A process for manufacturing a natural oil-based candle wax composition

Abstract

Disclosed herein is a process for removing nickel from a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil, the process comprising the steps of: providing a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; and filtering the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil to remove nickel thus providing a hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content, wherein the filtering step comprises the use of at least one bleaching clay and the use of at least one adsorbent comprising at least one silica hydrogel.

Description

[0001] A process for manufacturing a natural oil-based candle wax composition

[0002] TECHNICAL FIELD

[0003] The invention relates to a process for manufacturing a natural oil-based candle wax composition. In particular, the invention relates to removing nickel from one or more nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content leading to a high-quality natural oil-based candle wax composition.

[0004] BACKGROUND

[0005] Candles have been known for thousands of years. For centuries, candles were made from tallow and beeswax. Candles made using paraffin wax appeared during the industrialization period. Paraffin wax became a low-cost alternative to beeswax. Paraffin wax quickly became one of the main industrial waxes commercialized worldwide. Environmental concerns have been nudging the candle industry to find alternatives to paraffin, especially in the direction of renewable wax sources.

[0006] More recently, natural oil-based materials have begun to be used. Natural oil-based candles may be derived from a hydrogenated natural oil. Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between hydrogen and unsaturated oils to provide partly or fully hydrogenated oils, usually in the presence of a metal catalyst, such as nickel, at high temperatures. However, the presence of residual nickel in a hydrogenated natural oil can, for example, have a negative effect on the burn rate of candles based on these hydrogenated natural oils. Indeed, after hydrogenation, the presence of nickel in the wax may result in the formation of soaps and colloids causing wick clogging, irregular flames and / orflame heights. As a result, the burn rate of the candle wax is negatively influenced.

[0007] Recent developments have shown that removing nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated natural oils to provide a nickel content of less than 0.5 ppm can address and / or alleviate many of the problems discussed above.

[0008] For example, US2021 Z0214646 discloses a method of making a natural oil-based candle wax composition, the method comprising: removing transition metals such as nickel from one or more transition metal-catalysed hydrogenated natural oils to provide a hydrogenated natural oil having a nickel content of less than 0.5 ppm; wherein the candle wax composition comprises the hydrogenated natural oil. The hydrogenated natural oil is filtered and / or bleached to obtain the reduced transition metal content. US2021 / 0214646 discloses known filtration techniques including for example using a plate and frame filter, or using the assistance of pressure or a vacuum. Other examples of suitable filtering means include filter paper, pressurized filter sieves, or microfiltration. Another example includes using a filter aid that may be added to the hydrogenated natural oil directly or it may be applied to the filter, either pre- or post-bleaching. As shown in the Examples, a wax was post filtered using bleaching clay B80 and held at 80° C. under vacuum for 15 minutes. The bleaching clay was then filtered using vacuum through a 5-micron filter paper.

[0009] Filter aids are a well-known class of material which may be used to aid filtration, and are distinct from other forms of active compounds such as adsorbents and filterable adsorbents (such as functionalised diatomite or cellulose). Filter aids include materials such as diatomaceous earth, perlite and cellulose, and their function is to form a layer capable of retaining suspended solids present in a liquid being filtered. For the sake of completeness, adsorbents include materials such as bleaching earths (generally clay minerals selected from bentonite, attapulgite and sepiolite), silica and activated carbons, and their function is to remove unwanted matter such as colouring substances, soaps, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and pesticides / herbicides.

[0010] Nevertheless, the removal of nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated plant oils is performed using filtration techniques that are known in the art such as described in US2021 / 0214646.

[0011] In another example, US 2020 / 0181531 discloses a method of using a dissipation factor to control the purification of candle wax compositions, comprising purifying a modified natural oil until a dissipation factor ranging from 0.0001-0.0600 is achieved. As mentioned in the patent application, purification can be achieved through various methods commonly known in the art, for example chemical and / or physical refining, water washing, bleaching, deodorizing or filtration. As a person skilled in the art knows, each step has the objective of extracting impurities in the oil, for example but not limited to, phosphatides and solids, free fatty acids, metals (Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, Cu+2, etc.), pigments, soaps, metals, steroids, nickel, pesticides and tocopherols. Described in this patent application is a method of purifying the wax composition of the impurities described above by using a dissipation factor to control the purification. The dissipation factor is used to control various methods of purification (refining, waterwashing, bleaching, deodorizing, fractionation, etc.), either upstream or downstream processing of the wax composition. For example, the dissipation factor is utilized during filtration to control purification of wax compositions for candle wax applications. As an example, the filtration process of a wax composition can utilize a filtration media with an affinity for absorbing and / or adsorbing certain impurity components. Filtration media may include silica-containing compositions such as commercially available Tri-Syl 100, Tri-Syl 300, or Oil-Dri Pure-Flo Perform 6000. In other aspects, the filtration media can include commercially available Microsorb 00 / 90, Magnesol, and Alumina 14-28 Mesh, for example. A filter aid may also be used. Representative examples of filtering aids include inorganic substrates such as diatomaceous earth, silica, alumina, and carbon. In Examples, the wax sample is mixed with a bleaching clay (Supreme P6000) and agitated for 15 minutes. After the 15 minutes of agitation the bleaching clay was filtered from the wax. The rate of consumption and the dissipation factor were measured.

