Swallowable capsules and methods for stimulating incretin production in the intestinal tract

Abstract

To provide apparatuses and methods for stimulating L cells of the small intestine to produce incretins and other peptides for treatment of various diseases and conditions including diabetes and obesity.SOLUTION: Embodiments of the invention provide apparatuses and methods for stimulating L cells in the intestinal tract to produce incretins for treatment of conditions including diabetes and obesity. Many embodiments provide a method and apparatus for treatment of diabetes by electrically stimulating L cells for secretion of incretins, so as to stimulate or otherwise modulate production of insulin. Particular embodiments provide a swallowable capsule for stimulating L cells in the intestinal tract as the capsule moves through the tract.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 4

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] (Related Applications) This application is a joint venture of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61 / 273,389, filed August 3, 2009, entitled "SWALLOWABLE CAPSULE AND METHOD FOR STIMULATING INCRETIN PRODUCTION WITHIN THE The foregoing priority application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0002] FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments described herein relate to devices and methods for electrically stimulating cells of the GI system to produce polypeptides for the treatment of various conditions, such as diabetes and obesity. More particularly, embodiments of the present invention relate to the treatment of diabetes by electrically stimulating cells of the gastrointestinal (GI) system to produce glucose-regulating hormones, such as incretins. [Background technology]

[0003] (background) Increased consumption of high-fat and / or high-calorie foods found in Western diets has led to an epidemic of diabetes and obesity in the United States and other developed countries. Diabetes is a disease in which the body does not produce enough or respond properly to insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas. Insulin is needed to convert sugar and other foods into energy. In diabetes, the body either does not produce enough insulin, does not use the insulin it has as effectively, or both. This leads to a buildup of sugar in the blood, often resulting in various complications. The American Diabetes Association reported in 2009 that 23.6 million children and adults in the United States had diabetes (equivalent to approximately 7.8% of the total population). While approximately 17.9 million people in the United States alone have been diagnosed with diabetes, approximately one in four people with diabetes (5.7 million) are unaware that they have the disease.

[0004] The main types of diabetes include type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 diabetes results from the body's inability to produce insulin. It is estimated that 5-10% of Americans diagnosed with diabetes have type 1 diabetes. Currently, nearly all people with type 1 diabetes must take insulin injections.

[0005] Type 2 diabetes results from the body's inability to use insulin properly, combined with a relative insulin deficiency. Most Americans diagnosed with diabetes have type 2 diabetes. Many individuals destined to develop type 2 diabetes spend many years in a prediabetic state. This condition, described as "America's largest health epidemic," occurs when blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. As of 2009, 57 million Americans had prediabetes. In developed countries, diabetes is the leading cause of adult blindness in non-elderly adults and the leading cause of non-traumatic amputations in adults. Furthermore, diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of kidney dialysis in the United States.

[0006] With the medical availability of insulin in the 1920s, most forms of diabetes have become treatable. Many diabetics now monitor their blood glucose using blood glucose meters and administer insulin injections at least once a day. However, this approach has many complications due to excessive or insufficient insulin delivery and the inability to regulate blood glucose over the long term. If the disease is not adequately controlled, acute complications can occur, including hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, or nonketotic hyperosmolar coma. Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, chronic renal failure, retinal damage (which can lead to blindness), nerve damage, and microvascular damage (which can cause erectile dysfunction and delayed wound healing). Delayed wound healing, particularly in the feet, can lead to gangrene and potentially amputation.

[0007] Other forms of medication are available, such as Metformin (also known as GLUCOPHAGE). However, this drug is only indicated for the treatment of Type 2 non-insulin-dependent diabetes and has many side effects, including various gastrointestinal side effects. It also cannot be used by patients with kidney disease. Other forms of treatment include implantable insulin pumps, but these are costly and are ultimately rejected by the body. Therefore, improved forms of treatment for diabetes and other glucose regulation disorders are needed.

[0008] Obesity, defined as a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30, is a major health problem in the United States and other countries. It is estimated that one in three Americans and over 300 million people worldwide are obese. Complications of obesity include numerous serious, life-threatening diseases, including high blood pressure, diabetes, coronary artery disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, pulmonary valve insufficiency, multiple orthopedic problems, various cancers, and a significantly reduced life expectancy. Numerous therapies have been attempted to treat obesity, including dietary therapy, drug therapy, and more invasive procedures such as gastric stapling. However, many fail due to an inability to activate the satiety signaling pathway that signals a person to feel full. Research now shows that many foods provided by the food industry, including those high in salt, sugar, and fat, activate strong signaling responses in the brain that encourage eating. Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0009] Thus, there is a need for improved forms of obesity treatment, including those that can stimulate satiety signals and / or appetite suppression signals to cause a person to stop eating or otherwise suppress appetite. [Means for solving the problem]

