Indium oxide coated current collector

Abstract

An indium oxide coated current collector is provided. Methods for forming current collectors and batteries, and vehicles including such current collectors and batteries, are provided. A method for forming a current collector, comprising: providing a current collector material; and forming indium oxide on the current collector material.

Description

Technical Field

[0001] The technical field generally relates to rechargeable electrochemical devices. More specifically, aspects of this disclosure relate to current collectors and methods for manufacturing current collectors for forming lithium batteries. Background Technology

[0002] High-energy-density electrochemical cells, such as lithium-ion batteries, can be used in a variety of consumer products and vehicles, such as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs). Typical lithium-ion and lithium-sulfur batteries include a first electrode, a second electrode, an electrolyte material, and a separator. One electrode serves as the positive electrode or cathode, and the other as the negative electrode or anode. Stacks of battery cells can be electrically connected to increase the total output. Conventional rechargeable lithium-ion batteries operate by reversibly transferring lithium ions back and forth between the negative and positive electrodes. A separator and electrolyte can be disposed between the negative and positive electrodes. The electrolyte is suitable for conducting lithium ions and can be in solid (e.g., solid-state diffusion) or liquid form. During battery charging, lithium ions move from the cathode (positive electrode) to the anode (negative electrode) and in the opposite direction during battery discharge.

[0003] Many different materials can be used to manufacture components of lithium-ion battery packs. Common negative electrode materials include lithium intercalation materials or alloy host materials, such as carbon-based materials, such as lithium-graphite intercalation compounds or lithium-silicon compounds, lithium-tin alloys, and lithium titanate. When the negative electrode is made of metallic lithium, the electrochemical cell is considered a lithium metal battery or cell. Metallic lithium used as the negative electrode in rechargeable batteries has various potential advantages, including the highest theoretical capacity and the lowest electrochemical potential. Therefore, batteries containing lithium metal anodes can have higher energy densities, potentially doubling the storage capacity, allowing the battery to be half the size while still maintaining the same range as other lithium-ion batteries. Thus, lithium metal batteries are one of the most promising candidates for high-energy storage systems. However, lithium metal batteries also have potential disadvantages, including the possibility of unreliable or degraded performance and potential premature electrochemical cell failure.

[0004] For example, when lithium metal is charged, the performance degradation of the lithium negative electrode may be caused by the growth of branched or fibrous metal structures (called dendrites) on the negative electrode. Metal dendrites may form sharp protrusions that can potentially pierce the separator and cause internal short circuits, which can lead to cell self-discharge or cell failure through thermal runaway.

[0005] Therefore, it is desirable to develop reliable, high-performance lithium-containing negative electrode materials for high-energy electrochemical cells that reduce or suppress the formation of lithium metal dendrites. Furthermore, other desirable features and characteristics of this disclosure will become apparent from the accompanying drawings and the foregoing introduction, as well as from the following detailed description and appended claims. Summary of the Invention

[0006] In one embodiment, a method for forming a current collector is provided. The method includes providing a current collector material; and forming indium oxide on the current collector material.

[0007] In some embodiments of the method, forming indium oxide on the current collector material includes forming indium on the current collector material; and converting indium into indium oxide.

[0008] In some embodiments of the method, forming indium on the current collector material includes electrochemically depositing indium on the current collector material.

[0009] In some embodiments of the method, converting indium to indium oxide includes annealing indium in the presence of oxygen.

[0010] In some embodiments of the method, converting indium to indium oxide includes annealing indium in the presence of air.

[0011] In some embodiments of the method, annealing indium in the presence of air includes performing the annealing process at a temperature of at least 250°C.

[0012] In some embodiments, the method further includes controlling the thickness of the indium on the current collector material while forming indium on the current collector material.

[0013] In some embodiments of the method, the thickness is from 25 nanometers (nm) to 1 micrometer (μm).

[0014] In some embodiments, the method further includes controlling the thickness of the indium oxide while converting indium into indium oxide.