[0012] Nevertheless, US 2020 / 0181531 does not disclose any specific method forreducing a nickel content of a wax composition comprising a hydrogenated natural oil. Instead, US 2020 / 0181531 describes a method of purifying the wax composition by removal of a broad and non-limited list of impurities via the utilization of a unique parameter, i.e. the dissipation factor, using various known methods of purification.

[0013] There seems to be room for improvement, for example, alternative methods which alleviate or remove the issues associated with nickel in candle wax.

[0014] SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0015] The invention provides a method for removing nickel from candle wax that solves or alleviates many of the problems discussed above such as to, for example, improve the burn rate of the candles. Furthermore, the invention further provides a hydrogenated oil suitable for producing a high-quality natural oil-based candle wax composition.

[0016] According to a first aspect of the invention, there is provided a process for removing nickel from a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil, the process comprising the steps of: providing a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; and filtering the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil to remove nickel thus providing a hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content, wherein the filtering step comprises the use of at least one bleaching clay and the use of at least one adsorbent comprising at least one silica hydrogel.

[0017] Preferably, the process of the inventionfurthercomprises producing acandle wax composition with reduced nickel contentfromthe hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content. The candle wax composition with reduced nickel content comprises the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content. Forexample, the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content may be blended with one or more additives to form the wax composition, although it will be understood that this is not essential.

[0018] Typically, the reduction, or the removal, of the nickel content comprises filtration in a first process step using at least one bleaching clay used in combination with at least a second process step using at least one adsorbent comprising a silica hydrogel, be it that the first and second process steps are either sequential, partly overlapping or done simultaneously. Some embodiments optionally comprise a third process step using at least one filter aid. The present invention is based upon the finding that use of filtration using both at least one bleaching clay (sometimes also referred to as bleaching earth), and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel significantly improves the removal of nickel from one or more nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oils when compared to conventional filtration methods, for example, even when using the same amount of bleaching clay or the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel. The inventors have found that the silica hydrogel and the bleaching clay complement each other thereby amplifying the filtration efficiency in removing nickel soaps and colloidal nickel present in the wax after the hydrogenation. In particular, it is believed that the bleaching clay mainly attracts the solid particles of nickel, and the silica hydrogel mainly attracts polar nickel soaps and nickel colloids. The affinity of silica hydrogel for nickel soaps and colloids leads to a more effective use of the bleaching clay. In some embodiments a filter aid is optionally added to provide an even more effective removal of nickel. Thus, all or at least almost all types of nickel comprised compounds are removed from the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil yielding a nickel content of typically less than 0.20 ppm. It is therefore possible to obtain a high-quality natural oil-based candle wax composition comprising a hydrogenated oil having, for example, a good burn rate.

[0019] The terms reducing and reduction also include removal and complete removal.

[0020] The term “fat” as used herein refers to glyceride fats and oils containing fatty acid acyl groups and does not imply any particular melting point. The term “oil” is used synonymously with ‘fat’ herein.

[0021] The term “fatty acid”, as used herein, refers to straight chain saturated or unsaturated (including mono- and poly unsaturated) carboxylic acids having 4 to 24 carbon atoms. A fatty acid having x carbon atoms and y double bonds may be denoted Cx:y. For example, palmitic acid may be denoted C16:0, oleic acid may be denoted C18:1 . Percentages of fatty acids in compositions referred to herein include acyl groups in tri-, di- and monoglycerides present in the glycerides and are based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acids. The fatty acid profile (i.e. composition) may be determined, for example, by Fatty Acid Methyl Ester analysis (FAME) using gas chromatography according to ISO 12966-2 and ISO 12966.4.

[0022] The term “natural oil”, as used herein, refers to oil derived from nature, be it from plant or animal sources. One or more natural oils forms at least one of the one or more source / feed oils of the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils.

[0023] The content of nickel may be determined by any of the known methods, such as inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry can, for example, be performed using an ICP-MS Agilent 7800. The detection limit of nickel is 0.05 ppm. A Perkin Elmer indicates 0.0005 ppm as detection limit for their apparatus. The detection limit of the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry apparatus used in the examples, an ICP-OES, AOCS Ca 17-01 , is 0.10 ppm.

[0024] The burn rate of a candle is defined as the amount of wax consumed by the candle wick over a fixed period of time, described in grams / hour. This value is determined by weighing the initial mass of a given candle, burning the candle, re-weighing the remaining mass and dividing the difference in mass by the precise burn time. The term “burn rate” is used synonymously with “rate of consumption” or “ROC” herein.

[0025] An iodine value may be measured according to AOCS Cd 1 e-01 .

[0026] According to the first aspect of the invention, the process comprises the use of at least one bleaching clay. Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay comprises hormite, smectite, or any combination thereof. More preferably, the at least one bleaching clay comprises a combination of hormite and smectite. Without willing to be bound by any theory, the inventors have found that the bleaching clay comprising a combination of hormite and smectite, combined with at least one adsorbent comprising a silica hydrogel surprisingly further improves the reduction of nickel.

