Conversion of thermal energy to electrical

Abstract

A quantum device (10; 20; 30); 40); 50) comprises at least one of a topological material (10A; 20A; 20B; 30A; 30B; 40A; 40B; 50A) provided by a transport structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31; 41; 51) connected to the transmission structure and at least two terminals (5; 8; 24; 34; 42, 43; 52; 53); wherein the transport structure is configured to generate a current of electrons, holes or other quasi-particles between the at least two terminals; and wherein at least one or more of the following is capable of inelastically scattering at least a portion of the current:-one or more regions (A, B) of the topological material (40A, 50A); -at least two terminals (5; 8), or-the other element or material (23; 33).

Description

Technical Field

[0001] The present disclosure describes an apparatus and method for converting thermal energy into voltage, current, magnetic field, or inhomogeneity of temperature or electron spin population. In particular, the apparatus utilizes a combination of a conductive channel carrying a dissipationless macroscopic current and an incoherent electron transport characterized by non-unitary dissipative charge transport. Background Art

[0002] The following documents will be referenced in the following description:

[0003] [Manhart, 2018a] J. Manhart, Journal of Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism 31 ,1649(2018)

[0004] [Manhart, 2018b] J. Manhart and D. Black, Journal of Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism 31 ,1649(2018)

[0005] [Bredol, 2021] P. Bredol et al., Phys. Rev. B. 104. 115413(2021)

[0006] [Manhart, 2019] J.Manhart et al., Physica E 109 ,198-200(2019)

[0007] [Manhart, 2020] J.Manhart, Journal of Superconductivity and Novel Magnetism 33 ,249(2020)

[0008] [Manhart, 2021] J. Manhart, H. Buschke, and P. Breidor, Nano Express 2 ,014998(2021)

[0009] [Gerhardt, 2008] RR Gerhardt, Solid State Physics (Series B) (Phys.Stat.Sol.(B)) 245 ,378(2008)

[0010] [Gerhardts, 2009] RR Gerhardts et al., “Quantum Hall Effect”, Compendium of Quantum Physics, p. 572, ed. D. Greenberger et al., Springer (2009)

[0011] [Panos, 2014] K. Panos et al., New J. Phys. 16 , 113071(2014)[v. Klitzing, 2005a]Kv Klitzing, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A (Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A), vol. 363, p. 2203 (2005)

[0012] [v. Klitzing, 2005b] Kv Klitzing et al., Phys. Journ., Vol. 4, p. 37 (2005)

[0013] [v. Klitzing, 2017] Kv Klitzing, Annu. Rev. Condens. Matter Phys., vol. 8, p. 13 (2017)

[0014] [Weiss, 2011] J. Weiss et al., Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, vol. 369, p. 3954 (2011)

[0015] [Oh, 2013] S. Oh, Science 340 ,153(2013)

[0016] [Ando, ​​2013] Ando Yu, Journal of the Physical Society of Japan (J.Phys.Soc.Jpn.), Vol. 82, p. 102001 (2013)

[0017] [Batikal, 1988] M. Batikal, Phys. Rev. B., Vol. 38, p. 9375 (1988)

[0018] [Kane, 2011] C. Kane et al., Physics World, February 2011, p. 32

[0019] In publications

[0020] [Manhart, 2018a b; 2019; 2020; 2021; Bredall, 2021]

[0021] and patents pending

[0022] [PCT / EP2019 / 052634]

[0023] [PCT / EP2019 / 058649]

[0024] [PCT / EP2019 / 074347]

[0025] [PCT / EP2020 / 068812]

[0026] Nanoscale devices are disclosed that convert heat into an electrochemical potential difference between two contacts of the nanodevice through nonreciprocal transport of electron quantum wave packets and through an inelastic scattering process. Many applications require devices with macroscopic dimensions of mm or larger length scales. In this patent disclosure [European patent application No. 21 209 862.8, not yet published at the filing date of the present application], methods for manufacturing such macroscopic devices by appropriately assembling a large number of nanodevices are disclosed. Manufacturing macroscopic devices by these methods can be complex and expensive because the nanodevices first need to be patterned with a resolution comparable to the Fermi wavelength and then connected with the correct polarity throughout the packaging process. Summary of the invention

[0027] According to a first aspect of the present disclosure, a quantum device comprises: a transmission structure comprising a topological material and at least two terminals connected to the transmission structure,

[0028] Wherein, the transport structure is capable of generating a current of electrons, holes or other quasiparticles between at least two terminals thereof due to its topological properties; and at least one or more of the following:

[0029] - the area of ​​topological materials,

[0030] - one or both of the two terminals, or

[0031] - Another material

[0032] At least a portion of the current can be caused to be scattered inelastically.

[0033] According to another aspect of the present disclosure, there is provided an array of two or more quantum devices according to the first aspect, wherein the quantum devices are connected in series and / or in parallel or in anti-parallel with each other.

[0034] According to a third aspect of the present disclosure, the present disclosure relates to using the quantum device according to the first aspect or an array of two or more quantum devices according to the second aspect in an electrical device by connecting two terminals of the quantum device or two external terminals of the quantum device array with the electrical device.

[0035] According to a fourth aspect of the present disclosure, there is provided a method for converting thermal energy into one or more of voltage, current, magnetic field, or temperature or electron spin group inhomogeneity, the method comprising:

[0036] A quantum device is fabricated according to the first aspect or an array of quantum devices is fabricated according to the second aspect and the quantum device is connected to a load or other equipment configured to generate one or more of a voltage, a current, a magnetic field or a temperature or an electron spin population inhomogeneity.

[0037] Those skilled in the art will recognize additional features and advantages upon reading the following detailed description and considering the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0038] The accompanying drawings are intended to further illustrate the examples and are incorporated into and constitute a part of this specification. The drawings and the description together explain the principles of the examples. The elements in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale with respect to each other. The same reference numerals in the drawings represent corresponding similar parts. Other examples and many of the expected advantages of the present example will become apparent as the following detailed description is further understood.

[0039] Figure 1 include Figure 1 A, 1B and 1C, and show illustrations of macroscopic dissipationless current flowing along the edge of a QHE sample (A), a quantum spin Hall effect sample (two-dimensional topological insulator) (B) and a quantum anomalous Hall effect sample (C). The figure is selected from [Oh, 2013].

[0040] Figure 2 Illustration showing a macroscopic dissipationless current flowing along the surface of a 3D topological insulator. This figure is from [Ando, ​​2013].

[0041] Figure 3 include Figure 3 a, 3b and 3c show electron trajectories in real space (left) and the corresponding band diagrams for (a) a standard semiconductor, (b) a QHE sample and (c) a two-dimensional topological insulator under a magnetic field perpendicular to the viewing plane. Figure (b) (left) depicts the Landau cylinder formed in the quantum Hall effect (QHE) and the purported edge-hopping electron trajectories at the bottom edge, as proposed in [Batikel, 1988]. Figure (c) shows the edge currents and bands for electron spins up and down. This figure is adapted from [Kane, 2011].

