Systems, articles, and methods related to lowering or eliminating liquid discharge from semiconductor waste streams

Abstract

Systems, articles, and methods related to treating waste from a semiconductor processing facility are generally described. Certain aspects relate to methods for treating waste (e.g., wastewater) from a semiconductor processing facility such that little to no liquid discharge is produced. In some embodiments, the systems and methods involve one or more fluidic systems capable of removing one or more species (e.g., contaminants) from a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream from the semiconductor processing facility. In some embodiments, the systems and methods involve one or more membrane separators, one or more foam fractionation separators, a biological treatment system, an extraction system, a humidifier, a solids-removal system, a centrifuge system, and / or a dewatering system. In some embodiments, one or more inputs are provided to the systems and one or more outputs (e.g., treated streams and / or solids) exit the systems. Some output streams have a relatively low concentration of contaminants (e.g., from purification) while other outputs may have relatively high concentration of contaminants (e.g., from contaminant enrichment such as for disposal).

Description

[0001] SYSTEMS, ARTICLES, AND METHODS RELATED TO LOWERING OR ELIMINATING LIQUID DISCHARGE FROM SEMICONDUCTOR WASTE STREAMS

[0002] TECHNICAL FIELD

[0003] Treating waste from semiconductor processing facilities is generally described.

[0004] SUMMARY

[0005] Systems, articles, and methods related to treating waste from a semiconductor processing facilities are generally described. The subject matter of the present disclosure involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and / or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and / or articles.

[0006] In one aspect, a method is generally described. In some embodiments, the method comprises transporting a first membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a first membrane separator, the first membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, such that: a first membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the first membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the first membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the first membrane separator, through a first semi- permeable membrane of the first membrane separator, to a permeate side of the first membrane separator to form some or all of a first membrane separator permeate output; and transporting a second membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a second membrane separator, the second membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion the first membrane separator retentate output, such that: a second membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the second membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the second membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the second membrane separator, through a second semi-permeable membrane of the second membrane separator, to a permeate side of the second membrane separator to form some or all of a second membrane separator permeate output, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility.

[0007] In some embodiments, the method comprises providing a first foam fractionation system input comprising at least a portion of a feed comprising per- and / or polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) molecules to a first foam fractionation system and operating the first foam fractionation system, such that: a first foam fractionated product output exiting the first foam fractionation system has a lower concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input, and a first foam fractionated foamate output exiting the first foam fractionation system has a greater concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input; providing a biological treatment system input comprising at least a portion of the first foam fractionated product output to a biological treatment system and operating the biological treatment system such that a biological treatment system output exiting the biological treatment system has: (a) a lower concentration of total organic content, nitrogen, phosphorous, and / or isopropyl alcohol than the biological treatment system input, (b) a lower chemical oxygen demand than the biological treatment system input, and / or (c) a lower alkalinity than the biological treatment system input; transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of the biological treatment system output, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi-permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; and providing a second foam fractionation input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a second foam fractionation system and operating the second foam fractionation system, such that: a second foam fractionated product output exiting the second foam fractionation system has a concentration of PFAS molecules less than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation input, and a second foam fractionated foamate output exiting the second foam fractionation system has a concentration of PFAS molecules greater than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation input, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility.

[0008] In some embodiments, the method comprises transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate output having a concentration of dissolved ions of a salt greater than that of the membrane separator retentate input, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi-permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; and providing a solids-removal system input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a solids- removal system and operating the solids-removal system such that: a diluted output exiting the solids-removal system has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt that is less than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt in the solids-removal system input, and a solids- enriched output exits the solids-removal system, the solids-enriched output comprising a solid comprising the salt.

[0009] In some embodiments, the method comprises transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate output having a concentration of dissolved ions of a salt greater than that of the membrane separator retentate input, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi-permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; providing a mechanical recompression system input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a mechanical recompression system and operating the mechanical recompression system such that a mechanical recompression system output exiting the mechanical recompression system has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt greater than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt in the mechanical recompression system input; and providing a precipitator input comprising at least a portion of the mechanical recompression system output to a precipitator and operating the precipitator such that a precipitator output exiting the precipitator comprises a solid comprising the salt in a liquid solution.

[0010] Other advantages and novel features of the present disclosure will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the disclosure when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and / or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.

[0011] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0012] Non-limiting embodiments of the present disclosure will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale unless otherwise indicated. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the disclosure shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the disclosure. In the figures:

[0013] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing a system for treating a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility, according to some embodiments.

[0014] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram showing a biological treatment system for treating a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility, according to some embodiments.

[0015] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing a system for treating a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility, the system comprising two foam fractionation systems, according to some embodiments.

[0016] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing a system for treating a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility, the system comprising an adiabatic cooler and a humidifier, according to some embodiments.

[0017] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing a system for treating a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility, the system comprising a centrifuge system and a mechanical recompression system, according to some embodiments.

[0018] FIG. 6A is a schematic diagram depicting a membrane separator, according to some embodiments.

[0019] FIG. 6B is a schematic diagram depicting a plurality of membrane separator fluidically connected in parallel, according to some embodiments.

[0020] FIG. 6C is a schematic diagram depicting a plurality of membrane separator fluidically connected in series, according to some embodiments.

[0021] DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0022] Systems, articles, and methods related to treating waste from a semiconductor processing facility are generally described. Certain aspects relate to methods for treating waste (e.g., wastewater) from a semiconductor processing facility such that little to no liquid discharge is produced. In some embodiments, the systems and methods involve one or more fluidic systems capable of removing one or more species (e.g., contaminants) from a feed exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream from the semiconductor processing facility. In some embodiments, the systems and methods involve one or more membrane separators, one or more foam fractionation separators, a biological treatment system, an extraction system, a humidifier, a solids-removal system, a centrifuge system, and / or a dewatering system. In some embodiments, one or more inputs are provided to the systems and one or more outputs (e.g., treated streams and / or solids) exit the systems. Some output streams have a relatively low concentration of contaminants (e.g., from purification) while other outputs may have relatively high concentration of contaminants (e.g., from contaminant enrichment such as for disposal).

[0023] Semiconductor processing facilities are generally used to fabricate semiconductor devices (e.g., microelectronics including, but not limited to, processors such as computer processing units (CPUs), graphical processing units (GPUs), and / or integrated circuits). Such processing facilities may generate a relatively large amount of waste that, if released into the environment untreated, can cause significant environmental harm and / or safety risks. With increasing prevalence of semiconductor devices, there is a strong need to effectively process waste (e.g., wastewater) from semiconductor processing facilities. Semiconductor processing facilities and / or wastewater processing facilities downstream of the semiconductor processing facilities may may produce liquid discharge comprising undesirable contaminants (e.g., PFAS and / or salts) which may eventually lead to pollution of the environment and / or violate regulations (e.g., environmental and / or safety regulations). It may be advantageous to treat processed and / or unprocessed semiconductor waste streams such that the treatment processes produce little to no liquid discharge. For example, it may be advantageous to treat processed and / or unprocessed semiconductor waste streams using a zero liquid discharged system. Some such embodiments may permit recovered water to be reclaimed and / or reused while collected solid waste may be also repurposed or disposed of appropriately. Accordingly, one aspect of the present disclosure is directed to advantageous systems and methods capable of treating waste from semiconductor processing facilities and / or wastewater processing facilities downstream of the semiconductor processing facilities such little or no liquid discharge is produced.

[0024] Various elements described in this disclosure are said to be in fluidic communication with each other. As used herein, two elements are in fluidic communication with each other (or, equivalently, in fluid communication with each other) when fluid may be transported from one of the elements to the other of the elements without otherwise altering the configurations of the elements or a configuration of an element between them (such as a valve). Two conduits connected by an open valve (thus allowing for the flow of fluid between the two conduits) are considered to be in fluidic communication with each other. In contrast, two conduits separated by a closed valve (thus preventing the flow of fluid between the conduits) are not considered to be in fluidic communication with each other.

[0025] Various elements described in this disclosure are said to be fluidically connected to each other. As used herein, two elements are fluidically connected to each other when they are connected such that, under at least one configuration of the elements and any intervening elements, the two elements are in fluidic communication with each other. Two membrane separators connected by a valve and conduits that permit flow between the membrane separators in at least one configuration of the valve would be said to be fluidically connected to each other. To further illustrate, two membrane separators that are connected by a valve and conduits that permit flow between the membrane separators in a first valve configuration but not a second valve configuration are considered to be fluidically connected to each other both when the valve is in the first configuration and when the valve is in the second configuration. In contrast, two membrane separators that are not connected to each other (e.g., by a valve, another conduit, or another component) in a way that would permit fluid to be transported between them under any configuration would not be said to be fluidically connected to each other. Elements that are in fluidic communication with each other are always fluidically connected to each other, but not all elements that are fluidically connected to each other are necessarily in fluidic communication with each other.

[0026] Various components are described herein as being fluidically connected. Fluidic connections may be either direct fluidic connections or indirect fluidic connections. Generally, a direct fluidic connection exists between a first region and a second region (and the two regions are said to be directly fluidically connected to each other) when they are fluidically connected to each other and when the composition of the fluid at the second region of the fluidic connection has not substantially changed relative to the composition of the fluid at the first region of the fluidic connection (i.e., no fluid component that was present in the first region of the fluidic connection is present in a weight percentage in the second region of the fluidic connection that is more than 5% different from the weight percentage of that component in the first region of the fluidic connection). As an illustrative example, a stream that connects first and second unit operations, and in which the pressure and temperature of the fluid is adjusted but the composition of the fluid is not altered, would be said to directly fluidically connect the first and second unit operations. If, on the other hand, a separation step is performed and / or a chemical reaction is performed that substantially alters the composition of the stream contents during passage from the first unit operation to the second unit operation, the stream would not be said to directly fluidically connect the first and second unit operations. In some embodiments, a direct fluidic connection between a first region and a second region can be configured such that the fluid does not undergo a phase change from the first region to the second region. In some embodiments, the direct fluidic connection can be configured such that at least 50 wt% (or at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, or at least 98 wt%) of the fluid (e.g., liquid) in the first region is transported to the second region via the direct fluidic connection. Any of the fluidic connections described herein may be, in some embodiments, direct fluidic connections. In other cases, the fluidic connections may be indirect fluidic connections.

[0027] In some embodiments, a feed from a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream therefrom is transported to one or more fluidic systems such as biological treatment system. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, system 100 transports feed 102 from a semiconductor processing facility and / or a water processing facility to biological treatment system 106. In some embodiments, a biological treatment system input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the feed enters the biological treatment system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, biological treatment system input 104 comprises all of feed 102 and enters biological treatment system 106 via inlet 108. In some embodiments, a biological treatment system output exits the biological treatment system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, biological treatment system output 110 exits biological treatment system 106 via outlet 112.

[0028] In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises one or more fluidically connected vessels. In some embodiments, the one or more vessels comprises microorganisms capable of breaking down organic matter via aerobic and / or anaerobic processes. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system is operated such that the concentration of one or more contaminants in the biological treatment system output exiting the biological treatment system is reduced relative to the biological treatment system input. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system is operated such that the biological treatment system output has a lower concentration (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) of total organic content, nitrogen, phosphorus, and / or isopropyl alcohol than the biological treatment system input. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system is operated such that the biological treatment system output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) chemical oxygen demand than the biological treatment system input. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system input is operated such that the biological treatment system output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) alkalinity than the biological treatment system input.

