Highly efficient perovskite solar cells

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to a composition that includes a compound having Structure I, where, formula (I), X is an anion, Ri includes a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group, R2 includes a hydrogen atom, an ester, a carboxylic acid, and / or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and a carbonaceous material that includes carbon atoms indicated by 1 and 2.

Description

HIGHLY EFFICIENT PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLSCROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONSThis application claims the benefit of U.S Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 669,821 filed July 11, 2024 and its associated appendix, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.CONTRACTUAL ORIGINThis invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-AC36-08GO28308 awarded by the Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.BACKGROUNDInverted (or p-i-n) perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have rapidly progressed during the past few years, pushing perovskite-based photovoltaic technologies towards commercialization. For the state-of-the-art inverted PSCs, Ceo is commonly used in the electron transport layer (ETL) structure, such as Ceo / BCP or Ceo / ALD-SnOx. Ceo / ALD-SnOx (i.e. , atomic layer deposited tin oxide layer) has become more attractive due to enhanced stability and easy tandem integration. However, Ceo-based ETLs still exhibit issues associated with non-ideal interfacial properties (reaction / recombination / transport). A key challenge for Ceo ETL is their non-ideal physical adsorption / packing on the perovskite surface, which can lead to a loose and mechanically weak interface. This creates additional challenges for ALD-SnOxcoatings that can react with perovskite surfaces. Thus, there remains a need for improved ETLs that resolve these issues.SUMMARYThe present disclosure relates to a composition that includes a compound having Structure I, where,X is an anion, Ri includes a hydrogen atom and / or an alkvl eroup, R2 includes a hydrogen atom,an ester, a carboxylic acid, and / or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and a carbonaceous material that includes carbon atoms 1 and 2 in its structure. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a carbonaceous material may include at least one of graphene, a fullerene, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotube, and / or an activated carbon. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a fullerene may include at least one of Ceo, C70, and / or C76.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may include an alkyl group having between 1 and 10 carbon atoms. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may include at least one of a methyl group, an ethyl group, and / or a propyl group. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, R2 is a hydrogen atom. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, X may include a halide. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a halide may include at least one of iodide, bromide, chloride, and / or a combination thereof.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a compound may include at least one ofAn aspect of the present disclosure is a device that includes a composition like that described above and a perovskite layer, where the composition is in the form of a layer, and the composition is at least one of ionically or covalently bound to the perovskite layer. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the layer of the composition may have a thickness between greater than 0 nm and less than 20 nm. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a physical connection of the layer of the composition to the perovskite layer has superior physical and / or structural properties compared to an identical or similar composition using an unmodified carbonaceous material.An aspect of the present disclosure is a method for making a composition like that described above, where the method includes a first reacting of a carbonaceous material with N- methylglycine and a compound having Structure II to form Structure III, where,Ri includes a hydrogen atom and / or a 'udes a hydrogen atom, an ester, acarboxylic acid, and / or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and the carbonaceous material comprises carbon atoms 1 and 2.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a method may further include a second reacting of Structure III with an inorganic acid to form Structure I, whereIn some embodiments of the present disclosure, an inorganic acid may include at least one of HC1, HBr, HF, or a combination thereof, and X comprises at least one of chloride, bromide, fluoride, and / or a combination thereof.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGSSome embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures of the drawings. It is intended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to be considered illustrative rather than limiting.Figure 1 illustrates a perovskite in a comer-sharing, cubic phase arrangement, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 2A illustrates three possible corner-sharing phases for perovskites, Panel (a) cubic phase (i.e., a-ABXs), Panel (b) a tetragonal crystalline phase (i.e., P-ABX3), and Panel (c) an orthorhombic crystalline phase (i.e., y-ABXs), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 2B illustrates a perovskite in one of the three possible phases, the cubic phase (i.e., a- phase), compared to two non-perovskite phases (i.e., non-comer sharing), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 3 illustrates 2D, ID, and OD perovskite-like structures, in Panels A, B, and C, respectively, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 4 illustrates a composition (i.e., a modified carbonaceous material (abbreviated CM)) constructed of a carbonaceous material and a compound, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 5 illustrates a device that includes, among other things, a perovskite layer and a layer of modified carbonaceous material (i.e., a composition), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 6 illustrates a method for making the composition illustrated in Figure 4, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 7 illustrates (A) a comparison of Ceo and CPMAC on their different interactions with the perovskite surface, and (B) Synthetic route of 4-(l(5'-dihydro-l'-methyl-277-[5,6] fullereno-C6o- / A-[l,9-c]pyrrol-2'-yl)phenylmethanaminium chloride (CPMAC), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 8 illustrates (A) and (B) photoluminescence (PL) imaging of perovskite films without and with CPMAC. (C) and (D) Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) surface potential images for the control and target perovskite films; (E) a comparison of time-resolved microwave conductivity (TRMC) of Ceo films and CPMAC films, respectively; (F) a comparison of fracture energy (Gc) of devices to quantify ETL for Ceo or CPMAC; (G) cross- sectional high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF- STEM) images of the Ag / ALD-SnOx / CPMAC / perovskite; and (H) an electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) analysis of element mapping for silver (Ag), tin (ALD-SnOx), oxygen (ALD-SnOx), carbon (CPMAC), and iodine (perovskite), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 9 illustrates (A) a cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) image of the ALD-SnOx / CPMAC / perovskite stack; (B) a cryo-TEM image of the target stack with the perovskite, along with the (111) crystal plane of perovskite indicated using fast Fourier transform (FFT); and (C) a cryo-TEM image of the target stack with the amorphous CPMAC, along with the ALD-SnOxusing FFT, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 10 illustrates (A) and (B) the current density-voltage (J-V) characteristics of the p-i-n perovskite solar cells with various device configurations (including FTO / HTL / perovskite / Ceo / ALD-SnOx / Ag (A) and FTO / HTL / perovskite / CPMAC / ALD- SnOx / Ag (B), and the corresponding photovoltaic parameters under simulated AM 1.5 G illumination (insets). Device areas were 0.059 cm2as defined by a metal aperture; (C) a comparison of operational stability of devices under 1-sun maximum power point tracking (MPPT) following the ISOS-L-1 protocol (65°C, N2 atmosphere). HTL was MeO-2PACZ / Me- 4PACZ mixture in (A-C). The initial PCEs of Ceo- and CPMAC -based devices were 24.9% and 25.8%, respectively; and (D) a comparison of operational stability of unencapsulated PSCs measured by MPPT under continuous 1-sun illumination (85°C, N2 atmosphere). For this test, PTAA was used as the HTL. The initial PCEs of Ceo- and CPMAC -based devices were 24.3% and 25.5%, respectively, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.Figure 11 illustrates device parameter statistics of 20 individual PSCs with Ceo layer and with CPMAC layer: (A) open-circuit voltage (Voc); (B) short-circuit current density (Jsc); (C) fill factor (FF); and (D) power conversion efficiency (PCE), according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The center line represents the median value, the bounds of box indicate upper and lower quartiles and the whiskers represent the minimum and maximum values.Figure 12 illustrates (A) a schematic illustration for blade-coating the perovskite films; (B) J- V curves of a representative PSM with Ceo and CPMAC (the inset shows a photograph of a typical PSM); quasi-steady-state (QSS) and J-V results of a representative CPMAC -based device measured by the NREL PV Performance Group; and (D) the operational stability of the encapsulated PSMs under 1-sun MPPT following the ISOS-L-1 protocol at ~55°C in air with 40%-60% relative humidity, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The initial PCEs of Ceo- and CPMAC -based devices were 20.2% and 21.5%, respectively.Figure 13 illustrates a photograph of a process of preparing large-area perovskite film by blade-coating, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure.REFERENCE NUMBERS100 perovskite110 A-cation120 B-cation 130 X-anion400 composition (i.e., modified carbonaceous material (MCM) 410 carbonaceous material (CM) 420 compound 500 device510 first charge transport layer (CTL)520 layer of composition (i.e., layer of MCM)530 perovskite layer540 second CTL 600 method602 starting carbonaceous material (SCM)604 N-methylglycine606 reactant610 first reacting 612 intermediate614 inorganic acid620 second reactingDETAILED DESCRIPTIONThe present disclosure relates to modified carbonaceous materials, e.g., fullerenes, which can be used to synthesize electron transport layers (ETLs) in perovskite solar cells (PSCs). As shown herein, among other things, layers of modified carbonaceous materials (e.g., modified Ceo) can chemically bond to the surface of a perovskite, strengthening the interface formed by adjacent carbonaceous and perovskite layers. As shown herein, the use of some of the modified carbonaceous materials described herein result in defect passivation of perovskite surfaces andcan improve power conversion efficiencies (PCE) and stability in the solar cells utilizing them, compared to control devices lacking the modified carbonaceous materials. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the use of modified carbonaceous materials can enable the use of atomic layer deposition (ALD) for depositing metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) onto modified carbonaceous layers. As shown herein, PSCs were successfully manufactured using the compositions and methods described herein having PCEs as high as ~26%-efficient PSCs with excellent operational stability (~2% degradation after 2100 hours of 1-sun operation at 65°C) and ~23%-efficient minimodules with <9% degradation after 2200 hours of operation at 55 °C.As described in detail below, an example of modified carbonaceous material, is a modified fullerene (C60), 4-(l 5'-Dihydro-l'-methyl-2E[-[5,6]fullereno-C6o-Ih-[l,9-c]pyrrol-2'- yl)phenylmethanaminium chloride (referred to as CPMAC - see Scheme 3). This exemplary molecule includes a phenylmethanaminium halide unit, which can interact with a perovskite.In general, the term “perovskite” refers to compositions having a network of corner-sharing BXe octahedra resulting in the general stoichiometry of ABX3. For example, metal halide perovskites, may organize into three-dimensional (3D) cubic or near-cubic symmetry crystalline structures constructed of a plurality of comer-sharing BXe octahedra (see Figure 1). In the general stoichiometry for a perovskite 100, ABX3, X is an anion 130 and A and B are cations, 110 and 120, respectively, typically of different sizes. A perovskite may have an a- phase structure characterized by eight BXe octahedra surrounding a central A-cation, where each octahedra is formed by six X-anions surrounding a central B-cation, where each of the octahedra are linked together by “comer-sharing” of anions, X.However, a perovskite can assume other crystal structures while still maintaining the criteria of an ABX3 stoichiometry with neighboring BXe octahedra connected by X anion comersharing (see Figure 2A). Thus, in addition to perovskites in the cubic phase having a tilt angle of 180 degrees, a perovskite may also assume and interconvert between a tetragonal crystalline phase and / or an orthorhombic crystalline phase, where the adjacent octahedra are tilted relative to 180 degrees (e.g. reversible phase changes in response to temperature). Further, the elements used to construct a perovskite, A-cat X-anions, may result in 3D non-perovskite structures; i.e., structures where neighboring BXe octahedra are not X-anion comersharing and / or do not have a unit structure that simplifies to the ABX3 stoichiometry (see Figure 2B). Examples include a non-perovskite structure constructed of face-sharing BXe octahedra resulting in a hexagonal crystalline structure and a non-perovskite structure constructed of edge-sharing BXe octahedra resulting in a variety of lower symmetry hexagonal, trigonal, monoclinic, or triclinic crystalline structures. A plethora of materials related to the perovskite material family may also include mixed BXe linkages within the same crystal structure, including face-, edge-, and corner-sharing, whether intentionally targeted structures or as a result of high defect density (e.g. twin boundaries) within a predominantly cubic perovskite material.In addition, the elements used to construct a perovskite, as described above, A-cations, B- cations, and X-anions, may result in non-3D (i.e., lower dimensional structures) perovskitelike structures such as two-dimensional (2D) structures, one-dimensional (ID) structures, and / or zero-dimensional (OD) structures (see Figure 3). Such lower dimensional, perovskitelike structures still include the BXe octahedra, and depending on the dimensionality, e.g., 2D or ID, may still maintain a degree of X-anion comer-sharing. However, the X-anion cornersharing connectivity of neighboring octahedra of such lower dimensional structures, i.e., 2D, ID, and OD, is disrupted by intervening A-cations. Such a disruption of the neighboring octahedra, can be achieved by, among other things, varying the size of the intervening A- cations. For simplification, the term “perovskite” is used herein to include corner-sharing crystal structures, and non-comer-sharing crystal structures, as well as each of 3D, 2D, ID, and OD crystal structures.In some embodiments of the present invention, the A-cation 110 may include a nitrogencontaining organic compound such as an alkyl ammonium compound. The B-cation 120 may include a metal and the X-anion 130 may include a halogen. Additional examples for the A- cation 110 include organic cations and / or inorganic cations, for example Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li, and / or Fr. Organic A-cations 110 may be an alkyl ammonium cation, for example a Ci-20 alkyl ammonium cation, a C1-6 alkyl ammonium cation, a C2-6 alkyl ammonium cation, a C1-5 alkyl ammonium cation,, c, alkyl ammonium cation, a C1-2 alkylammonium cation, and / or a Ci alkyl ammonium cation. Further examples of organic A-cations 110 include methylammonium (CH3NH3 ), ethylammonium (CH3CH2NH3+), propylammonium (CH3CH2 CH2NH3+), butylammonium (CH3CH2 CH2 CH2NH3+), formamidinium (NH2CH=NH2+), hydrazinium, acetylammonium, dimethylammonium, imidazolium, guanidinium, benzylammonium, phenethylammonium, butylammonium and / or any other suitable nitrogen-containing or organic compound. In other examples, an A-cation 110 may include an alkylamine. Thus, an A-cation 110 may include an organic component with one or more amine groups. For example, an A-cation 110 may be an alkyl diamine halide such as formamidinium (CH(NH2)2). Thus, the A-cation 110 may include an organic constituent in combination with a nitrogen constituent. In some cases, the organic constituent may be an alkyl group such as straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, an alkyl group may have from 1 to 6 carbon atoms. Examples of alkyl groups include methyl (Ci), ethyl (C2), n-propyl (C3), isopropyl (C3), n-butyl (C4), tert-butyl (C4), sec-butyl (C4), iso-butyl (C4), n-pentyl (C5), 3-pentanyl (C5), amyl (C5), neopentyl (C5), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C5), tertiary amyl (C5), and n-hexyl (Ce). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C7), n-octyl (Cs) and the like.Examples of metal B-cations 120 include, for example, lead, tin, germanium, and or any other 2+ valence state metal that can charge-balance the perovskite 100. Further examples include transition metals in the 2+ state such as Mn, Mg, Zn, Cd, and / or lanthanides such as Eu. B- cations may also include elements in the 3+ valence state, as described below, including for example, Bi, La, and / or Y. Examples for X-anions 130 include halogens: e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and / or astatine. In some cases, the perovskite halide may include more than one X-anion 130, for example pairs of halogens; chlorine and iodine, bromine and iodine, and / or any other suitable pairing of halogens. In other cases, the perovskite 100 may include two or more halogens of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and / or astatine.Figure 4 illustrates an example of a modified carbonaceous material, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. In this example, a starting carbonaceous material, e.g., a fullerene, has been functionalized with a compound to create the modified carbonaceous material, where the compound is covan+1*e”rface of the starting carbonaceousmaterial. Thus, referring to Figure 4, a modified carbonaceous material is a composition 400 that includes a carbonaceous material 410 and a compound 420. The compound 420 shown in Figure 4 is also illustrated below in Scheme 1.Scheme 1Referring to Scheme 1, Ri may be a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be an alkyl group having between 1 and 10 carbon atoms. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be a branched alkyl group, a straight-chained alkyl group, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be a methyl group, an ethyl group, a propyl group, a butyl group, or a combination thereof. Further, X represents a negatively charged ion (i.e., anion). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, X may include a halide such as at least one of iodide, chloride, bromide, or a combination thereof.Referring to Scheme 1, R2 may be a hydrogen atom, an ester group, a carboxylic acid group, or a ketone group, or a combination thereof. For the example where R2 is a carboxylic acid group, R2 has a structure according t3 may be an alkyl linking group having between zero and five carbon atoms and J'*'*'*" represents the covalent bond between R2 and the nitrogen atom illustrated in Scheme 1. For the example where R2 is an ester group, R2 has a structure accordingmay be an alkyl linking group having between zero and five carbon atoms, R5 may be an alkyl group having between zero and five carbon atoms, and represents the covalent bond between R2 andthe nitrogen atom illustrated in Scheme 1. For the example where R2 is a ketone, R2 has a structure accordingmay be an alkyl linking group having between zero and five carbon atoms, R7 may be an alkyl group having between zero and five carbon atoms, andrepresents the covalent bond between R2 and the nitrogen atom illustrated in Scheme 1.