[0042] Figure 4 The energy and filling of the Landau levels in a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample are shown. The energy of the Landau levels increases towards the ends of the sample, leading to the formation of incompressible (1) and compressible fringes (2). This figure is from [Panos, 2014].

[0043] Figure 5 Schematic diagram showing a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz. An incompressible stripe (1) forms a closed loop along the edge of the sample. This loop carries a dissipative current with linear density Jx flowing around the loop. This current is the drift current induced by the electric field Ey.

[0044] Figure 6 Schematic diagram showing a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz. A portion of the sample has been treated to shorten the electron mean free path to l e <<r c (Normal phase (3)). Therefore, only when the mean free path is l e <<r c Incompressible fringes (1) form in the rest of the sample, giving rise to the quantum Hall effect (QHE). Labels a, b, and c represent Figure 7 Sampling positions of the energy spectrum.

[0045] Figure 7 Shown Figure 6 Schematic diagram of the Landau levels of the left, middle and right parts of the sample (corresponding to positions a, b and c respectively). Incompressible fringes are formed only on the left edge of the sample (the Landau levels are either completely full or completely empty). e <<r c , the Landau levels at the right edge of the sample become broadened and overlap each other. Therefore, at the right edge, the electron system is not completely gapped. As a result, incompressible fringes cannot be formed at the edge of this sample, resulting in ohmic charge transport.

[0046] Figure 8 Schematic diagram of a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz. Incompressible fringes (1) are formed in some areas of the sample edge. In other areas, the electric field generated by the gate electrode (4) placed on the side of the sample changes the electric field Ey, thereby suppressing the formation of incompressible fringes at the edge of the sample in the corresponding area. For the example given, the gate voltage is negative relative to the sample. Labels a, b, c represent Figure 7 Sampling positions of the energy level diagram shown in .

[0047] Fig. 9 Shown Figure 8Schematic diagram of the Landau levels of the left, middle and right parts of the sample (corresponding to positions a, b and c, respectively). Incompressible fringes are formed only at the left edge of the sample (the Landau levels are either completely full or completely empty). On the right edge of the sample, the electrochemical potential is consistent with one Landau level. Therefore, the band bending at the right edge of the sample is suppressed, and incompressible fringes cannot be formed at this edge, and the charge transfer is ohmic.

[0048] Fig.10 A schematic top view of a partial quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz is shown. Figure 6 As shown in the example, a portion of the sample is in the Ohmic phase, so that the incompressible 1 and the compressible 2 are straight stripes and are not closed into a loop. Two contact points 5 are connected to these two stripes through a tunnel barrier 6. We call this arrangement a "stripe element". The two contact points 5 can be connected to the normal phase 3 or at least one other stripe element.

[0049] Fig.11 Shows the basis Figure 6 Schematic diagram of a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample under a magnetic field Bz. The two-dimensional electron system in the sample has been partially removed by cutting a slit 7 in the sample.

[0050] Fig.12 An array example according to the second aspect is shown, in particular a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample under a magnetic field Bz, the magnetic field Bz being selected so that the majority of the sample contains a compressible electron fluid. The sample shows Fig.10 The contact incompressible stripe elements are connected in series. The polarity of the voltage induced on each stripe element is determined by the polarity of Ey induced by the left sample edge and Bz, and for each element, the polarity of these two is the same. Therefore, the polarity of each element is the same, and the induced voltages of the elements are added as shown in the figure, thereby generating a voltage between the outer contacts (8).

[0051] Fig.13 A schematic top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz is shown, which is chosen so that the majority of the sample contains a compressible electron fluid. In this example, the formation of incompressible fringes at the sample edge is prevented by placing a positively charged gate electrode 4b near the sample edge. Five additional gate electrodes 4a of arbitrary shape are placed on the sample surface, negatively charged, and possibly with different gate voltages, to induce corresponding incompressible fringes inside the sample away from the edge.

[0052] Fig.14An array example according to the second aspect is shown, in particular a top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample under a magnetic field Bz, which is selected so that the main part of the sample contains a compressible electron fluid. The sample shows a plurality of contacting incompressible strip elements 1a in series distributed over its surface area. In this case, an incompressible channel is induced by a gate electrode 4a, which in this case is negatively charged relative to the sample. The contact point 5 is placed on an insulating layer 9 to isolate it from the semiconductor. As shown on the right side of the figure, the negatively charged gate electrode 4 may induce a second undesirable incompressible stripe 1b, depending on the sample layout. As shown at the bottom of the sample, the formation of such an undesirable incompressible stripe 1b can be suppressed by adding more positively charged gate electrodes 4b to the sample, which can shield the electric field of the negatively charged gate electrode 4a.

[0053] Fig.15 A cross-section of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz is shown, which is chosen so that the main part of the sample contains an incompressible electron fluid. In this incompressible fluid, an electric current in thermal equilibrium flows (indicated by the large arrow). This current couples to another conductor via a potential barrier. This coupling also generates a current in the other conductor (indicated by the small arrow). If this conductor is confined by two contact points as shown in the figure, a voltage is generated between these two contact points.

[0054] Fig.16 A top view of a quantum Hall effect (QHE) sample in a magnetic field Bz is shown, which is chosen so that in undisturbed thermal equilibrium, the applied electric Hall field generates a circulating current in a circular incompressible stripe of diameter D and width w. The device consists of a gate electrode G, drawn as a small black dot of diameter d, located on a gate insulator above the ring structure. If the gate electrode is charged, a carrier depletion region is formed in a region of diameter s (s>w), causing the circulating current to flow through the shunt resistor R L .

[0055] Fig.17 shows the relationship between the Fig.16 The gate electrode is only at t on <t<t off During this period, the circulating current flows through R L And decays with a time constant τ that is proportional to the inductance L of the loop.

[0056] Fig.18A schematic top view of an example of a quantum device according to the first aspect of the present invention is shown, in which chiral surface currents flowing along the edges of a topological insulator are utilized, wherein these chiral surface currents are locally coupled to spatial regions containing inelastic scattering centers.

[0057] Fig.19 Shown Fig.18 The quantum device shown further illustrates the operation of the device, where the electron flow rate from region C to region D is higher than the flow rate from region D to region C.

[0058] Fig. 20 A further example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown, the quantum device being Fig.18 Further development of the quantum device shown, with the addition of more terminals and inelastic scattering centers.

[0059] Fig.21 A further example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown. The device utilizes a topological insulator equipped with two contact points 1, 2 and embedded in a heat bath. Chiral edge states are formed at the upper and lower edges of the topological insulator, which carry spin-polarized electrons as shown in the figure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0060] A feature of all the quantum devices described below is that the corresponding quantum devices are able to extract thermal energy from surrounding heat sources and convert the thermal energy into the generation of electric current. In addition, these quantum devices are able to generate electric current even if at least two terminals of the quantum device are kept at the same temperature. In particular, the quantum devices can have a non-reciprocal transport structure, which means that the particle current is stronger in one direction between the contact points than in another direction. Some quantum devices, namely those that work based on the quantum Hall effect, require the application of a magnetic field, while others require the application of an additional electric field to induce the quantum Hall effect, while others require neither a magnetic field nor an electric field.