[0015] In some embodiments of the method, after indium is converted into indium oxide, a portion of the indium is retained on the current collector material.

[0016] In some embodiments, the method further includes forming lithium on indium oxide.

[0017] In some embodiments, the method further includes forming lithium on indium oxide, including electrodepositing lithium on indium oxide.

[0018] In some embodiments of the method, forming lithium on indium oxide includes rolling lithium onto indium oxide.

[0019] In some embodiments of the method, the current collector material is made of copper.

[0020] In another embodiment, a method for manufacturing a battery is provided. The method includes forming an anode current collector by forming indium oxide on copper and a lithium layer on the indium oxide; separating the anode current collector from a cathode current collector using a separator; and contacting the anode and cathode current collectors with an electrolyte.

[0021] In some embodiments of the method, forming indium oxide on copper includes electrochemically depositing indium on copper.

[0022] In some embodiments of the method, forming indium oxide on copper includes annealing indium in the presence of oxygen to convert indium into indium oxide.

[0023] In some embodiments, the method further includes controlling the thickness of indium on copper while electrochemically depositing indium on copper; and controlling the thickness of indium oxide while converting indium to indium oxide.

[0024] In another embodiment, the vehicle is provided with a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS), the vehicle including an electric traction motor; and a battery pack operatively connected to the electric traction motor. The battery pack includes a lithium-ion battery. The lithium-ion battery includes an anode current collector comprising a copper current collector material, an indium oxide layer on the copper current collector material, and a lithium layer on the indium oxide layer, wherein the indium oxide layer is configured to mitigate lithium dendrite growth during charge and discharge cycles of the lithium-ion battery; a cathode current collector; a porous separator between the anode and cathode current collectors; and an electrolyte in contact with the cathode and cathode current collectors.

[0025] In some embodiments of the vehicle, the anode current collector further includes indium between the indium oxide layer and the copper current collector material. Attached Figure Description

[0026] The present disclosure will now be described in conjunction with the following figures, wherein the same numerals denote the same elements, and wherein:

[0027] Figure 1 It is a schematic diagram of a representative vehicle with an electrified powertrain based on aspects of the disclosed concept;

[0028] Figure 2 This is done in accordance with aspects of this disclosure. Figure 1 A schematic diagram of a representative electrochemical device in a vehicle;

[0029] Figure 3 This is a flowchart illustrating a method for manufacturing a current collector and a method for manufacturing a battery according to aspects of this disclosure;

[0030] Figure 4 This is a schematic diagram illustrating the electrodeposition of indium on a current collector according to aspects of this disclosure; and

[0031] Figures 5-8 This is a schematic cross-sectional view of the current collector during the processing following indium electrodeposition, according to aspects of this disclosure. Detailed Implementation

[0032] The following detailed description is merely exemplary in nature and is not intended to limit the application and use of the embodiments described herein. Furthermore, it is not intended to be bound by any express or implied theory set forth in the foregoing introduction, overview, or the following detailed description. As used herein, the term "module" refers to any hardware, software, firmware, electronic control unit or component, processing logic, and / or processor device, individually or in any combination, including but not limited to: application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), electronic circuits, processors (shared, dedicated, or grouped) and memories executing one or more software or firmware programs, combinational logic circuits, and / or other suitable components that provide the described functionality.

[0033] Embodiments of this disclosure are described herein according to functional and / or logical block components and various processing steps. It should be understood that such block components can be implemented by any number of hardware, software, and / or firmware components configured to perform specified functions. For example, embodiments of this disclosure may employ various integrated circuit components, such as memory elements, digital signal processing elements, logic elements, lookup tables, etc., which can perform various functions under the control of one or more microprocessors or other control devices. Furthermore, those skilled in the art will understand that embodiments of this disclosure can be practiced in conjunction with any number of automated driving systems, including cruise control systems, automated driver assistance systems, and autonomous driving systems, and the vehicle system described herein is merely one example embodiment of this disclosure.

