Microfluidic System for Pulsed Electric Field Sterilization

Abstract

A microfluidic device for sterilizing a fluid using a pulsed electric field is disclosed. In some embodiments, the device may include a first electrode layer and a second electrode layer, as well as a spacer layer positioned between the electrode layers. The spacer layer may define one or more fluid channels extending between the electrode layers. A power source may be coupled to the electrode layers and configured to supply voltage pulses to the electrode layers to generate electric field pulses within the fluid channels. In some embodiments, the electrode layers may be textured such that the electric field generated within the fluid channels is non-uniform.

Description

[0001] Cross - Reference to Related Applications

[0002] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 62 / 941,056, filed on November 27, 2019, and U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 62 / 915,346, filed on October 15, 2019, under 35 U.S.C.§119(e), the disclosure of each application being incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Technical Field

[0003] The disclosed embodiments relate to systems for using pulsed electric fields to sterilize fluids. Background Art

[0004] Many methods have been developed for treating and sterilizing fluids such as water, such as chemical treatment (e.g., chlorination), UV treatment, and filtration. Another fluid treatment method, pulsed electric field (PEF) inactivation, uses high - intensity pulsed electric fields to cause irreversible electroporation of pathogen cell membranes, thereby sterilizing the fluid. Commercial PEF systems typically require complex high - voltage power supplies and large amounts of electricity to generate the high electric fields required for sterilization. Summary of the Invention

[0005] In one embodiment, a fluid treatment device includes a first textured electrode layer, a second electrode layer, and a spacer layer located between the first and second electrode layers. The spacer layer is configured and arranged to define one or more fluid channels that extend between the first and second electrode layers from an inlet end at a first edge of the first and second electrode layers to an outlet end at an opposite edge of the second electrode layer of the first and second electrode layers. The fluid treatment device further includes a power supply electrically coupled to the first and second electrode layers. The first and second electrode layers are configured and arranged to form a non - uniform electric field along the flow length of each of the one or more fluid channels when the power supply supplies voltage to the first and second electrode layers.

[0006] In another embodiment, a fluid treatment device includes a first electrode layer, a second electrode layer, and a spacer layer located between the first and second electrode layers. The spacer layer is configured and arranged to define one or more fluid channels that extend between the first and second electrode layers from an inlet end at a first edge of the first and second electrode layers to an outlet end at an opposite edge of the second electrode layer of the first and second electrode layers, and the flow path length of each fluid channel is longer than the distance between the first and second edges of the electrode layers. The fluid treatment device further includes a power supply that is electrically coupled to the first and second electrode layers and is configured to supply a pulsed voltage to the first and second electrodes to generate a pulsed electric field within the fluid channels.

[0007] In another embodiment, a method for treating a fluid includes flowing the fluid through one or more fluid channels defined between a first textured electrode layer and a second electrode layer, and applying a non-uniform electric field to the fluid along the flow length of the one or more fluid channels using the first textured electrode layer and the second electrode layer.

[0008] In yet another embodiment, a method for treating a fluid includes flowing the fluid from an inlet end at a first edge of a first and a second electrode layer to an outlet end at a second edge of the first and the second electrode layer through one or more fluid channels defined between the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer. The method further includes applying a non-uniform electric field to the fluid along the flow length of the one or more fluid channels using the first electrode layer and the second electrode layer. The flow path length of each fluid channel is longer than the distance between the first and second edges of the electrode layer.

[0009] It should be recognized that the foregoing concepts, as well as additional concepts discussed below, may be arranged in any suitable combination, as the present disclosure is not limited in this respect. Additionally, other advantages and novel features of the present disclosure will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0010] The drawings are not necessarily to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in various figures may be represented by the same numeral. For clarity, not every component may be labeled in every figure. In the drawings:

[0011] Figure 1 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a fluid treatment device according to some embodiments;

[0012] Figure 1A depicts the fluid treatment device as viewed along line 1A-1A of Figure 1 ;

[0013] Figure 2 is a schematic representation of a method for assembling a fluid treatment device according to some embodiments;

[0014] Figure 3 is a schematic representation of a method for forming a stacked laminated microfluidic structure according to some embodiments;

[0015] Figure 4 is a schematic representation of a method for forming a rolled laminated microfluidic structure according to some embodiments;

[0016] Figure 5 is a photograph showing two cylindrical laminated microfluidic structures according to some embodiments;

[0017] Figure 6Is a schematic cross-sectional view of a part of a fluid processing device including a textured electrode according to some embodiments;

[0018] Figure 7 Is a schematic cross-sectional view of a part of a fluid processing device including misaligned textured electrodes according to some embodiments;

[0019] Figure 8 Is a schematic cross-sectional view of a part of a textured electrode layer according to some embodiments;

[0020] Figure 9 Is a schematic representation of a part of a microfluidic processing device according to some embodiments;

[0021] Figure 10A Is a schematic representation of a part of a serpentine fluid path according to some embodiments;

[0022] Figure 10B Is a schematic representation of a part of a serpentine fluid path according to some embodiments;

[0023] Figure 11 Is a schematic representation of a part of a microfluidic processing device according to some embodiments;

[0024] Figure 12A Depicts a fluid processing device according to some embodiments;

[0025] Figure 12B Is Figure 12A A schematic cross-sectional view of the fluid processing device;

[0026] Figure 13 Is a plot of the log reduction of measured CFU / ml values for different turbidity values according to an example;

[0027] Figure 14 Is a plot of the log reduction of measured CFU / ml values for different pathogens and different residence times according to an example;

[0028] Figure 15 Is a plot of the log reduction of measured CFU / ml values against different electrode texture configurations according to an example;

[0029] Figure 16 Is a plot of the log reduction of measured CFU / ml values against different applied voltages for textured and non-textured electrode configurations according to an example;

[0030] Figure 17 Is a graph of the log reduction of measured CFU / ml values against the change in electrode gap distance according to an example;

[0031] Figure 18 is a schematic cross-sectional view of an electrode layer including a non-reactive coating according to some embodiments; and

[0032] Figure 19 is a plot of the percentage of E. coli inactivation in water treated per milliliter per fluid channel according to one example. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0033] The inventors have recognized and appreciated a number of disadvantages associated with existing systems for treating (e.g., sterilizing) fluids. For example, many conventional methods (such as UV treatment) are generally only suitable for transparent fluids and / or fluids with a minimum organic residue content, and thus are not suitable for turbid water or other opaque fluids (such as milk or juice). In addition, while pulsed electric field (PEF) systems can be used for turbid water, such systems are generally large and require complex power supplies, which makes their construction, maintenance, and use difficult and expensive. Thus, these systems are less suitable for point-of-use and / or low-cost treatment applications.