[0029] In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises an equalization tank. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, biological treatment system 200 comprises equalization tank 201. One or more reagents such as acid (e.g., sulfuric acid) and / or base (e.g., sodium hydroxide) may be added to the equalization tank such that they are exposed to the biological treatment system input. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, sodium hydroxide and / or sulfuric acid is added to equalization tank 201. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises a denitrification vessel fluidically connected to an outlet of the equalization tank. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, biological treatment system 200 comprises biological denitrification vessel 202 fluidically connected to an outlet of equalization tank 201. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises a biological aeration vessel fluidically connected to an outlet of the biological denitrification vessel. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, biological treatment system 200 comprises biological aeration tank 203, which is fluidically connected to an outlet of biological denitrification tank 202. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises a membrane bioreactor fluidically connected to an outlet of the biological aeration vessel. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, biological treatment system 200 comprises membrane bioreactor 204 fluidically connected to an outlet of biological aeration tank 203. In some embodiments, the biological treatment system comprises a feed tank fluidically connected to an outlet of the membrane bioreactor. For example, as shown in FIG. 2, biological treatment system 200 comprises feed tank fluidically connected to an outlet of membrane bioreactor 204. The feed tank may be configured to supply at least some biological treatment system output to a downstream system, such as the first membrane separator.

[0030] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the biological treatment system output is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the biological treatment system, such as a first membrane separator, for further processing. In some embodiments, a first membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the biological treatment system output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, biological treatment system output 110 is transported to first membrane separator 118 such that first membrane separator retentate input 114 comprises all of biological treatment system output 110. In some embodiments, the first membrane separator retentate input enters the retentate side of the first membrane separator via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1A, first membrane separator retentate input 114 enters retentate side 122 of first membrane separator 118 via inlet 116.

[0031] In some embodiments, at least a portion of material from the first membrane separator retentate input exits the retentate side of the first membrane separator via one or more outlets to form a first membrane separator retentate output. The material may include liquid, dissolved species, and in some instances suspended and / or emulsified species. As shown in FIG. 1, first membrane separator retentate output 126 exits retentate side 122 of first membrane separator 118 via outlet 128. First membrane separator retentate output 126 comprises a portion of material from first membrane separator retentate input 114 entering retentate side 122 via inlet 116. In some embodiments, the first membrane separator retentate output has a concentration of dissolved species that is higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) than the concentration of dissolved species in the first membrane separator retentate input. In some embodiments, the first membrane separator retentate output has a concentration of suspended and / or emulsified species that is higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) than the concentration of suspended and / or emulsified species in the first membrane separator retentate input. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output may then be transported to fluidic systems downstream from the first membrane separator for further processing, as described in detail elsewhere in the present disclosure.

[0032] In some embodiments, at least a portion of a material (e.g., liquid such as water) from the first membrane separator retentate input entering the first membrane separator is transported from the retentate side of the first membrane separator, through a first semi-permeable membrane of the first membrane separator, to a permeate side of the first membrane separator to form some or all of a first membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, a portion of material (e.g., water) from first membrane separator retentate input 114 is transported from retentate side 122 of first membrane separator 118, through semi-permeable membrane 120, to permeate side 124 of first membrane separator 118 to form first membrane separator permeate output 130. In some embodiments, the first membrane separator permeate output exits the permeate side of the first membrane separator via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, first membrane separator permeate output 130 exits permeate side 124 of membrane separator 118 via outlet 132. In some embodiments, at least a portion the first membrane separator permeate output may then be transported to fluidic system downstream from the first membrane separator for further processing, as described below, and / or discharged from the system.

[0033] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the material from the first membrane separator permeate output is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the first membrane separator, such as an extraction system, for further processing. In some embodiments, an extraction system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the first membrane separator retentate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, extraction system input 134 comprises all of first membrane separator retentate output 126. In some embodiments, the extraction system input enters the extraction system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, extraction system input 134 comprising all of first membrane separator retentate output 126 enters extraction system 138 via inlet 136. In some embodiments, an extraction system output exits the extraction system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, extraction system output 140 exits extraction system 138 via outlet 142.

[0034] In some embodiments, the extraction system is capable of solidifying at least some solute in the extraction system input. The species that are solidified may be contaminants whose removal is desired. In some embodiments, the extraction system is configured to solidify contaminants on a plurality of carriers (e.g., a plurality of particles comprising metal salts). In some embodiments, the extraction system is configured to solidify contaminants such as divalent cations (e.g., sources of hardness such as calcium cations and / or magnesium cations) and / or silica from the extraction system input. Such a removal may be accomplished, for example, by exposing the extraction system input to one or more reagents such as precipitation agents, flocculants, coagulants, and / or bases. For example, the extraction system may comprise one or more vessels (e.g., reaction tanks) into which one or more of the reagents may be added, where they can be exposed to at least a portion of the extraction system input. In some embodiments, the reagent comprises an inorganic coagulant. Non-limiting examples of inorganic coagulants include, but are not limited to, iron chloride, ferric sulfate, sodium aluminate, aluminum chlorohydrate, polyaluminum chloride, magnesium chloride, and / or magnesium oxide. Organic coagulant such as polyamine may also be used in addition or instead of an inorganic coagulant. Non-limiting examples of bases that may be exposed to at least a portion of the extraction system input include, but are not limited to, an alkali hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide) and / or an alkali carbonate (e.g., sodium carbonate). In some embodiments, the extraction system is operated such that the extraction system output has a concentration of suspended and / or emulsified material that is greater than (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) the concentration of suspended and / or emulsified material in the extraction system input.

[0035] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the extraction system output exiting the extraction system is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the extraction system, such as a clarifier, for further processing. In some embodiments, a clarifier input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the extraction system output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, clarifier input 144 comprising all of extraction system output 140 enters clarifier 148 via inlet 146. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the clarifier input exits the clarifier as a clarifier product output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, clarifier product output 150 exits clarifier 148 via outlet 152. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the clarifier input exits the clarifier as a clarifier reject output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, clarifier solids- enriched output 145 exits clarifier 148 via outlet 147. In some embodiments, the clarifier solids- enriched output is transported to fluidic systems downstream for further processing, as described in detail elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0036] In some embodiments, the clarifier (e.g., a lamellar clarifier) separates suspended and / or emulsified material (e.g., particulates) from liquid from the clarifier input. The separation may be performed via settling. In some embodiments, the clarifier is a lamella clarifier. In some embodiments, the separation of particles from material of the clarifier input is facilitated by the addition of flocculants and / or coagulants (e.g., in the extraction system). In some embodiments, the clarifier input is operated such that the clarifier product output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) amount of suspended and / or emulsified material (e.g., flocs) than the clarifier input. In some embodiments, the clarifier is operated such that the clarifier reject output has a higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) amount of suspended and / or emulsified material than the clarifier input.

[0037] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the clarifier product output is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the clarifier, such as an automatic backwashing filtration system (ABF), for further processing. In some embodiments, an ABF input entering the ABF via one or more inlets comprises at least a portion of (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) the clarifier product output exiting the clarifier. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, ABF input 153 comprises all of clarifier product output 150. ABF input 153 enters ABF 156 via inlet 154. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the ABF input exits the ABF as an ABF product output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, ABF product output 157 exits ABF 156 via outlet 158. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the ABF input exits the ABF as an ABF reject output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, ABF reject output 127 exits ABF 156 via outlet 125.

[0038] In some embodiments, the ABF comprises a filter that separates solids (e.g., any remaining suspended and / or emulsified material) from liquid from the ABF input. In some embodiments, the ABF is operated such that the ABF product output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, at least 100, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) amount of suspended and / or emulsified material than the ABF input.

[0039] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the ABF product output exiting the ABF is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the ABF, such as an ultrafiltration system (UF), for further processing. In some embodiments, a UF input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the ABF product output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, UF input 159 comprising all of ABF product output 157 enters UF 161 via inlet 160. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the UF input exits the UF as a UF product output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, UF product output 162 exits UF 161 via outlet 163. The UF product output may comprise filtrate from the UF process. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the UF input exits the UF as a UF reject output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, UF reject output 139 exits UF 161 via outlet 137. In some embodiments, the UF reject output is transported to fluidic systems downstream for further processing, as described in detail elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0040] In some embodiments, the UF separates suspended and / or emulsified material from the UF input such that at least some of the suspended and / or emulsified material exits the UF via the UF reject output. In some embodiments, the UF is operated such that the UF output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, at least 100, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of suspended and / or emulsified material than the UF input. In some embodiments, the UF comprises a membrane separator comprising a semi-permeable membrane having a molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) greater than 1 kDa and less than 500 kDa. The ultrafiltration system may be configured to transport at least a portion of the UF input to a retentate side of the semi-permeable membrane such that a reject exits the retentate side and the filtrate exits a permeate side of the membrane.

[0041] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the UF product output is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the UF system, such as a second membrane separator, for further processing. In some embodiments, a second membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the UF product output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, UF product output 162 is transported to second membrane separator 166 such that second membrane separator retentate input 164 comprises all of UF product output 162. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate input enters the retentate side of the second membrane separator via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, second membrane separator retentate input 164 enters retentate side 169 of second membrane separator 166 via inlet 165.

[0042] In some embodiments, at least a portion of material from the second membrane separator retentate input exits the retentate side of the second membrane separator via one or more outlets to form a second membrane separator retentate output. In FIG. 1, second membrane separator retentate output 170 exits retentate side 169 of second membrane separator 166 via outlet 171. Second membrane separator retentate output 170 comprises a portion of material from second membrane separator retentate input 164 entering retentate side 169 via inlet 165. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate output has a concentration of dissolved ions of a salt greater (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, and / or up to 10, up to 25, up to 50, or more) than the concentration of dissolved ions of the salt in the second membrane separator retentate input. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate output has an osmotic pressure higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) than the osmotic pressure of the second membrane separator retentate input. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate output is transported to fluidic systems downstream from the second membrane separator for further processing, as described in detail elsewhere in the present disclosure. In some embodiments, at least a portion of a material (e.g., liquid such as water) from the second membrane separator retentate input entering the second membrane separator is transported from the retentate side of the second membrane separator, through a second semi- permeable membrane of the second membrane separator, to a permeate side of the second membrane separator to form some or all of a second membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, a portion of material from second membrane separator retentate input 164 is transported from retentate side 169 of second membrane separator 166, through semi-permeable membrane 168, to permeate side 167 of second membrane separator 166 to form second membrane separator permeate output 172. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator permeate output exits the second membrane separator via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, second membrane separator permeate output 172 exits permeate side 167 of second membrane separator 166 via outlet 173. In some embodiments, the second membrane separator permeate output may then be transported to a fluidic system downstream from the second membrane separator for further processing, as described below.

[0043] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the second membrane separator retentate output exiting the retentate side of the second membrane separator is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the second membrane separator, such as a solids removal system, for further processing. In some embodiments, the solids removal system comprises a dryer (e.g., an agitated thin film dryer (ATFD)). In some embodiments, a solids removal system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator retentate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, solids removal system input 174 comprising all of second membrane retentate output 170 enters solids removal system 176 via inlet 175. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the solids removal system input exits the solids removal system as a diluted output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, diluted output 178 exits solids removal system 176 via outlet 177. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the solids removal system input exits the solids removal system as a solids-enriched output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, solids-enriched output 180 exits solids removal system 176 via outlet 179. In some embodiments, the solids-enriched output is transported to fluidic systems downstream for further processing. In some embodiments, the solids-enriched output comprises a solid comprising a first salt. In some embodiments, the solids-removal system accepts a heated gas input (e.g., a steam input) and a liquid coolant input (e.g., cooling water input) to facilitate the solidification (e.g., precipitation such as amorphous precipitation and / or crystallization) of one or more salts present in the solids-removal system input. In some embodiments, the solids removal system (e.g., an agitated thin film dryer (ATFD)) separates solids from the solids removal system input such that at least some solids may exit the solids removal system via the solids-enriched output. In some embodiments, the solids-removal system is operated such that the solids removal system input has a greater liquid content than the solids removal system solids-enriched output. In some embodiments, the solids-removal system is operated such that the solids-enriched output has a liquid content of less than or equal to 10 wt%, less than or equal to 9 wt%, less than or equal to 8 wt% or less, less than or equal to 5 wt%, less than or equal to 2 wt%, less than or equal to 1%, or lower (e.g., free of liquid). In some embodiments, the solids-removal system is operated such that the solids-enriched output has a higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of solids than the solids-removal system input. In some embodiments, the diluted output has a solids content that is less than that of the solids-removal system input. In some embodiments, the diluted output has a solids content that is less than or equal to 100 ppm, less than or equal to 75 ppm, less than or equal to 50 ppm, or less on a mass basis. In some embodiments, the solids- removal system is operated such that the diluted output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt (e.g., sodium fluoride) than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt (e.g., sodium fluoride) in the solids-removal system input.