[0034] Finally, for the sake of brevity, conventional technologies and components related to other functional aspects of vehicle mechanical parts and systems (and the various operating components of the systems) are not described in detail herein. Furthermore, the connecting lines shown in the various figures included herein are intended to represent exemplary functional relationships and / or physical couplings between various elements. It should be noted that many alternative or additional functional relationships or physical connections may exist in the embodiments. It should also be understood that these figures are merely illustrative and may not be drawn to scale.

[0035] Furthermore, the following description refers to elements or features that are “connected” or “coupled” together. As used herein, “connected” can mean that one element / feature is directly joined to (or connected to) another element / feature, and not necessarily mechanically. Similarly, “coupled” can mean that one element / feature is directly or indirectly joined to (or connected to) another element / feature, and not necessarily mechanically. However, it should be understood that although in one embodiment two elements may be described below as being “connected,” in alternative embodiments similar elements may be “coupled,” and vice versa. Therefore, although the schematic diagrams shown herein depict exemplary arrangements of elements, additional intermediate elements, devices, features, or components may be present in actual embodiments.

[0036] An exemplary battery, a method for manufacturing a current collector or electrode, and a method for manufacturing a battery are provided.

[0037] Dendrites formed by three-dimensional lithium growth on current collectors are undesirable. It has been found that high lithium nucleation overpotentials primarily contribute to dendrite formation, or typically high surface area lithium deposits. The embodiments described herein reduce the lithium nucleation overpotential.

[0038] In some embodiments, a lithiophilic coating is formed on the copper current collector to mitigate the growth of lithium dendrites on the copper current collector. For example, some embodiments form an indium oxide layer on the copper current collector. The embodiments described herein form indium oxide without using expensive high-vacuum techniques.

[0039] In some embodiments, an indium layer is first formed on the current collector, such as through electroplating or electrodeposition processes. Then, at least a portion of the indium is converted to indium oxide. For example, an annealing process can be performed in an oxygen-containing environment. Some embodiments include forming a lithium layer on the indium oxide before arranging the battery components and operating the lithium-ion battery to perform charge and discharge cycles.

[0040] In some embodiments, the indium oxide (In₂O₃) current collector coating results in a reduced lithium nucleation overpotential, which in turn leads to uniform lithium deposition, less dendritic lithium growth, and improved capacity retention. Therefore, a low-cost and scalable process for coating current collector surfaces with an indium oxide lithiophilic coating is provided.

[0041] refer to Figure 1 The diagram illustrates certain features of vehicle 10 in the form of a functional block diagram. In some examples, vehicle 10 includes an automobile. In various examples, vehicle 10 can be any of a variety of different types of automobiles, such as sedans, vans, trucks, or sports utility vehicles (SUVs), and in some examples can be two-wheel drive (2WD) (i.e., rear-wheel drive or front-wheel drive), four-wheel drive (4WD), or all-wheel drive (AWD) and / or various other types of vehicles or mobility platforms.

[0042] The vehicle 10 shown is merely an exemplary application through which the novel aspects of this disclosure can be practiced. Similarly, incorporating this concept into an all-electric vehicle powertrain should also be understood as a non-limiting implementation of the disclosed features. Therefore, it should be understood that aspects and features of this disclosure can be applied to other powertrain architectures, implemented for any logically related type of vehicle, and used with DC- and AC-based EV charging stations. Furthermore, only selected components of the motor vehicle and battery system are shown and described in further detail herein. However, the vehicles and vehicle systems discussed below may include numerous additional and alternative features for performing the various methods and functions of this disclosure, as well as other available peripheral components.

[0043] like Figure 1 As depicted, the exemplary vehicle 10 typically includes a body 14 and wheels 16. The body 14 substantially surrounds the components of the vehicle 10. Each of the wheels 16 is rotatably coupled to the vehicle 10 near a corresponding angle of the body 14.