[0027] The process may comprise using at least one activated or non-activated bleaching clay.

[0028] Preferably, the at least one adsorbent comprises an amorphous silica hydrogel. The amorphous silica hydrogel is preferably an irregular tridimensional framework of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms with micrometer-scale or nanometer-scale voids and pores. It is believed that the amorphous silica hydrogel is an efficient adsorbent especially for polar impurities, such as nickel colloids and nickel soaps generated during hydrogenation.

[0029] Preferably, the at least one adsorbent has been treated with an acid. Preferably, the acid comprises phosphoric acid, citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, malic acid, acetic acid, ascorbicacid, fumaricacid, succinicacid, lactic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, amino acid, hydrochloric acid, sulphonic acid, sulfuric acid, or a combination thereof. Withoutwilling to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the acid helps to chelate any non-hydratable nickel soap and trace of nickel, converting them to a hydratable form for adsorption.

[0030] In some embodiments the at least one adsorbent may comprise an amorphous syntheticsilica hydrogel.

[0031] Preferably, the weight amount of the at least one bleaching clay is larger than the weight amount of the at least one adsorbent. It is believed that the largest amount of nickel is captured by the bleaching clay. Accordingly, preferably, the weight percentage amount of the at least one bleaching clay is higher than the weight percentage amount of the at least one adsorbent, wherein the weight percentage is relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0032] Reference is here made to an amount of the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils being processed, be it in a batch process or a continuous process.

[0033] Typically, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 10.0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 5.0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 1 .0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Most preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.5 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0034] Typically, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.01 wt. % or more, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.05 wt. % or more, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.1 wt. % or more, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0035] Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.01 to 10.0 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of from 0.01 to 5.0 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 1 .0 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Most preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of from 0.1 to 0.5 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0036] Typically, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 10 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 5 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 1 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Most preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 0.5 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0037] Typically, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 0.01 wt. % or more, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 0.05 wt. % or more, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0038] Preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 0.01 to 10 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of fromO.01 to 5wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 1 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Most preferably, the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 0.5 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0039] In some instances, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 10.0 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 8.0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. For example, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 5.0 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 3.0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Advantageously, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 1.0 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.80 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0040] Preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 1 .0 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.50 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. More preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.90 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.40 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0041] Even more preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.80 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.30 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. For example, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.30 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.20 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

[0042] Most preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 0.25 wt. % or less and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of 0.15 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. Most preferably, the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of at least 0.15 wt. % and the at least one adsorbent is used in an amount of at least 0.03 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time. The inventors have found that these specific quantities f urtherenhance the efficacy of the filtration process for reducing a nickel content from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil having a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm.

[0043] Preferably, the weight ratio of the at least one bleaching clay with respect to the at least one silica hydrogel isfroml :1 to 10:1 . More preferably, the weight ratio of the at least one bleaching clay with respect to the at least one silica hydrogel isf rom 1 .1 : 1 to 5.0: 1 . Even more preferably, the weight ratio of the at least one bleaching clay with respect to the at least one silica hydrogel is from 1.25: 1 to 2.5: 1. Without willing to be bound by any theory, the inventors have surprisingly found that within the ratio of from 1.1 : 1 to 5.0:1 , the effect of the at least one bleaching clay with respect to the at least one adsorbent reaches its highest potential. Thus, it is possible to obtain a high-quality natural oil-based candle wax composition comprising the hydrogenated oil having an optimum burn rate.

[0044] The filtration may be performed underagitation from 15 to 60 minutes. Preferably, the filtration is performed under agitation from 30 to 50 minutes. It is believed that the filtration is more effective when performed under agitation in these specific time ranges, especially at an industrial scale. With shorter time periods the removal of the nickel has not been found to be as high.

[0045] Preferably, during the filtration, the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils are continuously circulating through the filter. In these embodiments, the filtration efficiency is maximised.

[0046] Typically, at least one filtration is performed. Preferably, from 1 to 10 filtrations may be performed. More preferably, from 1 to 5 filtrations may be performed and still more preferably from 1 to 3 filtrations. Most preferably, one single filtration is performed. The inventors have surprisingly foundthat in some instances it is not necessary to perform more than one filtration since the combination of both the at least one bleaching clay, and the at least one adsorbent comprising silica hydrogel, removes almost all or all of the nickel present in the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil typically having a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm.

[0047] The process may also comprise using at least one filter aid. Preferably, the at least one filter aid comprises alumina silicate (also called perlite), silica, alumina, carbon, or any combination thereof. More preferably, the at least one filter aid comprises alumina silicate.

[0048] In some instances, the at least one filter aid comprises silica. In these instances, the at least one filter aid may comprise diatomite, diatomaceous earth, or any combination thereof.