[0044] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the diluted output exiting the solids removal system is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the solids removal system, such as an ammonia removal system, for further processing. In some embodiments, the ammonia removal system comprises an ammonia removal ion exchange system and / or one or more membrane separators.

[0045] In some embodiments, an ammonia removal system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the diluted output exiting the solids removal system. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, ammonia removal system input 181 comprising all of diluted output 178 enters ammonia removal system 183 via inlet 182. In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the ammonia removal system input exits the ammonia removal system as ammonia removal system output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, ammonia removal system output 185 exits ammonia removal system 183 via outlet 184. In some embodiments, the ammonia removal system separates ammonia (e.g., as neutral NH3 molecules and / or as ammonium (NFU+) ions) from the ammonia removal system input such that ammonia removal system output exits the ammonia removal system having a relatively low amount of ammonia compared to the ammonia removal system input. In some embodiments, the ammonia removal system is operated such that the ammonia removal system output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, or more) amount of ammonia than the ammonia removal system input.

[0046] In some embodiments, the ammonia removal system comprises an ammonia removal ion exchange system. Any of a variety of ion exchange devices may be employed as part of the ammonia removal ion exchange system. The ammonia removal ion exchange system may comprise a vessel comprising an ion exchange medium capable of removing ammonia from an input liquid stream. One non-limiting example of such an ion exchange medium is a zeolite. For example, the ion exchange medium may comprise the zeolite clinoptilolite. Another nonlimiting example of such an ion exchange medium is a strong base anion resin.

[0047] In some embodiments, as mentioned above, the ammonia removal system comprises one or more membrane separators (e.g., reverse osmosis membrane separators). In some embodiments, the membrane separators involved in the ammonia removal system include the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or a membrane separator that is different than the first and / or second membrane separator.

[0048] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the ammonia removal ion exchange output exiting the ammonia removal ion exchange system is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the ammonia removal ion exchange system, such as a treated wastewater vessel, for further processing and / or storage. In some embodiments, a treated wastewater vessel input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the ammonia removal ion exchange output exiting the ammonia removal ion exchange system. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, treated wastewater vessel input 186 comprising all of the ammonia removal ion exchange output 185 enters treated wastewater vessel 188 via inlet 187. In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the contents of the treated wastewater vessel may be stored and / or recirculated into the semiconductor processing facility and / or introduced in the environment. The contents of the treated wastewater vessel may be or comprise purified water.

[0049] As used herein, a liquid that is “purified” is one that includes that liquid in a higher mass percentage than was contained in the original liquid prior to purification. Purified water, for example, is a liquid that contains water in a higher mass percentage than the original liquid prior to the purification process. Purified liquids can be either completely purified liquids (in which no components other than the purified liquid are present, or components other than the purified liquid are present only in trace amounts), or they can be incompletely purified liquids (in which components other than the purified liquid may still be present, but such components are present in a lesser amount than in the original liquid that was subject to purification).

[0050] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the clarifier reject output exiting the clarifier and / or the UF reject output exiting the UF system is transported to another fluidic system, such as a dewatering system. In some embodiments, a dewatering system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the clarifier reject output and / or at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the UF reject output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1 dewatering system input 189 comprising all of clarifier solids-enriched output 145 and UF reject output 139 enters dewatering system 191 via inlet 190. In some embodiments, the dewatering system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the ABF reject output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, dewatering system input 189 comprises all of ABF reject output 127. In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the material from the dewatering system input exits the dewatering system as a dewatering system product output. The dewatering system product output may comprise liquid water (e.g., as purified water). In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the material from the dewatering system input exits the dewatering system as a dewatering system solids -enriched output. The at least a portion of the dewatering system solids-enriched output may comprise a sludge, a slurry, a suspension, or other solids-containing output comprising solid material from the dewatering system input. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, dewatering system solids-enriched output 193 exits dewatering system 191 via outlet 192 and dewatering system product output 195 exits dewatering system 191 via outlet 194.

[0051] In some embodiments, the dewatering system advantageously removes excess liquid from a reject stream exiting one or more fluidic devices of the system described herein such that a dewatering system reject output comprising solids-enriched material (e.g., a sludge) exits the dewatering system. In some embodiments, the dewatering system reject output has a higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, or up to 5000, or more) concentration of solids than the concentration of solids in the dewatering system input. In some embodiments, the dewatering system reject output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, or up to 5000, or more) concentration of liquid than the concentration of liquid in the dewatering system input. The dewatering system may allow for the systems and processes described herein to have little or no liquid discharge (e.g., liquid waste) for disposal. The excess liquid may then be stored in a vessel (e.g., an equalization tank) for further processing. The solids-enriched material may be collected for disposal. In some embodiments, the dewatering system solids-enriched material comprises water in an amount of at least 1 wt %, at least 10 wt%, and / or up to 25 wt%, up to 40 wt%, up to 50 wt%, or more. In some embodiments, the dewatering system is operated such that air is blown through a filter press of the dewatering system. In such embodiments, the dewatering system solids-enriched material has an advantageously low amount of water.

[0052] In some embodiments, at least some of the material from the first membrane separator permeate output exiting the permeate side of the first membrane separator and / or the second membrane separator permeate output exiting the permeate side of the second membrane separator is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the first and / or second membrane separators, such as a third membrane separator, for further processing and / or storage. The third membrane separator may be, for example a polishing reverse osmosis membrane separator. In some embodiments, operation of the polishing reverse osmosis membrane separator may involve the separation of most or all of any remaining suspended, emulsified, and / or dissolved species from one or more streams that have been processed by any of a variety of fluidic devices of the system, described herein. In some embodiments, a third membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the first membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, first membrane permeate output 130 is transported to retentate side 198 of third membrane separator 197 such that third membrane separator retentate input 196 comprises all of first membrane separator permeate output 130. In some embodiments, a third membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, second membrane permeate output 172 is transported to retentate side 198 of third membrane separator 197 such that third membrane separator retentate input 196 comprises all of second membrane separator permeate output 172. In some embodiments, the third membrane separator retentate input enters the retentate side of the third membrane separator via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, third membrane separator retentate input 196 enters retentate side 198 of third membrane separator 197 via inlet 117.

[0053] In some embodiments, at least a portion of material from the third membrane separator retentate input exits the retentate side of the third membrane separator via one or more outlets to form a third membrane separator retentate output. In FIG. 1, third membrane separator retentate output 111 exits retentate side 198 of third membrane separator 197 via outlet 113. Third membrane separator retentate output 111 comprises a portion of material from third membrane separator retentate input 196 entering retentate side 198 via inlet 117. In some embodiments, the third membrane separator retentate output is transported to fluidic systems upstream from the third membrane separator for further processing. In some embodiments, the osmotic pressure of the third membrane separator retentate output is higher (e.g., by a factor of at least 1.05, at least 1.1, at least 1.2, at least 1.5, at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, or up to 5000, or more) than the osmotic pressure of the third membrane separator retentate input. In some embodiments, the first membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the third membrane separator retentate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, first membrane separator retentate input 114 comprises all of third membrane separator retentate output 111. In some embodiments, at least a portion of a material (e.g., liquid) from the third membrane separator retentate input entering the third membrane separator is transported from the retentate side of the third membrane separator, through a third semi-permeable membrane of the third membrane separator, to a permeate side of the third membrane separator to form some or all of a third membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, a portion of material from third membrane separator retentate input 196 is transported from retentate side

[0054] 198 of third membrane separator 197, through semi-permeable membrane 107, to permeate side

[0055] 199 of third membrane separator 197 to form third membrane separator permeate output 105. In some embodiments, the third membrane separator permeate output exits the third membrane separator via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, third membrane separator permeate output 105 exits permeate side 199 of third membrane separator 197 via outlet 173. In some embodiments, the third membrane separator permeate output may then be transported to a fluidic system downstream from the third membrane separator for further processing and / or storage. In some embodiments, the treated wastewater vessel input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the third membrane separator permeate output. For example, as shown in FIG. 1, treated wastewater vessel input 186 comprises all of third membrane separator permeate output 105.

[0056] In some embodiments, the third membrane separator may serve as polishing step to further purify the third membrane separator retentate input so that the third membrane separator permeate output may be reused and / or reclaimed as water.

[0057] In some of embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the feed from a semiconductor processing facility and / or a wastewater processing facility downstream of the semiconductor processing facility is transported to one or more fluidic systems such as a foam fractionation system. For example, FIG. 3 shows a schematic block flow diagram of system 300, which is substantially the same as system 100 in FIG. 1 except that material from the feed and / or outputs of the system are transported to one or more foam fractionation systems (e.g., 304). In FIG. 3, system 300 transports feed 102 from a semiconductor process facility and / or a water processing facility to first foam fractionation system 304. In some embodiments, one or more foam fractionation systems may facilitate the removal of per- and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) molecules present in the waste output by the semiconductor processing facility. For purposes of clarity, “PFAS” is used herein to refer to per- and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances. PFAS may include one or more perfluoroalkyl substances without any polyfluoroalkyl substances, one or more polyfluoroalkyl substances without any perfluoroalkyl substances, or one or more perfluoroalkyl substances and one or more polyfluoroalkyl substances.

[0058] In some embodiments, a first foam fractionation system input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the feed enters the first foam fractionation system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, first foam fractionation system input 302 comprising all of feed 102 enters first foam fractionation system 304 via inlet 303. In some embodiments, the first foam fractionation system is operated such that a first foam fractionated system product output exits the first foam fractionation system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, first foam fractionation system 304 is operated such that first foam fractionated system product output 306 exits first foam fractionation system 304 via outlet 305. In some embodiments, the first foam fractionated product output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of the PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input.

[0059] In some embodiments, the first foam fractionation system is operated such that a first foam fractionation system foamate output exits the first foam fractionation system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, first foam fractionation system input 302 is transported to first foam fractionation system 304 and first foam fractionation system is operated such that first foam fractionation system foamate output 308 exits first foam fractionation system 304 via outlet 307. In some embodiments, the first foam fractionated foamate output has a greater (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input. The PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionated foamate output may comprise the PFAS molecules associated with foam (e.g., adsorbed to a surface of bubbles of the foam) and / or present (e.g., dissolved) in any residual liquid present in the first foam fractionated foamate output.

[0060] In some embodiments, the first foam fractionation system is upstream of the biological treatment system such that waste from the biological treatment system comprises a lower concentration of PFAS molecules than an otherwise identical system without the foam fractionation system upstream from the biological treatment system.