[0010] The present invention provides, for example: (Item 1) 1. A swallowable capsule for stimulating L-cells in the intestinal track of a patient, comprising: a capsule body having a surface; the capsule body sized to be swallowed and pass through the intestinal tract of a patient; at least one pair of electrodes disposed on the surface of the capsule body for electrically stimulating the L-cells; at least one sensor coupled to the capsule body for sensing a characteristic of the intestinal track to identify the location of the capsule within the intestinal tract; a controller coupled to the at least one pair of electrodes and the at least one sensor, the controller being disposed within the capsule body and configured to receive an input signal from the at least one sensor, identify a location of the capsule within the intestinal tract based on the input, and generate a waveform to be output to the at least one pair of electrodes, the waveform being configured to electrically stimulate L-cells proximate to the capsule location to secrete a polypeptide without causing peristaltic contractions of the intestinal tract; a power supply coupled to the controller; Capsules containing: (Item 2) The capsule according to Item 1, wherein the secreted polypeptide is one of incretin or GLP-1. (Item 3) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the controller is configured to initiate generation of the waveform when the capsule reaches a selectable location within the intestinal tract. (Item 4) 4. The capsule of item 3, wherein the selectable location is immediately adjacent to the small intestine. (Item 5) The capsule of claim 1, wherein the waveform is activated by contact of the capsule with the intestinal wall. 6. The capsule according to item 5, wherein contact is detected by at least one of the at least pair of electrodes or a contact sensor or a pressure sensor arranged on the capsule body surface. (Item 7) Item 1. The capsule of item 1, wherein the longitudinal axes of the at least one pair of electrodes are aligned with the longitudinal axis of the capsule body. (Item 8) Item 1. The capsule of item 1, wherein the longitudinal axes of the at least one pair of electrodes are aligned with a radial axis of the capsule body. (Item 9) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the at least one pair of electrodes comprises ring-shaped electrodes. (Item 10) Item 10. The capsule of item 9, wherein the ring-shaped electrode is aligned coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis of the capsule body. (Item 11) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the at least one pair of electrodes has a spacing configured to minimize electrical stimulation of tissue beneath a mucosal layer of the intestinal tract. (Item 12) Item 12. The capsule of item 11, wherein the at least one pair of electrodes has a spacing configured to minimize electrical stimulation of tissue more than about 3-5 mm below the surface of the mucosal layer of the intestinal tract. (Item 13) Item 12. The capsule of item 11, wherein the spacing between the electrodes is within a range of between about 0.01 and 0.2 inches. (Item 14) Item 12. The capsule of item 11, wherein the spacing between the electrodes is within a range of between about 0.05 and 0.2 inches. (Item 15) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the controller comprises a signal generator. (Item 16) 16. The capsule of claim 15, wherein the signal generator comprises one of a pulse generator or an H-bridge. (Item 17) Item 16. The capsule of item 15, wherein the signal generator is configured to generate a pulsed signal. (Item 18) Item 18. The capsule according to item 17, wherein the pulse signal has a frequency in the range of between about 1 and 100 Hz. (Item 19) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the at least one sensor includes a pressure sensor for sensing contractions or contractile forces within the intestinal tract. (Item 20) 2. The capsule of claim 1, wherein the at least one sensor comprises a pH sensor for sensing the pH of the intestinal tract or changes in the pH of the intestinal tract as the capsule moves through the tract. (Item 21) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the at least one sensor includes a pH sensor and a pressure sensor. (Item 22) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the controller includes a sensor conditioning circuit for conditioning input from the at least one sensor. (Item 23) 23. The capsule of claim 22, wherein the conditioning circuit includes at least one of a band-pass filter, a high-pass filter, or a low-pass filter. (Item 24) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the power source comprises a capacitor, an electric battery, a lithium battery, or a lithium-ion battery. (Item 25) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the power source comprises a piezoelectric power source configured to generate power from movement of the capsule through the intestinal tract or mechanical interaction of the capsule with the intestinal tract or contents of the intestinal tract. (Item 26) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the waveform is configured to stimulate L-cells within about 5 cm of the capsule body surface. (Item 27) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, wherein the waveform is configured to stimulate L-cells within about 2 cm of the capsule body surface. (Item 28) 2. The capsule of claim 1, wherein the waveform is configured to stimulate L cells within about 1 cm of the capsule body surface. (Item 29) Item 10. The capsule of item 1, further comprising an accelerometer for sensing movement of the capsule through the intestinal tract, the accelerometer coupled to the controller. (Item 30) 2. The capsule of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to generate a first waveform and a second waveform, the first waveform configured to electrically stimulate L cells proximate to the capsule location to produce a secreted polypeptide without causing peristaltic contractions of the intestinal tract, and the second waveform configured to cause peristaltic contractions of a portion of the intestinal tract proximate to the capsule to advance the capsule within the intestinal tract. (Item 31) 31. The capsule of claim 30, wherein the second waveform is activated in response to an input indicating that the rate of capsule movement through the intestinal tract is below a minimum level. (Item 32) Item 32. The capsule of item 31, wherein the input is from an accelerometer coupled to the controller. (Item 33) 31. The capsule of claim 30, wherein the first waveform and the second waveform are generated by an algorithm electronically stored in the controller or a memory resource coupled to the controller. (Item 34) 1. A method for stimulating L cells in the intestinal track of a patient to secrete a polypeptide, comprising: ingesting a swallowable device configured to advance through the intestinal tract and electrically stimulate L-cells within the intestinal tract; delivering an electrical signal from the device to the intestinal wall proximate the device, the signal comprising a waveform configured to electrically stimulate L cells in the intestinal tract to secrete the polypeptide; electrically stimulating the L cells to secrete the polypeptide; A method comprising: (Item 35) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the intestinal wall is the wall of the small intestine. (Item 36) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the peptide comprises an incretin. (Item 37) 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the incretin comprises GLP-1. (Item 38) 37. The method of claim 36, further comprising modulating insulin release in the patient in response to the secreted polypeptide. (Item 39) 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the insulin release is regulated by the electrical stimulation of the L-cells resulting in an increase in plasma insulin within 30 minutes of stimulation. (Item 40) 35. The method of claim 34, further comprising controlling the patient's blood glucose level in response to the secreted polypeptide. (Item 41) 35. The method of claim 34, further comprising suppressing the appetite level of the patient in response to the secreted polypeptide. (Item 42) Item 35. The method of item 34, wherein the waveform has a substantially square waveform. (Item 43) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the waveform is configured to stimulate the L-cells without causing substantial peristaltic contractions. (Item 44) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the waveform comprises a first waveform and a second waveform, the first waveform configured to stimulate the L-cells without causing substantial peristaltic contractions. (Item 45) 45. The method of claim 44, wherein the second waveform is configured to generate peristaltic contractions of intestinal tissue immediately adjacent to the device, the method further comprising using the generated peristaltic contractions to advance the device within the intestinal tract. (Item 46) 47. The method of claim 45, wherein the second waveform is substantially different from the first waveform. Item 46. The method of item 45, wherein the second waveform is generated in response to the speed of the device moving through the intestinal tract. (Item 48) Item 48. The method of item 47, wherein the velocity is measured using an accelerometer located on or in the device. (Item 49) 35. The method of claim 34, further comprising the step of determining a location of the device within the GI tract, wherein the signal is delivered in response to the location of the device within the intestinal tract. (Item 50) 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the location is the small intestine. (Item 51) Item 49. The method of item 49, wherein the location is determined using a sensor. (Item 52) 52. The method of claim 51, wherein the location is determined based on at least one of sensed pH or sensed pressure exerted on the device surface by intestinal wall tissue. (Item 53) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the ingestion of the device is coordinated with the ingestion of food. (Item 54) 54. The method of claim 53, wherein the device is ingested during a selected period before, during, or after ingestion of food. (Item 55) 55. The method of claim 54, wherein the period is selected to coordinate the stimulation of the L cells with the absorption of nutrients from food into the bloodstream. (Item 56) 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the device comprises a swallowable capsule. (Item 57) Item 35. The method of item 34, wherein the device comprises a controller, at least one electrode, and a waveform generator. (Item 58) 1. A method for stimulating L-cells in the intestinal tract of a patient to secrete incretins that regulate insulin release, comprising: ingesting a swallowable device configured to advance through the intestinal tract and electrically stimulate L-cells within the intestinal tract; delivering an electrical signal from the device to the intestinal wall immediately adjacent to the device, the signal comprising a waveform configured to electrically stimulate L-cells in the intestinal tract to secrete the incretin without substantially causing peristaltic contractions of the small intestine or other GI organs; electrically stimulating the L cells to secrete the incretin; modulating the release of insulin in the patient in response to the secreted incretin; A method comprising: (Item 59) 59. The method of claim 58, wherein insulin release is modulated by said electrical stimulation of said L-cells resulting in an increase in plasma insulin within 30 minutes of stimulation. (Item 60) 59. The method of claim 58, wherein the incretin comprises GLP-1. (Item 61) 59. The method of claim 58, further comprising increasing insulin sensitivity of the patient's body tissue in response to the secreted incretin. (Item 62) 59. The method of claim 58, further comprising controlling the patient's blood glucose level in response to the secreted incretin. (Item 63) 1. A method for stimulating L cells in the intestinal tract of a patient to secrete incretins that suppress appetite levels, comprising: ingesting a swallowable device configured to advance through the intestinal tract and electrically stimulate L-cells within the intestinal tract; delivering an electrical signal from the device to the intestinal wall immediately adjacent to the device, the signal comprising a waveform configured to electrically stimulate L-cells in the intestinal tract to secrete the incretin without substantially causing peristaltic contractions of the small intestine or other GI organs; electrically stimulating the L cells to secrete the incretin; suppressing the appetite level of the patient in response to the secreted incretin; A method comprising: (Item 64) 64. The method of claim 63, wherein the incretin comprises GLP-1. (Brief summary) Embodiments of the present invention provide devices and methods for stimulating L-cells in the small intestine to produce incretins and other peptides for the treatment of various diseases and conditions, including diabetes and obesity. Many embodiments provide methods and devices for treating obesity, diabetes, and other glucose regulation disorders by electrically stimulating L-cells to secrete glucagon-like protein (GLP; also referred to herein as glucagon-like peptide) and other incretins and stimulating insulin production. Particular embodiments provide a swallowable capsule for electrically stimulating L-cells in the intestinal tract to secrete GLP as the capsule travels through the intestinal tract. Capsule embodiments may include two or more electrodes for providing electrical stimulation to L-cells, a sensor for sensing the position of the capsule in the intestinal tract, a power source such as a battery for powering one or more electrical components in the capsule, a controller for controlling one or more operations of the capsule, and a signal / waveform generator for generating an electrical signal delivered by the electrodes to tissue to stimulate L-cells to produce incretins such as glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). The signal typically includes a waveform, such as a square wave, with selectable pulse duration and may be generated by a signal / waveform generator integrated with or coupled to the controller. The signal is preferably configured to stimulate L-cells to secrete incretins, such as GLP-1, but not induce peristaltic contractions in the intestinal region near the capsule or elsewhere in the intestine. However, in some embodiments, the waveform generator may be configured to generate two waveforms: one waveform for stimulating L-cells without inducing peristaltic contractions, and a second waveform for inducing peristaltic contractions to advance the capsule along the intestine. In these latter embodiments, the capsule may include an accelerometer to detect when the capsule has stopped moving or is moving below a desired velocity threshold. In use, these latter embodiments may advance the capsule in patients with very slow intestinal motility, such as those with enteric neuropathy or other related conditions, such as intestinal necrosis.When the controller receives input from the accelerometer indicating that the capsule has stopped or is moving too slowly, the controller signals the waveform generator to generate a second waveform, causing peristaltic contractions of the intestine in a region near the capsule, which may propel the capsule distally through the intestine. This process may be repeated as necessary, with selectable delays to account for the refractory period of the peristaltic contractions.