[0049] Preferably, the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to be processed are derived from one or more natural oils. Preferably, the one or more natural oils comprises a plant-based oil or an animal-based oil. More preferably, the one ormore natural oils comprise one or more plant-based oils comprising soybean oil, rapeseed oil, palm oil, coconut oil, cottonseed oil, canola oil, corn oil, olive oil, palm oil, peanutoil, saffloweroil, sesame oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, palm kernel oil, tung oil, jatropha oil, mustard oil, camelina oil, pennycress oil, castor oil, or a mixture thereof. Typically, the oils used are neutralized, refined, deodorized and / or bleached.

[0050] The hydrogenated oil may be partly or fully hydrogenated. The hydrogenation is generally used to increase the saturation of the oil(s) and to provide a candle wax having desired properties for providing a candle.

[0051] Hydrogenation may be performed according to any known methods for hydrogenating olefins (double bond-containing compounds) presentin oils. Hydrogenation may be performed in a batch or in a continuous process. Hydrogenation is generally performed under vacuum and at a temperature of from 120 to 260°C (250-500°F). The desired temperature may vary, for example, with hydrogen gas pressure. Hydrogen gas is typically pumped into a reaction vessel to achieve a pressure of H2 gas from 70 kPa to 400 kPa (0.7 - 4.0 bar, 10-60 psi). After reaching the desired percentage of hydrogenation, the reaction mass is cooled down before the filtration.

[0052] The amount of nickel catalyst used varies depending on different factors including, such as the type of hydrogenation catalyst used, the amount of oils to hydrogenate, the degree of unsaturation in the oils to be hydrogenated, the desired percentage of hydrogenation, the type of hydrogenation process used.

[0053] The hydrogenation catalyst may comprise nickel that has been chemically reduced with hydrogen to an active state (i.e. , reduced nickel) provided on a support, such as silica or alumina. The particles of supported nickel catalyst may be dispersed in the natural oil. The nickel catalyst may be in powder form. For example, the amount of nickel catalyst contacted with the oil during hydrogenation is from 15 to 30 wt. %, and preferably from 18 to 25 wt. %, relative to the total amount of oil being hydrogenated at any one time.

[0054] Preferably, the process may further comprise hydrogenation of one or more oils using nickel to provide the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils.

[0055] Preferably, the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid. More preferably, the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid selected from phosphoric acid, citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, ormalic acid. It is believed that the process according to the present invention does not need such supplementary steps thanks to the efficiency of the at least one bleaching clay used in combination with the at least one adsorbent comprising silica hydrogel.

[0056] Typically, the hydrogenated oil comprises from 0.1 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); preferably from 1 to 30 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and more preferably from 5 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0), wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0057] Typically, the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 95wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); preferably from 3 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); and more preferably from 5 to 30 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0), wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty add residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0058] T ypically, the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 75 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 tr); preferably from 20 to 60 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 tr); and more preferably from 35 to 55 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18:1 tr); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0059] Typically, the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 55 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 cis); preferably from 5 to 40 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 cis); and more preferably from 10 to 30 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18:1 cis); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0060] T ypically, the hydrogenated oil comprises from 10 to 50 wt. % of saturated fatty acid residues; and preferably from 20 to 40 wt. % of saturated fatty acid residues; wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0061] By way of example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 1 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 80 to 95 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0062] By way of furtherexample, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 35 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 30 to 65 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0063] By way of yet further example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 2 to 15 wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); from 1 to 15 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0); from 35 to 60 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); from 10 to 30 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 18 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 3 to 20 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty add residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0064] By way of still yet furtherexample, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 1 to 9 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 30 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 1 to20wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from 30 to 60 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0065] By way of yet still further example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 25 to 35 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 65 to 85 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0066] The hydrogenated oil may comprise less than 20 wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); less than 20 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0): less than 65 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); less than 35 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 3 to 95 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); less than 65 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C 18:1 ); less than 55 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1); less than 15 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans- C18:2); less than 15 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleic acid (c / s-C18:2); less than 15 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and less than 65 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0067] By way of example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 1 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 3 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 15 to 60 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C18: 1); from 10 to 50 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1 ); from 0 to 10 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans-C18:2); from O to 15 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleicadd (c / s-C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from 0 to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty add residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0068] In another example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 0 to 10 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); from O to 10 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 15wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 15 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 30 to 55 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C18:1); from 5 to 30 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1 ); from O to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from 0 to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0069] By way of yet another example, the hydrogenated oil may comprise from 0 to 10 wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); from 0 to 10 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0): from 0 to 35 wt. % of lauric add (C12:0); from O to 20 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 35 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 5 to 50 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 15 to 50 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C 8:1); from 0 to 30 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1 ); from 0 to 10 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans-C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleic acid (c / s- C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from 0 to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

[0070] Preferably, the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 80 wt. % of triglycerides. More preferably, the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 85 wt. % of triglycerides. Advantageously, the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 90 wt. % of triglycerides. Preferably, the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 95 wt. % of triglycerides. More preferably, the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 99.9 wt. % of triglycerides. Preferably, the hydrogenated oil has a melting point of from 10 to 80°C.

[0071] The hydrogenated oil may have an iodine value of from 2 to 100.