[0001] Referring again to Figure 4 and Scheme 1, in some embodiments of the present disclosure, m may be between 0 and 5, inclusively (0 < m < 5) and n may be between 1 and 5, inclusively (1 < n < 5). Thus, m represents a linking group between the two cyclic structures, where m may simply be a covalent bond, a single carbon atom, or an alkyl chain between 2 and 5 carbon atoms in length. Further, n represents a linking group between the aromatic ring and the nitrogen containing end-group, where n may be a single carbon atom or an alkyl chain between 2 and 5 carbon atoms in length. Comparing Scheme 1 and Figure 4, the carbon atoms labeled 1 and 2 on Scheme 1 correspond to carbon atoms shared with the carbonaceous material 410.Referring again to Figure 4, a carbonaceous material 410 may include graphene, a fullerene, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotube (e.g., single- and double-walled carbon nanotubes), an activated carbon, or a combination thereof. Examples of fullerenes suitable for the materials and methods described herein include Ceo, C70, C76, or a combination thereof. The example of a carbonaceous material 410 illustrated in Figure 4 is Ceo. Schemes 2 and 3 illustrate progressively more specific examples of compound illustrated in Scheme 1.Referring again to Figure 4, the composition 400 illustrates one molecule of compound 420 bonded to one molecule of carbonaceous material 410, yielding a one-to-one (1 : 1) molar ratio of compound 420 to carbonaceous material 410. This is shown for illustrative purposes and is not intended to be limiting. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a compound 420 may have more than or less than a 1 : 1 molar ratio of compound 420 to carbonaceous material 410, or abbreviated as C:CM may not be equal to one. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, C:CM < 1, C:CM is approximately 1, C:CM > 1, or 0.5 < C:CM < 3.As shown herein, the compositions 400 described above and illustrated in Figure 4 may be incorporated into useful devices that demonstrate improved physical properties and / or performance metrics, when compared to control devices lacking these compositions 400. The examples described herein focus on solar cells, however, other potential applications include light-emitting diodes, displays, and sensors. Figure 5 illustrates a device 500 for the application of solar cells, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. This exemplary device 500 includes a perovskite layer 530 and a layer of modified carbonaceous material 520 (MCM, i.e., composition 400). Thus, the composition 400 illustrated in Figure 4 is illustrated in Figure 5 as having the shape of a planar layer. This is shown for illustrative purposes, however, and is not intended to be limiting. A modified carbonaceous material may be manufactured in a variety of different shapes including s, and / or other non-planar shapes.However, providing a MCM 520 in a planar shape is generally the preferred form for solar cells. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a layer MCM 520 may have a thickness between greater than 0 nm and less than 20 nm or between 5 nm and 15 nm, inclusively.Referring again to Figure 5, the exemplary device 500 may further include a first charge transport layer (CTL) 510 and a second CTL 540, where the layer of MCM 520 may be positioned between the first CTL 510 and the perovskite layer 530 and the perovskite layer 530 is positioned between the layer of MCM 520 and the second CTL 540. Note that a device 500 may include one or more additional elements, layers, and / or features, which may be necessary for a fully operational device, e.g., solar cell. Such additional elements, etc., include charge collecting layers, encapsulation layers, etc. However, these are not illustrated in Figure 5 for simplicity but may be included as needed in for a particular application and are considered withing the scope of the present disclosure.Referring again to Figure 5, a perovskite layer 530, as described above, may include at least one of a one-dimensional (ID) perovskite structure, a two-dimensional (2D) perovskite structure, a three-dimensional (3D) perovskite structure, or a combination thereof. For the example of a 3D perovskite structure, a perovskite layer 530 may include a perovskite having the stoichiometry ABX3, where A is a first cation, B is a second cation, and X is an anion. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first cation (A) may include formamidinium, guanidinium, methyl ammonium, cesium, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second cation (B) may include lead, tin, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, an anion (X) may include a halide, a pseudohalide, or combinations thereof. Examples of pseudohalides include cyanide (CN‘), thiocyanate (SCN‘), cyanate (OCN ), azide (Ns'), or combinations thereof.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the perovskite of a perovskite layer 530 may have a composition CsxMAyFA(i-x-y)Pb(I(i-z)Brz)3, where 0 < x < l, 0 < y < l, and 0 < z < 1. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the perovskite of a perovskite layer 530 may be approximately Cso.o4MAo.i4FAo.82Pb(Io.987Bro.oi3)3. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the perovskite of a perovskite layer 530 may have a composition FA(i.W)CswPbl3 and 0 < w < 1. In some embodiments are, the perovskite of a perovskitelayer 530 may be approximately FAo.gCso.iPbfe. In some embodiments of the present disclosure a perovskite layer may have a thickness between 500 nm and 900 nm.Referring to Figure 1 and Figure 4, without intending to be limited by theory, a strong physical connection of the perovskite layer 530 to the layer of MCM 520 may be achieved by an interaction of the MCM’s (i.e., composition 400) functional groups (i.e., compound 420) and the perovskite of the perovskite layer 530. It may be hypothesized that a portion of the first cation (A) of a perovskite like that illustrated in Figure 1 may be replaced by the nitrogencontaining group of the functional group (i.e., compound 420) of the composition 400 (i.e., MCM) as illustrated in Figure 4. Thus, referring again to Figure 5, a layer of MCM 520 may be ionically and / or covalently bonded to a perovskite layer 530, resulting in an interface between the two layers having superior physical and / or structural properties compared to an interface between the same perovskite layer and layer of unmodified carbonaceous material. As shown herein, improvement resulting from positioning a layer of MCM 520 between a first charge transport layer 510 and a perovskite layer 530 include final device demonstrating improved power conversion efficiencies between 25% and 27%, an improved fracture energies, Gc, between 1 J / m2and 5 J / m2.Referring again to Figure 5, a device 500 may further include a first charge transport layer (CTL) 510, where the layer of MCM 520 is positioned between the perovskite layer 530 and first the CTL 510. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first CTL 510 may function as an electron transport layer (ETL). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first CTL 510 may include a metal oxide, bathocuproine, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a metal oxide used in a first CTL 510 may include a tin oxide, a zinc oxide, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first CTL 510 may have a thickness between 1 nm and 100 nm or between 5 nm and 50 nm.Referring again to Figure 5, a device 500 may further include a second charge transport layer (CTL) 540, where the perovskite layer 530 is positioned between the layer of MCM 520 and second the CTL 540. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second CTL 540 may function as a hole transport layer (HTL). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second CTL 540 may be constructed netal oxide and a self-assembledmonolayer (SAM) positioned on a surface of the transparent metal oxide layer. Examples of molecules that self-assemble to form SAMs include molecules having anchoring groups that include at least one of a phosphonic acid group (e.g. [2-(9Z7-Carbazol-9-yl)ethyl]phosphonic acid, (2-(3,6-dimethoxy-9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethyl)phosphonic acid), a carboxylic acid group (e.g. benzoic acid), a sulfonic acid group, a trimethoxysilane group (e.g. aminopropyltrimethoxysilen), a cyanoacetic acid group, and / or another acid group. Examples of transparent conducting oxides, include doped indium oxides (In2O3:Sn, In2O3:Mo, In2O3:Ti, and / or In2O3:H), doped zinc oxides (ZnO:Al, ZnO:Ga, and / or ZnO:Ti), doped tin oxides (SnO2:F, SnCh Sb, SnCh Ta, and / or SnCh Nb), and doped titanium oxides (TiCh Nb). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a HTL may be constructed using poly[bis(4- phenyl)(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)amine] (PTAA), (poly[3-(4-carboxybutyl)thiophene-2,5-diyl]) (P3CT), poly(3 -hexylthiophene) (P3HT), or a combination thereof.Figure 6 illustrates a method 600 for making the composition 400 illustrated in Figure 4, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure, that includes a first reacting 610 and a second reacting 620, where the two reacting steps result in the synthesize of the composition 400 (i.e., modified carbonaceous material). Referring to Figure 6, a first reacting 610 includes combining and reacting a starting carbonaceous material 602 with N-m ethylglycine 604 and a reactant 606 having a structure as shown in Scheme 4, resulting in the forming of an intermediate 612 having a structure as shown in Scheme 5.Scheme 4Scheme 5Referring to Schemes 4 and 5, Ri may be a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be an alkyl group having between 1 and 10 carbon atoms. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be a branched alkyl group, a straight-chained alkyl group, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, Ri may be a methyl group, an ethyl group, a propyl group, a butyl group, or a combination thereof. Further, in some embodiments of the present disclosure, m may be between 0 and 5, inclusively (0 < m < 5) and n may be between 1 and 5, inclusively (1 < n < 5). Thus, m represents a linking group between the two cyclic structures, where m may simply be a covalent bond, a single carbon atom, or an alkyl chain between 2 and 5 carbon atoms in length. Further, n represents a linking group between the aromatic ring and the nitrogen containing end-group, where n may be a single carbon atom or an alkyl chain between 2 and 5 carbon atoms in length, the carbon atoms labeled 1 and 2 on Scheme 5 correspond to carbon atoms formed with the starting carbonaceous material 602.Referring again to Figure 6, a second reacting 620 may include the combining and mixing of the intermediate 612 with an inorganic acid 614 resulting in the targeted product illustrated above in Scheme 1 corresponding to the composition 400 illustrated in Figure 4, a modified carbonaceous material.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first reacting 610 may be performed at a temperature between 90 °C and 200 °C or between 110 °C and 140 °C. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first reacting 610 may be performed for a period of time between 1 minute and 24 hours or between 1 hour and 24 hours or between 10 hours and 20 hours.In some embodiments of the present ” ' cting 610 may be performed in amixture including a first solvent (not shown), a starting carbonaceous material 602, N- methylglycine 604, and a reactant 606. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first solvent may include at least one of nonpolar organic solvent, a polar organic solvent, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first solvent may include a nonpolar organic solvent such as at least one of toluene, pentane, hexane, heptane, benzene, xylene, chloroform, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first solvent may include a polar organic that includes at least one of chlorobenzene, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, methylene chloride, methanol, ethanol, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a first solvent may include a mixture of toluene and chlorobenzene.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, N-methylglycine 604 may be present in a mixture including a solvent at a starting concentration for the first reacting 610 between 1 mM and 200 mM or between 10 mM and 200 mM or between 10 mM and 100 mM. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, reactant 606 (see Scheme 4) may be present in a mixture including a solvent at a starting concentration for the first reacting 610 between 1 mM and 200 mM or between 12.5 mM to 125 mM. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the starting carbonaceous material 602 may be present in a mixture including a solvent at a starting concentration for the first reacting 610 between 0.1 mM and 500 mM or between 1 mM and 100 mM or between 5 mM to 50 mM.Referring again to Figure 6, a second reacting 620 may be performed at a temperature between 15 °C and 100 °C or between 20 °C and 50 °C or between 20 °C and 25 °C. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second reacting 620 may performed for a period of time between 1 minute and 24 hours or between 1 hour and 24 hours or between 10 hours and 20 hours.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second reacting 620 may be performed in a mixture including a second solvent (not shown). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second solvent may include a nonpolar organic solvent, a polar organic solvent, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second solvent may include a nonpolar organic solvent sue hexane, heptane, benzene, xylene,chloroform, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second solvent may include a polar organic solvent such as chlorobenzene, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, methylene chloride, methanol, ethanol, or combinations thereof.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, a second solvent may include a mixture of methylene chloride, tetrahydrofuran and methanol. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the methylene chloride (MCL) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) may be present at a first ratio (MCL: THF) between 1 : 10 and 10: 1 or between 1 :3 and 3: 1 or about 1 : 1. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the THF and the methanol (M) may be present at a second ratio (THF :M) between 1 : 10 and 10: 1 or between 1 :3 and 3 : 1 or about 2: 1.Referring again to Figure 6, an intermediate 612 (see Scheme 5) may be present in a mixture of the second solvent at a starting concentration between 0.1 mM and 200 mM or between 1 mM and 100 mM or between 1 mM and 50 mM or between 1 mM to 20 mM.In some embodiments of the present disclosure, an inorganic acid 614 used in a second reacting 620 may include HC1, HBr, HF, or combinations thereof, where X shown in Scheme 1 is chloride, bromide, fluoride, or combinations thereof, corresponding to the inorganic acid selected for a particular application. In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the organic acid 614 is hydrochloric acid (HC1). In some embodiments of the present disclosure, the inorganic acid 614 may be present in a mixture of the second solvent at a starting concentration between 1 mM and 10 M or between 10 mM and 10 M or between 100 mM and 10 M or between 300 mM and 6 M.As shown below, in one example, a composition 400 (i.e., modified carbonaceous material (MCM) was synthesized from the fullerene, C60, this being the ionic salt 4-(l',5'-dihydro-l'- methyl-2 / -[5,6] fullereno-C6o- / / ,-[ l ,9-c]pyrrol-2'-yl) phenylmethanaminium chloride (CPMAC) (see Scheme 1). This MCM was implemented as in an ETL PSCs. The CH2-NH3 head group in the CPMA cation improved the ETL interface and the ionic nature enhanced the packing, leading to ~3-fold increase in the interfacial toughness compared to Ceo. Using CPMAC, -26% power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) were obtained with -2% degradationafter 2,100 hours of 1-sun operation at 65°C. For minimodules (four subcells, 6 centimeters square), a PCE of -23% was achieved with <9% degradation after 2,200 hours of operation at 55°C.The CPMA+cation contains a CH2-NHs+head (see Scheme 3) having a structure similar to the methylammonium (MA+) cation. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations showed that CPMAC can react with a formamidinium-rich (FA-rich) perovskite surface by replacing an FA+cation with the CPMA+CH2-NH3 head, thereby lowering the surface energy by 0.375 eV of the resultant modified perovskite surface. In comparison, CPMAC reacting with MA+may lower the surface energy by 0.181 eV, whereas reacting with Cs+may increase the surface energy slightly by 0.003 eV. Thus, FA+would likely be preferentially replaced by CPMAC for mixed-cation perovskites.In comparison to a starting carbonaceous material of Ceo, two interactions between CPMAC and perovskite may occur. First, the CH2-NH3+head may fill a FA+vacancy, and the CF anion may occupy an iodide vacancy, providing double defect passivation. Second, a CPMA+cation may replace a FA+cation on the surface as expected from DFT calculations, and FA+and CF may form a FAC1 molecule, which may be removed from the perovskite during annealing in gaseous form.A comparison of Ceo / perovskite and CPMAC / perovskite interfaces is illustrated in Panel A of Figure 7. In both cases (filling a FA+vacancy or replacing a FA+cation), the CH2-NH3+head in the CPMA+cation may introduce ionic bonding with the surrounding iodide anions on the surface. Thus, the ionic nature of CPMAC may strengthen the CPMAC / perovskite interface. It may also enable stronger packing of the CPMAC layer on the perovskite and the use of a thinner CPMAC layer (-10 nm) versus -20 nm typically used for Ceo. In addition, the Ceo unit in CPMA+facilitates electron transport, making the CPMAC layer both a strong and conducting bridge to transfer electrons from the perovskite to external electrodes in a device.Referring to Panel B of Figure 7, a Prato reaction (first reaction 610) was used of Ceo with N- methylglycine and tert-butyl 4-formylbenzylcarbamate to form the intermediate (compound 1 - see Scheme 5), which was then reacted (second reaction 620) with hydrochloric acid in atert-butyl carbamate deprotection reaction to achieve the final CPMAC compound. Both 1 and final CPMAC compound were characterized by 'H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR),13C NMR, and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Note that the ionic interaction between CPMAC and the perovskite surface is consistent with the x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements in which the Pb 4f peaks of the treated perovskite film shifted toward a lower binding energy (by about 0.33 eV) compared to the control film.The grazing-incident wide-angle x-ray scattering (GIWAXS) was studied of perovskite films without and with CPMAC coating, respectively. No additional Laue rings were observed, indicating that the introduction of CPMAC did not induce perovskite phase change. However, the apparent changes in diffraction intensity and growth orientation of the perovskite from the existing Laue rings indicated interactions between CPMAC and the perovskite components. The one-dimensional (ID) GIWAXS results demonstrated a decreased scattering vector q value, corresponding to an increased lattice d-spacing of perovskite. These results were consistent with the chemical interaction between CPMAC and perovskite in the surface region.Photoluminescence (PL) mapping images of perovskite films without and with CPMAC were also completed (see Panels A and B of Figure 8, respectively), which show that the CPMAC- treated perovskite film was more uniform with a reduced PL intensity compared to the pristine perovskite film. Further, Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) was implemented to investigate the spatial variations in the surface potential of perovskite films with and without CPMAC. As shown in Panels C and D of Figure 8, the perovskite / CPMAC film exhibited a more uniform potential distribution than the pristine sample, which suggested that CPMAC effectively mitigates surface defects. In addition, cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurement of Ceo and CPMAC, with ferrocene as the reference, showed lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels of -4.20 and -4.09 eV against vacuum, respectively. In comparison to Ceo, the reduced conduction band offset between the CPMAC and perovskite (-3.92 eV) may result in a better energy alignment at this interface and a reduced voltage loss in the corresponding device.The time-resolved microwave conductivity (TRMC) transients for both Ceo and CPMAC thin films was measured over a range of e The yield-mobility products wereplotted as a function of excitation intensities (see Panel E of Figure 8). The mobility in CPMAC was about 30% higher than that in Ceo measured at the lowest excitation intensity.Further, the fracture energy (Gc) of devices with Ceo or CPMAC was evaluated by using forcedisplacement measurements with a double cantilever beam test. The fracture path of all samples involved the ETL layer and the average Gc values changed by about a factor of 3, increasing from about 0.50±0.07 J m2for Ceo to 1.43±0.03 J m2for CPMAC (see Panel F of Figure 8). Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES) on the delaminated samples further supports the improved fracture toughness within the CPMAC layer as compared to Ceo as well improved adhesion at the CPMAC / perovskite interface. These results were consistent with stronger mechanical stability for CPMAC. The measured values are above the empirical threshold of 1 J m-2that limits the susceptibility of the perovskite device to delaminate in operation.To directly visualize the distribution of CPMAC on the perovskite layer, high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) measurements were completed. Cryogenic focused ion beam (cryo-FIB) was used to prepare the STEM specimen without damaging the inherent structures of the perovskite layer. The cross-sectional HAADF- STEM images shown in Panel G of Figure 8 reveal a dark layer sandwiched between the brighter ALD-SnOx and perovskite layers. This layer corresponds to the CPMAC layer and is discernible because of the contrast in atomic number. The CPMAC layer is ~ 10 nm thick and is amorphous (see Figure 9). To further investigate the elemental distribution, electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) coupled with cryogenic-high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (cryo-HRTEM) experiments were performed on cross sections of the device (see Panel H of Figure 8). The distributions of silver, tin, oxygen, carbon, and iodine were consistent with the distributions of the Ag, ALD-SnOx, ALD-SnOx, CPMAC, and perovskite layers. EELS also revealed the uniform and compact presence of the CPMAC layer atop perovskite through the detection of the carbon element.The current density -voltage (J-V) curves and photovoltaic (PV) performance parameters of the best-performing devices under standard AM 1.5 G illumination are shown in Panels A and B of Figure 10. The PSC with the config 'perovskite / ALD-SnOx / Ag (whereFTO is fluorine-doped tin oxide and HTL is hole transport layer) showed a negligible PCE of 0.07%, which may be ascribed to the degradation of the perovskite layer during the ALD-SnOxcoating. The incorporation of a standard Ceo layer between perovskite and ALD-SnOxameliorated this degradation, achieving a PCE of 25.5% (reverse scan) with a short-circuit current density (Jsc) of 26.0 mA cm2, open-circuit voltage (Foe) of 1.16 V, and fill factor (FF) of 84.9% (see Panel A of Figure 10). Remarkably, replacing Ceo with CPMAC further improved the PV performance to a PCE of 26.1% (reverse scan) with a - of 26.0 mA cm2, Foe of 1.18 V, and FF of 85.5% (see Panel B of Figure 10). The increase in Foe for the CPMAC- based PSC is consistent with its higher photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) than the Ceo-based cell. Note that both Ceo- and CPMAC -based PSCs exhibited minimal hysteresis between forward and reverse J-V scans.The improved PV parameters achieved by using CPMAC to replace Ceo were further verified based on statistical results from 20 devices of each device type (see Figure 11). The PSCs with the CPMAC layer processed over a range of CPMAC solution concentrations all exhibited similar PCEs, which would provide a favorable processing window for solution deposition of the CPMAC layer. Note that the measured - (26.0 mA cm2) was consistent with the integrated current density (25.9 mA cm2) from the external quantum efficiency (EQE) spectra. It is also noteworthy that CPMAC -based PSCs did not require additional perovskite surface treatment as is often the case for Ceo-based PSCs. The ideality factors («id) of control and target devices were calculated from the dependence of Foe on the light intensity. The «id decreased from 1.77 to 1.41 after substituting the Ceo layer with CPMAC, which could be attributed to reduced trap- assisted non-radiative recombination.The operational stability of PSCs with Ceo and CPMAC was evaluated to investigate the impact of CPMAC on device stability (see Panels C and D of Figure 10). The unencapsulated device with CPMAC exhibited only about a 2% efficiency loss after 2,100 hours of continuous maximum power point tracking (MPPT) under an N2 atmosphere at about 65°C with 1-sun illumination. In contrast, the Ceo-based devices showed a ~6% drop in PCE.Operational stability at 85 °C was also tested. For this test, poly[bis(4-phenyl)(2,4,6- trimethylphenyl)amine] (PTAA) was