[0061] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output, instead of being transported directly to the extraction system, is transported to a second foam fractionation system. In some embodiments, a second foam fractionation system input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the first membrane separator retentate output enters the second foam fractionation system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, second foam fractionation system input 309 comprising all of second membrane separator retentate output 126 enters second foam fractionation system 311 via inlet 310. In some embodiments, the second foam fractionation system is operated such that a second foam fractionated system product output exits the second foam fractionation system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, second foam fractionation system 311 is operated such that second foam fractionated system product output 313 exits second foam fractionation system 311 via outlet 312. In some embodiments, the second foam fractionated product output has a lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation system input.

[0062] In some embodiments, the second foam fractionation system is operated such that a second foam fractionated system foamate output exits the second foam fractionation system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, second foam fractionation system 311 is operated such that second foam fractionated foamate output 314 exits second foam fractionation system 311 via outlet 315. In some embodiments, the second foam fractionated foamate output has a greater (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation system input. The PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionated foamate output may comprise the PFAS molecules associated with foam (e.g., adsorbed to a surface of bubbles of the foam) and / or present (e.g., dissolved) in any residual liquid present in the second foam fractionated foamate output.

[0063] In some embodiments, the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system product output and the second foam fractionated product output is less than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the feed. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the second foam fractionated system product output is transported to the extraction system and / or another fluidic system downstream from the second foam fractionation system. In some embodiments, the extraction system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second foam fractionation system product output. For example, as shown in FIG. 3, extraction system input 134 comprises all of second foam fractionated system product output 313.

[0064] In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator retentate output exiting the retentate side of the second membrane separator is transported to a humidifier and / or an adiabatic cooler system downstream from the second membrane separator. For example, FIG. 4 shows a block flow diagram of system 400, which is substantially the same as FIG. 1 except that at least a portion of second membrane separator retentate output 170 is transported to humidifier 402 downstream from retentate side 169 of second membrane separator 166. In some embodiments, the components shown in FIG. 4 may also be used in the system shown in FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the humidifier facilitates the separation of water from a stream comprising various contaminants via exposure of the input to a carrier gas, as described in detail elsewhere in this disclosure. In some embodiments, a humidifier liquid input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator retentate output is transported to the humidifier via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, humidifier liquid input 403 comprising all of second membrane separator retentate output 170 is transported to humidifier 402 via inlet 404. In some embodiments, the humidifier is operated such that a humidifier liquid output exits the humidifier. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, humidifier 402 is operated such that humidifier liquid output 406 exits humidifier 402 via outlet 405.

[0065] In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate output comprises dissolved ions of a first salt and dissolved ions of a second salt. For example, the second membrane separator retentate output may comprise dissolved sodium ions and fluoride ions from sodium fluoride (the first salt in this example) and dissolved sodium ions and sulfate ions from sodium sulfate (the second salt in this example). In some embodiments, the humidifier liquid output exiting the humidifier has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the first salt and a concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt that are each greater (e.g., by a factor of at least 1.1, at least 1.2, at least 1.3, and / or up to 1.4, up to 1.75, up to 2, or more) than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the first salt and the concentration of the second salt in the humidifier liquid input.

[0066] In some embodiments, the humidifier liquid output is transported to another fluidic system downstream from the humidifier, such as an adiabatic cooler system, for further processing. In some embodiments, the adiabatic cooler facilitates the solidification (e.g., crystallization) of dissolved ions present in output streams into solid salts. In some embodiments, the humidifier liquid output is transported to the adiabatic cooler such that a adiabatic cooler system liquid input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the humidifier liquid output enters the adiabatic cooler system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, humidifier liquid output 406 is transported to adiabatic cooler 409 such that adiabatic cooler system liquid input 407 comprising all of humidifier liquid output 406 enters adiabatic cooler system 409 via inlet 408. In some embodiments, the adiabatic cooler is operated such that an adiabatic cooler system liquid output and an adiabatic cooler system solids -enriched output each exits the adiabatic cooler via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, adiabatic cooler system 409 is operated such that adiabatic cooler system liquid output 411 exits adiabatic cooler system 409 via outlet 411 and adiabatic cooler system solids-enriched output 413 exits adiabatic cooler system 409 via outlet 412.

[0067] In some embodiments, the adiabatic cooler system liquid output has a concentration of dissolved ions of the second salt (e.g., sodium sulfate) that is lower (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more) than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt in the adiabatic cooler system liquid input.

[0068] In some embodiments, the adiabatic cooler system solids-enriched output exiting the adiabatic cooler system comprises a solid comprising the second salt (e.g., sodium sulfate). The solid may be formed via precipitation (e.g., amorphous precipitation and / or crystallization).

[0069] In some embodiments, the adiabatic cooler system liquid output forms at least a portion of the solids-removal system input. In some embodiments, the solids-removal system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the adiabatic cooler system liquid output. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, solids-removal system output 174 comprises all of adiabatic cooler system liquid output 411 exiting adiabatic cooler system 409.

[0070] In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator retentate output is transported to a mechanical recompression system downstream from the second membrane separator. The mechanical recompression system may comprise a mechanical vapor recompression system. FIG. 5 shows a block flow diagram of system 500, which is substantially the same as FIG. 1 except that second membrane separator retentate output 170 is transported to mechanical recompression system 502 downstream from second membrane separator 166. In some embodiments, the components shown in FIG. 5 may also be used in the system shown in FIG. 3. In some instances, solids-removal systems described elsewhere in this disclosure use relatively large amounts of steam. In some cases, it may be advantageous to implement the systems and methods described herein at locations where relatively little steam is produced. It may be advantageous to facilitate the removal of solids (e.g., salts) from waste streams without excessive steam consumption and / or during time periods where little steam is available. In some embodiments, the system described in FIG. 5 uses a relatively low amount of steam compared to the systems described in FIGS 1-4.

[0071] In some embodiments, the second membrane separator retentate output is transported to the mechanical recompression system such that a mechanical recompression system input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the second membrane separator retentate output enters the mechanical recompression system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, second membrane separator retentate output 170 is transported to mechanical recompression system 502 such that mechanical recompression system input 503 enters mechanical recompression system 502 via inlet 504. In some embodiments, the mechanical recompression system is operated such that a mechanical recompression system output exits the mechanical recompression system output via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, mechanical recompression system output 506 exits mechanical recompression system 502 via outlet 505. In some embodiments, the mechanical recompression system output has a concentration of dissolved ions of the salt greater than the concentration of dissolved ions of the salt in the mechanical recompression system input (e.g., by a factor of at least 1.1, at least 1.2, at least 1.3, and / or up to 1.4, up to 1.75, up to 2, or more). In some embodiments, the mechanical recompression system output has a temperature greater than the temperature of the mechanical recompression system input (e.g., by greater than or equal to 10 degrees Celsius, greater than or equal to 20 degrees Celsius, greater than or equal to 50 degrees Celsius, and / or up to 100 degrees Celsius, or greater).

[0072] In some embodiments, the mechanical recompression system output is transported to a precipitator such that a precipitator input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the mechanical recompression system output enters the precipitator via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, mechanical recompression system output 506 is transported to precipitator 509 such that precipitator input 507 comprising all of mechanical recompression system out 506 enters precipitator 509 via inlet 508. In some embodiments, the precipitator is operated such that a precipitator output exits the precipitator via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, precipitator 509 is operated such that precipitator output 511 exits precipitator 509 via outlet 510. In some embodiments, the precipitator output comprises a solid comprising the salt formed from the dissolved ions. The solid comprising the salt may be in a liquid solution. For example, the salt may be a precipitate (e.g., an amorphous precipitate and / or a crystalline solid) that is suspended in liquid solution (e.g., as a slurry).

[0073] In some embodiments, the precipitator is a crystallizer. In some embodiments, the crystallizer is a forced circulation crystallizer.

[0074] In some embodiments, the precipitator output is transported to a centrifuge system such that a centrifuge system input comprising at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the precipitator output enters the centrifuge system via one or more inlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, precipitator output 511 is transported to centrifuge system 516 such that centrifuge system input 514 comprising all of precipitator output 511 enters centrifuge system 516 via inlet 515. In some embodiments, the centrifuge system is operated such that a centrifuge system liquid output and a centrifuge system solids -enriched output each exits the centrifuge system via one or more outlets. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, centrifuge system 516 is operated such that centrifuge system liquid output 518 exits centrifuge system 516 via outlet 517 and centrifuge system solids-enriched output 520 exits centrifuge system 516 via outlet 519. In some embodiments, the centrifuge system liquid output has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt (e.g., sodium ions and fluoride ions and / or sodium ions and / or sulfate ions) that is less than the concentration of the dissolved ions in the centrifuge system input (e.g., by a factor of at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, and / or up to 500, up to 1000, up to 5000, or more). In some embodiments, the centrifuge system solids -enriched output comprises the solid comprising the salt (e.g., sodium fluoride and / or sodium sulfate). In some embodiments, the centrifuge system dewaters at least a portion of the centrifuge system input. In some embodiments, the centrifuge system solids-enriched output comprises liquid in an amount of at least 15 wt%, at least 16 wt%, at least 17 wt%, and / or up to 18 wt%, up to 19 wt%, up to 20 wt%, or more.

[0075] In some embodiments, the centrifuge system liquid output is transported to the ammonia removal ion exchange system such that the ammonia removal ion exchange system input comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the centrifuge system liquid output. For example, as shown in FIG. 5, centrifuge system liquid output 511 is transported to ammonia removal ion exchange system 183 such that ammonia removal ion exchange system input 181 comprises all of centrifuge system liquid output 518.

[0076] In some embodiments, the feed comprises streams or at least portions thereof (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) exiting a semiconductor processing facility and / or an auxiliary facility (e.g., a wastewater treatment facility as described below). In some embodiments, the semiconductor processing facility is a fabrication site and / or foundry for devices comprising and / or utilizing semiconducting materials. It should be noted that while semiconductor processing facilities generally use semiconducting materials, such facilities may also use metals and / or metal oxides. Therefore, streams exiting semiconductor processing facilities may comprises one or more metals, metal oxides, semiconductors, and / or species derived from semiconductors in any of a variety of concentrations. Moreover, streams exiting semiconductor processing facilities may also comprise chemicals and / or traces of chemical used during semiconductor processing including but not limited to acids, bases, solvents, and / or surfactants. Accordingly, PFAS molecules may also be present in streams exiting semiconductor process facilities. In some embodiments, the feed comprises at least a portion of semiconductor processing wastewater. Semiconductor processing wastewater may contain at least some components (e.g., residual reagents, reaction products, and / or spectator species) that contacted a semiconductor during a semiconductor processing process (e.g., a process for the formation of electronics from silicon semiconductors, III-V semiconductors, and / or other types of semiconductors).

[0077] In some embodiments, the feed may have undergone treatment processes upstream from the fluidic system(s) described herein. In some embodiments, such upstream processes may have removed at least some contaminants (e.g., some metal, metal oxides, some organic species, some ammonia, and / or fluoride ions) from the feed and / or adjusted the pH of the feed prior to transport into the systems described herein. In some embodiments, the systems and processes described in the present disclosure may therefore process a feed from a wastewater treatment facility that has treated one or more waste streams from a semiconductor processing facility.

[0078] Some embodiments comprise transporting a membrane separator retentate input (e.g., the first membrane separator retentate input and / or the second membrane separator retentate input) to a retentate side of a membrane separator. A membrane separator refers to a collection of components including one or more semi-permeable membranes configured to perform a membrane-based separation process (e.g., an osmotic process, a filtration process, or a combination thereof) on an input (e.g., at least one input stream) and produce an output (e.g., at least one output stream). The membrane separator may comprise at least one semi-permeable membrane defining a permeate side of the membrane separator and a retentate side of the membrane separator. Each membrane separator described herein may include further sub-units such as, for example, individual semi-permeable membrane modules (e.g., in the form of cartridges), valving, fluidic conduits, and the like. As described in more detail below, each membrane separator can include a single semi-permeable membrane or multiple semi-permeable membranes. In some embodiments, a single membrane separator can include multiple sub-units (e.g., multiple modules such as multiple cartridges) that may or may not share a common container.