[0044] Figure 1 A representative vehicle 10 may be equipped with an electrified powertrain that is operable to generate traction torque and transmit it to one or more of the vehicle's wheels 16. The powertrain in Figure 1 This is typically represented by a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS), which can be a chassis-mounted traction battery pack 70 operatively connected to an electric traction motor 40. The traction battery pack 70 typically consists of one or more battery modules 72, each having a stack of battery cells 110, such as pouch, can, or prismatic lithium-ion, lithium-polymer, or nickel-metal hydride battery cells. One or more motors (such as the traction motor / generator unit 40) draw power from and optionally supply power to the battery pack 70 of the RESS. A dedicated power inverter module (PIM) can electrically connect the battery pack 70 to the motor / generator unit 40 and modulate the current transfer therebetween.

[0045] The battery pack 70 can be configured such that module management (including cell sensing, thermal management, and module-to-host communication functions) is directly integrated into each battery module 72 and performed wirelessly via a wireless-enabled cell monitoring unit (CMU). The CMU can be a microcontroller-based, printed circuit board (PCB) mounted sensor array. Each CMU can have a GPS transceiver and RF capabilities and can be packaged on or within the battery module housing. The battery module cells 110, CMU, housing, coolant lines, busbars, etc., collectively define the module assembly.

[0046] Figure 2An exemplary electrochemical device in the form of a rechargeable battery 110 is presented, which is for a desired electrical load (such as...) Figure 1 The battery 110 provides power to the vehicle 10 and offers fast charging capabilities (such as DCFC). The battery 110 includes a pair of conductive electrodes encapsulated within a protective outer casing 120: a first (negative or anode) working electrode 122 and a second (positive or cathode) working electrode 124. In at least some configurations, the battery casing 120 may be an envelope-like bag formed from aluminum foil or other suitable sheet material. The sides of the metal bag may be coated with a polymer finish to insulate the metal from the internal cell elements and adjacent cells (if any). Alternatively, the battery casing (or “cell housing”) 120 may be in a cylindrical metal can configuration (i.e., for cylindrical battery cell configurations) or a polyhedral metal box configuration (i.e., for prismatic battery cell configurations). The working electrodes 122 and 124 are referred to as "anode" or "cathode," or in this regard, "positive" or "negative," without limiting electrodes 122 and 124 to a specific polarity, as the system polarity can change depending on whether the battery 110 is operating in charging or discharging mode. Although Figure 2 A single battery cell unit inserted into the battery housing 120 is shown, but it should be understood that the housing 120 may hold a stack of multiple cell units (e.g., five to five thousand cells or more).

[0047] Continue to refer to Figure 2 The anode electrode 122 can be made of an active anode electrode material capable of binding ions during battery charging operation and releasing ions during battery discharging operation. In at least some implementations, the anode electrode 122 is made wholly or partially of lithium metal, such as lithium-aluminum (LiAl) alloys with a Li / Al atomic ratio in the range of 0 at.% ≤ Li / Al < 70 at.%, and / or aluminum alloys with an Al atomic ratio > 50 at.% (e.g., smelted lithium metal). Additional examples of suitable active anode electrode materials include carbonaceous materials (e.g., graphite, hard carbon, soft carbon, etc.), silicon, silicon-carbon blends (silicon-graphite composites), and Li4Ti5O. 12 Transition metals (alloy types, e.g., Sn), metal oxides / sulfides (e.g., SnO2, FeS, and the like), etc.

[0048] A porous separator 126 is disposed between the two electrodes 122 and 124 inside the battery casing 120. It may be a microporous or nanoporous polymer separator. The porous separator 126 may include a non-aqueous fluid electrolyte composition and / or a solid electrolyte composition, collectively referred to as 130, which may also be present in the negative electrode 122 and the positive electrode 124.

[0049] The negative electrode 122 may include or be provided with a negative electrode current collector 132 located on or near the active anode electrode material. The positive electrode 124 may include or be provided with a positive electrode current collector 134 located on or near the active cathode electrode material.