[0072] T ypically, the treated hydrogenated oil has a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm. Preferably, the treated hydrogenated oil has a nickel content of less than 0.18 ppm. More preferably, the treated hydrogenated oil has a nickel content of less than 0.16 ppm. Still more preferably, the treated hydrogenated oil has a nickel content of less than 0.13 ppm. Most preferably, the treated hydrogenated oil has a nickel content of less than 0.10 ppm. With the process according to the present invention, it is believed that it is possible to obtain a hydrogenated oil having a very low amount of nickel, such as below a measurable amount, or a hydrogenated oil completely free of nickel.

[0073] Preferably, the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid. More preferably, the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid selected from phosphoric acid, citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, ormalic acid. It is believed that the process according to the present invention does not need such supplementary steps thanks to the efficiency of the at least one bleaching clay used in combination with the at least one adsorbent comprising silica hydrogel.

[0074] Once the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content has been obtained using the process of the invention, typically, the process furthercomprises producing a candle wax composition with reduced nickel content from the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content. For example, the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content may be blended with one or more additives such as one or more perfumes or one or more colorants to obtain the candle wax composition, although it will be understood that the presence of one or more additives is not essential.

[0075] Typically, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm. Preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.18 ppm. More preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.16 ppm. Still more preferably, the candle wax has nickel content of less than 0.13 ppm. Even more preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.10 ppm. With the process according to the present invention, it is believed that it is possible to provide a candle wax composition and therefore a candle having a very low amount of nickel, below a measurable amount, or a candle wax potentially totally free of nickel.

[0076] According to a second aspect of the invention, there is provided an oil obtained by a process according to the first aspect of the invention.

[0077] According to a third aspect of the invention, there is provided a candle wax comprising an oil according to the second aspect of the invention. Preferably, the candle wax comprises at least 50 wt. %; more preferably at least 60 wt. %; still more preferably at least 70 wt. %; even more preferably at least 80 wt. %; and most preferably at least 90 wt. % of the oil of the second aspect of the invention.

[0078] According to a fourth aspect of the invention, there is provided a candle wax composition comprising a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; wherein the candle wax composition has a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm; and wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 50 wt. % of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; optionally wherein the candle wax composition and / or nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil are as described above in accordance with the first aspect of the invention.

[0079] Without willing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the process according to the present invention using the at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel, effectivelyand surprisingly reduces the content of nickel. Indeed, the presence of nickel in a hydrogenated oil may impact the burn rate of a candle, such as by causing wick clogging, irregular flames and / or flame heights. The inventors have found that the silica hydrogel and the bleaching clay complement each other thereby amplifying the filtration efficiency for removing nickel soaps and colloidal nickel content present in the wax after the hydrogenation. With the process according to the invention, it is possible to obtain candles formed from the candle-wax composition of the invention with excellent performance properties, such as a consistent burn rate, said candles comprising the natural oil-based candle wax composition. The advantages described above are of great use since nickel- catalysed hydrogenation is one of the principal industrial routesforf ull or partial hydrogenation of natural oils.

[0080] Typically, with respect to the candle waxes of the present inventions, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.18 ppm. Preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.16 ppm. More preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.13 ppm. Still more preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.10 ppm. Even more preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.05 ppm. Even furthermore preferably, the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.0005 ppm. Most preferably, the candle wax has a nickel contentof 0.0000 ppm. It is believed that the candle wax having such low amount of nickel has really good properties, especially relating to burn rates.

[0081] By way of example, the candle wax may comprise at least 60 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil. For example, the candle wax comprises at least 70 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil. Preferably, the candle wax comprises at least 80 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil. More preferably, the candle wax comprises at least 90 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil. The candle wax may be formed into various shapes and sizes. For example, the candle wax may be in powderform, in a form of granulates orf lakes. The size of the candle wax in powder form, in a form of granulates or flakes may vary from a few millimeters to a few centimeters.

[0082] The wax composition may further comprise at least one additive such as additives selected from a group consisting of: coloring agents, scenting agents, surfactants, emulsifiers, additional optimal wax ingredients, and combinations thereof. The additives may be present in any suitable amount. Typically, the additive(s) are present in a total amount from 0.1 to 10 wt. % by weight of the wax composition. Preferably, the additive(s) are present in a total amount from 0.1 to 5 wt. % by weight of the wax composition. Alternatively, the wax composition does not comprise any additive(s).

[0083] According to a fifth aspect of the invention, there is provided candles formed from a wax composition according to the third or fourth aspects of the invention.

[0084] Candles can be made by any conventional methods such as pressing, casting, or drawing.

[0085] Typically, in the pressing method, the candle wax composition is compressed under high pressure using either a stamping press or extrusion press. With the extrusion press, an endless column is produced, which is then mechanically cutto the desired candle length. This method is particularly suitable for pillar candles. In the case of colored candles, the candle is then dipped in colored liquid wax.