[0079] The retentate side of the membrane separator may be fluidically connected to one or more fluidic systems described herein. For example, the retentate side of the third membrane separator (e.g., retentate side 198 in FIGS. 1-5) may be fluidically connected to the retentate side of the first membrane separator (e.g., inlet 116 in FIGS. 1-5).

[0080] In association with various embodiments, inputs (e.g., the membrane separator retentate input) and outputs (e.g., the membrane separator permeate output, the membrane separator retentate output) are described. In each case the input and / or output may be in the form of a single stream or multiple streams. In some embodiments, it can be advantageous to use a single stream, as opposed to multiple streams. Thus, in some embodiments, the membrane separator retentate input is in the form of a single stream. In certain embodiments, the membrane separator retentate output is in the form of a single stream. In certain embodiments, the membrane separator permeate output is in the form of a single stream.

[0081] In some embodiments, the membrane separator is operated as an osmotic separator. For example, in some embodiments, the semi-permeable membrane is an osmotic membrane. Transport of solvent (e.g., water) through osmotic membrane(s) of membrane separators can be achieved via a transmembrane net driving force (i.e., a net driving force through the thickness of the membrane(s)), according to certain embodiments. Generally, the transmembrane net driving force (A%) is expressed as:

[0082] AX= AP - A / 7 = (Pi - P2) - ( / 7X- 772) [1] wherein Pi is the hydraulic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane, P2 is the hydraulic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, Ih is the osmotic pressure of the stream on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane, and Ih is the osmotic pressure of the stream on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. (Pi - P2) can be referred to as the transmembrane hydraulic pressure difference, and (II 1 - 772) can be referred to as the transmembrane osmotic pressure difference.

[0083] The osmotic pressure of a particular liquid is an intrinsic property of the liquid. The osmotic pressure can be determined in a number of ways, with the most efficient method depending upon the type of liquid being analyzed. For certain solutions with relatively low molar concentrations of ions, osmotic pressure can be accurately measured using an osmometer. In other cases, the osmotic pressure can simply be determined by comparison with solutions with known osmotic pressures. For example, to determine the osmotic pressure of an uncharacterized solution, one could apply a known amount of the uncharacterized solution on one side of a non- porous, semi-permeable, osmotic membrane and iteratively apply different solutions with known osmotic pressures on the other side of the osmotic membrane until the differential pressure through the thickness of the membrane is zero.

[0084] The osmotic pressure (77) of a solution containing n solubilized species may be estimated as: n = ^= ijMjRT [2] wherein z) is the van’t Hoff factor of the jthsolubilized species, Mj is the molar concentration of the jthsolubilized species in the solution, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature of the solution. Equation [2] generally provides an accurate estimate of osmotic pressure for liquid with low concentrations of solubilized species (e.g., concentrations at or below between about 4 wt% and about 6 wt%). For many liquids comprising solubilized species, at species concentrations above around 4-6 wt%, the increase in osmotic pressure per increase in salt concentration is greater than linear (e.g., slightly exponential).

[0085] As mentioned above, one type of osmotic separation technique that can be performed using the membrane separators of this disclosure, according to some embodiments, is reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis generally occurs when the osmotic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is greater than the osmotic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane, and a pressure is applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane such that the hydraulic pressure on the retentate side of the osmotic membrane is sufficiently greater than the hydraulic pressure on the permeate side of the osmotic membrane such that the osmotic pressure difference is overcome and liquid (e.g., a solvent such as water) is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane. Generally, such situations result when the transmembrane hydraulic pressure difference (P7-P2) is greater than the transmembrane osmotic pressure difference (II 1 - II2) such that liquid (e.g., a solvent such as water) is transported from the retentate side of the osmotic membrane to the permeate side of the osmotic membrane (rather than having liquid be transported from the permeate side of the osmotic membrane to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane, which would be energetically favored in the absence of the pressure applied to the retentate side of the osmotic membrane). In some embodiments, the membrane separator is operated to perform reverse osmosis.

[0086] While FIGS. 1-5 show three membrane separators, it should be understood that a different number of membrane separators can be employed in the system and used in the methods of this disclosure. In some embodiments, the membrane separator is a first membrane separator and the system comprises additional membrane separators arranged in series and / or parallel with the first membrane separator. In some embodiments, the system comprises a plurality of membrane separators (e.g., at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least ten, and least twenty, or more membrane separators) configured as described in this disclosure. The second membrane separator retentate input (e.g., a second membrane separator retentate inlet stream) may comprise at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output. The first membrane separator retentate output may be directly transported to the retentate side of the second membrane separator, or one or more intermediate processes may be performed, such as those described in the embodiments shown in FIGS. 1-5.

[0087] In some embodiments, a pressure of any of the streams described herein can be increased via one or more additional components, such as one or more booster pumps. In some embodiments, a pressure of any of the streams described herein can be decreased via one or more additional components, such as one or more additional valves and / or energy recovery devices. In some embodiments, a membrane separator described herein further comprises one or more heating, cooling, or other concentration or dilution mechanisms or devices.

[0088] The membrane separators described herein (e.g., the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, the third membrane separator) can each include a single semi- permeable membrane or a plurality of semi-permeable membranes.

[0089] FIG. 6A is a schematic illustration of membrane separator 600A, in which a single semi- permeable membrane is used to separate permeate side 604 from retentate side 606. Membrane separator 600A can be operated by transporting retentate inlet stream 610 across retentate side 606. At least a portion of a liquid (e.g., a solvent) and, in some instances, solute within retentate inlet stream 610 can be transported across semi-permeable membrane 602 to permeate side 604. This can result in the formation of retentate outlet stream 612, which can include a higher concentration of solute than is contained within retentate inlet stream 610, as well as permeate outlet stream 614. Permeate outlet stream 614 can correspond to the liquid (e.g., solvent) and, in some instances, solute, of retentate inlet stream 610 that was transported from retentate side 606 to permeate side 604.

[0090] In some embodiments, a membrane separator (e.g., the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, the third membrane separator) comprises a plurality of semi- permeable membranes connected in parallel. One example of such an arrangement is shown in FIG. 6B. In FIG. 6B, membrane separator 600B comprises three semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C arranged in parallel. Retentate inlet stream 610 is split into three substreams, with one sub-stream fed to retentate side 606A of semi-permeable membrane 602A, another sub- stream fed to retentate side 606B of semi-permeable membrane 602B, and yet another sub-stream fed to retentate side 606C of semi-permeable membrane 602C. Membrane separator 600B can be operated by transporting the retentate inlet sub-streams across the retentate sides of the semi-permeable membranes. At least a portion of a liquid (e.g., a solvent), and, in some instances, solute, within retentate inlet stream 610 can be transported across each of semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C to permeate sides 604A, 604B, and 604C, respectively. This can result in the formation of three retentate outlet sub-streams, which can be combined to form retentate outlet stream 612. Retentate outlet stream 612 can include a higher concentration of solute than is contained within retentate inlet stream 610. Permeate outlet stream 614 can also be formed (from three permeate outlet sub-streams). Permeate outlet stream 614 can correspond to the liquid (e.g., solvent), and, in some instances, solute of retentate inlet stream 610 that was transported from retentate sides 606A-606C to permeate sides 604A-604C. While FIG. 6B shows three semi-permeable membranes connected in parallel, other embodiments could include 2, 4, 5, or more semi-permeable membranes connected in parallel.

[0091] In some embodiments, a membrane separator (e.g., the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator) comprises a plurality of semi-permeable membranes connected in series. One example of such an arrangement is shown in FIG. 6C. In FIG. 6C, membrane separator 600C comprises three semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C arranged in series. In FIG. 6C, retentate inlet stream 610 is first transported to retentate side 606A of semi- permeable membrane 602A. At least a portion of a liquid (e.g., a solvent), and, in some instances, solute, within retentate inlet stream 610 can be transported across semi-permeable membrane 602A to permeate side 604A of semi-permeable membrane 602A. This can result in the formation of permeate outlet stream 614 and first intermediate retentate stream 640 that is transported to retentate side 606B of semi-permeable membrane 602B. At least a portion of a liquid (e.g., a solvent), and, in some instances, solute, within first intermediate retentate stream 640 can be transported across semi-permeable membrane 602B to permeate side 604B of semi- permeable membrane 602B. This can result in the formation of permeate outlet stream 650 and second intermediate retentate stream 641 that is transported to retentate side 606C of semi- permeable membrane 602C. At least a portion of a liquid (e.g., a solvent), and, in some instances, solute within second intermediate retentate stream 641 can be transported across semi- permeable membrane 602C to permeate side 604C of semi-permeable membrane 602C. This can result in the formation of permeate outlet stream 651 and retentate outlet stream 612.

[0092] While FIG. 6C shows three semi-permeable membranes connected in series, other embodiments could include 2, 4, 5, or more semi-permeable membranes connected in series.

[0093] For membrane separators comprising a plurality of semi-permeable membranes, parameters such as rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions for the membrane separators are calculated by performing a mass balance on the entire membrane separator. This means that all initial retentate streams for the membrane separator would be added and considered together, all final permeate outlet streams for the membrane separator would be added and considered together, and all final retentate outlet streams for the membrane separator would be added and considered together. For example, as mentioned above, in FIG. 6B, membrane separator 600B comprises three semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C arranged in parallel. Accordingly, calculation of the composition of the retentate inlet stream of membrane separator 600B for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions for membrane separator 600B would involve taking measurements of retentate inlet stream 610 prior to it being split into the three inlet sub-streams fed to retentate sides 606A, 606B, and 606C of semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C, respectively. Similarly, calculation of the composition of the retentate outlet stream of membrane separator 600B for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions for membrane separator 600B would involve taking measurements of retentate outlet stream 612, which is a combination of the three outlet sub- streams from retentate sides 606 A, 606B, and 606C from semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C, respectively. Also similarly, calculation of the composition of the permeate outlet stream of membrane separator 600B for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions would involve taking measurements of permeate outlet stream 614, which is a combination of the three outlet sub- streams from permeate sides 604A, 604B, and 604C from semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C, respectively.

[0094] As another example of the calculation of parameters corresponding to a membrane separator comprising a plurality of semi-permeable membranes, reference is made to membrane separator 600C in FIG. 6C. Membrane separator 600C comprises three semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C arranged in series. Accordingly, calculation of the composition of the retentate inlet stream of membrane separator 600C for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions for membrane separator 600C would involve taking measurements of retentate inlet stream 610 prior to it entering semi-permeable membrane 602A because semi- permeable membrane 602A is the initial semi-permeable membrane in the series. Similarly, calculation of the composition of the retentate outlet stream of membrane separator 600C for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions for membrane separator 600C would involve taking measurements of retentate outlet stream 612 exiting semi-permeable membrane 602C because semi-permeable membrane 602C is the final semi-permeable membrane in the series with respect to the retentate outlet streams, thereby making retentate outlet stream 612 the final retentate outlet stream of membrane separator 600C. Calculation of the composition of the permeate outlet stream of membrane separator 600C for the purpose of calculating parameters such as the rejection percentage, recovery, and salt passage percentage at standard conditions would involve taking measurements of a combination of permeate outlet streams 614, 650, and 651 exiting semi-permeable membranes 602A, 602B, and 602C respectively. In addition, in some embodiments, a given membrane separator could include multiple semi-permeable membranes connected in parallel as well as multiple semi-permeable membranes connected in series.