[0034] In view of the foregoing, the inventors have recognized a number of benefits associated with systems and methods for treating fluids (including turbid water and / or opaque fluids) using pulsed electric fields in microfluidic devices. For example, in a microfluidic system, the electrodes that deliver the pulsed electric field to the fluid can be closely spaced, which can allow for the generation of a high electric field strength between the electrodes at a much lower input voltage compared to conventional PEF systems. In this way, using such closely spaced electrodes in the microfluidic treatment devices disclosed herein can allow for low-cost, point-of-use fluid treatment with lower power requirements compared to conventional systems. For example, in some embodiments, a fluid treatment device according to the present disclosure may be capable of treating up to 100 liters or more of water using a single standard 9-volt battery. Moreover, the devices disclosed herein can allow for the inactivation of pathogens in clarified and / or turbid fluids without the use of filters, which can help avoid clogging. However, it is also contemplated that the system has one or more additional treatment capabilities and / or that the system is used in conjunction with a filter.

[0035] According to some aspects, the electrodes of the fluid handling device according to the present disclosure can be configured and arranged to expose a fluid flowing through a microfluidic channel to a spatially and / or temporally non-uniform electric field. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the inventors have discovered that a non-uniform electric field can allow for a reduction in the average electric field intensity to achieve inactivation of pathogens in the fluid, thereby reducing the input voltage applied to the system and, correspondingly, the power consumption of the system. As described in more detail below, in some embodiments, such non-uniform electric fields can be generated via three-dimensional textured electrodes. For example, variations in the spacing between opposing textured electrode layers can result in variations in the electric field generated for a given power supply voltage between the textured electrodes. Alternatively or additionally, in some cases, the textured features of the textured electrode layers (such as sharp corners, edges, and / or other geometric transitions) can result in local amplification of the electric field intensity, thereby enhancing the non-uniformity of the electric field between the textured electrode layers. Moreover, in some cases, the textured features of the textured electrode layers can promote fluid mixing within the fluid channel.

[0036] In addition, the inventors have recognized and appreciated a number of benefits associated with microfluidic PEF fluid handling devices in which the flow path of the fluid through the fluid channel is longer than the shortest distance (e.g., straight-line distance) between the inlet and outlet of the fluid channel. For example, the fluid handling devices disclosed herein can include serpentine and / or angled fluid flow paths that extend between the inlet and outlet. What the inventors have recognized is that such an arrangement can allow the fluid to flow through the fluid channel for a sufficient period of time (e.g., residence time) to achieve a desired level of pathogen inactivation resulting from PEF treatment as the fluid flows through the fluid channel. Additionally, as discussed in more detail below, the inventors have recognized that such an arrangement can also promote mixing within the fluid channel, thereby increasing the exposure of any pathogens in the fluid to the electric field. Moreover, the inventors have recognized that, in some cases, a fluid channel having a non-linear geometry (such as the serpentine fluid path geometry described above or other suitable geometries) can help avoid collapse of the fluid channel by ensuring that the fluid channel does not have any unsupported portions.

[0037] In some embodiments, a fluid processing device may include a microfluidic system that includes one or more microfluidic channels extending between an inlet end and an outlet end. For example, the microfluidic system may be formed as a laminated structure, where opposing surfaces of the microfluidic channels are defined by first and second electrode layers, and a voltage may be supplied from a power source electrically coupled to the electrode layers to generate an electric field in the microfluidic channels between the electrode layers. The electrode layers may be bonded or otherwise attached to each other via a patterned spacer layer configured and arranged to define walls separating adjacent microfluidic channels. For example, the spacer layer may be discontinuous in a plane of the spacer layer such that the spacer layer is defined by a plurality of adjacent spacer members extending between the electrode layers to define the walls of the microfluidic channels. In this manner, the thickness of the spacer layer may define the height of the microfluidic channels (which may correspond to the nominal spacing between the electrode layers), and the spacing between adjacent spacer members may define the width of each microfluidic channel. As described in more detail below, the spacer members may be configured and arranged to define channels having any suitable geometry or pattern, including but not limited to straight rectangular channels, angled channels, and / or wavy or serpentine channels. Moreover, it should be appreciated that such laminated microfluidic structures may be formed by any suitable manufacturing process, such as a roll-to-roll lamination manufacturing method. Other suitable manufacturing methods may include but are not limited to hot melt lamination, extrusion lamination, or lamination using wet bonding, thermal, or UV-curable adhesives. In some cases, methods commonly used in microfluidic fabrication may be suitable, such as layer-by-layer assembly, additive manufacturing techniques, hot melt bonding, ultrasonic welding, and / or solvent-assisted bonding. Thus, it should be understood that the present disclosure is not limited to any particular manufacturing method or technique.

[0038] In some cases, such laminated structures may also be assembled into a larger-scale device including multiple microfluidic channels, thereby enabling higher flow rates through the fluid processing device. For example, in some embodiments, multiple laminated structures may be stacked to form an array of fluid channels (e.g., a rectangular array). In other embodiments, the laminated structure may be rolled into a cylindrical layered structure (which may be referred to as a jelly roll-type structure) or a cylindrical shell geometry. However, it should be appreciated that other arrangements of laminated and / or layered structures may be suitable, as the present disclosure is not limited in this regard.

[0039] According to some aspects, the electrode layer in the microfluidic processing device disclosed herein can be flexible. For example, in some embodiments, the electrode layer can be formed by coating a conductive layer (such as a conductive metal layer (e.g., gold, platinum, titanium, stainless steel, etc.)) onto a flexible support film (such as a polymer support film). Suitable materials for such support films include, but are not limited to, thermoplastic polymers such as polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate. In other embodiments, the electrode layer can be formed from a conductive material such as a conductive polymer (e.g., Nafion or PEDOT:PSS), a non-conductive polymer doped with a conductive material (such as metal or carbon particles), a thin metal foil (e.g., aluminum foil or stainless steel foil), and / or a combination of these electrode structures. Moreover, in some embodiments, the electrode layer can be coated with a conductive but chemically inert coating such as a graphite-epoxy coating, which can help increase the service life of the fluid channels and reduce the power consumption of the devices disclosed herein. For example, such a coating can help distribute power across the electrode layer and can reduce the likelihood of under-voltage and parasitic capacitance between closely spaced electrodes during short high-voltage pulses. Alternatively or additionally, in some embodiments, the electrode layer can be coated with a corrosion-resistant material, a material configured to modulate the electrochemical properties of the electrode layer, and / or a material selected to provide a non-fouling and / or low-friction surface within the fluid channel (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene or a silanized coating material).