[0050] Negative electrode current collector 132 and positive electrode current collector 134 collect free electrons and move them into and out of external circuit 140, respectively. The interruptible external circuit 140, with load 142, is connected to negative electrode 122 via the corresponding negative electrode current collector 132 and electrode tab 136, and to positive electrode 124 via the corresponding positive electrode current collector 134 and electrode tab 138. Current collectors 132 and 134 can be formed of aluminum, copper, or another suitable material. Separator 126 can be a sheet-like structure made of a porous polyolefin membrane, for example, having a porosity of about 35% to 65% and a thickness of approximately 25-30 micrometers. Non-conductive ceramic particles (e.g., silicon dioxide) can be coated onto the porous membrane surface of separator 126.

[0051] The porous separator 126 can function as both an electrical insulator and a mechanical support structure by being sandwiched between the two electrodes 122, 124 to prevent physical contact between the electrodes and thus prevent short circuits. In addition to providing a physical barrier between the electrodes 122, 124, the porous separator 126 can facilitate the function of the battery 110 by providing a path of minimum resistance for the interior of ions (and associated anions) during ion cycling. For some alternative configurations, the porous separator 126 can be a microporous polymer separator comprising a polyolefin. The polyolefin can be a homopolymer (derived from a single monomer component) or a hybrid polymer (derived from more than one monomer component) and can be linear or branched. In solid-state batteries, the function of the separator can be partially or entirely provided by the solid electrolyte layer.

[0052] When operating as a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS), battery 110 generates current that is transmitted to one or more loads 142 operatively connected to an external circuit 140. While loads 142 can be any number of electrical devices, some non-limiting examples of power-consuming load devices include electric motors for hybrid or all-electric vehicles, laptops or tablets, cellular smartphones, cordless power tools and appliances, portable power stations, etc. Battery 110 may include a variety of other components, which, although not depicted herein for simplicity and brevity, are still readily available. For example, battery 110 may include one or more gaskets, terminal caps, tabs, battery terminals, and other commercially available components or materials that may be located on or within battery 110. Furthermore, the size, shape, and operating characteristics of battery 110 may vary depending on the specific application for which it is designed.

[0053] The cathode electrode 124 can be made of an active cathode electrode material that supplies ions during battery charging operation and binds ions during battery discharging operation. The cathode 124 material may include, for example, lithium transition metal oxides, phosphates, or silicates, such as LiMO2 (M = Co, Ni, Mn, or combinations thereof); LiM2O4 (M = Mn, Ti, or combinations thereof); LiMPO4 (M = Fe, Mn, Co, or combinations thereof); and LiM x M′ 2-x O4 (M, M′ = Mn or Ni). Additional examples of suitable active cathode electrode materials include lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), lithium nickel cobalt manganese aluminum oxide (NCMA), and other lithium transition metal oxides. In the embodiments herein, the second (positive or negative) working electrode 124 may also include superconducting additives, carbon black, and binder materials.

[0054] The embodiments described herein provide a copper anode current collector 132 coated to mitigate lithium dendrite growth during charge and discharge cycles of the lithium-ion battery 110. In some embodiments, an indium oxide coating is formed on the copper current collector 132. Figures 3-8 The process for forming a current collector (such as anode current collector 132) is described.

[0055] Figure 3 This is a flowchart illustrating a method 300 for forming a coating on an anode current collector 132 and for manufacturing a battery.

[0056] like Figure 3 As shown, method 300 includes providing a current collector material at action frame 305. In some embodiments, the current collector material is copper. The current collector material may include a non-porous metal foil, a perforated metal sheet, a porous metal mesh, or a porous open-cell metal foam.

[0057] At action block 310, method 300 includes forming indium oxide (In₂O₃) on the current collector material. As shown, action block 310 may include the operation of forming indium on the current collector material at action block 311. For example, action block 311 may include electrochemically depositing indium on the current collector material, such as in an electrodeposition bath.