[0095] In some embodiments, the membrane separator comprises a plurality of semi-permeable membranes. In some such embodiments, the plurality of semi-permeable membranes within the membrane separator are connected in series. In some such embodiments, the plurality of semi- permeable membranes within the membrane separator are connected in parallel. In certain embodiments, the membrane separator comprises a plurality of membranes a first portion of which are connected in series and another portion of which are connected in parallel.

[0096] As mentioned above, each membrane separator of the system may comprise at least one semi-permeable membrane. In general, a semi-permeable membrane is a barrier that allows some components of a mixture to pass through while blocking at least some of other components (e.g., blocking all of another component, or reducing the relative rate of permeation of another component). For example, a semi-permeable membrane may block some molecules in a liquid solution from passing through while allowing others to pass through. In some instances, a semi- permeable membrane blocks some molecules and permits other molecules to pass through based on their molecular weight and / or charge. As noted above, a semi-permeable membrane can be used for osmotic processes. For example, the semi-permeable membrane may be an osmotic membrane. An osmotic membrane may be capable of producing an osmotic pressure difference between solutions on either side of the membrane upon application of a hydraulic pressure difference across the two sides of the membrane. For example, if an osmotic membrane is placed between two solutions of identical composition such that there is initially no osmotic pressure difference across the membrane, application of a hydraulic pressure difference across the osmotic membrane may allow for transport of components from one side of the membrane to the other such that an osmotic pressure difference across the two sides of the membrane is established. Semi-permeable membranes may also be used for nanofiltration processes. Semi- permeable membranes may be configured for osmotic processes, nanofiltration processes, and / or processes in which separation is achieved based on a combination of nanofiltration and osmotic mechanisms (e.g., based on, for example, the molecular weight cutoff of the membranes, pore sizes of the membranes, the nature of the mixtures to which they are exposed, and a magnitude of applied hydraulic pressure).

[0097] The semi-permeable membrane medium can comprise, for example, a metal, a ceramic, a polymer (e.g., polyamides, polyethylenes, polyesters, poly(tetrafluoroethylene), polysulfones, polycarbonates, polypropylenes, poly(acrylates)), and / or composites or other combinations of these. The semi-permeable membranes generally allow for the selective transport of solvent (e.g., water) through the membrane, where solvent is capable of being transmitted through the membrane while solute (e.g., solubilized species such as solubilized ions) are inhibited from being transported through the membrane. Examples of commercially available semi-permeable membranes that can be used in association with certain of the embodiments described herein include, but are not limited to, those commercially available from Dow Water and Process Solutions (e.g., FilmTec™ membranes), Hydranautics, GE Osmonics, Suez, LG, Toyobo, Microdyn, and Toray Membrane, among others known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

[0098] In some embodiments, the semi-permeable membrane of a membrane separator of this disclosure has an average molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) that is sufficiently high such that a desired amount of liquid and / or solute (and / or type of solute) can pass through during operation of the system. In some embodiments, the semi-permeable membrane(s) of the membrane separator and / or the second membrane separator, has an average MWCO of greater than or equal to 50 Daltons, greater than or equal to 75 Daltons, greater than or equal to 100 Daltons, greater than or equal to 150 Daltons, or greater. In some embodiments, the semi-permeable membrane of a membrane separator of this disclosure has an average molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) that is sufficiently low such that a desired amount of solute (and / or type of solute) is rejected such that an effective separation is performed. In some embodiments, the semi-permeable membrane(s) of the membrane separator and / or the second membrane separator has an average MWCO of less than or equal to 400 Daltons, less than or equal to 300 Daltons, less than or equal to 250 Daltons, less than or equal to 200 Daltons, or less. Combinations of these ranges (e.g., greater than or equal to 50 Daltons and less than or equal to 400 Daltons, greater than or equal to 50 Daltons and less than or equal to 250 Daltons) are possible. The average MWCO of a membrane refers to the lowest molecular weight solute in which 90% of the solute is retained by the membrane.

[0099] The average MWCO of the semi-permeable membrane may affect any of a variety of the parameters discussed below, such as solute permeability, salt passage, rejection, and / or recovery.

[0100] The solute permeability of each membrane separator may be chosen based on any of a variety of design criteria such as desired purity of permeate, desired hydraulic pressure to be used, and nature of incoming influent (e.g., solute concentration of incoming influent). The solute permeability of a membrane separator can be calculated from the solute flux through the membrane and the respective concentrations of solute on either side using equation [3] below:

[0101] JS = B(CR- CP) [3]

[0102] In the above equation, Jsrepresents the ion flux, CR represents the concentration of solute on the retentate side of the membrane, Cp represents the concentration of solute on the permeate side of the membrane, and B represents the solute permeability. Solute permeability is dependent on the species of solute in the retentate inlet stream and the concentrations on either side of the membrane.

[0103] In some embodiments in which multiple membrane separators are employed, the solute permeabilities of the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or the third membrane separator during operation of the method are chosen to afford good, consistent performance across all membrane separators by accounting for differences in concentrations of their respective retentate inlet streams.

[0104] In some embodiments, a solute permeability of the first membrane separator during the step of transporting the first membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the first membrane separator is different than a solute permeability of the second membrane separator during the step of transporting the second membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the second membrane separator. In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of solute and / or solids in the first membrane separator retentate input are transported from the retentate side of the first membrane separator, through the first semi-permeable membrane of the first membrane separator, to the permeate side of the first membrane separator. In some embodiments, at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of solute and / or solids in the second membrane separator retentate input are transported from the retentate side of the second membrane separator, through the second semi-permeable membrane of the second membrane separator, to the permeate side of the second membrane separator.

[0105] Water permeability can be calculated from the water flux, pressure differential and osmotic differential, as shown below in equation [4]:

[0106] Jw = A(AP - An) [4]

[0107] In the above equation [4], Jwrepresents the flux of water through the membrane, AP represents the hydraulic pressure differential across the membrane, An represents the osmotic pressure differential across the membrane, and A represents the water permeability.

[0108] The salt passage percentage at standard conditions of each membrane separator may be chosen based on any of a variety of design criteria such as desired purity of permeate, desired hydraulic pressure to be used, and nature of incoming influent (e.g., concentration of incoming influent). The salt passage percentage at standard conditions of a membrane separator is an intrinsic property of the separator based on the quantity of salt, as a percentage, which passes through the semi-permeable membrane(s) from the retentate side to the permeate side of the membrane separator under defined reference conditions. The salt passage percentage at standard conditions of a membrane separator can be determined using the standardized test described in ASTM D4516-19a. In some embodiments, a salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the first membrane separator is different than a salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the second membrane separator, wherein the salt passage percentage at standard conditions is determined using ASTM D4516-19a. In some embodiments, the salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the first membrane separator and the salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the second membrane separator are at least 5% (or at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, or more) different from each other.

[0109] In some embodiments in which multiple membrane separators are employed, the salt passages at standard conditions of the first membrane separator and the second membrane separator (and, if present a third membrane separator, a fourth membrane separator, or more) used in in the operation of the method are chosen to afford good, consistent performance across all membrane separators by accounting for differences in concentrations of their respective retentate inlet streams. In some embodiments, the salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the first membrane separator and / or the second membrane separator membrane separator are independently greater than or equal to 0%, greater than or equal to 1%, greater than or equal to 2%, greater than or equal to 5%, greater than or equal to 10%, greater than or equal to 15%, greater than or equal to 20%, greater than or equal to 50%, greater than or equal to 75%, and / or up to 80%, up to 85%, up to 90%, or greater. In some embodiments, the membrane separator has a relatively low salt passage percentage at standard conditions. Such a low salt passage percentage at standard conditions may be useful in embodiments in which the membrane separator is operated as a high-rejection reverse osmosis separator. In some embodiments, the membrane separator has a salt passage percentage at standard conditions of less than or equal to 10%, less than or equal to 5%, less than or equal to 2%, less than or equal to 1%, less than or equal to 0.1%, or less.

[0110] Intrinsic properties of a semi-permeable membrane such as salt passage percentage at standard conditions and / or MWCO can be selected based on supplier specifications for commercially-obtained membranes, by controlling the synthesis of membranes, and / or by physically and / or chemically modifying existing membranes (e.g., commercially obtained membranes). The rejection of each membrane separator may be chosen based on any of a variety of design criteria such as desired purity of permeate, desired hydraulic pressure to be used, and nature of incoming influent (e.g., solute concentration of incoming influent). The rejection, R, of a membrane separator can be calculated from CR (the concentration of solute on the retentate side of the membrane) and Cp (the concentration of solute on the permeate side of the membrane) and expressed as a percentage using Equation [5] below:

[0111] R = [1 - (CP / CR)] * 100 [5]

[0112] In some embodiments in which multiple membrane separators are employed, the rejections (7?) of the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or the third membrane separator during operation of the method are chosen to afford good, consistent performance across all membrane separators by accounting for differences in concentrations of their respective retentate inlet streams.

[0113] In some embodiments, the rejection for at least one solute (e.g., the solute during the step of transporting the membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the membrane separator) of the membrane separator is greater than or equal to 10%, greater than or equal to 15%, greater than or equal to 20%, greater than or equal to 50%, greater than or equal to 75%, greater than or equal to 80%, greater than or equal to 85%, greater than or equal to 90%, greater than or equal to 95%, greater than or equal to 98%, greater than or equal to 99%, greater than or equal to 99.9%, or greater. In some embodiments, the rejection for at least one solute (e.g., the solute during the step of transporting the membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the membrane separator) of the membrane separator is less than or equal to 100%, less than or equal to 99%, less than or equal to 95%, less than or equal to 90%, less than or equal to 85%, less than or equal to 80%, less than or equal to 75%, less than or equal to 60%, less than or equal to 50%, or less. Combinations of these ranges (e.g., greater than or equal to 10% and less than or equal to 100%) are possible. These ranges may be independently applicable to the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or the third membrane separator.

[0114] In some embodiments, the first membrane separator is operated in a batch or a semibatch manner. Batch operation, semi-batch operation, and continuous operation of membrane separators are generally known. During batch operation, a hydraulic pressure of the membrane separator retentate input is increased over time during operation, as quantities of streams are fed to a retentate side input. A difference between batch and semi-batch operation in this context is that during semi-batch operation, at least some mixing of the recycle stream (e.g., a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output) and the stream feeding the first membrane separator retentate input occurs. In some embodiments, a membrane separator retentate input (e.g., the first, second, and / or third membrane separator retentate input) comprises at least a portion (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the membrane separator retentate output (e.g., the first, second, and / or third membrane separator retentate output). Batch or semi-batch operation of a process involving a membrane separator (e.g., a recycle process) can reduce the amount of energy required to operate the membrane separator by gradually increasing the concentration (and in some instances the hydraulic pressure) of the membrane separator retentate inlet stream rather than maintaining an entirety of the membrane separator’s streams at a high pressure, as is generally the case during continuous operation. Such a reduction in energy usage may allow for dissolved ion concentration with greater energy efficiency. In some embodiments, the transporting of the membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or the third membrane separator is performed in a batch and / or semi-batch manner. In some embodiments, the transporting of the first membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the first membrane separator, the second membrane separator, and / or the third membrane separator is performed in a continuous manner.

[0115] The systems and the methods may comprise and / or make use of a foam fractionation system. The foam fractionation system, in some embodiments, facilitates the separation of one or more PFAS molecules from a liquid solution (e.g., an aqueous solution). In some embodiments, the foam fractionation system introduces bubbles having a relatively small size (e.g., microbubbles) into the liquid solution such that PFAS molecules associate with at least some of the bubbles. In some embodiments, the foam fractionation system is capable of concentrating the PFAS molecules in the input liquid solution by an advantageous factor.