[0061] The problem of converting thermal energy into an electrochemical potential difference between two contact points using non-reciprocal electron transport in a macroscopic device is solved by appropriately combining a dissipative (i.e., nominally lossless) macroscopic current-carrying conductive channel with an incoherent electronic system having non-single, dissipative charge transport properties, which device does not require sample patterning to the resolution mentioned, nor does it require orienting the nanodevice through one or more manufacturing steps. For example, the dissipative channel can be obtained by using a structure that exhibits the quantum Hall effect (QHE) or related topological phenomena. In explaining the present disclosure, the following examples will be based on an n-type doped semiconductor solid in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, but the present disclosure is not limited to n-type semiconductors.

[0062] 1. Generation of non-dissipative macroscopic current

[0063] It is well known that various topological phenomena in two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D) solids are related to dissipative currents flowing in closed loops along their edges or surfaces in thermal equilibrium, such as Figure 1 , 2 Examples of such topological phenomena include the integer quantum Hall effect, the fractional quantum Hall effect, the anomalous quantum Hall effect, the quantum spin Hall effect arising from two-dimensional topological insulators, and the surface currents of three-dimensional topological insulators. Transport processes at the edge or surface of a sample are usually explained by referring to the surface energy bands that cross the chemical potential in the sample band structure (see Figure 3 ). These surface energy bands are determined by the topological properties of the solid.

[0064] Before proceeding with the present disclosure, it seems necessary to give a definition of the term "topological material".

[0065] First of all, the term "topological materials" described below generally refers to two different types of materials. On the one hand, it refers to those materials that have topological properties themselves, that is, materials that have such properties without external influence (such as applying a magnetic field or electric field); on the other hand, it refers to those materials that do not have topological properties themselves, but can acquire such properties through external influence (such as applying a magnetic field or electric field).

[0066] As used in the literature [B. Yan and S.-C. Zhang, Reports on Progress in Physics, vol. 75, p. 096501 (2012); C. Choi, IEEE Spectrum, p. 6, July 2021], the term "topological material" is used to refer to materials with an electronic structure that has at least one property that can be counted as an integer, so that this property cannot be changed continuously without a qualitative change in the band structure, and this integer is different from the integers of ordinary materials such as silicon, air or vacuum. These numbers are called topological numbers, such as the so-called "TKNN invariants" or "Chern numbers" [MZ Hasan and CL Kane, Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 82, p. 3045 (2010); M. Franz, L. Molenkamp, ​​Topological Insulators, Elsevier, 2013]. Specifically, for integer and anomalous quantum Hall effects, the topological number is given by the number of completely filled Landau levels. For topological insulators, a commonly used topological number (the so-called Z2 invariant) refers to whether the number of electron bands crossing the band gap between two Kramers degeneracy points is even (topologically trivial materials) or odd (topological materials).

[0067] In most cases, the qualitative change of the band structure is determined by the disappearance of the band gap at the electrochemical potential. Therefore, if two materials with different topological numbers are connected at an interface, the interface will conduct electricity due to the disappearance of the band gap, even if the interior of the materials is insulating. If one of the materials is air, then the interface is the surface of the material, and surface conductivity is obtained. The existence of such interfaces or surface states is called "topological protection" or "protected by symmetry".

[0068] In addition, the interface states of topological materials may carry dissipationless currents, such as the incompressible fringes in quantum Hall devices. For topological insulators, interface states or surface states may also carry currents that can flow without dissipation in the absence of inelastic scattering and spin-flip scattering. These currents are Figure 1 The current flowing along the edge of the device is shown in .

[0069] Furthermore, in the case of topological insulators with spin-orbit coupling energy, spin-orbit coupling couples the spin direction of the mobile electrons with their direction of motion. Such currents are called chiral surface currents. The dispersion relation of these currents is linear at the electrochemical potential; therefore, the absolute value of the electron velocity is constant. This means that the absolute value of the current density is proportional to the electron density.

[0070] Topological materials exist in two-dimensional or three-dimensional space. Figure 1 As shown in Figure 2 ), the interface or surface state is a one-dimensional state that extends along the edge of the sample; for three-dimensional topological materials (see Figure 2 ), the interface or surface state is a two-dimensional state that extends along the surface of the sample.

[0071] To understand the main points of this disclosure, it is necessary to consider the microscopic mechanisms driving such current flows in more detail than what can be provided by the band diagrams alone. These currents are best understood and experimentally confirmed for the case of the quantum Hall effect (QHE). Therefore, in explaining this disclosure, we will focus on the quantum Hall effect, but the disclosure itself is not limited to the quantum Hall effect and also involves other phenomena that can induce macroscopic non-dissipative currents in thermal equilibrium.

[0072] The latest understanding of the quantum Hall effect (QHE) is provided by a model we call the "incompressible stripe model". The pioneering work on this model was done by Professor Klitzing, the discoverer of the quantum Hall effect, and his team, and is described in [v. Klitzing, 2005a; v. Klitzing, 2005b; Gerhardts, 2008; Gerhardts, 2009; Weis, 2011; Panos, 2014; v. Klitzing, 2017]. As explained in [v. Klitzing, 2005b; Weis, 2011; v. Klitzing, 2017], this understanding improves on the erroneous "jumping orbit model" previously proposed by Buttiker (1988), which is mentioned here only because it is often seen in some older textbooks.

[0073] The incompressible stripe model facilitates the understanding of the mechanism of dissipationless macroscopic current generation in the quantum Hall effect, which will be summarized below. e >>r c In semiconductor samples with much larger electron mean free path, the electron states form Landau columns ( Figure 3 a, b), whose energy is given by the Landau level. Although in thermal equilibrium, the potential It is constant in the interior of most of the sample, but it increases at the edge of the sample, forming a depletion layer with a width on the order of the Debye length of the semiconductor. Therefore, the sample forms alternating incompressible and compressible electron fluid stripes at its edge, hereinafter referred to as incompressible stripes and compressible stripes ( Figure 4 ). In the incompressible fringes, the chemical potential lies between completely filled and completely unfilled Landau levels, where v is the number of completely filled Landau levels. The number of incompressible fringes is determined by the value of υ. Of these incompressible fringes, usually only the one farthest from the edge of the sample can carry the dissipationless current. Therefore, in the following, we focus on only that fringe without loss of generality.

[0074] The band bending at the edge of the sample leads to an electric field Ey ( Figure 5). The electric field penetrates the stripes, causing the electronic states to drift in the direction of the stripes, thereby generating a current flowing in the x direction on the stripes. This is a less intuitive situation when an electron moves in an electric field and a magnetic field perpendicular to the electric field: in the semiclassical picture, the initially stationary electron is accelerated by the electric field Ey (left edge in the -y direction). Since it then moves with a finite speed in the -y direction, a Lorentz force in the x direction is generated due to Bz. The electron therefore moves in an arc in the x direction, but then the Lorentz force acts in the -y direction again, and so on. As a result, the electron moves along a cycloidal trajectory, which causes the electron to move in the x direction in an average sense.