[0040] In some embodiments, the spacer layer can be formed from a non-conductive material such that the spacer layer does not conduct current between the first and second electrode layers. In this way, when a power source supplies voltage to the first and second electrode layers, the spacer layer does not provide a conductive path but instead maintains the physical and electrical separation between the electrode layers such that the voltage across the electrode layers generates an electric field in the fluid channel extending between the electrode layers. In some embodiments, the spacer layer can include an insulating polymer material (such as PET), but any other insulating, food-contact-safe material can be used (such as polycarbonate, polypropylene, LDPE or HDPE, ABS, polyetherimide, polyimide, polysulfone, acrylate, fluorinated thermoplastics, silicone and other rubbers, thermosetting polymers (such as heat-, UV- or chemically curable polymers), glass, silicon, natural materials (such as rubber or silk or resin)). Suitable materials for the spacer layer can include combinations of the above materials and / or composite structures. Additionally, in some cases, the spacer layer can include one or more adhesive layers deployed on the faces of the spacer layer facing the adjacent electrodes to facilitate bonding to the first and second electrode layers. However, embodiments using bonding methods other than adhesives can also be considered, such as ultrasonic welding, via positioning, and / or any other suitable method for bonding the layers together, as the present disclosure is not limited to this manner.

[0041] As described above, in some embodiments, the electrode layer of the microfluidic processing device can be three-dimensionally textured. For example, each electrode layer can have a textured surface on the side of the electrode layer facing the microfluidic channel. Depending on the particular embodiment, the three-dimensionally textured surface can include patterns such as a sawtooth pattern, a square wave pattern, an array of dimples (e.g., circular or angled pits), and / or an array of protrusions (e.g., hemispherical, rectangular, cylindrical, conical, pyramidal, or other shaped protrusions). Such textured electrodes can result in variable spacing between the conductive electrode surfaces, which provides a spatial variation of the electric field between the electrode layers when a voltage is supplied to the electrodes. Moreover, in some cases, topological features such as edges and / or sharp corners can result in local concentration of the electric field. In this way, when a fluid flows through a fluid channel extending between two textured electrode layers, in addition to the electric field variations caused by the voltage pulses in the PEF treatment, the fluid can also be exposed to spatial and temporal variations in the electric field intensity. The inventors have found that by exposing pathogens in the fluid to such variable electric field intensities, inactivation of pathogens in the fluid can be achieved at lower input voltages compared to conventional PEF systems, and thus lower total power consumption is allowed.

[0042] It should be recognized that the present disclosure is not limited to any particular arrangement for generating a fluid flow through one or more microfluidic channels of the devices disclosed herein. For example, in some embodiments, the flow can be generated passively (e.g., via gravity feed). In some embodiments, the flow can be actively driven, such as by pumping the fluid through the channels. Moreover, it should be understood that the present disclosure is not limited to any particular flow pattern through the microfluidic channels. For example, the flow can be continuous, pulsating at varying flow rates, and / or intermittently stopped.

[0043] Depending on the particular embodiment, the topological features defining the textured surface of the electrodes can have any suitable dimensions. For example, in some embodiments, the height of the topological features can be between about 20 microns and about 200 microns. Moreover, it should be recognized that such topological features can be formed in any suitable manner, including but not limited to embossing methods (e.g., hot embossing or roll-to-roll embossing), casting methods, subtractive manufacturing methods (e.g., machining, engraving, laser etching), additive manufacturing methods, and / or layer-by-layer manufacturing methods.

[0044] The textured surface with the textured electrode layer can be oriented in any suitable manner. For example, in some embodiments, the texture of the first textured electrode can be misaligned with the texture of the second electrode layer. Without wishing to be bound by theory, such misalignment can help enhance the non-uniformity of the electric field between the first and second electrode layers and can also help reduce the variability between laminated structures. For example, in one embodiment, an electrode with a sawtooth texture can be misaligned by approximately 45 degrees, which causes the structure to exhibit all possible misalignments (and thus all possible electric field non-uniformities) within a small area. In other embodiments, the textured surfaces of the first and second electrodes can be configured to have different phases to help ensure that the textures are always misaligned with each other. For example, in one embodiment, the first and second electrode layers can have sawtooth textures with different pitches and can be angled relative to each other. The inventors have recognized that such arrangements can help ensure that the fluid flowing between the textured layers is exposed to the full range of electric field strengths generated between the electrode layers, thereby further promoting enhanced pathogen inactivation.

[0045] In addition to the above, the inventors have realized and recognized that the three-dimensional textured electrode structures described herein can provide many benefits related to the flow of fluid through fluid channels extending between the electrode layers. For example, a textured pattern (such as a sawtooth pattern) misaligned with respect to the direction of fluid flow in the fluid channel can help promote fluid mixing within the fluid channel. Alternatively or additionally, such arrangements can help remove bubbles and / or debris from the flow path and / or direct the bubbles towards the edges of the fluid channel, which can help enhance the fluid's exposure to the non-uniform electric field and promote pathogen inactivation.

[0046] Depending on the particular embodiment, the dimensions of the fluid channels extending between the electrode layers can be selected to provide a desired maximum electric field strength within the fluid channels and a desired flow rate through the fluid channels. In some embodiments, the height of the fluid channel (i.e., the distance between the electrode layers) can be between approximately 10 micrometers and approximately 2 mm. For example, the height of the fluid channel can be greater than 10 micrometers, greater than 50 micrometers, greater than 100 micrometers, greater than 200 micrometers, greater than 500 micrometers, and / or greater than 1 mm. In other embodiments, the channel height can be less than 2 mm, less than 1 mm, less than 500 micrometers, less than 200 micrometers, less than 100 micrometers, less than 50 micrometers, and / or less than 20 micrometers. Combinations of the above ranges can also be suitable. In one exemplary embodiment, the channel height can be approximately 100 micrometers. In embodiments including three-dimensional textured electrode layers, the above channel height can correspond to the minimum spacing between the topological features defining the textured surfaces of each electrode layer.