[0011] The electrodes typically include at least one pair of electrodes that can be positioned at various locations and orientations on the capsule surface, including in a longitudinal or radial manner relative to the capsule's longitudinal or radial axis. In specific embodiments, the electrodes can include one or more pairs of annular electrodes positioned on the capsule surface. The electrodes can include various conductive metals known in the art, including, for example, silver-silver chloride or platinum. The spacing of the electrodes can be configured to minimize electrical stimulation of tissue beneath the mucosal layer of the intestinal tract. In specific embodiments, the spacing can be configured to limit electrical stimulation of the intestinal wall to a depth of 5 mm or less.

[0012] In various embodiments, the at least one sensor may include one or more pH sensors to detect the passage of the capsule from the stomach to the small intestine, and a pressure sensor (independently of or in combination with input from the pH sensor) to sense peristaltic contractions of the intestine to detect when the capsule is in the intestine. The pressure sensor may also be used to detect when the intestine is in contact with the capsule (e.g., when being squeezed during peristaltic contractions) and therefore when to initiate a stimulation period. Specific embodiments may include both a pH sensor and a pressure sensor to identify changes in pH from the stomach to the intestine in addition to peristaltic contractions, increasing the level of accuracy in locating the sensor in the tube. Additional sensors, such as temperature, O2, CO2, optical sensors, etc., are also contemplated. Inputs from multiple sensors may be combined to provide a total sensory input to the controller for locating the capsule. In various embodiments, sensor conditioning circuitry (e.g., a bandpass filter) may be coupled to the controller to condition the sensor signal before input to the controller.