te that the operational stability at85°C for the CPMAC -based device was substantially better than the standard Ceo-based device, maintaining -95% of its original efficiency over 1,500 hours of MPPT under N2 (see Panel D of Figure 10). When tested under damp-heat conditions (85°C and 85% relative humidity), the encapsulated CPMAC -based device retained 94.3% of its initial PCE after 2,000 hours, whereas the Ceo-based device exhibited a 16% PCE loss. Thus, replacing Ceo with CPMAC increased device stability under various testing conditions. Note that the improved stability with CPMAC is also consistent with the time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF- SIMS) measurement of aged PSCs.Furthermore, minimodules were fabricated with four subcells (6 cm2) by blade-coating the perovskite layer (see Panel A of Figure 12 and Figure 13). The representative current densityvoltage (J-V) curves of perovskite solar minimodules (PSMs) are compared in Panel B of Figure 12. The CPMAC -b ased PSM exhibited a PCE of 23.2% with a. A- of 6.01 mA cm2, 1% of 4.81 V, and FF of 80.3%. In comparison, Ceo-based PSM exhibit a PCE of 21.8%, a Foe of 4.7 V, an FF of 78.6%, and a .A of 5.95 mA cm2. No discernible difference (hysteresis) in J-V curves under different scanning directions were observed for the CPMAC -based PSM. The corresponding stabilized PCEs of the PSMs based on Ceo and CPMAC are 21.2% and 22.7%, respectively.One of these minimodule devices was provided to an accredited PV laboratory (NREL PV Performance Group), obtaining the certified quasi-steady-state (QSS) PCE of 21.6±0.2% with a corresponding backward-scan J-EPCE of 22.6% (see Panel C of Figure 12). Importantly, the efficient PSMs with CPMAC on blade-coated perovskite demonstrated that CPMAC could effectively integrate with perovskite processed at scale. The operational stability of the encapsulated PSM was also studie under continuous light illumination at ~55°C in ambient air (see Panel D of Figure 12). After 2,200 hours, the CPMAC-treated PSM maintained 91.5% of its initial PCE, whereas the control sample lost >30% of its initial PCE. These results demonstrate that using CPMAC to replace Ceo is an effective approach to improve the PCE and operational stability of p-i-n PSCs and PSMs.Examples:Example 1. A composition comprising: a compound comprising Structure I, wherein:RI comprises a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group, R2comprises a hydrogen atom, an ester, a carboxylic acid, or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and a carbonaceous material comprising carbon atoms 1 and 2.Example 2. The composition of Example 1, wherein the carbonaceous material comprises at least one of graphene, a fullerene, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotube, or an activated carbon.Example 3. The composition of either Example 1 and / or Example 2, wherein the fullerene comprises at least one of Ceo, C70, or C76.Example 4. The composition of any one of Examples 1-3, wherein Ri comprises an alkyl group having between 1 and 10 carbon atoms.Example 5. The composition any one of Examples 1-4, wherein Ri comprises at least one of a methyl group, an ethyl group, or a propyl group.Example 6. The composition any one of Examples 1-5, wherein R2comprises an ester.Example 7. The composition any one of Examples 1-6, wherein R2comprises a hydrogen atom.Example 8. The compound any one of Examples 1-7, wherein the compound further comprises a hydrogen atom such that the compound comprises Structure IEExample 9. The composition any one of Examples 1-8, wherein the compound further comprises an anion, X, such that the compound has Structure (III):Example 10. The composition any one of Examples 1-9, wherein X comprises a halide.Example 11. The composition any one of Examples 1-10, wherein the halide comprises at least one of iodide, bromide, chloride, or a combination thereof.Example 12. The composition any one of Examples 1-11, wherein the compound comprises at least one ofExample 13. The composition any one of Examples 1-12, wherein the compound comprises at least one ofExample 14. The composition any one of Examples 1-13, wherein the compound comprises at least one ofwherein X is an anion.Example 15. The composition any one of Examples 1-14, wherein the compound comprises at least one ofwherein X is an anion.Example 16. A device comprising: any of the compositions of Example 1-15, and a perovskite layer, wherein: the composition is in the form of a layer, and the composition is at least one of ionically or covalently bound to the perovskite layer. Example 17. The device of Example 16, wherein the layer of the composition has a thickness between greater than 0 nm and less than 20 nm.Example 18. The device of either Example 16 and / or Example 17, wherein the thickness is between 5 nm and 15 nm, inclusively.Example 19. The device any one of Examples 16-18, wherein a connection (e.g., interface) of the layer of the composition to the perovskite layer has superior physical and / or structural properties compared to an identical or similar composition using an unmodified carbonaceous material.Example 20. The device any one of Examples 16-19, wherein the perovskite layer comprises at least one of a one-dimensional (ID) perovskite structure, a two-dimensional (2D) perovskite structure, a three-dimensional (3D) perovskite structure, or a combination thereof.Example 21. The device any one of Examples 16-20, wherein the 3D perovskite structure has a stoichiometry comprising ABX3, A is a first cation, B is a second cation, and X is an anion.Example 22. The device any one of Examples 16-21, wherein the first cation comprises at least one of formamidinium, guanidinium, methyl ammonium, cesium, or a combination thereof.Example 23. The device any one of Examples 16-22, wherein B comprises at least one of lead, tin, or a combination thereof.Example 24. The device any one of Examples 16-23, wherein X comprises at least one of a halide, a pseudohalide, or a combination thereof.Example 25. The device any one of Examples 16-24, wherein the pseudohalide comprises at least one of cyanide (CN‘), thiocyanate (SCN‘), cyanate (OCN ), azide (Ns'), or a combination thereof.Example 26. The device any one of Examples 16-25, wherein the perovskite layer comprises CsxMAyFA(i-x-y)Pb(I(i-z)Brz)3, 0 < x < l, 0 < y < l, and 0 < z < 1.Example 27. The device any one of Examples 16-26, wherein the perovskite layer comprises FA(i-W)CswPbl3 and 0 < w < 1.Example 28. The device any one of Examples 16-27, wherein the perovskite layer comprises CSo.O4MAo.l4FAo.82Pb(Io.987Bro.O13)3.Example 29. The device any one of Examples 16-28, wherein the perovskite layer comprises FAo.gCso.iPbE.Example 30. The device any one of Examples 16-29, wherein a portion of the first cation is replaced by the nitrogen-containing group of the composition.Example 31. The device any one of Examples 16-30, further comprising a charge transport layer (CTL), wherein the layer of the composition is positioned between the perovskite layer and the CTL.Example 32. The device any one of Examples 16-31, wherein the CTL comprises at least one of a metal oxide, bathocuproine, or a combination thereof.Example 33. The device any one of Examples 16-32, wherein the metal oxide comprises at least one of a tin oxide, a zinc oxide, or a combination thereof.Example 34. The device any one of Examples 16-33, wherein the CTL has a thickness between 1 nm and 100 nm or between 5 nm and 50 nm.Example 35. The device any one of Examples 16-34, wherein the composition is amorphous.Example 36. The device any one of Examples 16-35, further comprising a power conversion efficiency between 20 % and 28 % or between 25% and 27%.Example 37. The device any one of Examples 16-36, further comprising a fracture energy, Gc, between 0.5 J / m2and 10 J / m2or between 1 J / m2and 5 J / m2or between 1 J / m2and 2 J / m2.Example 38. The device any one of Examples 16-37, further comprising a metal oxide layer, wherein the layer of the composition is positioned between the perovskite layer and the metal oxide layer.Example 39. The device any one of Examples 16-38, wherein the metal oxide layer comprises a tin oxide.Example 40. A method for making any one of compositions 1-15, the method comprising: a first reacting of a carbonaceous material with N-methylglycine and a compound comprising Structure IV to form Structure V, wherein:Ri comprises a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group, R2 comprises a hydrogen atom, an ester, a carboxylic acid, or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and the carbonaceous material