[0116] In some embodiments, the foam fractionation system comprises a bubbler. In some embodiments, the bubbler is configured to receive a gas input and inject bubbles into an interior volume of a vessel of the foam fractionation system. In some embodiments, the bubbler is at least partially submerged in liquid in the interior volume of the vessel such that the bubble can be injected directly into the liquid. The bubbles may be formed by supplying gas to one or more inlets on the bubbler.

[0117] In some embodiments, relatively small bubbles may allow for at least some (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the bubbles to associate with at least some (e.g., at least 1 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 20 wt%, at least 30 wt%, at least 40 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 60 wt%, at least 70 wt%, at least 80 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 99 wt%, or 100 wt%) of the PFAS molecules thereby forming PFAS-associated bubbles. The PFAS-associated bubbles can, in some embodiments, then rise to the surface of the liquid, when present, in the interior volume of the vessel thereby separating the PFAS molecules from the rest of the liquid. Relatively small bubble size (e.g., bubbles having largest cross-sectional dimensions that are relatively small), in some embodiments, can allow for greater surface area on the bubbles that the PFAS molecules and / or surfactant may associate with. Relatively small bubbles also rise to the surface in a relatively slow manner, in some embodiments, allowing for a relatively large residence time compared to bubbles having a relatively large size. In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules have sufficient time to associate with the bubbles that have a relatively large residence time.

[0118] In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules comprise at least one perfluoro alkyl moiety (-CnF2n+i). In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules comprises a perfluorinated methyl group (-CF3). In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules comprise and / or a perfluorinated methylene group (-CF2-). Examples of perfluoroalkyl moieties include but are not limited to perfluorooctane (R-CsFn), perfluorohexane (R-CeF ), and / or perfluorobutane (R-C4F9), where “R” can be any of a variety of head groups including but not limited to a carboxylic acid, sulfonic acid, and / or phosphonic acid. In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules comprise perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid, perfluorohexanesulfonic acid, perfluorobutanesulfonic acid, perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAA), perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids, perfluoroalkyl carboxylates, perfluoro alkane sulfonic acids, perfluoroalkance sulfonates (PFSA), perfluoroalkyl ether acids, perfluoroalkance sulfonyl fluorides (PASF), perfluoroalkane sulfonamides (FASA), perfluoro alkanoyl fluorides (PFA), perfluoroalkyl iodides (PFAI), perfluoroalkyl aldehydes, fluorotelomer substances, polyfluoroalkane sulfonamido substances, polyfluoroalkyl ether acids, chloropolyfluoroalkyl ether acids, and / or chloropolyfluoroalkyl acids. In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules comprises one or more molecules disclosed in the “Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Report” by the Joint Subcommittee on Environment, Innovation, and Public Health Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Strategy Team of the National Science and Technology Council published in March 2023, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0119] In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules are anionic. For example, some of the PFAS molecules may comprise a carboxylate group, a phosphate group, and / or a sulfonate group. In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules are anionic when present in the feed. In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules comprise a negatively charged terminal group. In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules comprise a polar portion (e.g., a carboxylate group, a phosphate group, a sulfonate group). In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules comprise a nonpolar portion (e.g., an alkyl chain partially or fully saturated with fluorine atoms). The PFAS molecules may have any of a variety of molecular weights. In some embodiments, the PFAS molecules have a molecular weight of at least 100 g / mol, at least 150 g / mol, at least 200 g / mol, at least 250 g / mol, at least 300 g / mol, at least 400 g / mol, at least 500 g / mol, at least 600 g / mol, and / or up to 800 g / mol, up to 1000 g / mol, or more. In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 10 mol%, at least 25 mol%, at least 50 mol%, at least 75 mol%, at least 90 mol%, at least 95 mol%, at least 99 mol%, or all) of the PFAS molecules comprise an alkyl chain comprising at least 2 carbon atoms, at least 4 carbon atoms, at least 6 carbon atoms, at least 8 carbon atoms, at least 10 carbon atoms, at least 12 carbon atoms, at least 14 carbon atoms, at least 16 carbon atoms, at least 18 carbon atoms, at least 20 carbon atoms, and / or up to 25 carbon atoms, up to 30 carbon atoms, or more.

[0120] The foam fractionation system inputs described throughout the present disclosure may comprise and / or be fluidically connected to a source of a surfactant. In some embodiments, the inputs described herein (e.g., the liquid input solution) comprise surfactant. In some embodiments, the surfactant is amphiphilic. In accordance with some embodiments, the surfactant can assist with the separation of the PFAS molecules from the input liquid solution. In some embodiments, the surfactant can be dosed into the vessel via the input liquid solution. In some embodiments, the surfactant is dosed in a continuous manner. That is, a continuous supply of the surfactant is, in some embodiments, introduced with limited interruption. In some embodiments, the surfactant is dosed intermittently. That is, a supply of surfactant is, in some embodiments, introduced in batches (e.g., intermittent doses of discrete amounts).

[0121] In some embodiments, the source of surfactant is introduced into the foam fractionation system via one or more inlets. In some embodiments, the surfactant can enter the interior volume of the foam fractionation system via one or more inlets fluidically connected to the interior volume of the foam fractionation system. In some embodiments, the source of surfactant can enter the interior volume of the foam fractionation system by one or more different inlets than the inlets used to introduce the liquid input solution to the interior volume of the foam fractionation system. While the source of surfactant has been previously described as a portion of the input liquid solution, the source of surfactant can enter the interior volume of the foam fractionation systems separately from the input liquid solution in certain embodiments.

[0122] In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises a cationic surfactant. That is, the surfactant comprises, in some embodiments, a portion having a net positive charge. In some embodiments, the cationic surfactant may interact with the PFAS molecules such that the portion having a net positive charge interacts with a portion of the PFAS molecules having a net negative charge to form a micelle. The electrostatic interaction between the portion of the PFAS having a net negative charge and the portion of the cationic surfactant having a net positive charge may allow for the formation of relatively stable and relatively large micelles which would aid removal using the semi-permeable membrane. Advantageously, the electrostatic interaction between the cationic surfactant and the PFAS molecules may allow for the removal of relatively short-chain PFAS molecules (e.g., perfluorobutanoic acid, perfluorobutane sulfonic acid). Accordingly, the electrostatic interaction between the cationic surfactant and the PFAS molecules may promote the separation of short-chain PFAS compounds.

[0123] The cationic surfactant described herein can comprise any of a variety of compounds. In some embodiments, the cationic surfactant comprises cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and / or trimethyloctylammonium bromide (OTAB). In some embodiments, the cationic surfactant comprises a hydrophobic moiety. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic moiety comprises an alkyl group comprising at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 12, at least 14, at least 16, at least 18, at least 20, at least 22, at least 24, or at least 25 carbon atoms (and / or up to 25 carbon atoms, up to 30 carbon atoms, or more). In some embodiments, the cationic surfactant comprises a hydrophilic group comprising any of a variety of salts. In some embodiments, the hydrophilic group comprises a quaternary ammonium salt. That is, the hydrophilic group comprises a positively-charged ion of the general structure [NR4]+where R is an alkyl group, an aryl group, or an organyl group and can ionically interact with halogens (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine).

[0124] In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an anionic and / or a non-ionic surfactant. The anionic surfactant generally have a net negative charge. Non-ionic surfactants generally do not have a net charge (i.e., are net neutral). In certain embodiments, the anionic and / or non-ionic surfactants may allow for the removal of long-chain PFAS molecules and / or other contaminants and may have a relatively lower cost than surfactants that remove short-chain PFAS molecules. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the anionic and / or non-ionic surfactant may, advantageously, be introduced into any input of the system (e.g., the input liquid solution) to remove long-chain PFAS molecules, such that the cationic surfactant (which may have a relatively high cost) may be introduced afterward to target short-chain PFAS molecules to limit the consumption of the cationic surfactant by long-chain PFAS molecules. In some embodiments, the anionic and / or non-ionic surfactants can be introduced as co-surfactants or as an alternative to the cationic surfactant. In some embodiments, the anionic and / or non-ionic surfactants can be introduced into the vessel, the separator(s), or any one of the various inputs and / or outputs described herein.

[0125] In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises one type of surfactant. In other embodiments, the surfactant comprises more than one type of surfactant. In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises a mixture of surfactants comprising the cationic surfactant, the anionic surfactant, and / or the non-ionic surfactant.

[0126] In some embodiments, the length of the largest alkyl group in the surfactant is similar in length to the largest alkyl group of the PFAS molecules. In some embodiments, the number of carbon atoms in the largest alkyl group in the cationic surfactant is within 10, within 9, within 8, within 7, within 6, within 5, within 4, within 3, within 2, or within 1 (or the same as) the number of carbon atoms in the largest alkyl group of the PFAS molecules.

[0127] In some embodiments, the feed comprises additional contaminants beyond the examples provided above (e.g., PFAS molecules and / or dissolved ions). For example, the feed may comprise one or more azoles. Non-limiting examples include imidazole and / or pyrazole. The azoles may have been present in the waste from the semiconductor processing facility as a corrosion inhibitor. In some embodiments, one or more oxidation steps are performed to remove the azoles (e.g., by chemically converting the azoles to other species that are readily removed and / or present a lower environmental and / or safety hazard). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the feed is exposed to ozone (O3). In some such embodiments, the ozone reacts with the one or more azoles to generate a chemical product. In some embodiments, a fine bubble ozonation system is included in the system (e.g., fluidically connected to one or more of the systems describe herein. In some embodiments, the feed is exposed to the azoles a step upstream of the biological treatment system, as it has been realized that the azoles, if present, may negatively affect the biological treatment process.

[0128] In some embodiments, the solids removal system facilitates the removal of solids comprising salts from a liquid stream. The solids removal system may receive an input comprising dissolved ions derived from the salt. The solids removal system may then, in some embodiments, facilitate the precipitation (e.g., crystallization) of the dissolved ions to form solids comprising the salt. In some embodiments, the salts may have any of a variety of compositions. In some embodiments, the salt comprises sodium sulfate and / or sodium fluoride. The formation and removal of salts may advantageously allow for the reuse of salts. For example, sodium sulfate produced by certain of the systems and methods of this disclosure may be usable for deicing applications. The ability to reuse the salt may lessen any negative environmental impact the systems and processes described herein may have.

[0129] A humidifier generally may have any configuration that allows for the production of a gaseous stream comprising vapor (e.g., water vapor) transferred from a liquid stream (e.g., a stream comprising liquid water) via an evaporation process. In some embodiments, the humidifier is configured to produce such a gaseous stream comprising vapor (e.g., a “humidified gas stream”) by transferring the vapor (e.g., water vapor) from the liquid stream (e.g., a stream comprising liquid water) to a carrier gas via an evaporation process. In some embodiments, the humidifier comprises a liquid inlet configured to receive the liquid stream and / or a gas inlet configured to receive the carrier gas. The humidifier may further comprise a liquid outlet and / or a gas outlet. In certain embodiments, the carrier gas comprises a non-condensable gas. Nonlimiting examples of suitable non-condensable gases include air, nitrogen, oxygen, helium, argon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides (SOX) (e.g., SO2, SO3), and / or nitrogen oxides (NOX) (e.g.. NO, NO2). Examples of potentially suitable humidifiers include, but are not limited to bubble column humidifiers and packed bed humidifiers.