[0013] In an exemplary method of use, the swallowable capsule of the present invention may be used to stimulate secretion of various proteins, such as GLP, by L-cells to promote insulin release and / or enhance insulin activity in the body. In these and other related embodiments, a user may swallow the capsule before, during, or after a meal. After ingestion, the swallowable capsule passes through the stomach and into the small intestine. A sensor within the capsule may detect its relative location within the body. For example, a pH, pressure, or other relevant indicator sensor may determine when the capsule has reached the small intestine. Once in the small intestine, a controller (typically within the capsule) activates the swallowable capsule to provide electrical stimulation, which causes L-cells in the small intestine to secrete GLP-1 or other incretins (e.g., GIP, PYY, etc.). The GLP-1 and / or other incretins then trigger insulin secretion and / or enhance the body's use of insulin. Activation of the swallowable capsule to provide electrical stimulation may be directed, for example, by internal instructions and / or programs within the swallowable capsule or may be provided by external control of the swallowable capsule. The swallowable capsule is preferably taken immediately before or with a meal so that stimulation of GLP-1 and / or other incretin secretion is coordinated with the absorption of nutrients from ingested food, thereby coordinating subsequent insulin production with the influx of glucose, fat, and other nutrients into the bloodstream. In this way, the patient's blood glucose levels can be controlled after a meal to more closely resemble those of a normal, non-diabetic individual.

[0014] Further details regarding these and other embodiments and aspects of the present invention are described in more detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0015] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 shows the distribution of L cells along the small intestine and intestinal wall. [Figure 2] Figure 2 is a cross-sectional view of the intestine showing the location of L cells in the intestinal wall. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing the biochemical and physiological functions of L cells, including hormone secretion and intracellular signaling. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 is a side view showing an embodiment of the swallowable capsule of the present invention. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view illustrating the use of an embodiment of a swallowable capsule in the intestinal tract to stimulate L cells to secrete incretins. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a side view showing the gap between the electrodes of an embodiment of the swallowable capsule. [Figure 7] Figures 7a-d show various embodiments of electrode configurations on a capsule: Figure 7a is a side view of an embodiment of a capsule with ring electrodes; Figure 7b is a side view of an embodiment with laterally oriented electrodes; Figure 7c is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment with multiple laterally oriented electrodes; and Figure 7d is a side view of an embodiment with both ring and laterally oriented electrodes. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating an embodiment of an electronic structure for controlling one or more functions of the swallowable capsule. [Figure 9] 9a-d are side views illustrating the use of electrical stimulation waveforms emitted from the capsule to induce peristaltic waves to move the capsule through the intestinal tract. [Figure 10] FIG. 10 is a bar graph showing the effect of electrical stimulation on in vitro GLP-1 production by differentiated NCI-H716 cells. [Figure 11] FIG. 11 is a time course graph showing the effect of electrical stimulation on in vitro GLP-1 production by differentiated NCI-H716 cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0016] (Detailed Description of the Invention) Embodiments described herein provide methods and devices for stimulating cells in the small intestine to secrete glucagon-like proteins (also referred to herein as glucagon-like peptides) and other hormones and secretory compounds for the treatment of various conditions, including diabetes and obesity.

[0017] Referring now to Figures 1-3, the mucosal surface of the intestinal tract, including the small intestine and large intestine, is lined with numerous cells, including L cells (LC) and K cells (KC). L cells comprise a submucosal portion (SP) and a luminal protruding portion (LP) that extends from the surface of the mucosa (M) and binds various molecules, including glucose. L cells and K cells secrete various gastrointestinal hormones known as incretins, including glucagon-like protein-1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP), and oxyntomodulin (OXM).

[0018] The hormone GIP can enhance the secretion of GLP-1. GIP is secreted by so-called "K" cells in the proximal duodenum, under some control of enteric cholinergic neurons. In addition to K cells, L cells also secrete GLP-1 and GIP in response to glucose exposure. GIP then acts to increase the release of GLP-1. GLP-1, in turn, acts to increase insulin production, as described below. Incretins also produce other beneficial effects, such as appetite suppression, weight loss, restoration of insulin sensitivity in body tissues, and preservation of pancreatic beta cells. Incretins are rapidly metabolized / degraded by the kidney and peptidases (half-life of GLP-1 <2 min, GIP <7 min).

[0019] Incretins are thought to play an important role in glucose regulation in the body, with incretins such as GLP-1 increasing insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner in a phenomenon known as the "incretin effect." In fact, approximately 50% or more of the insulin response to a meal is attributable to the incretin effect. This incretin effect results in a very rapid increase in plasma insulin, usually within the first approximately 30 minutes after glucose ingestion. Many type 2 diabetes patients have a significant decrease in the incretin effect, including decreased secretion of GLP-1 and a significant decrease in the insulinotropic activity of GIP. This results in a significant decrease in the rate and amount of insulin production in diabetic patients.

[0020] Several approaches can be considered to reverse the loss of incretin activity that occurs in diabetes, including type II diabetes. These include increasing the production of GIP and / or GLP-1. As mentioned above, in type II diabetes patients, GIP loses its insulinotropic activity and is therefore unable to regulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion even at supraphysiological (pharmacological) plasma levels. This loss of activity is detrimental to insulin production by pancreatic β-cells, especially after a meal. Therefore, increasing GIP production may not be a viable option. However, GLP-1 is still insulinotropic in type II diabetes, albeit at significantly reduced levels. Therefore, increasing GLP-1 levels appears to be an approach to increasing insulin production in diabetic patients, including type II diabetes patients.

[0021] Thus, various embodiments of the present invention contemplate increasing the production of GLP-1 and other incretins by electrically stimulating a segment of the intestine simultaneously or substantially simultaneously with meal ingestion. This can be achieved by ingesting a swallowable capsule before, during, or after a meal, which is configured to electrically stimulate a segment of the intestine, thereby stimulating L-cells to secrete GLP-1 and other incretins, thereby increasing insulin production. The capsule is preferably swallowed in a manner coordinated with meal ingestion (e.g., during a selected time period before, during, or after meal ingestion, e.g., 1-30 minutes before or after meal ingestion) so that secretion of GLP-1 or other incretins is coordinated with the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. Coordination or timing of the capsule with meal ingestion may also be selected to produce other effects, such as appetite suppression, as described herein.