[0086] In the drawing method, usually, several hundred meters of wick between two rotation drums are repeatedly drawn through a hot wax bath. A layer of wax is applied to the wick each time it passes through the bath. The candle grows to the desired diameter, like the growth rings of a tree. Once the required diameter has been achieved, the column is sent to the cutting machine where it is cut to the specified candle length. The top and bottom of the candle are then fashioned into the desired shape. This manufacturing process is mainly used for simple household candles. In the casting method, liquid wax is poured into molds in which awick has already been fixed.

[0087] Generally, in the casting method, the melted liquid oil-based wax composition is poured into molds in which a wick has already been fixed. The casting method may be used for very different types and mixtures of wax to be processed without difficulty. It is also suitable for unusually shaped candles, such as star and figure candles, as well as for solid-color candles made entirely of colored wax.

[0088] Candles may comprise one or more wicks. The aim of the wick is to transport the melted fuel from the body of the candle to the wick tip where it burns in the flame. Wicks may be made of different materials in different shapes and sizes. The wick must be adapted to the particular type of candle, the raw material used, the shape and dimensions of the candle, as well as the candle manufacturing process. Wicks may be made of cotton and are braided on specially developed machines. Both the cotton yarn and the braided wick are first cleaned and then chemically prepared. The chemical preparation prevents, among otherthings, an afterglow of the wick once the candle has been extinguished.

[0089] According to a sixth aspect of the invention, there is provided the use of at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to reduce nickel content of one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil or candle wax composition comprising a hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content.

[0090] Without willing to be bound by any theory, it is believed that the at least one bleaching clay, and the at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel complement each other thus amplifying the effective removal of nickel content from one or more of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils and thereby an improved processforreducing a nickel content is provided.

[0091] Preferably, the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the reduction of a nickel content of one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil to thereby provide a natural oil-based candle wax composition comprising the hydrogenated oil, when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel contentwas reduced from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of bleaching clay. Alternatively or in addition, the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the removal of nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils, when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel contentwas removed from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel. The inventors have found that the reduction of a nickel content from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils by filtration using the combination of at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel significantly reduces the content of nickel in the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils, when compared to conventional filtration methods using the same amount of bleaching clay or the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel.

[0092] Preferably, the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to reduce a nickel content of one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a candle with an improved burn rate of the oil-based candle wax composition when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel contentwas reduced from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of bleaching clay. Alternatively or in addition, the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to reduce a nickel content of one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil to thereby provide a natural oil-based candle wax composition comprising the hydrogenated oil with an improved burn rate of the oil-based candle wax composition, when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel was reduced from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel. The inventors have found a relation between the content of nickel in the candle wax and the burn rate. The inventors have found that the burn rate of the oil-based candle wax composition is impacted by the process for removing nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils. The burn rate of a natural oil-based candle wax composition obtained by the process according to the present invention is higher than the burn rate of a natural oilbased candle wax composition obtained by conventional filtration methods using the same amount of bleaching clay or the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel.

[0093] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0094] The following examples are for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way.

[0095] Example 1

[0096] Fat A was partly hydrogenated soybean oil with a melting point of 45°C and an iodine value of 59.

[0097] The fatty acid composition of Fat A is shown in Table 1 below.

[0098] Table 1

[0099] Method for preparation of a natural oil-based candle wax composition

[0100] Oil-based candle wax compositions including Fat A were made by hydrogenating soybean oil using a nickel catalyst at a temperature of 218°C (425°F) maximum - start gassing at 138°C (280°F) and increase to 218°C (425°F). Oil-based candle wax compositions were then filtered using different filtration compositions:

[0101] • a bleaching clay comprising hormite and smectite mineral, so-called Pure-Flo® B80,

[0102] • a bleaching clay comprising hormite and smectite mineral, so-called Perform® 6000,

[0103] • a filter aid comprising perlite and amorphous alumina silicate, so-called Harborlite®, or

[0104] • a bleaching clay being Pure-Flo® B80and an adsorbent including silica hydrogel, so- called T risyl®.

[0105] The following procedure was used for filtering the oil-based candle wax compositions of the following examples:

[0106] 1 . Comparative Sample 2 to Sample 9 were melted and mixed with one of the above filtration compositions; Comparative Sample 1 was filtered using only a filter aid.

[0107] 2. Comparative Sample 2 to Sample 9 were stirred and heated to 93,3°C during 20 minutes under vacuum;

[0108] 3. Comparative Sample 2 to Sample 9 were filtered under vacuum using a filter comprising a Whatman® filter paper, Grade 4 covered by a Whatman® glass microfiber filter, Grade GF / D; a Filtration composition being placed on top on the filter papers. The filtration compositions were removed from Comparative Sample 2 to Sample 9;

[0109] 4. Comparative Sample 2 to Sample 10 were cooled down.