[0058] Furthermore, action frame 310 may include operations at action frame 312 to form indium on the current collector material while simultaneously controlling the thickness of the indium being formed on the current collector material. The thickness of the indium being formed on the current collector material can be controlled by controlling the voltage, current, and deposition time / rate of the electrodeposition process.

[0059] In some embodiments, the thickness of indium formed on the current collector material is from 25 nanometers (nm) to 1000 nm (i.e., 1 micrometer (μm)). For example, the thickness of indium can be at least 25 nm, such as at least 50 nm, at least 75 nm, at least 100 nm, at least 150 nm, at least 200 nm, at least 250 nm, at least 300 nm, at least 350 nm, at least 400 nm, at least 450 nm, at least 500 nm, at least 550 nm, at least 600 nm, at least 650 nm, at least 700 nm, at least 750 nm, at least 800 nm, at least 850 nm, at least 900 nm, or at least 950 nm. In addition, the thickness of indium can be up to 50 nm, such as up to 75 nm, up to 100 nm, up to 125 nm, up to 150 nm, up to 200 nm, up to 250 nm, up to 300 nm, up to 350 nm, up to 400 nm, up to 450 nm, up to 500 nm, up to 550 nm, up to 600 nm, up to 650 nm, up to 700 nm, up to 750 nm, up to 800 nm, up to 850 nm, up to 900 nm, up to 950 nm, or up to 1000 nm.

[0060] As shown in the figure, action block 310 may include the operation of converting indium to indium oxide at action block 313. For example, action block 313 may include annealing indium in the presence of oxygen, such as in the presence of air.

[0061] Furthermore, action block 310 may include, at action block 314, an operation that controls the thickness of indium oxide while converting indium to indium oxide. The thickness of the indium oxide being formed can be controlled by controlling the annealing temperature and time.

[0062] In some embodiments, the annealing process is performed at a temperature of at least 250°C. For example, the annealing process may be performed at a temperature of at least 250°C, such as at least 300°C, at least 350°C, at least 400°C, at least 425°C, at least 450°C, at least 475°C, or at least 500°C. Furthermore, the annealing process may be performed at a temperature of at most 275°C, such as at most 300°C, at most 325°C, at most 350°C, at most 375°C, at most 400°C, at most 425°C, at most 450°C, at most 475°C, at most 500°C, or at most 525°C.

[0063] In some embodiments, the annealing process is performed by increasing the temperature at a ramp rate of at least 1°C / min, such as at a rate of at least 2°C / min, at least 3°C / min, at least 4°C / min, at least 5°C / min, at least 8°C / min, or at least 10°C / min. In some embodiments, the ramp rate is at most 1°C / min, such as at most 2°C / min, at most 3°C / min, at most 4°C / min, at most 5°C / min, at most 8°C / min, or at most 10°C / min.

[0064] In some embodiments, the annealing process is performed for at least 20 minutes, such as at least 30 minutes, at least 40 minutes, at least 50 minutes, at least 60 minutes, at least 70 minutes, at least 80 minutes, at least 90 minutes, at least 100 minutes, at least 110 minutes, at least 120 minutes, at least 130 minutes, at least 140 minutes, or at least 150 minutes. In some embodiments, the annealing process is performed for at most 30 minutes, such as at most 40 minutes, at most 50 minutes, at most 60 minutes, at most 70 minutes, at most 80 minutes, at most 90 minutes, at most 100 minutes, at most 110 minutes, at most 120 minutes, at most 130 minutes, at most 140 minutes, at most 150 minutes, or at most 160 minutes.

[0065] In some embodiments, all indium is converted to indium oxide. In other embodiments, a portion of the indium is converted to indium oxide, and the remaining indium is retained on the current collector, such as between the indium oxide and the current collector.

[0066] like Figure 3 As shown, method 300 further includes forming lithium on indium oxide at action block 320. For example, action block may include depositing lithium on indium oxide, rolling lithium onto indium oxide, molten wetting lithium onto indium oxide, physical or chemical vapor deposition of lithium onto indium oxide, or forming lithium on indium oxide in another suitable manner.