[0022] 4-8, an embodiment of a swallowable capsule 10 for stimulating L-cells and other cells in the IT intestinal tract to secrete incretins includes a capsule body 20, at least two or more electrodes 40 for providing electrical stimulation to the desired cells, a controller 30 for controlling one or more operations of the capsule and generating the electrical signals delivered to the tissue by the electrodes, a power source 55 for powering one or more components of the capsule, such as the controller, and at least one sensor 60 for determining the position of the capsule within the tract and / or various events and conditions within the GI tract. In various embodiments described herein, the capsule 10 may also include an accelerometer 65 for measuring the rate of movement of the capsule through the IT intestinal tract and for determining periods of no movement.

[0023] Capsule body 20 (herein referred to as body 20) is desirably sized and shaped to be swallowed by a user (herein also referred to as a patient) and pass completely through the intestinal tract by normal peristalsis. Body 20 includes a body surface 25 and an interior cavity 21 for various components, such as controller 30. Body 20 can be manufactured from various biocompatible, inert plastics known in the art and can also include various coatings (e.g., enteric coatings).

[0024] The electrodes 40 may comprise a variety of biocompatible conductive materials, including silver-silver chloride, platinum, or stainless steel. Still other conductive materials known in the art, such as various conductive polymers, are contemplated. The electrodes 40 may also have a laminated structure with a more antiseptic material on the surface. Typically, the electrodes 40 include at least one electrode pair 50, which may be configured as a bipolar electrode. Multiple pairs 50 of electrodes 40, including two, three, four, and even greater numbers, are also contemplated.

[0025] The electrodes 40 can be arranged in various ways on the surface 25 of the capsule body 20, including longitudinally relative to the radius 20r of the capsule, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 7a. FIG. 7a also shows an embodiment in which the electrodes 40 include one or more pairs 50 of ring electrodes 40r arranged on the surface capsule. Multiple pairs 50 of ring electrodes 40r can be distributed along the length of the capsule 20, with each pair switchable by the controller 30 or other switching circuitry. Such an embodiment allows the controller 30 to switch individual electrode pairs 50 on and off to optimize stimulation of L-cells based on various factors, such as when peristaltic contractions or squeezing are detected in one portion of the capsule but not another.

[0026] In other embodiments, the electrodes 40 can be oriented in a longitudinal manner relative to the longitudinal axis 20L of the capsule 20, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 7b. In a preferred embodiment, the capsule 20 can include multiple pairs 50 of electrodes 40 oriented relative to the lateral axis 20L so as to be distributed around the capsule periphery 20p, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 7c. In yet other embodiments, the capsule 20 can include a combination of laterally and radially oriented electrodes, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 7d. Such embodiments can be used to stimulate different cell types (e.g., L cells and K cells), cells in different locations, or to stimulate L cells and intestinal musculature to elicit peristaltic contractions as described herein.

[0027] The spacing or gap 45 between individual electrodes is desirably configured to minimize electrical stimulation of tissue below the intestinal mucosal layer, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 6. The spacing 45 may be configured to limit electrical stimulation of the intestinal wall to a depth of 5 mm or less, more preferably 3 mm or less, and even more preferably 1 mm or less. In certain embodiments, the gap 45 may be in the range of about 0.05 to about 0.2 inches, and in specific embodiments, 0.1 or 0.15 inches. Closer spacing may be used to achieve a shallower stimulation effect. In certain embodiments, the spacing between electrode pairs 50 may vary, with some pairs configured for a shallower stimulation effect and other pairs configured for a deeper stimulation effect. In the latter case, the deeper stimulation effect may be configured to stimulate intestinal muscular tissue to elicit peristaltic contractions of the intestine as described herein.

[0028] Power source 55 typically includes a small chemical battery, such as a lithium or lithium-ion battery. In battery embodiments of power source 55, the battery may be configured to provide at least five hours of battery life or more. Controller 30 may include various power management circuits to optimize battery life. In various alternative embodiments, power source 55 may also include a piezoelectric power source using a piezoelectric material configured to harvest energy from compression or deformation of the capsule due to its movement through the intestinal tract. In yet other embodiments, the power source may include a thermoelectric power source, such as a Peltier effect power device configured to generate power using the patient's body heat. In such embodiments, all or a portion of the capsule may include a thermally conductive layer or other thermally conductive element configured to conduct heat to the Peltier effect device.

[0029] In various embodiments, the at least one sensor 60 may include one or more pH sensors and pressure / force sensors. The pH sensor may be configured to detect the passage of the capsule from the stomach to the small intestine, indicated by a sudden increase in pH as the capsule passes through the pyloric valve and into the duodenum. Various miniature pH sensors known in the art are available. The pressure sensor 60 may be used to sense peristaltic contractions of the intestine to detect when the capsule is within the intestine. The pressure sensor 60 may be used to detect when the intestine is in contact with the capsule (e.g., when it is being squeezed during a peristaltic contraction or peristaltic squeezing) and therefore when a stimulation period should begin. Various miniature solid-state pressure / force sensors may be used, such as various miniature strain gauge sensors, including various micro-electrical-mechanical systems (MEMS)-based strain gauges or other related pressure / force sensors. Certain embodiments may include both pH and pressure sensors to increase the level of accuracy in locating the sensor within the tract by identifying changes in pH and peristaltic contractions from the stomach to the intestine. In various embodiments, multiple pH and pressure sensors 60 may be distributed on the capsule body surface 25 to determine when a portion of the capsule has entered the intestine, or when a portion is being squeezed by peristaltic contractions (so that electrodes in that section can be switched on), or other pressure differences that do not change the position or state of the capsule.