[0075] The value of the current in the x direction is given by its linear current density This current circulates along the incompressible fringes, forming a closed loop around the sample ( Figure 5 or Figure 1 Left side). Since this current is induced in the ground state of the system, it flows without losses. From a microscopic point of view, losses are absent because electron scattering within a stripe is suppressed by the energy gap between the Landau levels. Electron scattering between incompressible stripes at opposite locations of the sample edge is prohibited by the macroscopic distance between these stripes.

[0076] As described, to generate incompressible fringes and allow dissipationless current flow, the band bending and the associated electric field E y It is worth noting that such band bending and electric fields can also be induced far away from the edge of the sample, for example by using gate electrodes, such as Fig.13 , 14 The freedom given in designing the gate electrode or electrodes, choosing their position on the sample also away from the inner sample edge, and choosing their respective gate voltages is advantageous for many applications, since by this, for example, the interior of the sample can also be used to produce the desired result. By the same argument it is clear that placing a gate electrode with a suitable voltage on the sample can be used to suppress the formation of streaks.

[0077] It is also worth pointing out that in polycrystalline samples, not only the outer edges and surfaces of the entire polycrystal can be used as sample edges, but also the grain boundaries within the polycrystal can be used as edges, since these grain boundaries are equivalent to the edges or surfaces of individual grains. The same applies to the twin boundaries of the corresponding single crystal.

[0078] 2. Cut off the loop of incompressible stripes

[0079] As a next step in the description of this disclosure, we emphasize that the existence of the quantum Hall effect depends on the conditions introduced above. e >>r cIf the electron mean free path l e is small enough, and defects or impurities are introduced into the semiconductor, for example by irradiation or diffusion, the semiconductor will behave like a well-known standard semiconductor in a magnetic field Bz. To make the argument clear, we restrict ourselves here to considering only idealized cases in which, except for l e Except for the reduction of l, all other sample parameters such as electron density or dielectric properties remain unchanged. e The electronic phase of is called the "normal phase".

[0080] Clearly, by using photolithographic patterning techniques, the sample can be altered to include the large l required to exhibit the QHE effect. e The partial sum has a small l that provides normal phase e part. Figure 6 A possible geometric configuration is shown in . By patterning, a sample has been constructed in which the incompressible stripes no longer form closed loops. The remaining stripes are oriented in the x-direction. The rest of the sample consists of a normal semiconductor, in which Landau levels and the quantum Hall effect are absent. Therefore, incompressible stripes cannot form in this part of the sample, and dissipationless current cannot flow, as can be seen from the energy level diagram of this system ( Figure 7 ). It should be noted that the patterning required to obtain the desired structures requires only moderate resolution, since the width of the incompressible fringes is typically about 0.1 micrometers, or more generally, greater than 0.05 micrometers.

[0081] Another method to obtain incompressible fringes that do not form closed loops is as follows. Instead of reducing l in a part of the sample e , but rather use one or more gate electrodes to locally suppress band bending, for example on one side of the sample ( Figure 8 In this case, the sample is still completely in the quantum Hall effect state, but the loop formed by the incompressible stripes is interrupted near the gate electrode, which can be seen from the energy level diagram of the system ( Fig. 9 ) can also be clearly seen.

[0082] In each of these two cases, the sample obtained consists of a stripe, incompressible at both ends, in electrical contact with an ohmic conductor given by either the compressible electronic or normal phase of the quantum Hall effect state.

[0083] 3. Contact with incompressible stripes

[0084] We now consider the effect of establishing two contacts between the stripes and the ohmic semiconductor. Although the incompressible stripes can be contacted in a variety of ways, for the sake of argument we assume here that the contact is mediated by two alternative tunnel barriers, e.g. Fig.10 We will Fig.10 The arrangement shown will be referred to hereinafter as a "stripe element".

[0085] 4. Behavior of stripe elements

[0086] In the first step, the electric field E induced by the band bending at the edge of the sample y Generates drift current as described above This drift current consists of the coherent motion of electrons, as described by unified quantum physics. In the absence of contacts in the stripes, this drift current cannot leave the stripes. Therefore, in the absence of contacts, a situation arises where the inhomogeneous carrier distribution in the stripes builds up an internal potential in the stripes. As a result of this internal potential, the drift current is cancelled.

[0087] The contact provided to the sample changes this situation. In this case, reaching e.g. Fig.10 Drift electrons at the lower contact shown can tunnel through the tunnel barrier and occupy available free states in the electronic density of states of the n-type semiconductor providing the lower contact. This semiconductor is characterized by a Fermi-Dirac distribution of state occupancy at finite T.

[0088] As the electrons leave the stripes at the lower contact, the electrons in the stripes drift downward in the -x direction and are replenished at the upper contact by thermally excited electrons tunneling into the stripes from the upper contact. The process by which electrons move into or out of the stripes is an incoherent, inelastic process. It generally involves thermal excitation or a continuous density of electronic states: therefore, the device operation involves a combination of coherent electron transport as described by the Schrödinger equation and incoherent transport as appropriately described by the Born rule or the Fermi golden rule. In the case discussed here as an example, the transition between the two transport processes occurs exactly at the transition between the incompressible state and the contact. However, in other cases, the transition may occur at a different location, such as in the contacts themselves, in case their parts house a coherent electronic system. By this action, the electron charge accumulates in the lower contact and the electrons are partially removed from the upper contact. The difference between the electron density in the two contacts produces their electrochemical potential difference, i.e., a finite voltage is established between the upper and lower contacts.

[0089] therefore, Fig.10An example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown, the quantum device 10 comprises a semiconductor sample 10A, such as a silicon sample 10A, to which a magnetic field perpendicular to the main surface of the semiconductor sample is applied, so that the semiconductor sample 10A can show the quantum Hall effect and is therefore an example of a topological material. The quantum device 10 also comprises a non-reciprocal transport structure 1, in which embodiment, the non-reciprocal transport structure 1 is an incompressible stripe 1 provided as described above. The quantum device 10 also comprises two terminals 5, i.e., contacts 5 connected to the non-reciprocal transport structure 1 at opposite ends. The non-reciprocal transport structure 1 is suitable for generating an electron current between at least two contacts 5, and in this embodiment, the two contacts are suitable for inelastically scattering at least a portion of the current in a dissipative manner.

[0090] exist Fig.10 In the embodiment shown, there are two compressible stripes 2 on either side of an incompressible stripe. However, in principle, the compressible stripes 2 are not necessary for the actual function of the component. It is quite possible to construct a device containing only one compressible stripe 2 (the stripe near the edge of the sample). However, the presence of such a compressible stripe is a parasitic effect.

[0091] If the two contacts 5 are connected to each other via a load, for example if a lamp is connected to the contact 5, the following circuit is created: the incompressible stripe 1 "generates" a current which flows only in this incompressible stripe 1 without dissipation. This current enters the first contact 5, where the electrons are scattered inelastically. The current then flows through the lamp to the second contact 5 and finally back into the incompressible stripe 1. It is also possible to intentionally introduce a small amount of dissipation into the incompressible stripe 1 so that the current does not flow there completely without dissipation.