[0047] In some embodiments, the width of each microfluidic layer (i.e., the spacing between adjacent spacer members of the spacer layer) can be between about 100 microns and about 5 cm. For example, the width of each fluid channel can be greater than 100 microns, greater than 500 microns, greater than 1 cm, greater than 2 cm, greater than 3 cm, greater than 4 cm, or greater than 5 cm. In other embodiments, the width of each fluid channel can be less than 5 cm, less than 4 cm, less than 3 cm, less than 2 cm, less than 1 cm, less than 500 microns, or less than 200 microns. Combinations of the above ranges can also be suitable.

[0048] It should be appreciated that the fluid channel can be configured to define any suitable flow path between the inlet end of the fluid channel and the outlet end of the fluid channel. For example, the inlet end of a fluid channel extending between a first and a second electrode layer can be defined by a first edge of the first and second electrode layers, and the outlet end can be defined by a second edge of the electrode layer opposite the first edge. In some embodiments, the flow path length of each fluid channel can be longer than the distance between the first and second edges of the electrode layer. For example, the fluid channel can be arranged in a serpentine or wavy pattern (e.g., a sinusoidal pattern), a linear pattern angled relative to the edges of the electrode layer on which the inlet and outlet are formed, and / or any other suitable geometry. In this way, the flow path length can be adjusted to provide a desired residence time within the fluid channel at a given flow rate, such that the fluid is exposed to the PEF treatment for a sufficient time to effect inactivation of the pathogens contained in the fluid. For example, in some embodiments, the flow path length can be configured to provide a residence time of five seconds or longer for a given flow rate and fluid channel geometry. Additionally, in some cases, such a wavy flow path configuration can help prevent collapse of the fluid channel, as described in more detail below. Further, in some embodiments including textured electrode layers, the above flow path geometries can help define a flow direction that is misaligned with the electrode texture, which can aid in fluid mixing and bubble removal, as discussed previously.

[0049] The fluid treatment device according to the present disclosure can include any suitable number of fluid channels to provide a desired total flow rate. For example, in some embodiments, the fluid treatment device can include between about 50 and 1000 fluid channels, and the total flow rate through the device can be up to about 0.2 liters per minute or more.

[0050] According to some aspects, an electrode layer of a fluid processing device may be electrically coupled to a power source configured to supply a pulsating voltage to first and second electrodes and thereby generate a pulsating electric field within a fluid channel. For example, in some embodiments, the voltage may pulsate in a square wave between approximately 0 and 120 volts. In some embodiments, bidirectional voltage pulses may be used, such as between -120 volts and 120 volts. Depending on the particular fluid channel configuration (e.g., channel height and / or particular textured electrode topology), the resulting electric field during the voltage pulse may be up to tens of thousands of volts per centimeter. However, it should be understood that any suitable type of electrical waveform, voltage magnitude, frequency, and / or duration of application may be used to provide the desired PEF treatment, as the present disclosure is not limited to the ranges described above.

[0051] Turning to the drawings, specific non-limiting embodiments will be described in more detail. It should be understood that the various systems, components, features, and methods described in relation to these embodiments may be used alone and / or in any desired combination, as the present disclosure is not limited to the specific embodiments described herein.

[0052] Figure 1 FIG. 7 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a portion of an embodiment of a fluid processing device 100. The device includes first and second electrode layers 102 and 104 that are bonded to each other via a spacer layer 106 that includes a plurality of spacer members 108. As shown, the spacer layer defines a plurality of fluid channels 110 that extend between the electrode layers 102 and 104. Additionally, the electrode layers are electrically coupled to a power source configured to deliver voltage pulses to the first and second electrode layers to generate a pulsating electric field within the fluid channels 110.

[0053] Figure 1A Depicts a view of the device 100 taken along line 1A-1A as shown in Figure 1 FIG. 13. As shown, the spacer members 108 of the spacer layer 106 may be configured to define a flow path for the fluid channels 110 between an inlet end 114 and an outlet end 116. For example, the inlet end 114 may be defined by a first edge 118 of the first electrode layer 102, and the outlet end 116 may be defined by a second edge 120 of the first electrode layer that is opposite the first edge 118. Although not shown in Figure 1Adepicted, the inlet end 114 and the outlet end 118 can be similarly defined by the opposite first and second edges of the second electrode layer 104. As used herein, opposite edges of an electrode layer refer to the opposite boundaries of the electrode layer where the electrode layer terminates. In the depicted embodiment, the spacer member 108 of the spacer layer defines a serpentine flow path for each fluid channel such that the flow path length of the fluid channel between the inlet end 114 and the outlet end 118 is less than the distance 122 between the first edge 118 and the second edge 120 of the first electrode layer 120. Although a serpentine arrangement is depicted, it should be recognized that other arrangements can be suitable for providing a flow length that is longer than the distance 122 between the first and second edges 118, 120 of the first electrode layer. For example, the spacer member 108 can be arranged to define a linear flow path that is angled with respect to the distance 122. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the fluid channel can be straight such that the flow path length of the fluid channel 110 is substantially the same as the distance 122 between the first edge 118 and the second edge 120 of the electrode layer 102.

[0054] Now referring Figures 2 - 5 to, various methods of assembling a fluid handling device are discussed in more detail. In particular, Figure 2 an embodiment of a roll-to-roll manufacturing process that can be used to form a laminated microfluidic structure 210 is depicted. In particular, the first and second electrode layers 202 and 204 can be fed into a roll 208, where the patterned spacer layer 206 separates the electrode layers. In some cases, the spacer layer 206 can include an adhesive that is deployed on opposite sides of the spacer layer that are oriented towards the corresponding adjacent electrode layers to help bond the electrode layers together to form the laminated microfluidic structure 210. As discussed above, the patterned spacer layer can include a plurality of spacer members to define fluid channels that extend between the first and second electrode layers.