[0030] Still other sensors are contemplated, such as temperature sensors, O2 sensors, CO2 sensors, optical sensors, acoustic sensors, etc. Additionally, inputs from multiple sensors may be combined to generate a total sensory input to the controller for determining the location of the capsule. Also, as described herein, in various embodiments, a sensor conditioning circuit 63 may be coupled to the controller 30 to condition the sensor signal 61 before being input to the controller 30.

[0031] 5, in one embodiment of a method of use, the swallowable capsule 10 of the present invention may be used to enhance the release and / or activity of insulin in the body. Once ingested, the swallowable capsule 10 passes through the stomach and into the small intestine SI. A sensor 60 within the capsule 10 can detect its relative location within the body. For example, a pH, pressure, or other relevant indicia sensor can determine when the capsule has passed the pyloric sphincter and reached the small intestine. In the case of a pH measurement, this can be determined by the sudden increase in pH that occurs after the capsule passes the pyloric sphincter and enters the duodenum.

[0032] Once the swallowable capsule 10 enters the small intestine, it is activated to provide electrical stimulation, which causes the L-cells of the small intestine to secrete GLP-1 or other incretins (GIP, PYY, etc.). The GLP-1 and / or other incretins then induce insulin secretion and / or enhance the body's use of insulin. Activation of the swallowable capsule to provide electrical stimulation may be directed by internal instructions and / or programs within, for example, a controller or other logic resource located within the swallowable capsule, or may be provided by external control of the swallowable capsule.

[0033] Because some patients (especially diabetic patients with a more distally located, uneven distribution of L-cells) tend to have a more distal concentration of L-cells, in certain embodiments, capsule controller 30 may initiate a timer upon arrival at the small intestine so that the controller can estimate how far the capsule has traveled through the small intestine. This distance may be estimated using mean intestinal transit time or by measuring the transit time of a particular patient individually using methods known in the GI diagnostic arts. The timer function may then be used to determine an appropriate delay for initiating stimulation. Longer delays may be used for patients with longer transit times. In embodiments with an accelerometer, the actual velocity of the capsule through the intestine can be calculated and used to determine when to initiate the stimulation signal after the capsule enters the small intestine. Additionally, as described below, in embodiments using a peristaltic contraction stimulation signal, the timing of the L-cell stimulation signal may be adjusted.

[0034] Alternatively or in addition to using a pH sensor to determine capsule location, including when the capsule enters the small intestine, capsule 10 may also include a pressure sensor 60 to detect when the intestinal wall is squeezing the capsule, e.g., by peristaltic contractions. Appropriate pressure / force levels indicative of intestinal squeezing may be identified from known physiological measurements or established by looking for a relative increase in squeezing pressure (e.g., 2-fold, 3-fold, 5-fold, or an order of magnitude or more). Because it may be desirable for the electrodes to be in contact with or near the intestinal wall, in some embodiments, detection of squeezing by the intestinal wall may also serve as a trigger to initiate electrical stimulation of L-cells. Such contact or proximity may help more effectively deliver electrical current to and depolarize L-cells to produce GLP-1. Also, in related embodiments, electrical stimulation may be stopped (either initially or after a programmed delay) upon detection of a decrease in pressure (indicating the intestinal wall relaxing and moving away from the capsule) to conserve battery life while stimulation-induced release of GLP-1 or other incretins may be suboptimal. In this way, the stimulation signal from the electrodes can be turned on and off with each peristaltic contraction of the intestine (small or large) until the capsule has passed through all or a selected portion of the intestine.

[0035] The swallowable capsule is preferably taken with a meal so that stimulation of L-cells (or other cells) to secrete GLP-1 and / or other incretins is coordinated with the absorption of nutrients from the meal, thereby aligning subsequent insulin production with the influx of glucose, fat, and other nutrients into the bloodstream. In this manner, insulin is delivered in a manner that mimics the physiological delivery of insulin during normal food digestion, thereby achieving improved blood glucose control. This process can be further improved by monitoring post-meal blood glucose levels using standard glucose monitoring methods (e.g., a blood glucose meter) and adjusting the delay or other timing of the stimulation signal. In some embodiments, the capsule can be configured to allow the user to input the amount and type of food consumed (e.g., a high-carbohydrate or high-fat meal, which are more likely to cause a spike in blood glucose levels) into the capsule. This allows a software module residing in or coupled to the controller 30 or other logic resource within the capsule 10 to adjust the timing and sequence of L-cell stimulation signals to titrate the level of insulin produced in response to food consumption. Input to the capsule may be sent by a mobile device, such as a cell phone or similar device, using BLUETOOTH® or other wireless connections or protocols known in the art. In these and related embodiments, capsule 10 may include an RF-communications chip.

[0036] Referring now to FIG. 8 , an embodiment of a circuit architecture 100 for controlling one or more functions of capsule 10 will now be described. Architecture 100 typically includes a controller 30, sensors 60 (e.g., pressure and pH sensors), a sensor conditioning circuit 63, a stimulus signal source 70 (herein referred to as signal source 70), and an H-bridge or similar device 80. Controller 30 typically includes a microcontroller, such as a microprocessor or state device, and may be coupled to one or more other electronic components of capsule 10, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 8 . Also shown, a power supply 55 may be coupled to one or more components of architecture 100 (e.g., controller 30, sensor 60, stimulus signal source 70, etc.) to provide power to those components. Sensor conditioning circuit 63 may include standard circuitry known in the art and may serve to condition (e.g., high-pass or low-pass filter) input 61 received from sensor 60. The signal source 70 may include various energy conversion circuits that convert a fixed DC voltage from a battery or other power source 55 into a programmable energy format. Suitable energy conversion circuits for the signal source 70 may include one or more of a programmable current source, a programmable voltage source, a DC-DC converter, or a DC-AC converter. The H-bridge device 80 provides signals to the electrodes 40 and may be configured (by one or more switches operable by the controller 30) to not only stop current flow completely but also to change the direction of current flow between the electrodes 40 to produce a biphasic stimulation signal (described below).