[0092] It is worth noting that Fig.13 , 14 As shown, incompressible fringes can also be introduced inside the sample (i.e. away from the sample edge or surface) by means of a gate electrode. Furthermore, the 2D electronic system can be intentionally locally disrupted by etching away a portion of the multiple layers of the semiconductor housing the 2D electronic system. Thus, the use of gate electrodes defined, for example, by photolithography or chemically etched structures provides the possibility to freely place incompressible fringes over the entire sample and thereby utilize a larger sample area for generating electrical energy.

[0093] It should also be noted that the efficiency of electron transport into the contact material can be enhanced by using a tunnel barrier with high transparency, or by providing a high density of states in the contact material. If the contact would remain open, i.e. without further connections, the finite voltage would again affect the charge distribution in the incompressible stripes and thereby suppress the drift current.

[0094] However, the contacts are in contact with the ohmic part of the sample given by the compressible fringes and the normal phase. In this case, electrons will flow through the ohmic part of the sample from the bottom contact to the top contact, generating an internal ohmic current I shunt .

[0095] 5. Get output voltage or output current

[0096] If contacts, preferably the two outermost contacts 8 (see Fig.12 ) is connected to an external load, then part of the flowing charge determined by Kirchhoff's law will pass through the external load, thus providing the output power of the device. Obviously, by choosing a shunt Minimized sample design can enhance this output power. In the simplest case, Fig.11 As shown, this can be achieved by cutting a large number of slits in the sample.

[0097] It should be emphasized that the polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the direction of Bz and E y The polarity of the stripes is determined by the polarity of the stripes and is therefore the same at any point on the edge of a given sample. Because of this, it is easy to produce many stripe arrangements connected with the correct polarity (see Fig.12 and 14 Quantum devices 20 and 30 in FIG.

[0098] 6. Further implementation measures

[0099] The device disclosed above utilizes a combination of one or more incompressible stripes 1 and contact points 5, such as Fig.10 , 12 and 14.

[0100] Obviously, the combination of current in the ground state of the electronic system and incoherent processes can also be used to Fig.10 Other device configurations that differ from the example shown are illustrated in the following two further examples:

[0101] I) Device having voltage and / or current characteristics generated in a conductor near an incompressible stripe

[0102] Fig.15 A cross section of a quantum device 20 is shown, which includes a semiconductor sample 20A, an electron system forming an incompressible stripe 21 having a current flowing in the ground state of the system, a barrier layer 22, and another conductor 23. The barrier layer 22 couples the electron system of the incompressible stripe 21 and the other conductor 23 by electron tunneling or phonon exchange.

[0103] In this example, the other conductor 23 is an ohmic conductor 23, such as an n-type doped semiconductor, whose mean free path is smaller than its magnetic length, and therefore does not form Landau levels or exhibit quantum Hall effects. Due to the coupling between the incompressible stripes 21 and the other conductor 23, electrons moving in the incompressible stripes 21 at a speed in the x direction given by the value of the flowing current tend to induce electron drift in the other conductor 23. This induction is accomplished by electrons tunneling from the incompressible stripes 21 into the other conductor 23 at a finite drift velocity, or by electrons in the incompressible stripes 21 first inducing a finite drift velocity in the phonon system and then inducing a finite drift velocity in the other conductor 23. Likewise, the electron system in the other conductor 23 will slow down the electron drift in the incompressible stripes 21.

[0104] The electron current induced in the other conductor 23 will induce a voltage between the two contacts 24 located at both ends of the other conductor 23. In a stable state, this voltage will inhibit the flow of current in the other conductor 23. However, the output voltage can be used to operate the electrical device. The load of the device reduces the output voltage, so that a current is induced again in the other conductor 23. By flowing through the electrical device, the current flows in a loop.

[0105] It goes without saying that the additional conductors 23 can also be placed laterally close to the incompressible stripes 21, a plurality of additional conductors can be used to enhance the output, or the additional conductors 23 can be placed directly close to the incompressible stripes 21 without an intentionally made barrier layer 22. In fact, even compressible stripes can be used as additional conductors. The barrier layer 22 itself can also consist of compressible stripes at the edge of the semiconductor device.

[0106] II) Devices featuring temporary interruption of current flow in incompressible stripes

[0107] To understand the operation of this further quantum device, which functions by temporarily interrupting the flow of electric current in an incompressible stripe, two facts should be recalled:

[0108] a) The carrier density of the two-dimensional electron system can be easily adjusted through the field effect transistor structure, even to complete depletion, that is, in this structure, the charge applied to the gate electrode changes the carrier concentration of the two-dimensional electron system. This field effect transistor has a power amplification function. To switch on or off a large current, only a very small amount of power is consumed.

[0109] b) A current flowing in an incompressible stripe generates a magnetic field; therefore, the current is associated with an inductance L. For straight stripes, L is linearly related to the length of the stripe; for circular stripes, L is proportional to the diameter of the ring.

[0110] Regarding the operation of each further quantum device described in the first aspect, by Fig.16 and Fig.17 In the example shown, the quantum device 30 includes an incompressible stripe 31 forming a loop in the xy plane in a layer near the surface of a semiconductor sample 30A (e.g., a silicon sample 30A). In addition, the device 30 also includes a gate electrode (G) 32 having a diameter d much smaller than the width w of the incompressible stripe 31. The gate electrode 32 can be charged to completely deplete the region with a lateral dimension s>w, forming an insulating state with a potential barrier so that charge carriers cannot pass through the region. The region is also connected to a gate electrode with an ohmic resistance R L The load resistor 33 is used for shunting. Conductive electrode layers 34 are provided on the inner and outer surfaces of the incompressible band 31. An electric field can be generated by the electrode layer 34 to induce the Hall effect.

[0111] Fig.17 shows the current I flowing through the device as a function of time. on <t<t off Except for this, the gate voltage is zero, during which time the gate is charged to provide full depletion as described above. <t on , the constant current I0 circulates in the loop given by the incompressible stripes according to their equilibrium state. on At this moment, the passage of the current through the depletion region is blocked. However, given the inductance L, the circulating current can only vary with the time constant τ, which is caused by the device inductance. While the value decreases, the current thus flows through the ohmic resistor R L 33 and bypass the gated area. L The dissipation caused by the circulating current is τ = L / R L Attenuation. off At this moment, the gate is closed again, and the current now flows completely through the incompressible stripe 31 and returns to the initial value I0.

[0112] It is worth pointing out that the maximum gate voltage required to prevent current from flowing under the gate is proportional to Ic R L is proportional to the maximum voltage that can appear across the depletion region on resistor 33 or under gate 32. This limit does not depend on the inductance L and therefore on the diameter D of the ring. Since the square of this voltage determines the maximum energy Egate that can be used to charge the gate capacitance to prevent current flow, this energy is also independent of L or D.