[0055] Although the roll-to-roll assembly process is described above, it should be understood that any suitable method of assembling the layers can be used since the present disclosure is not limited in this manner. Additionally, although an adhesive can be used to bond the layers together in some embodiments, cases where ultrasonic welding and / or any other suitable method is used to bond the layers together can also be considered since the present disclosure is not limited to this manner.

[0056] As Figure 3 shown, in some embodiments, the laminated microfluidic structure 310 can be cut into segments 312, and the segments can subsequently be assembled by stacking the individual segments on top of each other to form a macroscopic structure such as a rectangular array 314 of stacked segments. Figure 4 Another embodiment is depicted where the laminated microfluidic structure 410 is rolled into a jelly roll structure 416. Figure 5An embodiment showing an additional arrangement is presented, where the laminated microfluidic structure forms cylindrical structures 502 and 504. As shown, these cylindrical structures have different lengths (corresponding to the distance between the opposite edges of the electrode layer, as discussed above in connection with Figure 1A ). Additionally, each cylindrical structure includes a serpentine fluid channel such that the length of the fluid flow path through the fluid channel is greater than the length between the opposite sides of the cylindrical structures 502 and 504 where the inlets and outlets of the microfluidic channels are formed. Once assembled into a desired geometry or structure (e.g., rectangular array 314, jelly roll structure 414, cylindrical structures 502 or 504, or any other suitable structure), the electrode layer can be coupled to a power source, as discussed above. Moreover, as described in more detail below, in some cases, these structures can be housed in a cartridge assembly that can facilitate the inflow and outflow of fluid into and out of the fluid channels.

[0057] Now referring to Figure 6 , another embodiment of the microfluidic processing device is described in more detail. In particular, Figure 6 depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of the laminated microfluidic structure 600. Similar to the previously described embodiments, the depicted embodiment includes first and second electrode layers 602 and 604 bonded to each other by a spacer layer 606, which is constructed and arranged to define a fluid channel 610 extending between the electrode layers. In this embodiment, the first and second electrode layers 602 and 604 each have a three-dimensional textured surface; in particular, each electrode includes a sawtooth texture 612. As discussed above, when a voltage is supplied to the electrodes by a corresponding power source (not depicted), such a textured surface configuration can result in a non-uniform electric field in the space between the electrodes. As Figure 6 shows, the fluid channel height 630 is defined herein as the minimum spacing between the textured structures 612 of the opposing electrodes 602 and 604.

[0058] Although Figure 6 depicts an embodiment including two textured electrodes having substantially the same texture pattern, it should be recognized that the present disclosure is not limited thereto. For example, in some embodiments, only one of the electrodes can be textured. Additionally, in some embodiments, the two electrode layers can have different texture patterns and / or texture patterns with different dimensions for the text features.

[0059] Depending on the particular embodiment, the textured surface of the electrode can be formed in any suitable manner. For example, in the depicted embodiment, electrodes 602 and 604 respectively include textured polymer layers 614 and 616 (which can be patterned using any suitable method, such as embossing, casting, additive manufacturing, layer-by-layer processing), each of which is coated with a thin conductive layer 618, 620, such as a metal layer (e.g., gold, platinum, titanium, stainless steel, etc.) or any other suitable conductive material layer.

[0060] In addition, as Figure 6 shown, the spacer layer 606 can include one or more separate layers, such as a polymer support layer 622 (e.g., a PET support layer) and an adhesive layer 624 to facilitate bonding of the spacer layer 606 to the first and second electrode layers.

[0061] As discussed above, embodiments including textured electrode layers can include electrodes oriented relative to each other in any suitable manner. For example, Figure 6 the embodiment shown in Figure 7 illustrates electrode layers 602 and 604, where the textured surfaces are substantially aligned. In contrast, Figure 6 depicts an embodiment in which the textures of the first and second electrode layers 702 and 704 are misaligned with each other. In particular, similar to Figure 7 ,

[0062] Figure 8 Figure 7 depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of a laminated microfluidic structure 700 that includes first and second electrode layers 702 and 704 bonded to each other via a spacer layer 706, the spacer layer 706 being constructed and arranged to define a fluid channel 710 extending between the electrode layers. Each electrode layer includes a sawtooth texture pattern 712, but the texture of the second electrode layer 704 is misaligned relative to the texture of the first electrode layer. For example, in the depicted embodiment, the sawtooth patterns 712 are misaligned by approximately 45 degrees, but it should be understood that other misalignment angles, offset spacings, and / or different phase relationships of the textured patterns of each electrode layer can be suitable, as the present disclosure is not limited to any particular type or amount of misalignment.

[0062] Figure 8Depicts a cross-sectional view of a portion of a textured electrode layer 800 including a base layer 810 and a conductive coating 812 according to some embodiments. As shown, the textured electrode layer is characterized by various dimensions. For example, the characteristic texture height 802 can be between about 20 microns and about 200 microns or greater. In some embodiments, the total thickness 804 of the electrode layer can be between about 0.1 mm and about 2 mm (e.g., about 0.5 mm), and the spacing 806 between adjacent texture features (e.g., between the peaks of a sawtooth pattern) can be between about 30 microns and about 400 microns. Moreover, the sawtooth pattern can be characterized by first and second angles 808 and 810. For example, in the depicted embodiment, each of these angles is approximately 45 degrees such that the sawtooth pattern is symmetric, but other arrangements (such as asymmetric sawteeth (or other non-sawtooth patterns as discussed previously)) can be suitable as the present disclosure is not limited in this regard.

[0063] In some embodiments including one or more textured electrode layers, the flow direction of the fluid within the fluid channel can be misaligned with respect to the texture of the electrode layer. For example, Figure 9 Depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a microfluidic processing device 900 including a plurality of fluid channels 902, where fluid flows along a flow direction 904. The textured electrode layer 906 includes texture features 908 extending along a direction misaligned with the flow direction 904. For example, the texture features 908 can include sawtooth features, features having a square or rectangular or circular cross-section, and / or any other texture features extending along the extension direction. As discussed above, the inventors have recognized that this misalignment of the flow direction and the electrode texture can help promote fluid mixing within the fluid channels 902, which can help ensure that pathogens in the fluid are exposed to a non-uniform electric field and inactivated. Moreover, as described above, in some cases, this misalignment between the flow direction 904 and the texture features 908 can facilitate the removal of air bubbles from the fluid.