[0037] The controller 30, stimulation signal source 70, and H-bridge 80 collectively comprise a signal generator 110, also known as a waveform generator 110, which generates a stimulation signal 200 that is delivered to the electrodes 40 and then transmitted to the intestinal tissue (e.g., the intestinal wall) to stimulate L-cells (or other cells) to produce incretins such as GLP-1, thereby stimulating insulin production or enhancing the effects of insulin. Signal 200 is preferably configured to stimulate L-cells to produce incretins such as GLP-1, but not to induce peristaltic contractions in the intestinal region near capsule 200 or anywhere else in the intestinal tract. This quality can be achieved by controlling one or more of the current, voltage, and / or frequency of the signal, as well as the pulse duration of the pulsed signal, as described herein. For purposes of stimulating L-cells (and K-cells), signal 200 may have a voltage of about 0.1-10 V, a current of about 10 μA-2 mA, and a frequency of 1 Hz-100 Hz. The voltage, current and frequency may also be fine-tuned or otherwise modified depending on the condition being treated (e.g., diabetes, obesity, etc.), the severity of the condition (e.g., type I vs. type II diabetes), and other patient conditions (e.g., enteric neuropathy, etc.).

[0038] Signal 200 can have a variety of waveforms, such as a square wave, a sine wave, a sawtooth wave, a trapezoidal wave, etc. In a preferred embodiment, signal 200 can include a biphasic signal 200b, which can be generated using an H-bridge device 80 as described above. In many embodiments, including those having a square wave, signal 200 can include a pulsed signal 200p. Pulsed signal 200p can have a pulse width in the range of 10 μs to 100 ms.

[0039] As discussed above, signal 200 is preferably configured to stimulate L-cells (or other relevant cells, such as K-cells) to produce incretins such as GLP-1, but not to induce peristaltic contractions in the intestinal region near the capsule or anywhere else in the intestinal tract. However, in some embodiments, waveform generator 110 may be configured to generate two waveforms: a first waveform 200 for stimulating L-cells without inducing peristaltic contractions, and a second waveform 210 for inducing peristaltic contractions to advance capsule 10 along the intestinal tract. In these latter embodiments, capsule 10 may include an accelerometer 65 for detecting when capsule 10 has stopped moving or is moving below a desired velocity threshold. In use, these latter embodiments may advance capsule 10 in patients with very slow intestinal motility, such as those with enteric neuropathy or other related conditions, such as intestinal necrosis. When the controller 30 receives an input 66 from the accelerometer 65 indicating that the capsule 10 has stopped or is moving too slowly, the controller signals the waveform generator 110 to generate a second waveform 210, which induces peristaltic contractions of the intestine in a region near the capsule, thereby propelling the capsule distally through the intestine. This process can be repeated as necessary, with a selectable delay to account for the refractory period of the peristaltic contractions.

[0040] 9a-9d, a discussion of embodiments of methods for propelling a capsule through the intestine by eliciting peristaltic contractions is now presented. As described herein, some patients, particularly diabetics, suffer from a condition known as enteric neuropathy, in which damage to motor neurons innervating the intestine severely reduces the transit time of food through the small and / or large intestine. Therefore, in certain embodiments, the controller may be configured to generate two stimulation signals: one signal having a first waveform for stimulating L-cells without eliciting peristaltic contractions, and a second signal having a second waveform for eliciting peristaltic contractions to propel the capsule along the intestinal tract. As described herein, the second signal may have a higher stimulation current than the first signal, e.g., in the range of 2-5 mA. In embodiments using a peristaltic stimulation signal, the capsule 10 may include an accelerometer 65 for detecting when the capsule has stopped moving or is moving below a desired velocity threshold. When the controller 30 detects that the capsule is below a desired threshold or that the capsule has been stationary for a desired period of time (e.g., 0.5 to 2 minutes, although longer and shorter periods are also contemplated), it initiates the generation of one or more peristaltic stimulation signals to induce peristaltic contractions and propel the capsule distally within the intestine. An appropriate delay can then be incorporated before the L-cell stimulation signal is delivered to allow peristaltic contractions to occur during the intestinal electrical refractory period. If desired, multiple peristaltic stimulation signals can be generated to induce a series of peristaltic contractions, e.g., for patients with particularly slow transit times or just as the capsule enters the small intestine, to move the capsule more distally within the intestinal tract before the L-cell stimulation signal is delivered. In use, such embodiments can advance the capsule in patients with very slow intestinal motility, such as those with enteric neuropathy or other related conditions, such as intestinal necrosis. When the controller receives input from the accelerometer indicating that the capsule is stationary or moving too slowly, the controller generates a second waveform to induce peristaltic contractions of the intestine in a region near the capsule, thereby propelling the capsule distally through the intestine.This process can be repeated as necessary, with selectable delays to account for the refractory period of peristaltic contractions. [Example]

[0041] (Example) Various embodiments of the present invention will now be further illustrated by reference to the following examples, although it will be understood that these examples are given for illustrative purposes and that the invention is not limited to these specific examples or their details.

[0042] Example 1 - Electrical stimulation of GLP-1 release in vitro The culture dish was filled with 50ul / cm 2 The wells were coated with Matrigel on ice by adding 190 μl of Matrigel (190 μl per 24-well dish). The dish was warmed to 37°C for 30 minutes, and then 260,000 cells were seeded in high-glucose DMEM supplemented with 2 mM glutamine (0.146 g per 500 ml), 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), and 1% Pen-Strep. After 48 hours, there were 1.5 million to 2 million cells per well. The primary cells were NCI-H716 cells, a human poorly differentiated colorectal adenocarcinoma. These cells grew undifferentiated in suspension. However, after 48 hours of treatment, the cells differentiated into GLP-1-secreting cells. These GLP-1-secreting cells were used in the following experiments.

[0043] In the experiments, the cell culture medium was replaced with HBSS supplemented with 0.5% FBS and any one of the following test factors:

[0044] 1. PMA (phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate) (1 mg stock solution in 1.6 ml DMSO = 1 mM; add 1 ul per ml of medium to obtain a final concentration of 1 uM) 2.1.5% sucrose 3.10% glucose 4. Electrical stimulation (250uA, 5Hz, 0.1, 1.0 or 10ms AC pulse wave).