[0113] It should also be understood that when the current flows through R L t on <t<t off During this period, the electrical energy flows through the resistor R L33 and generates heat there. If the ohmic resistor 33 is replaced by an electronic device with ohmic characteristics, the electronic device can perform work determined by the energy. L is proportional to the product of the time-averaged power dissipated in c 2 R L And time constant τ = L / R L Given: E out =c I c 2 R L x L / R L. =c I c 2 L. Here, c≈1 / e 2 , where e is Euler's constant and is a constant factor. It is important to note that by increasing D and L, Eout can be increased as desired, whereas Egate does not increase with D. For large D, Eout therefore exceeds Egate.

[0114] Therefore, if the operation is performed by repeatedly switching the gate, then on the time average, the current from the device to R L The repetition of gate switching can also be provided by thermal noise induced by the ohmic resistor, especially if the ohmic resistor is connected in series with the bias voltage. In addition, the device can be operated at such a high temperature T that the kT-driven charging process of point or line defects leads to the formation of a depletion region, such as Fig.16 shown.

[0115] therefore, Fig.16 A further example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown, the quantum device 30 includes a semiconductor sample 30A, such as a silicon sample 30A, to which a magnetic field perpendicular to the main surface of the semiconductor sample 30A is applied, so that the semiconductor sample 30A can exhibit a quantum Hall effect, thereby becoming an example of a topological material. The quantum device 30 also includes a non-reciprocal transmission structure 31, which is an incompressible stripe 31 in this embodiment, and is arranged as described above. The quantum device 30 also includes another element 33, namely a load resistor R L 33, which is connected to the non-reciprocal transmission structure 31 through two terminals 34, and the two terminals 34 are respectively located on opposite sides of the gate electrode 32. In this embodiment, the non-reciprocal transmission structure 31 is set to L 33 induces an electron current, and in this embodiment, the load resistor R L 33 is arranged to inelastically scatter at least a portion of the current in a dissipative manner. Therefore, in this embodiment, only the lossless current flowing in the incompressible stripes 31 is used to load the load resistor RL 33 to generate an external voltage or current, rather than utilizing the lossless current itself.

[0116] 7. Expand to other systems

[0117] The above explanation is given for the example of integer quantum Hall effect (QHE). However, the present disclosure is not limited to integer QHE devices, but refers to any sample or phenomenon that can induce dissipationless macroscopic surface current, which will be explained below by the examples of fractional QHE, anomalous QHE and quantum spin Hall effect. There are more systems, such as Chern insulators.

[0118] First we note that the present disclosure applies without modification to the fractional quantum Hall effect, as the above explanations are equally applicable in this case.

[0119] For the anomalous quantum Hall effect ( Figure 1 C), the present disclosure works in the same manner as described above, except that no external magnetic field B needs to be applied due to the magnetization inside the sample. Figure 1 B), the surface current consists of two counter-circulating electron currents with opposite spin orientations, the so-called chiral edge modes. No B magnetic field needs to be applied. If the device is built and operated as described above (without applying a B magnetic field), electrons with one spin direction accumulate at one contact point and electrons with the opposite spin direction accumulate at the other contact point. This behavior is valuable for separating electrons with different spin directions and for generating magnetic dipoles. If the symmetry of the number of electrons with the two spin directions is broken, for example by applying a B magnetic field, introducing spin-dependent scattering in the sample or using further spin polarizers or analyzers, a net voltage and a net current will result.

[0120] In a further embodiment of the present disclosure, chiral surface currents flowing along the edge of a topological insulator are utilized. Under standard conditions, two chiral currents with opposite spin directions circulate around the sample in opposite directions, such as Figure 1 As shown in B.

[0121] Fig.18A realization of a quantum device 40 based on a disk-shaped topological insulator 40A (TI) is shown, with two chiral currents flowing in opposite directions at the edge of the topological insulator. The triangle represents the flow direction of electrons in the chiral channel. The chiral current flowing clockwise is provided by electrons with spin down in the plane of the topological insulator 41, and the current flowing counterclockwise is provided by electrons with spin up. The device 40 includes two regions A and B that produce spin flip scattering. Region A preferentially scatters spin up electrons into spin down electrons, and region B preferentially scatters spin down electrons into spin up electrons. The upper half (C) of the device is connected via contact point 42, and the lower half is connected via contact point 43.

[0122] Thus, in this embodiment of the present disclosure, these chiral surface currents are locally coupled to spatial regions containing inelastic scattering centers A, B, which provide spin-flip scattering. For example, such inelastic scattering centers can be provided by impurity states or quantum dots associated with magnetic moments. For high densities of spin-flip scattering centers, scattering can lead to undesirable Anderson localization. Therefore, preferably, a scattering center density is selected that is less than the material-dependent value required for Anderson localization.

[0123] In these embodiments, at least one scattering region is provided in which the scattering process has a preferred direction, for example, it is more likely to scatter particles with spin up in the downward direction than to scatter particles with spin down in the upward direction. This preferred directionality of the scattering process can be achieved, for example, by preferentially aligning the magnetic moments of impurity states or spins by locally applying a magnetic field, for example by using a permanent magnet.

[0124] like Fig.18 As shown, the device 40 is provided with at least two such scattering regions. Fig.18 In the case shown, one region (A) has a preferred direction of spin scattering from top to bottom, and the other region (B) has a preferred direction of spin scattering from bottom to top. In addition, the device is equipped with two contact points 1 and 2, which are placed in the two spatial parts C and D of the chiral surface current connecting A and B, respectively.

[0125] like Fig.18 The flow of chiral current shown corresponds to the conventional case of equal current density. This case provides a constant electron density in the current path, with both contacts 42, 43 at the same electrochemical potential. However, due to the action of the spin flip regions A and B, Fig.18 The situation is unstable because A and B will cause the chiral current to turn, such as Fig.19As shown. As a result, starting from a constant electron density, electrons flow from region C to D at a higher rate than from D to C. A new stable state is thus established, in which a difference in electron density between C and D and therefore an electrochemical potential difference between C and D appears, so that a dissipative return flow of electrons from D to C is induced, which creates a new current balance. Effectively, the action of A and B has resulted in the pumping of electrons from C to D compared to the beginning of the process. The electrochemical potential difference is transferred to contacts 42 and 43 and can be used to drive an external load.

[0126] therefore, Fig.19 The results of the action of the spin-flip scattering process occurring at A and B are revealed. At A, electrons circulating counterclockwise are flipped into electrons circulating clockwise (see curved arrows), and are therefore blocked from entering region C. At B, electrons circulating clockwise are flipped into electrons circulating counterclockwise (see curved arrows), and are therefore also blocked from entering region C. As a result, the electron density decreases in C and increases in D, resulting in a voltage between contacts 42 and 43.

[0127] Obviously, the electrochemical potential difference, or if a load is provided, the output current of such a device, for example, benefits from the large value of the surface current flowing in the sample before the addition of A, B. Therefore, the described useful effects can be optimized by using topological insulators with large chiral currents or with a large gain in the free energy associated with these chiral currents.

[0128] therefore, Fig.18 Another example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown, the quantum device 40 includes a topological insulator 40A as an example of a topological material. The quantum device 40 also includes a transport structure 41, which in this embodiment consists of a chiral channel for counter-propagating electrons. The quantum device 40 also includes a region of topological material, namely inelastic scattering centers A and B, which are suitable for inelastically scattering at least a portion of the current in a dissipative manner.