[0064] Now referring to Figure 10A and 10B , some aspects of embodiments of microfluidic processing devices including serpentine fluid paths or other non-linear paths are described in more detail. In some embodiments, the serpentine fluid can have selected dimensions to help avoid collapse of the fluid channels, which can occur if the electrode layer restricting the fluid channels is not adequately supported and in contact, thereby at least partially blocking the flow through the fluid channels. For example, Figure 10Adepicts an arrangement in which the spacer members 1002 of the spacer layer are arranged to define a serpentine fluid channel (e.g., following a sinusoidal flow path). However, in the depicted arrangement, the amplitude 1006 of the serpentine pattern is less than the width 1008 of the fluid channel 1004. As a result, the fluid channel includes a region 1010 in which the electrode layer defining the fluid channel is not supported and may be prone to collapse. In contrast, in Figure 10B the illustrated embodiment, the spacer member 1022 is arranged to define a serpentine fluid channel 1024 or other non-linear fluid channel, where the amplitude 1026 of the pattern in a direction parallel to the opposing electrode layer is greater than the width 1028 of the fluid channel 1024 in the same direction. In this way, the fluid channel 1024 does not include any portion in which the electrode layer defining the fluid channel is not supported, and thus the channel can be more robust and less likely to collapse during handling or use.

[0065] Figure 11 depicts another embodiment of a portion of a microfluidic processing system. Similar to the embodiments discussed above in connection with Figure 10B the depicted embodiment includes a spacer member 1102 that is configured to define a serpentine flow path 1104 or other non-linear channel. Figure 11 Further illustrated is a textured electrode layer 1110 that includes texture features 1112 that extend substantially horizontally across the textured electrode layer. Thus, when fluid flows through the serpentine fluid path 1104, the direction of fluid flow will be misaligned with respect to the texture features 1112, which can assist with fluid mixing and / or bubble removal as discussed above. Also, without wishing to be bound by theory, the inventors have recognized that serpentine fluid channels or other non-linear channels can assist in guiding bubbles and / or other debris to regions of higher curvature in the flow path, which can help to facilitate flow through the channel 1104 and avoid channel blockage.

[0066] Now referring to Figures 12A - 12B , an embodiment of a fluid processing cartridge 1200 is described in more detail. As Figure 12A shown, the cartridge 1200 includes a microfluidic channel assembly 1202 that includes a plurality of microfluidic channels extending between electrode layers. The microfluidic channel assembly 1202 is positioned between an inlet cap 1204 and an outlet cap 1206. As Figure 12BAs shown, the inlet cap is in fluid communication with the inlet end 1210 of the microfluidic channel of the microfluidic channel assembly 1202 to direct fluid flowing into the inlet cap 1204 into the microfluidic channel assembly 1202. Similarly, the outlet cap 1204 is in fluid communication with the outlet end 1212 of the microfluidic channel assembly 1202 to direct fluid out of the cartridge after the fluid has flowed through and been processed in the microfluidic channel assembly 1202. As shown, a power source 1208 can be positioned within the cartridge 1200 and electrically coupled to the electrode layer of the microfluidic channel component 1202 to provide voltage pulses to the electrode layer and generate a pulsating electric field within the microfluidic channel to process the fluid flowing therethrough.

[0067] As described above, in some cases, the electrode layer of the microfluidic channel assembly can include a non-reactive coating (i.e., a chemically inert coating), such as an epoxy-based coating including graphite. In some cases, such a coating can result in a reduction in power consumption and / or an increase in the operating life of the fluid processing device compared to an arrangement that does not include such a coating. For example, according to some embodiments, Figure 18 A cross-sectional view depicting a portion of a textured electrode layer 1800 is shown, including a base layer 1802, a conductive coating 1804, and a non-reactive coating 1806 formed on the conductive layer 1804. In some cases, a fluid processing device including a non-reactive coating can have a power consumption reduction of up to about eight times per liter of fluid processed and a device life that can be up to about four times longer compared to a device that does not include a non-reactive coating. However, it should be understood that the fluid processing devices disclosed herein can, in some cases, not include a non-reactive coating, as the present disclosure is not limited in this regard.

[0068] Example - Effectiveness in Turbid Fluids

[0069] In one example, the effectiveness of the devices and methods described herein was evaluated for fluid samples having different turbidities. Specifically, ISO-class fine test dust was added to MilliQ-filtered water to achieve a turbidity of 160 NTU (determined using a turbidity tube) and heat sterilized. This sample was then diluted to turbidity values of 80 NTU, 40 NTU, and 20 NTU, and each of these test samples was inoculated with 10 5 CFU / mL of k12 Escherichia coli; 0 NTU MilliQ-filtered pure water was also included as a control. These samples were processed using a fluid processing device according to the present disclosure. The inlet, processed, and unprocessed samples were plated in triplicate, and the resulting CFU / mL of Escherichia coli was calculated.

[0070] As Figure 13As shown, it depicts a graph of the log reduction of CFU / ml values measured for different turbidity values. All treated samples had complete inactivation of E. coli, and no colonies were detected, indicating a minimum 5-log reduction in turbidity up to 160 NTU for this technology. Within this turbidity range, the increased turbidity does not seem to have an impact on the inactivation of the disclosed system. Compared with the UV treatment method, which is generally recommended to be used only when the turbidity does not exceed 5 NTU, this example shows that the effective range of fluid turbidity has increased by 32 times or more. This example also shows that within the effective range of up to 10 NTU for household water treatment recommended by the WHO, the effective range has increased by 16 times compared to chlorination.

[0071] Example - Effectiveness Against Various Pathogens

[0072] In another example, the effectiveness of the devices and methods described herein against various waterborne pathogens was evaluated using different flow rates. The pathogens tested included Escherichia coli K12 (non-pathogenic baseline), Escherichia coli O157:N7 (EHEC pathogen), Salmonella enterica (salmonellosis pathogen), Aeromonas hydrophila (acute diarrhea pathogen), and Vibrio cholerae (cholera pathogen), and the test fluid flowed through the fluid treatment device at the selected flow rates to provide residence times of 1 second, 2.5 seconds, and 5 seconds in the device. Figure 14 Graphs of the log reduction values of each of the above pathogens for the treated and untreated fluid samples are shown. As shown, all pathogens can be inactivated by 4 LRV, except for the EHEC pathogen, which is 3.99 LRV.