[0045] Cells were cultured for 2 hours. Test factors were added, and cell supernatants were removed at various time points for analysis. PMSF (10 μl) was added to the cell supernatants, which could be frozen or used immediately. Lysis buffer was prepared by combining RIPA with 10 μl of PMSF, 10 μl of proteinase inhibitor, and 10 μl of sodium orthoborate. 200–300 μl of RIPA lysis buffer was then added to the wells along with the cell supernatant samples. The wells were scraped with a cell scraper, and the mixture was pipetted into a 1.5 ml tube, followed by repipetting to disrupt the cells and cell membranes. The tubes were spun down at full speed for 5 minutes, and the supernatants were collected and either frozen or analyzed immediately.

[0046] GLP-1 was measured by ELISA. Streptavidin-coated wells were incubated with a biotin-conjugated antibody that specifically binds GLP-1. After incubation with lysed cell supernatants, the samples were incubated with a GLP-1-binding antibody conjugated to HRP (horseradish peroxidase). GLP-1 was then quantified using substrate conversion by HRP. The results are shown in Figures 10 and 11.

[0047] (Conclusion) The foregoing description of various embodiments of the present invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. Many modifications, variations, and improvements will be apparent to those skilled in the art. For example, the capsule can be sized for various pediatric applications. Also, the waveforms can be configured to stimulate as well as inhibit various cells in the intestinal tract. For example, the waveforms can be configured to stimulate one cell type and inhibit another cell type. Additionally, various embodiments of the capsule can include telemetry for signaling to and from external monitoring and / or control devices.

[0048] Elements, features, or acts from one embodiment may be readily combined or substituted with one or more elements, features, or acts from other embodiments to form numerous additional embodiments within the scope of the present invention. Furthermore, elements shown or described as being combined with other elements may, in various embodiments, exist as stand-alone elements. Therefore, the scope of the present invention is not limited to the details of the described embodiments, but is limited only by the scope of the appended claims.

Claims

1. A system for stimulating hormone-producing cells (HP cells) in the intestinal tract of a patient to secrete a glucose-regulating hormone (GR hormone), the system comprising: a swallowable device configured to advance through the intestinal tract and electrically stimulate the HP cells at any location within the intestinal tract; a controller for delivering an electrical signal from the device to the intestinal wall in the vicinity of the device, the signal comprising a waveform having a voltage, current and frequency configured to electrically stimulate HP cells in the intestinal tract to secrete the GR hormone without causing peristaltic contractions of the intestinal tract; wherein the voltage is in the range of 0.1 to 10 V, the current is in the range of 10 μa to 2 mA, and the frequency is in the range of 1 Hz to 100 Hz.

2. The system of claim 1 , wherein the intestinal wall is the wall of the small intestine.

3. The system of claim 1 , wherein the HP cells include K cells or L cells.

4. The system of claim 1, wherein the secreted GR hormone comprises an incretin or GLP-1.

5. The system of claim 1 , further comprising the step of regulating the release of insulin in the patient in response to the secreted GR hormone.

6. 6. The system of claim 5, wherein said insulin release is regulated by said electrical stimulation of said HP cells causing an increase in plasma insulin within 30 minutes of stimulation.

7. The system of claim 1 , further comprising controlling the patient's blood glucose level in response to the secreted GR hormone.

8. The system of claim 1 , further comprising suppressing the patient's appetite level in response to the secreted GR hormone.

9. The system of claim 1 , wherein the waveform comprises a square waveform.

10. The system of claim 1 , wherein the waveforms include a first waveform and a second waveform.

11. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the second waveform is configured to generate peristaltic contractions of intestinal tissue immediately adjacent the device, and the device is configured to use the generated peristaltic contractions to advance the device within the intestinal tract.

12. The system of claim 10 , wherein the second waveform occurs when the second waveform is substantially different from the first waveform.

13. The system of claim 10 , wherein the second waveform is generated in response to a velocity of the device moving through the intestinal tract.

14. The system of claim 13 , wherein the velocity is measured using an accelerometer located on or in the device.

15. The system of claim 1 , further comprising means for determining a location of the device within the GI tract, wherein the signal is delivered in response to the location of the device within the intestinal tract.

16. The system of claim 15 , wherein the location is the small intestine.

17. The system of claim 15 , wherein the means includes a sensor.

18. 18. The system of claim 17, wherein the location is determined based on at least one of sensed pH or sensed pressure exerted on the device surface by intestinal wall tissue.

19. The system of claim 1 , wherein ingestion of the device is coordinated with ingestion of food.

20. 20. The system of claim 19, wherein the device is ingested during a selected period before, during, or after ingestion of food.

21. 20. The system of claim 19, wherein a period of time is selected to coordinate the stimulation of the HP cells with the absorption of nutrients from food into the bloodstream.

22. The system of claim 1 , wherein the device comprises a swallowable capsule.

23. The system of claim 1 , wherein the system includes at least one electrode and a waveform generator.

24. 1. A system for stimulating hormone-producing cells (HP cells) in the intestinal tract of a patient to secrete a hormone that regulates insulin release, the system comprising: a swallowable device configured to advance through the intestinal tract and electrically stimulate the HP cells at any location within the intestinal tract; a controller for delivering an electrical signal from the device to the intestinal wall in the vicinity of the device, the signal comprising a waveform having a voltage, current, and frequency configured to electrically stimulate the HP cells in the intestinal tract to secrete the hormone without causing peristaltic contractions of the small intestine; and regulating the release of insulin in the patient in response to the secreted hormone, wherein the voltage is in the range of 0.1 to 10 V, the current is in the range of 10 μA to 2 mA, and the frequency is in the range of 1 Hz to 100 Hz.

25. 25. The system of claim 24, wherein said insulin release is regulated by said electrical stimulation of said HP cells causing an increase in plasma insulin within 30 minutes of stimulation.

26. 25. The system of claim 24, wherein the hormone comprises an incretin or GLP-1.

27. 25. The system of claim 24, further comprising increasing insulin sensitivity of the patient's body tissue in response to the secreted hormone.

28. 25. The system of claim 24, further comprising controlling the patient's blood glucose level in response to the secreted hormone.

29. The system of claim 24 , wherein the HP cells comprise K cells or L cells.

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