[0129] By showing the example in Fig.18 The situation shown in is only a special case of the general principle of this embodiment of the present disclosure. For example, the device will work even if there is no preferred spin scattering direction in one of the regions A or B. In this case, in addition to the mentioned electrochemical potential difference, the stable situation will produce a net chiral circulating current around the sample, which generates a magnetic field.

[0130] Furthermore, if several of the AB region and contacts 52 and 53 are added to the sample, the device will work with a greater effect, as shown in FIG. Fig. 20 As shown. The quantum device 50 includes a topological insulator 50A (TI) (such as Fig.18 and 19The quantum device 40 shown and described is a topological insulator 50A, a number of scattering centers A and B, and a number of contacts 52 and 53. Therefore, the quantum device 50 is based on Fig.18 The principle of the quantum device 40 is shown. Fig. 20 In the configuration shown, the presence of multiple scattering centers A, B and contacts 52, 53 produces a greater device output.

[0131] In addition, if Fig.18 and Fig. 20 The several devices shown can be combined in series, parallel or in a network, which can also include stacking in the third spatial dimension.

[0132] Furthermore, it is clear that the principles described here for two-dimensional topological insulators are equally applicable to three-dimensional and other topological materials, and can lead to enhanced output effects. For three-dimensional topological materials, regions A and B and contacts 42 and 43 can be in the form of stripes that pass through the surface perpendicular to the direction of surface current flow. Current backflow along these surfaces can be minimized by adding additional inelastic or magnetic scattering centers to reduce conduction along surfaces that provide unnecessary current shunting.

[0133] It should also be emphasized that the arguments presented are not limited to edge or surface currents consisting of mobile electrons. The revealed mechanism applies equally to mobile holes. This mechanism also applies if other quasiparticles (such as spinons, magnons, phonons, polaritons or polaritons) are discovered in the future or have been discovered to constitute these currents.

[0134] Fig.21 A further example of a quantum device according to the first aspect is shown. The device makes use of a topological insulator equipped with two contact points 1, 2 and embedded in a heat bath. Chiral edge states are formed at the upper and lower edges of the topological insulator, which carry spin-polarized electrons as shown in the figure. Electrons are represented by small hollow circles, their spins are represented by upward or downward arrows, and the direction of movement of the electrons is represented by left or right arrows. The inelastic scattering centers are spatially divided into two regions A and B, represented by hollow circles. The spin flip direction of these scattering centers is controlled by a magnetic field applied to regions A and B, and the direction of the magnetic field is indicated by a bold arrow.

[0135] It is worth mentioning here that in the article published by AM Bozkurt et al. in Physical Review B, Vol. 97, p. 245414 (2018) and in WO 2018 / 027243 A1, spin-flip scattering of electrons in the chiral edge channels of topological insulators is used to realize the battery function, that is, to obtain a device that provides an output current by discharging after charging with a charging current.

[0136] Despite Fig.21Although there are similarities between the embodiments shown, the working mode of the device in AM Bozkurt et al., Physical Review B, Vol. 97, p. 245414 (2018) and WO 2018 / 027243 A1 differs fundamentally from the present disclosure. This is evident from the fact that the device in AM Bozkurt et al., Physical Review B, Vol. 97, p. 245414 (2018) and WO 2018 / 027243 A1 is a battery whose core function is based on a storage resource in which the information is changed by spin flipping whenever a backscattering event occurs. In addition, the battery operation requires a driving phase, during which the storage resource is charged by charging the device with an electric current. In addition, the battery does not require thermal excitation, inelastic scattering processes, or heat baths, does not make use of the inhomogeneous spatial distribution of the realized nuclear spins or doping spins, and does not rely on or make use of a predetermined preferential direction of spin flip scattering.

[0137] In contrast, the devices disclosed herein are thermal energy generators, not batteries, and have a different architecture. They do not require storage resources to store information, nor do they require charging current. Instead, they require thermal excitation, inelastic scattering with preferred directions, and a heat bath.

[0138] By considering Fig.21 The embodiment of the present disclosure shown in FIG. 1 is a very sharp contrast, and the drawing method is convenient for comparison with the A.M. Bozkurt et al. published in Physical Review B, Vol. 97, p. 245414 (2018). Figure 1 c for comparison. This embodiment utilizes a spatially independent scattering region A. In this region there are scattering centers characterized by preferential scattering of electrons with spin down over those with spin up. This preferential spin scattering direction is obtained by locally breaking the spatial symmetry, for example by applying a magnetic field, such as using a permanent magnet. These scattering centers can be composed of, for example, atoms that provide two empty states, one for each spin direction, which are Zeeman split in energy by a locally applied magnetic field. Unoccupied atoms require neither nuclear spin nor total electron spin. These atoms are coupled to the heat bath in which the device is embedded. In order to enhance the output signal, a scattering region B can also be applied to the bottom channel, but the spin flip characteristics of this region must be different from those of region A. In the example shown, region B has a preferential scattering direction from top spin to bottom spin, which is achieved by applying a magnetic field with the opposite polarity to the magnetic field in region A.

[0139] It is obvious from the explanation given that preferential spin-flip scattering leads to a preferential direction of electron motion in the upper channel, resulting in a difference in the electrochemical potential energy of the two contact points.

[0140] Examples of further embodiments or implementations of the present disclosure are given below.

[0141] (a) A device according to the first aspect comprising an alternative sample geometry, for example an incompressible ring interrupted at only one point.

[0142] (b) Optimize the sample geometry to have a large stripe-like area to obtain a larger output signal. This can be achieved by: 1) using surface current rather than edge current; 2) distributing incompressible channels on the sample surface area (see Fig.13 , 14 ).

[0143] (c) The contact point (5) only establishes contact with the adjacent stripe element, but not with the normal phase (3). A possible implementation method is to provide an insulating film under at least part of the contact point.

[0144] (d) The stripe elements can be connected in series or in parallel as required.

[0145] (e) The output is amplified N times by stacking semiconductors into a sample consisting of N layers, for example, using a heterostructure.

[0146] (f) Use multiple gate electrodes to suppress the formation of a large number of incompressible stripes.

[0147] (g) Using impurity diffusion or defect formation to create the normal phase for quantum Hall effect-based devices.

[0148] (h) A sample of a quantum Hall effect-based device is irradiated with a particle beam or electromagnetic radiation to produce the normal phase.

[0149] (i) Examples f, g, h and patterning process as geometric structures.

[0150] (j) Using non-uniform magnetic fields to form desired structures, such as stripes of ideal shapes.

[0151] (k) Utilizing samples with inhomogeneous electronic or magnetic properties (e.g., inhomogeneous carrier density, doping, dielectric susceptibility, magnetic susceptibility, electric polarization, magnetization, surface structure) to fabricate desired structures, such as stripes of ideal shapes.

[0152] (1) Sample design to suppress shunt current is achieved by selecting the electrical properties and geometry of the sample.

[0153] (m) Use the gate voltage to turn the effect on, off, or invert its sign.