[0073] Example - Textured Electrode Configuration

[0074] In one example, the inactivation of E. coli K12 was evaluated for a fluid treatment device including electrodes with different texture parameters. Specifically, two textured layers with texture heights of 200 microns and 20 microns, respectively, on one side of the layer and a flat side opposite the textured side were assembled in four configurations. The 200 planar configuration uses the flat side of the 200-micron texture electrode to form the fluid channel, and the 200 textured configuration uses the textured side of the 200-micron electrode to form the fluid channel. Similarly, the 20 planar configuration uses the flat side of the 20-micron texture electrode to form the fluid channel, and the 20 textured configuration uses the textured side of the 20-micron textured electrode to form the fluid channel. For each configuration, the electrode layer is separated by two layers of 50-micron adhesive and a 25-micron spacer layer. A voltage of 100 V is pulsed at 100 Hz and a pulse width of 100 microseconds. The flow rate through the microfluidic device is 200 microliters per minute, which results in a residence time of approximately 5 seconds. Figure 15 Graphs of the log reduction values of the treated and untreated fluid samples for each of these electrode configurations are shown.

[0075] Example - Changing the Applied Voltage

[0076] In one example, textured and non-textured (flat) electrode configurations were evaluated at different applied voltages. In particular, two devices were constructed using textured electrodes aligned at 45 degrees, and the inactivation of Escherichia coli was tested at various input voltages between 0 and 90 volts. The voltage generated pulses at a frequency of 100 Hz and a pulse width of 100 microseconds. The flow rate through the device was 200 microliters per minute, resulting in a residence time of approximately 5 seconds. Figure 16 Plots of the log reduction values for the two electrode configurations are depicted. At any of the test voltages, the flat electrodes did not achieve complete inactivation of Escherichia coli. In contrast, the textured electrodes were able to completely inactivate Escherichia coli at voltages of 70 V and above. The dotted line indicates the Escherichia coli input amount for each device.

[0077] Example - Changing the Electrode Gap Distance

[0078] In one embodiment, the inactivation of Escherichia coli K12 was evaluated for a fluid handling device comprising electrodes with different gap distances (and thus microfluidic channels with different channel heights). In this example, the electrode layer was coated with a protective graphite layer, and a voltage pulse of 120 V for 25 microseconds was applied to the electrodes. As Figure 17 shown, which depicts a plot of the log reduction values for the different gap distances tested, the gap distance was able to be increased to at least 175 microns, indicating that the disclosed device is able to maintain its effectiveness at larger gap distances, which can allow for increased flow rates and / or reduced power usage.

[0079] Example - Electrodes with Non - Reactive Coatings

[0080] In one embodiment, the graphite coating for the electrode layer was prepared by mixing one part of Max CLR Epoxy Part B, two parts of Max CLR Epoxy Part A, three parts of isopropyl alcohol, and three parts of 20 μm synthetic graphite flakes. The coating was deposited on the gold-plated PET electrodes by spin coating at 1500 RPM for 100 seconds. A fluid handling device was constructed using the coated electrodes as described previously. The device was tested using 105 CFU / mL k12 Escherichia coli in spring water at a flow rate of 200 pl / min. The fluid sample was processed by applying a pulsating electric field at a frequency of 100 Hz. The electric field was generated by applying a voltage pulse of 120 V for 100 μs / pulse. Pooled samples were collected at 5-minute intervals (sample volume 1 mL) and plated to determine bacterial viability. No live bacteria were detected in the effluent of the device comprising the graphite coating. A similar procedure was performed for a fluid treatment made with gold-plated PET electrodes without the graphite coating, except that samples were collected every 3 minutes (600 μl sample volume). These pure gold electrodes failed after 27 minutes of treatment.

[0081] In another example of using the graphite-coated electrodes described above, it was found that total inactivation of 105 CFU / mL of k12 Escherichia coli could be achieved using shorter pulses (25 μs) and faster flow rates (400 μl / min). Under these conditions (400 μl / min, 100 Hz, 120 V, 25 ps pulses), the continuous run test was repeated on the graphite-coated device as described above. After running for 2 hours under these conditions, no live k12 Escherichia coli was detected. The results of all three tests are as Figure 19 shown Figure 19 and depict the percentage of k12 E. coli inactivation per milliliter of water processed in each fluid channel.

[0082] To compare the power consumption between the two electrode types (i.e., graphite-coated versus uncoated), a 1.2 Ω resistor was placed in series on the ground side of the fluid treatment device that included the respective electrode arrangement. When spring water flowed through the device and the pulse generator was turned on, the traces of the voltages across the device and the resistor were measured and recorded using an oscilloscope. Based on the pulse traces, the current consumption and pulse energy were calculated. Then, this pulse energy was used to determine the energy required (in kJ / kg) to process a certain volume of water based on the flow rate of the water. This was measured for both types of electrodes under the conditions of 100 Hz, 120 V, 100 μs pulses, and 200 μl / min and for the graphite-coated electrode under the conditions of 100 Hz, 120 V, 25 μs pulses, and 400 μl / min. Table 1 shows the power consumption results for each condition. The graphite electrode under the latter condition was able to completely inactivate bacteria at 13% of the kJ / kg required for a pure gold electrode.

[0083] Table 1

[0084]

[0085] The various aspects of the present disclosure can be used alone, in combination, or in various arrangements not specifically discussed in the foregoing embodiments, and thus their application is not limited to the details and arrangements of the components set forth in the foregoing description or illustrated in the drawings. For example, the aspects described in one embodiment can be combined with the aspects described in other embodiments in any manner. Thus, although the present teachings have been described in conjunction with various embodiments and examples, the present teachings are not intended to be limited to such embodiments or examples. Instead, the present teachings include various alternatives, modifications, and equivalents that will be understood by those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the foregoing description and drawings are merely illustrative.

Claims

1. A fluid processing device, comprising: A first textured electrode layer including a first array of protrusions; A second textured electrode layer including a second array of protrusions, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer; A spacer layer positioned between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, the spacer layer being constructed and arranged to define one or more fluid channels that extend between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer from an inlet end at a first edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer to an outlet end at an opposite second edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer; And A power source electrically coupled to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, wherein the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are constructed and arranged to form a non-uniform electric field along the flow length of each of the one or more fluid channels when the power source supplies a voltage to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer.