[0110] The nickel level was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-OES) and the samples were prepared for burn rate, i.e. rate of consumption (ROC), analysis. Oilbased candle wax compositions were prepared in 6 ounce glass jars, and jars were wicked with PK7 wicks from Wicks Unlimited, of Pompano Beach, Fla. Candles were burned to completion in 4 hour burn rate cycles (in grams / hour). In Table 2 below, the burn rate results and nickel levels are shown. Table 2

[0111] *: detection limit of the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

[0112] Table 2 clearly shows that only Samples 8 and 9 according to the present invention reached a very low nickel content when compared to Comparative Samples 1 to 7. Furthermore, it can be seen that the impact of the nickel on burn performance of natural oil-based wax candle compositions. Consumption rates for Comparative Samples 1 to 7 were significantly lower than thoseforSamples 8 and 9, which had a nickel concentration below 0.10 ppm. The results show a correlation between the burn rate and nickel levels. The lower the nickel level, the higher the burn rate of the samples.

Claims

CLAIMS1 . A process for removing nickel from a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil, the process comprising the steps of: providing a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; and filtering the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil to remove nickel thus providing a hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content, wherein the filtering step comprises the use of at least one bleaching clay and the use of at least one adsorbent comprising at least one silica hydrogel.

2. The process according to claim 1 , wherein the at least one bleaching clay comprises hormite, smectite, or any combination thereof.

3. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay comprises hormite and smectite.

4. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay is activated or non-activated.

5. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one adsorbent comprises an amorphous silica hydrogel, preferably an amorphous synthetic silica hydrogel.

6. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one adsorbent has been treated with an acid, preferably, wherein the acid comprises phosphoric acid, citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, malic acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, fumaric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, amino acid, hydrochloric acid, sulphonic acid, sulfuric acid, or a combination thereof.

7. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the weight percentage amount of the at least one bleaching clay is greaterthan the weight percentage amount of the at least one adsorbent, wherein the weight percentage is relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

8. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of 10.0 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

9. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of from 0.01 to 5.0 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

10. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 1 .0 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.1 1 . The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one bleaching clay isused in an amount of from 0.1 to 0.5 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

12. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of 10 wt. % or less, relative to the total amount of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

13. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of from 0.01 to 5 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

14. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 1 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

15. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the at least one silica hydrogel is used in an amount of from 0.05 to 0.5 wt. %, relative to the total amount of the nickel- catalysed hydrogenated oil being processed at any one time.

16. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the weight ratio of the at least one bleaching clay to the at least one silica hydrogel is from 1.1 :1 to 5.0:1 .

17. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the weight ratio of the at least one bleaching clay to the at least one silica hydrogel is from 1.1 :1 to 2.5:1 .

18. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the filtration is performed under agitation.

19. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the filtration is performed in from 15 to 60 minutes; and preferably from 30 to 50 minutes.

20. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils are continuously circulating through a filter.

21. The process according to any one or more of Claims 1 to 19, wherein one single filtration is performed.

22. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the process further comprises using at least one filter aid.

23. The process according to claim 22, wherein the process f urthercomprises using at least one filter aid comprising alumina silicate, silica, alumina, carbon, or any combination thereof; preferably, wherein the at least one filter aid comprises alumina silicate.

24. The process according to claim 23, wherein the process comprises using at least one filter aid including silica, the at least one filter aid comprising diatomite, diatomaceous earth, or any combination thereof.

25. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil comprises a hydrogenated plant-based oil, a hydrogenated animal-based oil, or acombination thereof.

26. The process according to claim 25, wherein the hydrogenated plant-based oil comprises hydrogenated soybean oil, hydrogenated rapeseed oil, hydrogenated palm oil, hydrogenated coconut oil, hydrogenated cottonseed oil, hydrogenated canola oil, hydrogenated corn oil, hydrogenated olive oil, hydrogenated palm oil, hydrogenated peanut oil, hydrogenated safflower oil, hydrogenated sesame oil, hydrogenated sunflower oil, hydrogenated linseed oil, hydrogenated palm kernel oil, hydrogenated tung oil, hydrogenated jatropha oil, hydrogenated mustard oil, hydrogenated camelina oil, hydrogenated pennycress oil, hydrogenated castor oil, or a mixture thereof.

27. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil is partly or fully hydrogenated.

28. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 0.1 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); preferably from 1 to 30 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and more preferably from 5 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0), wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

29. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 95 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); preferably from 3 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); and more preferably from 5 to 30 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0), wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

30. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 75 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 tr); preferably from 20 to 60 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18:1 tr); and more preferably from 35 to 55 wt. % of the trans isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1tr); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.31 . The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 55 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 cis); preferably from 5 to 40 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18: 1 cis); and more preferably from 10 to 30 wt. % of the cis isomer of oleic acid (C18:1 cis); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

32. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprisesfrom 10 to 50 wt. % of saturated fatty acid residues; preferably from 20 to 40 wt. % of saturated fatty acid residues; wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

33. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises less than 20- wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); less of than 20 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0): less than 65 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); less than 35 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 3 to 95 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); less than 65 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C18:1 ); less than 55 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1 ); less than 15 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans-C18:2); less than 15 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleic acid (c / s-C18:2); less than 15wt. % of arachidic add (C20:0); and less than 65 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

34. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 3 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 15 to 60 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C 8: 1 ); from 10 to 50 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18: 1 ); from 0 to 10 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans-C18:2); from 0 to 15 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleic acid (c / s-C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from O to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

35. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 0 to 10 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); from 0 to 10 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 15 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 15 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 30 to 55 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C 8:1 ); from 5 to 30 wt. % of cis isomer of oleic acid (c / s-C18:1 ); from O to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from O to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

36. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 0 to 10 wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); from 0 to 10 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0): from O to 35 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); from O to 20 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 35 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 5 to 50 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 15 to 50 wt. % of trans isomer of oleic acid (trans-C 8:1 ); from O to 30 wt. % of cis isomer of oleicacid (c / s-C18:1 ); from 0 to 10 wt. % of trans isomer of linoleic acid (trans-C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of cis isomer of linoleic acid (c / s-C18:2); from 0 to 10 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from O to 10 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

37. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 20 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 80 to 95 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

38. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 35 to 70 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 30 to 65 wt. % of stearicacid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

39. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 2 to 15 wt. % of caprylic acid (C8:0); from 1 to 15 wt. % of capric acid (C10:0); from 35 to 60 wt. % of lauric acid (C12:0); from 10 to 30 wt. % of myristic acid (C14:0); from 1 to 18 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 3 to 20 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

40. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 1 to 9 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); from 30 to 55 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); from 1 to 20 wt. % of arachidic acid (C20:0); and from 30 to 60 wt. % of behenic acid (C22:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.41 . The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises from 25 to 35 wt. % of palmitic acid (C16:0); and from 65 to 85 wt. % of stearic acid (C18:0); wherein said percentages of fatty acid residues refers to fatty acids bound as acyl groups in glycerides in the oil and being based on the total weight of C4 to C24 fatty acid residues bound as acyl groups present in the oil.

42. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 80 wt. % of triglycerides.

43. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 85 wt. % of triglycerides.

44. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 90 wt. % of triglycerides.

45. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 95 wt. % of triglycerides.

46. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil comprises at least 99.9 wt. % of triglycerides.

47. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm and preferably less than 0.18 ppm.

48. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.16 ppm.

49. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.13 ppm.

50. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.10 ppm.

51. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.05 ppm.

52. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of less than 0.0005 ppm.

53. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil having reduced nickel content has a nickel content of 0.0000 ppm.

54. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil has a melting point of from 10 to 80°C.

55. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the hydrogenated oil has an iodine value of from 2 to 100.

56. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the process further comprises producing a candle wax composition with reduced nickel content from the hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content.

57. The process according to Claim 56, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm.

58. The process according to Claim 57, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.18 ppm.

59. The process according to Claim 58, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.16 ppm.

60. The process according to Claim 59, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.13 ppm.61 . The process according to Claim 60, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.10 ppm.

62. The process according to Claim 61 , wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.05 ppm.

63. The process according to Claim 62, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of less than 0.0005 ppm.

64. The process according to Claim 63, wherein the candle wax has a nickel content of 0.0000 ppm.

65. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the process further comprises hydrogenation of one or more natural oils using a nickel catalyst to provide the one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils.

66. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid.

67. The process according to any preceding claim, wherein the process does not comprise any treatment with an aqueous solution comprising an acid comprising phosphoric acid, citric acid, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, malic acid, or a combination thereof.

68. An oil obtained by a process according to any one or more of Claims 1 to 67.

69. A candle wax composition comprising an oil according to Claim 68.

70. An oil or candle wax composition according to Claim 68 or Claim 69, wherein the oil or the candle wax composition have a nickel content of less than 0.20 ppm.

71. A candle wax composition comprising a nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; wherein the candle wax composition has a nickel content of less than 0.2 ppm; and wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 50 wt. % of the nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil; optionally wherein the candle wax composition and / or nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oil are as defined in any one or more of Claims 1 to 67.

72. The candle wax composition according to any one or more of claims 69 to 71 , wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 60 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil.

73. The candle wax composition according to Claim 72, wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 70 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil.

74. The candle wax composition according to Claim 73, wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 80 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil.

75. The candle wax composition according to Claim 74, wherein the candle wax composition comprises at least 90 wt. % of the hydrogenated oil.

76. Use of at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel toreduce nickel content of one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil or candle wax composition comprising a hydrogenated oil with reduced nickel content.

77. Use according to claim 76, wherein the use furthercomprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the removal of nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide a hydrogenated oil to thereby provide an oil-based candle wax composition comprising the hydrogenated oil when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel was removed from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of bleaching clay.

78. Use according to claim 76 or 77, wherein the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the removal of nickel from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils to provide an oil-based candle wax composition comprising a hydrogenated oil when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel was removed from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel.

79. Use according to any one of claims 76 to 78, wherein the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the burn rate of the oil-based candle wax composition when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel was removed from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of bleaching clay.

80. Use according to any one of claims 76 to 79, wherein the use further comprises using at least one bleaching clay, and at least one adsorbent including silica hydrogel to improve the burn rate of the oil-based candle wax composition when compared to an analogous oil-based candle wax composition wherein the nickel was removed from one or more nickel-catalysed hydrogenated oils using the same amount of adsorbent including silica hydrogel.

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