[0154] (n) Use light to turn the effect on, off, or invert its sign.

[0155] (o) Materials for quantum devices: Si, GaAs, other standard elemental semiconductors, III-V and II-VI semiconductors, ZnO, graphene, other two-dimensional materials, topological materials (Bi2Se3, Heisler alloys and semi-Heisler alloys), semimetals, metals, materials composed of or containing organic molecules.

[0156] (p) Use bulk single crystals, bulk polycrystalline, bulk amorphous materials, thin films, heterostructures, and multilayer structures.

[0157] (q) Replace the tunnel contact with other contact methods such as Schottky contact or Ohmic contact.

[0158] (r) The normal phase (3) is manufactured to have high resistivity to minimize the shunt current.

[0159] (s) Use permanent magnets, nuclear spin polarization, or electromagnets to generate magnetic fields.

[0160] (t) Use of uniform electric fields and / or non-uniform magnetic fields that can be locally oriented in any direction.

[0161] (u) Using an optimized operating temperature to achieve the desired device performance, which can be below room temperature, at room temperature, or above room temperature.

[0162] The present disclosure also relates to use of a quantum device according to the first aspect or an array comprising two or more quantum devices according to the second aspect in an electrical device, in a manner of connecting two terminals of the quantum device or two external terminals of the quantum device array to a load of the electrical device.

[0163] The present disclosure also relates to a method for converting thermal energy into one or more potential, current, magnetic field or temperature inhomogeneity or electron spin distribution according to the third aspect, the method comprising

[0164] manufacturing a quantum device according to the first aspect or manufacturing an array of quantum devices according to the second aspect; and

[0165] The quantum device is connected to a load or other device configured to produce one or more voltages, currents, magnetic fields, temperature inhomogeneities, or electron spin distributions.

[0166] According to an embodiment of the method described in the fourth aspect, in the case of a quantum device operating on the basis of the quantum Hall effect, a further step of activating the quantum device includes applying and / or changing a magnetic field to the transmission structure and adjusting the magnetic field strength to form incompressible stripes in at least one first region.

[0167] Although the present disclosure has been illustrated and described with respect to one or more embodiments, changes and / or modifications to the described examples do not depart from the spirit and scope of the appended claims. In particular, with respect to the various functions performed by the components or structures (components, devices, circuits, systems, etc.) described above, the terms used to describe such components (including references to "means"), unless otherwise specified, are intended to correspond to any component or structure that performs the specified function of the component (e.g., functionally equivalent), even if its structure is not equivalent to the structure that performs the function in the above-described example embodiments of the present disclosure.

Claims

1. A quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60), comprising: - a transmission structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31; 41; 51; 61) provided by a topological material (10A; 20A; 30A; 40A; 50A; 60A) and - at least two terminals (5; 8; 24; 34; 42, 43; 52, 53; 62, 63) are connected to the transmission structure; in The function of the transport structure is to generate a current of electrons, holes or other quasiparticles between at least two terminals; and wherein at least one or more of the following is capable of causing at least a portion of the current to be inelastically scattered, - a region (A, B) of a topological material (40A, 50A; 60A), - one or both of at least two terminals (5; 8), or - other elements or materials (23; 33).

2. The quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60) according to claim 1, wherein at least one or more of the following is connected to a heat bath: - a region (A, B) of a topological material (40A, 50A; 60A), - one or both of at least two terminals (5; 8), or - other elements or materials (23; 33).

3. A quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60) according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the transmission structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31; 41; 51; 61) is a non-reciprocal transmission structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31).

4. A quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60) according to any preceding claim, wherein the function of the transmission structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31; 41; 51; 61) is to generate an electric current when at least two terminals are at the same temperature.

5. A quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60) according to any preceding claim, wherein the transport structure (1; 1a, 1b; 21; 31; 41; 51; 61) extracts thermal energy from a surrounding heat bath and converts the thermal energy into the generation of electric current.

6. A quantum device (10; 20; 30; 40; 50; 60) according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the functional principle of the quantum device is based on any of the quantum Hall effect, the quantum spin Hall effect, the quantum anomalous Hall effect or the surface current on a three-dimensional topological material.

7. A quantum device (10) according to claim 6, wherein the functional principle of the quantum device is based on the quantum Hall effect, wherein at least one first region (1) of the topological material (10A) is formed between the at least two terminals (5; 8), so that the at least one first region (1) is suitable for developing into at least one incompressible stripe (1) when a magnetic field of a predetermined strength is applied, and an electron current is generated in the incompressible stripe (1) in a unidirectional and dissipation-free manner.

8. A quantum device (10) according to claim 7, wherein at least one first region (1) is surrounded by at least one second region (3), wherein at least one first region (1) contains a first mean free path of electrons, and at least one second region (3) contains a second mean free path of electrons, wherein the first mean free path is higher than the second mean free path.

9. The quantum device (10) of claim 8, wherein the first mean free path is 10 times or more higher than the second mean free path.

10. The quantum device (10) according to any one of claims 7 to 9, wherein the first region (1) comprises a width greater than 50 nm.

11. The quantum device (30) according to any one of claims 7 to 10, further comprising at least one electrode (35) connected to the transport structure (31) and configured to generate an electric field to induce the Hall effect or guide electrons in a desired direction.

12. A quantum device (40, 50) according to claim 6, wherein the functional principle of the quantum device is based on the quantum spin Hall effect, wherein in a transport structure (41; 51), at least one first region of a topological material (40A; 50A) is arranged so that two chiral currents with opposite spin directions circulate in opposite directions along a path connected to two relative terminals (42, 43; 52, 53), and in this first region, at least two inelastic scattering centers (A, B) are arranged on the path, which provide spin flip scattering with different spin scattering directions, thereby resulting in an electrochemical potential difference between the two terminals.

13. A quantum device according to claim 6, wherein the functional principle of the quantum device is based on the anomalous quantum Hall effect, wherein in a transport structure, at least one first region of the topological material is configured so that two chiral currents with opposite spin directions circulate in opposite directions along a path connected to two relative terminals, and in the first region, at least two inelastic scattering centers are arranged on the path, which inelastic scattering centers provide spin flip scattering with different spin flip scattering directions and different spin flip scattering intensities, thereby resulting in an electrochemical potential difference and a magnetic field at the two terminals.

14. An array (100; 200) of two or more quantum devices according to any preceding claim, wherein the quantum devices are connected in series and / or in parallel or anti-parallel to each other.

15. Use of the quantum device according to any one of claims 1 to 13 or an array of two or more quantum devices according to claim 14 in an electrical device by connecting two terminals of the quantum device or two external terminals of the array of quantum devices to the electrical device.

16. A method for converting thermal energy into one or more of a voltage, a current, a magnetic field, or an inhomogeneity in temperature or a population of electron spins, the method comprising: Manufacturing a quantum device according to any one of claims 1 to 13 or a quantum device array according to claim 14; and connecting the quantum device to a load or other equipment configured to generate one or more of a voltage, a current, a magnetic field, or an inhomogeneity in temperature or a population of electron spins.

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