2. The fluid processing device according to claim 1, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer includes a sawtooth texture, a ribbed texture, a raised hemisphere pattern, a raised rectangular pattern, a raised cylindrical pattern, a convex cone pattern, and / or a convex pyramid pattern.

3. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the flow direction of the one or more fluid channels.

4. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the texture of the second textured electrode layer includes a sawtooth texture, a ribbed texture, a raised hemisphere pattern, a raised rectangular pattern, a raised cylindrical pattern, a convex cone pattern, and / or a convex pyramid pattern.

5. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer by up to 45 degrees.

6. The fluid processing device according to claim 1, wherein each of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer includes a textured polymer layer coated with a conductive layer.

7. The fluid processing device according to claim 6, wherein the conductive layer includes at least one selected from the group consisting of a gold layer, a platinum layer, a titanium layer, a stainless steel layer, a carbon nanotube composite layer, and an epoxy-graphite composite layer.

8. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the distance between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer is between 10 microns and 2 mm.

9. The fluid processing device according to claim 8, wherein the distance between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer is less than or equal to 100 microns.

10. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the width of each fluid channel is between 100 microns and 5 cm.

11. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the characteristic texture height of the first textured electrode layer and / or the second textured electrode layer is between 20 microns and 200 microns.

12. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the power supply is configured to supply voltage pulses to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, and wherein the voltage change for each voltage pulse is between 50 volts and 200 volts.

13. The fluid processing device according to claim 12, wherein the voltage pulsates in a square wave pattern.

14. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the power supply is configured to supply bidirectional voltage pulses between 120 volts and -120 volts to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer.

15. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, wherein the spacer layer is constructed and arranged to define between 50 fluid channels and 1000 fluid channels.

16. The fluid processing device according to claim 15, wherein the fluid channels are configured to provide a flow rate of up to 0.2 L / min.

17. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 1-2, further comprising a non-reactive coating formed on the first textured electrode layer and / or the second textured electrode layer.

18. The fluid processing device according to claim 17, wherein the non-reactive coating comprises graphite.

19. A fluid processing device, comprising: a first textured electrode layer including a first array of protrusions; a second textured electrode layer including a second array of protrusions, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer; a spacer layer positioned between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, the spacer layer being constructed and arranged to define one or more fluid channels that extend between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer from an inlet end at a first edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer to an outlet end at a second edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, wherein the flow path length of each fluid channel is longer than the distance between the first edge and the second edge of the textured electrode layer; and a power supply electrically coupled to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer and configured to supply a pulsating voltage to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer to generate a pulsating electric field within the one or more fluid channels, wherein the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are constructed and arranged such that when the pulsating voltage is supplied to the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, the pulsating electric field is non-uniform along the flow length of each of the one or more flow channels.

20. The fluid processing device according to claim 19, wherein each fluid channel follows a serpentine flow path between the inlet end and the outlet end.

21. The fluid processing device according to claim 20, wherein the amplitude of the wave pattern defining the serpentine flow path is greater than the width of each fluid channel.

22. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 19-21, wherein the distance between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer is between 10 microns and 2 mm.

23. The fluid processing device according to claim 22, wherein the distance between the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer is less than or equal to 100 micrometers.

24. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 19-21, wherein the width of each fluid channel is between 100 micrometers and 2 cm.

25. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 19-21, wherein the textures of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are oriented towards the one or more fluid channels.

26. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 19-21, wherein the spacer layer is configured and arranged to define between 50 fluid channels and 1000 fluid channels.

27. The fluid processing device according to any one of claims 19-21, further comprising a non-reactive coating formed on the first textured electrode layer and / or the second textured electrode layer.

28. The fluid processing device according to claim 27, wherein the non-reactive coating comprises graphite.

29. A method for processing a fluid, the method comprising: flowing the fluid through one or more fluid channels defined between a first textured electrode layer and a second textured electrode layer, wherein the first textured electrode layer comprises a first array of protrusions and the second textured electrode layer comprises a second array of protrusions, and wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer; and applying a non-uniform electric field to the fluid along the flow length of the one or more fluid channels, wherein the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are configured and arranged to form a non-uniform electric field along the flow length of the one or more fluid channels.

30. The method according to claim 29, wherein the one or more fluid channels comprise a plurality of fluid channels.

31. The method according to any one of claims 29-30, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer comprises a sawtooth texture, a ribbed texture, a raised hemisphere pattern, a raised rectangular pattern, a raised cylindrical pattern, a convex cone pattern, and / or a convex pyramid pattern.

32. The method according to any one of claims 29-30, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the flow direction of the one or more fluid channels.

33. The method according to any one of claims 29-30, wherein the texture of the second textured electrode layer comprises a sawtooth texture, a ribbed texture, a raised hemisphere pattern, a raised rectangular pattern, a raised cylindrical pattern, a convex cone pattern, and / or a convex pyramid pattern.

34. The method according to any one of claims 29-30, wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer by up to 45 degrees.

35. The method according to any one of claims 29-30, wherein the first textured electrode layer and / or the second textured electrode layer comprises a non-reactive coating.

36. A method for processing a fluid, the method comprising: Flowing a fluid through one or more fluid channels defined between a first textured electrode layer and a second textured electrode layer from an inlet end at a first edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer to an outlet end at a second edge of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer, wherein the first textured electrode layer includes a first array of protrusions and the second textured electrode layer includes a second array of protrusions, and wherein the texture of the first textured electrode layer is misaligned with respect to the texture of the second textured electrode layer; And Applying a non-uniform electric field to the fluid along a flow length of the one or more fluid channels, wherein the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are configured and arranged to form a non-uniform electric field along the flow length of the one or more fluid channels, and wherein a flow path length of the one or more fluid channels is longer than a distance between a first edge and a second edge of the textured electrode layer.

37. The method according to claim 36, wherein the one or more fluid channels include a plurality of fluid channels.

38. The method according to any one of claims 36-37, wherein each fluid channel follows a serpentine flow path between an inlet end and an outlet end.

39. The method according to claim 38, wherein an amplitude of a wave pattern defining the serpentine flow path is greater than a width of each fluid channel.

40. The method according to any one of claims 36-37, wherein the textures of the first textured electrode layer and the second textured electrode layer are oriented towards the one or more fluid channels.

41. The method according to claim 40, wherein the first textured electrode layer and / or the second textured electrode layer includes a non-reactive coating.

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