[0067] At action frame 330, method 300 can manufacture an anode current collector from current collector material.

[0068] To manufacture the battery, method 300 may further include separating the anode current collector, on which a lithium layer is formed on the indium oxide layer, from the cathode current collector at the action frame 340 using a separator. For example, as Figure 2 As shown, the current collector and the anode and cathode active materials can be arranged with partitions therebetween.

[0069] Method 300 allows the anode and cathode current collectors to remain in contact with the electrolyte at the action frame 350. As a result, a situation is formed as follows: Figure 2 The battery shown.

[0070] Subsequently, method 300 may include a cycle of performing the charging and discharging process at action frame 360. Subsequently, method 300 may include operating a device, such as vehicle 10, using power from the battery.

[0071] Figure 4 This is a schematic diagram illustrating the electrodeposition process of method 300. As shown, an electrodeposition bath 400 is formed in tank 410. Bath 400 can be any electrolytic solution capable of transporting indium ions, for example, a solution of soluble indium salts, such as an indium sulfamate solution plating bath 400. Tank 410 can be located in an external heating / cooling bath 420.

[0072] exist Figure 4 In this process, an indium source 430, such as an indium plate or indium ingot, is located in an electrodeposition bath 400. Figure 4 An embodiment is a three-electrode system comprising a working electrode 440, a reference electrode 450, and a counter electrode 460 located in an electrodeposition bath 400. In the three-electrode electrodeposition system, the current is measured as a function of the voltage applied between the working electrode 440 and the reference electrode 450 where deposition occurs. The reference electrode 450 is maintained at a constant potential, allowing accurate monitoring of the working electrode potential, while the counter electrode 460 completes the circuitry by transferring the necessary current to balance the reaction at the working electrode 440. Essentially, the system allows for precise control of the potential at the working electrode 440 while simultaneously measuring the current generated during the deposition process.

[0073] The deposition process can be performed in a three-electrode cell as shown in the figure, or in a two-electrode cell. Solid indium 430 can be used as the anode to supply In. 3+ Ions, and the current collector material 500 acts as the cathode, supplying electrons for the following reaction:

[0074] In 3+ +3e - →In,E 0 = -0.34V / NHE (Ordinary hydrogen electrode)

[0075] As shown in the figure, the conductive current collector 500 is located in the electrodeposition bath 400 and is electrically connected to the working electrode 440. The conductive current collector 500 can be a non-porous metal foil, a perforated metal sheet, a porous metal mesh, or a porous open-cell metal foam. In some embodiments, the conductive current collector 500 is copper.

[0076] As described above, current is applied to the electrodeposition bath 400 via electrodes to deposit an indium layer 510 onto the conductive current collector material 500. Specifically, In 3+ The cation 520 is reduced from bath 400 and coated onto the conductive current collector material 500.

[0077] After forming an indium 510 of the desired thickness on the conductive current collector 500, the conductive current collector 500 is removed from the electrodeposition bath 400. A cleaning process can be performed, such as rinsing the conductive current collector 500 in deionized water for one to two minutes.

[0078] Figures 5-7 This is a cross-sectional view of a portion of the current collector material positioned in the hot chamber 600 during a continuous phase of the annealing process, after the electrodeposition process. Although Figures 5-7 A portion with a circular cross-section is shown, but the shapes in the accompanying drawings are for clarity and simplicity only, and are not restrictive.

[0079] exist Figure 5 In this process, a current collector material 500 coated with an indium layer 510 is located in a hot chamber 600 (such as an oven). The annealing process is performed in an oxygen-containing atmosphere (such as air) as described above with respect to method 300.

[0080] Figure 6 The annealing process is illustrated in its continuous stages, which can be intermediate or final. As shown, the annealing process causes indium 510 to oxidize and form an indium oxide layer 530.

