least partiallydisposed on the outer surface of the anode layer.

80. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-79, wherein the seal is at least partiallydisposed on the separator layer.

81. The anode assembly of claims 77-80, wherein the separator layer has a front surfacefacing the anode layer, a back surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the front surface to the back surface.

82. The anode assembly of claim 81, wherein the seal is at least partially disposed on theouter surface of the separator layer.

83. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-82, wherein the separator layer defines arecess, and wherein the seal is disposed in the recess of the separator layer.

84. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-83, wherein the anode layer defines a firstporous region between a center and the outer surface of the anode layer and a second porous region between the first porous region and the outer surface of the anode layer.

85. The anode assembly of claim 84, wherein the pores for the first porous region aresubstantially free of the sealant material.

86. The anode assembly of claim 84 or claim 85, wherein at least a portion of the pores of thesecond porous region comprise the sealant material.

87. The anode assembly of claim 77, further comprising an anode current collector coupledto the second surface of the anode layer; 85 59314257.1wherein the separator layer has a front surface facing the anode layer, a back surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the front surface to the back surface, and wherein the anode current collector has an interior surface facing the anode layer, an exterior surface facing away from the anode layer, and an outer surface extending from the interior surface to the exterior surface; and wherein the seal is at least partially disposed on each of the outer surface of the anode layer, the outer surface of the separator layer, and the outer surface of the anode current collector.

88. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-87, wherein the sealant material comprises anon-conductive polymer, a non-conductive glass, or any combination thereof.

89. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-87, wherein the sealant material comprisespolypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene-vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

90. The anode assembly of any one of claims 77-89, wherein at least a portion of the seal hasa thickness of from about 1 µm to about 50 µm.

91. A method of forming a battery cell, wherein the method comprises:(a) providing a separator layer, and an anode layer at least partially disposed on the separator layer and having a first surface facing the separator layer, a second surface facing away from the separator layer, and an outer surface extending from the first surface to the second surface, wherein the anode layer comprises a solid-state electrolyte (SSE) material defining pores adapted to receive an anode material; 86 59314257.1(b) infiltrating at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer with one or more gases selected from N2, O2, CO2, and CO from an external source at a temperature of from about -20 °C to about 100 °C, a pressure of from about 100 Pa to about 1.1 MPa, and a relative humidity of less than about 50%; (c) coupling an anode current collector to the anode layer; (d) forming a barrier about the outer surface of the anode layer to form the anode assembly, wherein the barrier defines an interior and exterior, wherein the anode layer is disposed within the interior of the barrier, and wherein the barrier is impervious to liquid and gas; (e) coupling a cathode assembly to the anode assembly to form a battery cell; and (f) charging the battery cell with an electrical current to form an interfacial material within at least a portion of the pores of the anode layer infiltrated with the one or more gases thereby reducing an absolute pressure, Ppores, within the pores containing interfacial material.

92. The method of claim 91, wherein step (c) further comprises coupling the anode currentcollector to the second surface of the anode layer.

93. The method of claim 92, wherein step (d) is performed before or after the coupling of theanode current collector to the second surface of the anode layer.

94. The method of claim 91, further comprising(a-i) depositing a deposited layer on at least a portion of the second surface of the anode layer.

95. The method of claim 94, wherein the deposited layer comprises a metal, a metal oxide, ametal alloy, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphite, graphene, amorphous carbon, or any combination thereof.

96. The method of claim 95, wherein the deposited layer comprises an oxide of copper,nickel, titanium, iron, or any combination thereof. 87 59314257.

197. The method of any one of claims 94-96, wherein step (c) further comprises(c-i) coupling the anode current collector to a surface of the deposited layer facing away from the anode layer.

98. The method of claim 97, wherein step (c-i) further comprises adhesively coupling theanode current collector to the deposited layer.

99. The method of claim 98, wherein step (c-i) further comprises brazing the anode currentcollector to the deposited layer.

100. The method of any one of claims 94-99, wherein step (d) is performed before or after thecoupling of the anode current collector to the second surface of the deposited layer.

101. The method of any one of claims 91-100, wherein the barrier is a seal, and wherein theforming of step (d) comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by cold-pressing, hot- pressing, melting, 3D-printing, drop casting, painting, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer.

102. The method of any one of claims 91-100, wherein the barrier is a seal, and whereinforming of step (d) comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by applying the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer with a paintbrush, a roller, a plastic applicator, a metal applicator, a shaping tool, a syringe dispenser, a dispenser valve, or any combination thereof.

103. The method of any one of claims 91-100, wherein the barrier is a seal, and wherein theforming of step (d) comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by dip-coating at least a portion of the outer surface of the anode layer in the sealant material.

104. The method of any one of claims 91-100, wherein the barrier is a seal, and wherein theforming of step (d) comprises forming the seal from a sealant material by injection molding, in- 88 59314257.1line extrusion, spray deposition, 3D-printing, wrapping, or any combination thereof, the sealant material at least partially on the outer surface of the anode layer.

105. The method of any one of claims 101-103, wherein the sealant material comprises apolymer, and wherein the polymer comprises polypropylene, polyethylene, polymethylpentene, polybutene-1, ethylene-octene copolymers, propylene-butane copolymers, polyisobutylene, poly(α-olefin), ethylene propylene rubber, ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, ethylene- vinyl acetate, ethylene-acrylate copolymers, polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, styrene block copolymers, polycaprolactone, polyimide, polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonates, polyacrylates, polymethacrylates, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins, epoxy polymers, silicone rubber, or any combination thereof.

106. The method of any one of claims 91-105, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a temperature of from about 10 °C to about 40 °C.

107. The method of any one of claims 91-106, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a temperature of from about 15 °C to about 30 °C.

108. The method of any one of claims 91-107, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a pressure of from about 1,000 Pa to about 510,000 Pa.

109. The method of any one of claims 91-108, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a pressure of from about 80,000 Pa to about 130,000 Pa.

110. The method of any one of claims 91-109, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 50%.

111. The method of any one of claims 91-110, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a relative humidity of from about 5% to about 30%. 89 59314257.1112. The method of any one of claims 91-109, wherein the infiltrating of step (b) is performedat a relative humidity of from about 0.01% to about 7%.

113. The method of any one of claims 91-112, wherein the barrier forming of step (d) isperformed in the presence of the one or more gases.

114. The method of any one of claims 91-113, wherein the barrier forming of step (d) isperformed at the same temperature as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same pressure as the infiltration step (b), performed at the same relative humidity as the infiltration step (b), or any combination thereof.

115. The method of any one of claims 91-114, wherein charging step (f) further comprisescharging the battery cell with at a charging rate of from about C / 50 to about 5C.

116. The method of any one of claims 91-115, wherein charging step (e) further comprisescharging the battery cell with at a charging rate of from about C / 30 to about C / 5.

117. The method of any one of claims 91-116, wherein barrier forming step (d) furthercomprises sealing the one or more gases within at least a portion of the pores of the anode material. 90 59314257.1

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