[0130] The following applications are incorporated herein by reference, in their entirety, for all purposes: U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2015 / 0060286 published on March 5, 2015, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 14 / 452,387 on August 5, 2014, and entitled “WATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS AND ASSOCIATED METHODS”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2015 / 0129410 published on May 14, 2015, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 14 / 485,606 on September 12, 2014, and entitled “SYSTEMS INCLUDING A CONDENSING APPARATUS SUCH AS A BUBBLE COLUMN CONDENSER”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2015 / 0083577 published on March 26, 2015, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 14 / 494,101 on September 23, 2014, and entitled “DESALINATION SYSTEMS AND ASSOCIATED METHODS”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US2016 / 0228795 published on August 11, 2016, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 14 / 719,295 on May 21, 2015, and entitled “METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR PRODUCING TREATED BRINES”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2019 / 0009218 published on January 10, 2019, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 15 / 747,907 on January 26, 2018, and entitled “OSMOTIC DESALINATION METHODS AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2017 / 0144906 published on May 25, 2017, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 15 / 364,785 on November 30, 2016, and entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WATER, SUCH AS OILFIELD WASTEWATER, VIA CHEMICAL COAGULATION”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2021 / 0179452 published on June 17, 2021, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 270,142 on February 22, 2021, and entitled “LIQUID SOLUTION CONCENTRATION SYSTEM COMPRISING ISOLATED SUBSYSTEM AND RELATED METHODS”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2022 / 0380233 published on December 1, 2022, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 882,701 on August 8, 2022, and entitled “OSMOTIC METHODS AND SYSTEMS INVOLVING ENERGY RECOVERY”; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2024 / 0109037 published on April 4, 2024, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 18 / 315,130 on May 10, 2023, and entitled “LIQUID SEPARATION USING SOLUTE-PERMEABLE MEMBRANES AND RELATED SYSTEMS”; and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2023 / 0001355, published on January 5, 2023, filed as U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 305,289 on July 2, 2021, and entitled “MEMBRANES WITH CONTROLLED POROSITY FOR SERIAL FILTRATION.”

[0131] While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and / or structures for performing the functions and / or obtaining the results and / or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and / or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and / or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is / are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, and / or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, and / or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, and / or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.

[0132] The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

[0133] The phrase “and / or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and / or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and / or B,” when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

[0134] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and / or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and / or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of’ or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

[0135] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and / or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

[0136] As used herein, “wt%” is an abbreviation of weight percentage. As used herein, “at%” is an abbreviation of atomic percentage.

[0137] Some embodiments may be embodied as a method, of which various examples have been described. The acts performed as part of the methods may be ordered in any suitable way. Accordingly, embodiments may be constructed in which acts are performed in an order different than illustrated, which may include different (e.g., more or less) acts than those that are described, and / or that may involve performing some acts simultaneously, even though the acts are shown as being performed sequentially in the embodiments specifically described above.

[0138] Use of ordinal terms such as “first,” “second,” “third,” etc., in the claims to modify a claim element does not by itself connote any priority, precedence, or order of one claim element over another or the temporal order in which acts of a method are performed, but are used merely as labels to distinguish one claim element having a certain name from another element having a same name (but for use of the ordinal term) to distinguish the claim elements.

[0139] In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of’ and “consisting essentially of’ shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Claims

1. CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A method, comprising: transporting a first membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a first membrane separator, the first membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, such that: a first membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the first membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the first membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the first membrane separator, through a first semi-permeable membrane of the first membrane separator, to a permeate side of the first membrane separator to form some or all of a first membrane separator permeate output; and transporting a second membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a second membrane separator, the second membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion the first membrane separator retentate output, such that: a second membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the second membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the second membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the second membrane separator, through a second semi-permeable membrane of the second membrane separator, to a permeate side of the second membrane separator to form some or all of a second membrane separator permeate output, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the first membrane separator and / or the second membrane separator are operated as a reverse osmosis membrane separator.

3. The method of anyone of claims 1-2, wherein the first membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output.

4. The method of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the transporting of the first membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the first membrane separator is performed in a batch and / or semi-batch manner.

5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein the transporting of the second membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the second membrane separator is performed in a continuous manner.

6. The method of any one of claims 1-5, wherein a solute permeability of the first membrane separator during the step of transporting the first membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the first membrane separator is different than a solute permeability of the second membrane separator during the step of transporting the second membrane separator retentate input to the retentate side of the second membrane separator.

7. The method of any one of claims 1-6, wherein at least a portion of solute and / or solids in the first membrane separator retentate input are transported from the retentate side of the first membrane separator, through the first semi-permeable membrane of the first membrane separator, to the permeate side of the first membrane separator.

8. The method of any one of claims 1-7, at least a portion of solute and / or solids in the second membrane separator retentate input are transported from the retentate side of the second membrane separator, through the second semi-permeable membrane of the second membrane separator, to the permeate side of the second membrane separator.

9. The method of any one of claims 1-8, wherein a salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the first membrane separator is different than a salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the second membrane separator, wherein the salt passage percentage at standard conditions is determined using ASTM D4516-19a.

10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein the salt passage percentage at standard conditions of the first membrane separator and the salt passage percentage atstandard conditions of the second membrane separator are at least 5% different from each other.

11. The method of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the feed comprises a semiconducting material, a species derived from a semiconducting material, a metal, and / or a metal oxide.

12. The method of any of claims 1-11, further comprising providing an extraction system input to an extraction system and operating the extraction system such that at least a portion of solute in the extraction system input is solidified, wherein the extraction system input comprises at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output.

13. The method of any one of claims 1-12, wherein the membrane separator retentate input comprises at least a portion of a first foam fractionated product output exiting a first foam fractionation separator.

14. The method of any one of claims 1-13, further comprising providing a second foam fractionation system input to a second foam fractionation system and operating the second foam fractionation system such that at least a portion of per- and / or polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) molecules are removed from the second foam fractionation system input, wherein the second foam fractionation system input comprises at least a portion of the first membrane separator retentate output.

15. A method, comprising: providing a first foam fractionation system input comprising at least a portion of a feed comprising per- and / or polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) molecules to a first foam fractionation system and operating the first foam fractionation system, such that: a first foam fractionated product output exiting the first foam fractionation system has a lower concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input, anda first foam fractionated foamate output exiting the first foam fractionation system has a greater concentration of the PFAS molecules than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system input; providing a biological treatment system input comprising at least a portion of the first foam fractionated product output to a biological treatment system and operating the biological treatment system such that a biological treatment system output exiting the biological treatment system has:(a) a lower concentration of total organic content, nitrogen, phosphorous, and / or isopropyl alcohol than the biological treatment system input,(b) a lower chemical oxygen demand than the biological treatment system input, and / or(c) a lower alkalinity than the biological treatment system input; transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of the biological treatment system output, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi- permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; and providing a second foam fractionation input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a second foam fractionation system and operating the second foam fractionation system, such that: a second foam fractionated product output exiting the second foam fractionation system has a concentration of PFAS molecules less than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation input, and a second foam fractionated foamate output exiting the second foam fractionation system has a concentration of PFAS molecules greater than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionation input,wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the first foam fraction system is operated such that at least a portion of the first foam fractionation system input is exposed to bubbles and / or the first foam fraction system is operated such that the second foam fractionation system input is exposed to bubbles.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein a surfactant is provided to the first foam fractionation system and / or the second foam fractionation system such that at least some PFAS molecules are associated with at least some of the bubbles, thereby forming PFAS-associated bubbles.

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the surfactant is a cationic surfactant.

19. The method of any one of claims 17-18, wherein the surfactant comprises cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and / or trimethyloctylammonium bromide (OTAB).

20. The method of any one of claims 15-19, wherein the concentration of PFAS molecules in the first foam fractionation system product output and the second foam fractionated product output is less than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the feed.

21. The method of any one of claims 15-20, wherein the concentration of PFAS molecules in the second foam fractionated product output is less than the concentration of PFAS molecules in the feed.

22. The method of any one of claims 15-21, further comprising providing an extraction system input comprising at least a portion of the second foam fractionation system product output to an extraction system and operating the extraction system such that an extraction system output exiting the extraction system has a concentration of suspended and / or emulsified material greater than the concentration of suspended and / or emulsified material in the extraction system input.

23. A method, comprising transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate output having a concentration of dissolved ions of a salt greater than that of the membrane separator retentate input, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi- permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; and providing a solids-removal system input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a solids-removal system and operating the solids- removal system such that: a diluted output exiting the solids-removal system has a concentration of dissolved ions of a salt that is less than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt in the solids-removal system input, and a solids-enriched output exits the solids-removal system, the solids- enriched output comprising a solid comprising the salt.

24. The method of claim 23,_wherein the salt is a first salt, the membrane separator retentate output comprises dissolved ions of a second salt, and the method further comprises providing a humidifier liquid input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a humidifier and operating the humidifier such that a humidifier liquid output exiting the humidifier has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the first salt and a concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt greater than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the first salt and the concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt in the humidifier liquid input; andproviding an adiabatic cooler system liquid input comprising at least a portion of the humidifier liquid output to an adiabatic cooler system and operating the adiabatic cooler system such that: an adiabatic cooler system liquid output exiting the adiabatic cooler system has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt that is lower than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the second salt in the adiabatic cooler system liquid input, wherein the adiabatic cooler system output forms at least a portion of the solids-removal system input, and an adiabatic cooler system solids-enriched output exits the adiabatic cooler system, the adiabatic cooler system solids-enriched output comprising a solid comprising the second salt.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein the second salt is sodium sulfate.

26. The method of any one of claims 24-25, wherein the first salt is sodium fluoride.

27. The method of any one of claims 23-26, the first salt is sodium fluoride and the second salt is sodium sulfate.

28. The method of any one of claims 23-27. wherein the solids-enriched output has a liquid content of less than or equal to 10 wt%.

29. The method of any one of claims 23-28, wherein the diluted output exiting the solids-removal system has a solids content of less than or equal to 100 ppm on a mass basis.

30. A method, comprising transporting a membrane separator retentate input to a retentate side of a membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate input comprising at least a portion of a feed, wherein the feed comprises at least a portion of a stream exiting a semiconductor processing facility, such that: a membrane separator retentate output exits the retentate side of the membrane separator, the membrane separator retentate output having aconcentration of dissolved ions of a salt greater than that of the membrane separator retentate input, and at least a portion of liquid from the membrane separator retentate input is transported from the retentate side of the membrane separator, through a semi- permeable membrane of the membrane separator, to a permeate side of the membrane separator to form some or all of a membrane separator permeate output; providing a mechanical recompression system input comprising at least a portion of the membrane separator retentate output to a mechanical recompression system and operating the mechanical recompression system such that a mechanical recompression system output exiting the mechanical recompression system has a concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt greater than the concentration of the dissolved ions of the salt in the mechanical recompression system input; and providing a precipitator input comprising at least a portion of the mechanical recompression system output to a precipitator and operating the precipitator such that a precipitator output exiting the precipitator comprises a solid comprising the salt in a liquid solution.

31. The method of claim 30, further comprising providing a centrifuge system input comprising at least a portion of the precipitator system output to a centrifuge system and operating the centrifuge system such that: a centrifuge system liquid output exiting the centrifuge system has a lower concentration of the solid comprising the salt as compared to the centrifuge system input, and a centrifuge system solids -enriched output exits the centrifuge system, the centrifuge system solid-enriched output comprising at least a portion of the solid comprising the salt.

32. The method of any one of claims 30-31, wherein the precipitator is a crystallizer33. The method of any one of claims 30-32, wherein the crystallizer is a forced circulation crystallizer.

34. The method of any one of claims 30-34, wherein the salt comprises sodium fluoride and / or sodium sulfate.

35. The method of any one of claims 30-34, further comprising operating the mechanical recompression system such that a mechanical recompression system output exiting the mechanical recompression system has a temperature greater than the temperature of the mechanical recompression system input.

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