comprises carbon atoms 1 and 2.Example 41. The method of Example 40, further comprising: a second reacting of Structure V with an inorganic acid to form Structure III, wherein:anion.Example 42. The method of either Example 40 and / or Example 41, wherein the inorganic acid comprises at least one of HC1, HBr, HF, or a combination thereof, and X comprises at least one of chloride, bromide, fluoride, or a combination thereof.Example 43. The method any one of Examples 40-42, wherein the first reacting is performed at a temperature between 90 °C and 200 °C or between 110 °C and 140 °C.Example 44. The method any one of Examples 40-43, wherein the first reacting is performed for a period of time between 1 minute and 24 hours or between 1 hour and 24 hours or between 10 hours and 20 hours.Example 45. The method any one of Examples 40-44, wherein the first reacting is performed in a first solvent.Example 46. The method any one of Examples 40-45, wherein the first solvent comprises at least one of nonpolar organic solvent, a polar organic solvent, or a combination thereof.Example 47. The method any one of Examples 40-46, wherein the nonpolar organic solvent comprises at least one of toluene, pentane, hexane, heptane, benzene, xylene, chloroform, or a combination thereof.Example 48. The method any one of Examples 40-47, wherein the polar organic solvent comprises at least one of chlorobenzene, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, methylene chloride, methanol, ethanol, or a combination thereof.Example 49. The method any one of Examples 40-48, wherein the first solvent comprises a mixture of toluene and chlorobenzene.Example 50. The method any one of Examples 40-49, wherein the N-methylglycine is present at a concentration between 1 mM and 200 mM or between 10 mM and 200 mM or between 10 mM and 100 mM.Example 51. The method any one of Examples 40-50, wherein the compound comprising Structure IV is present at a concentration between 1 mM and 200 mM or between 12.5 mM to 125 mM.Example 52. The method any one of Examples 40-51, wherein the carbonaceous material is present at a concentration between 0.1 mM and 500 mM or between 1 mM and 100 mM or between 5 mM to 50 mM.Example 53. The method any one of Examples 40-52, wherein the second reacting is performed at a temperature between 15 °C and 100 °C or between 20 °C and 50 °C or between 20 °C and 25 °C.Example 54. The method any one of Examples 40-53, wherein the second reacting is performed for a period of time between 1 minute and 24 hours or between 1 hour and 24 hours or between 10 hours and 20 hours.Example 55. The method any one of Examples 40-54, the second reacting is performed in a second solvent.Example 56. The method any one of Examples 40-55, wherein the second solvent comprises at least one of a nonpolar organic solvent, a polar organic solvent, or a combination thereof.Example 57. The method any one of Examples 40-56, wherein the nonpolar organic solvent comprises at least one of toluene, pentane, hexane, heptane, benzene, xylene, chloroform, or a combination thereof.Example 58. The method any one of Examples 40-57, wherein the polar organic solvent comprises at least one of chlorobenzene, acetonitrile, tetrahydrofuran, dimethylformamide, dimethylsulfoxide, methylene chloride, methanol, ethanol, or a combination thereof.Example 59. The method any one of Examples 40-58, wherein the second solvent comprises a mixture of methylene chloride, tetrahydrofuran and methanol.Example 60. The method any one of Examples 40-59, wherein the methylene chloride (MCL) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) are present at a first ratio (MCL:THF) between 1 : 10 and 10: 1 or between 1 :3 and 3 : 1 or about 1 : 1.Example 61. The method any one of Examples 40-60, wherein the THF and the methanol (M) are present at a second ratio (THF:M) between 1 : 10 and 10: 1 or between 1 :3 and 3: 1 or about 2: 1.Example 62. The method any one of Examples 40-61, wherein Structure V is present at a concentration between 0.1 mM and 200 mM or between 1 mM and 100 mM or between 1 mM and 50 mM or between 1 mM to 20 mM.Example 63. The method any one of Examples 40-62, wherein the organic acid is hydrochloric acid (HC1).Example 64. The method any one of Examples 40-63, wherein the HC1 is present at a concentration between 1 mM and 10 M or between 10 mM and 10 M or between 100 mM and 10 M or between 300 mM and 6 M.The embodiments described herein should not necessarily be construed as limited to addressing any of the particular problems or deficiencies discussed herein. References in the specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, “an example embodiment”, “some embodiments”, etc., indicate that the embodiment described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described.As used herein the term “substantially” is used to indicate that exact values are not necessarily attainable. By way of example, one of ordinary skill in the art will understand that in some chemical reactions 100% conversion of a reactant is possible, yet unlikely. Most of a reactant may be converted to a product and conversion of the reactant may asymptotically approach 100% conversion. So, although from a practical perspective 100% of the reactant is converted, from a technical perspective, a small and sometimes difficult to define amount remains. For this example of a chemical reactant, that amount may be relatively easily defined by the detection limits of the instrument used to test for it. However, in many cases, this amount may not be easily defined, hence the use of the term “substantially”. In some embodiments of the present invention, the term “substantially” is defined as approaching a specific numeric value or target to within 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or within 1% of the value or target. In further embodiments of the present invention, the term “substantially” is defined as approaching a specific numeric value or target to within 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, or 0.1% of the value or target.As used herein, the term “about” is used to indicate that exact values are not necessarily attainable. Therefore, the term “abor e this uncertainty limit. In someembodiments of the present invention, the term “about” is used to indicate an uncertainty limit of less than or equal to ±20%, ±15%, ±10%, ±5%, or ±1% of a specific numeric value or target. In some embodiments of the present invention, the term “about” is used to indicate an uncertainty limit of less than or equal to ±1%, ±0.9%, ±0.8%, ±0.7%, ±0.6%, ±0.5%, ±0.4%, ±0.3%, ±0.2%, or ±0.1% of a specific numeric value or target.The foregoing discussion and examples have been presented for purposes of illustration and description. The foregoing is not intended to limit the aspects, embodiments, or configurations to the form or forms disclosed herein. In the foregoing Detailed Description for example, various features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations are grouped together in one or more embodiments, configurations, or aspects for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. The features of the aspects, embodiments, or configurations, may be combined in alternate aspects, embodiments, or configurations other than those discussed above. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the aspects, embodiments, or configurations require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive aspects lie in less than all features of a single foregoing disclosed embodiment, configuration, or aspect. While certain aspects of conventional technology have been discussed to facilitate disclosure of some embodiments of the present invention, the Applicants in no way disclaim these technical aspects, and it is contemplated that the claimed invention may encompass one or more of the conventional technical aspects discussed herein. Thus, the following claims are hereby incorporated into this Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate aspect, embodiment, or configuration.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A composition comprising: a compound comprising Structure I, wherein:X is an anion,Ri comprises a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group,R2 comprises a hydrogen atom, an ester, a carboxylic acid, or a ketone, 0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and a carbonaceous material comprising carbon atoms 1 and 2.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the carbonaceous material comprises at least one of graphene, a fullerene, graphite, carbon black, a carbon nanotube, or an activated carbon.