[0081] In some embodiments, when indium is converted to indium oxide, there may be no or only minimal physical growth. Any volume change can be small or negligible because oxygen atoms are relatively small compared to indium atoms and are integrated into the existing crystal lattice structure.

[0082] In some embodiments, after the annealing process is complete, the remaining portion of indium 510 lies between indium oxide 530 and copper current collector material 500, such as... Figure 6 As shown in the illustration. In other embodiments, and as illustrated in the illustration. Figure 7 As shown, the annealing process can continue until all indium 510 is converted into indium oxide 530. In both embodiments, the treated current collector material 550 has an outer layer of indium oxide 530.

[0083] like Figure 8 As shown, after the annealing process is completed, the treated current collector material 550 is removed from the hot chamber 600 and allowed to cool. Then, lithium 580 is formed on indium oxide 530. For example, lithium 580 can be electrodeposited onto indium oxide 530, rolled onto indium oxide 530, or formed on indium oxide in another suitable manner. Thus, the finished current collector material 590 has an outer layer of lithium 580. In some embodiments, then... Figure 2 The finished current collector material 590 is manufactured in the form of an anode current collector 132. In other embodiments, the finished current collector material 590 may already be in the form of a current collector 132. In either case, the current collector 132 may be positioned on the battery 110, as per [reference to...]. Figure 2 As described.

[0084] Therefore, as described herein, a low-cost, scalable electrochemical deposition (ECD) process and an open annealing process are provided for modifying the surface of current collectors with an indium lithophile coating to prevent lithium from delaminating from the current collector, reduce lithium nucleation overpotential, minimize lithium dendrite growth, and improve capacity retention in lithium / copper cells and anode-less cells.

[0085] While at least one exemplary embodiment has been presented in the foregoing summary and detailed description, it should be understood that numerous variations exist. It should also be understood that the exemplary embodiments or multiple exemplary embodiments are merely examples and are not intended to limit the scope, applicability, or configuration of this disclosure in any way. Rather, the foregoing summary and detailed description will provide those skilled in the art with a convenient roadmap for implementing the exemplary embodiments or multiple exemplary embodiments. It should be understood that various changes can be made to the function and arrangement of the elements without departing from the scope of this disclosure as set forth in the appended claims and their legal equivalents.

Claims

1. A method for forming a current collector, comprising: Provide current collector materials; as well as Indium oxide is formed on the current collector material.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein, Forming indium oxide on the current collector material includes: Indium is formed on the current collector material; and The indium is converted into the indium oxide.

3. The method according to claim 2, wherein, Forming indium on the current collector material includes electrochemically depositing the indium on the current collector material.

4. The method according to claim 3, wherein, Converting the indium to the indium oxide comprises annealing the indium in the presence of oxygen.

5. The method according to claim 4, wherein, Converting the indium to the indium oxide comprises annealing the indium in the presence of air.

6. The method according to claim 5, wherein, Annealing the indium in the presence of air involves performing the annealing process at a temperature of at least 250°C.

7. The method of claim 2, further comprising: The thickness of the indium on the current collector material is controlled while forming the indium on the current collector material; as well as The thickness of the indium oxide is controlled while converting the indium into the indium oxide.

8. The method of claim 1, further comprising forming lithium on the indium oxide.

9. A vehicle equipped with a rechargeable energy storage system (RESS), comprising: Electric traction motor; as well as A battery pack operably connected to the electric traction motor, wherein the battery pack includes lithium-ion batteries, the lithium-ion batteries comprising: An anode current collector, comprising a copper current collector material, an indium oxide layer on the copper current collector material, and a lithium layer on the indium oxide layer, wherein the indium oxide layer is configured to mitigate the growth of lithium dendrites during the charge and discharge cycles of the lithium-ion battery; Cathode current collector; The porous partition between the anode current collector and the cathode current collector; and The electrolyte in contact with the cathode current collector and the cathode current collector.

10. The vehicle according to claim 9, wherein, The anode current collector further includes indium between the indium oxide layer and the copper current collector material.

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