3. The composition of claim 2, wherein the fullerene comprises at least one of Ceo, C70, orC76.

4. The composition of claim 1, wherein Ri comprises an alkyl group having between 1 and10 carbon atoms.

5. The composition of claim 4, wherein Ri comprises at least one of a methyl group, an ethyl group, or a propyl group.

6. The composition of claim 1, wherein R2 is a hydrogen atom.

7. The composition of claim 1, wherein X comprises a halide.

8. The composition of claim 7, wherein the halide comnrises at least one of iodide, bromide,chloride, or a combination thereof.

9. The composition of claim 1, wherein the compound comprises at least one of10. A device comprising: the composition of claim 1, and a perovskite layer, wherein: the composition is in the form of a layer, and the composition is at least one of ionically or covalently bound to the perovskite layer.

11. The device of claim 10, wherein the layer of the composition has a thickness between greater than 0 nm and less than 20 nm.

12. The device of claim 10, wherein a physical connection of the layer of the composition to the perovskite layer has superior physical and / or structural properties compared to an identical or similar composition using an unmodified carbonaceous material.

13. A method for making the composition of claim 1, the method comprising: a first reacting of a carbonaceous material with N-methylglycine and a compound comprising Structure II to form Structure III, wherein:Ri comprises a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group,R-2 comprises a hydrogen atom, an ester, a carboxylic acid, or a ketone,0 < m < 5, 1 < n < 5, and the carbonaceous material com and 2.

14. The method of claim 13, further comprising: a second reacting of Structure III with an inorganic acid to form Structure I, wherein:X is an anion.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the inorganic acid comprises at least one of HC1, HBr, HF, or a combination thereof, and X comprises at least one of chloride, bromide, fluoride, or a combination thereof.

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