Combined Combustion and Pyrolysis Reactor for Hydrogen Production and Related Systems and Methods

Abstract

A combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system, as well as related systems and methods, are disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the CCP system includes an input valve fluidly connectable to a fuel source to receive a hydrocarbon reactant, a CCP reactor fluidly connectable to the input valve, and a carbon separation component fluidly connectable to the CCP reactor. The CCP reactor may include a combustion chamber, a reaction chamber in thermal communication with the combustion chamber and / or fluidly connected to the input valve, and a thermal insulating material disposed to reduce heat loss from the combustion chamber and / or the reaction chamber. The CCP reactor may further include a combustion component disposed to combust a fuel in the combustion chamber. The combustion may heat the reaction chamber and the hydrocarbon reactant flowing through the reaction chamber. This heat causes the pyrolysis of the hydrocarbon reactant, thereby producing hydrogen gas and carbon.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] This technology relates generally to combined combustion and pyrolysis reactors for hydrogen production, and related systems and methods. Exemplary systems can be used for distributed residential and / or commercial applications and can produce heat, power, and / or other outputs in addition to hydrogen.

[0002] [Citation to Related Applications] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 283,156, filed November 24, 2021, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 197,255, filed June 4, 2021, the entire contents of which are incorporated by reference herein. [Background technology]

[0003] Hydrogen is typically produced by large-scale reactors operating at high temperatures in industrial facilities. Some industrial methods of producing hydrogen include steam methane reforming (SMR) and coal gasification. These processes result in significant amounts of direct greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For example, SMR may produce about 10 kg of carbon dioxide per kg of hydrogen, and coal gasification may produce 20 kg of carbon dioxide per kg of hydrogen. The produced hydrogen is then transported for eventual use in fuel cells and / or other industrial processes, such as the production of certain ammonia-based fertilizers. In recent years, low-GHG methods have been used to produce hydrogen gas for use as a chemical reactant and as a thermal energy source for heating and electricity. This approach has attracted interest as an attractive way to generate electricity and / or heat, or to supply hydrogen to various processes, since the combustion of hydrogen gas does not release any greenhouse gases or other harmful chemicals. However, hydrogen gas releases less heat per mole when burned than natural gas, and therefore an efficient production system is needed.

[0004] Methane pyrolysis is an alternative process to produce hydrogen with small direct greenhouse gas emissions. Research and pilots that have been conducted on modified methane pyrolysis methods include plasma-driven dissociation, including the use of catalytic molten metals or salts, thermal dissociation, and the use of catalysts in various reactor configurations (e.g., fluidized bed reactors). These systems are promising extensions to the technology trend that allows for the production of hydrogen without the co-emission of greenhouse gases, since carbon is naturally separated in solid form during the pyrolysis reaction. However, to supply the pyrolysis reaction endotherm, these processes use energy sources that are typically fueled by carbon-based materials to generate electricity and / or heat to power the methane reforming or dissociation process. As an alternative, renewable energies have been proposed, but they are generally not viable to meet the permanent energy requirements for large-scale industrial applications that require continuous operation, and today they only account for a small fraction of the total energy generation capacity required. Thus, the mismatch between the availability of renewable energy for large-scale hydrogen production and the inability to scale down the process for distributed small-scale production presents a need in this technology sector. Summary of the Invention

[0005] According to one aspect of the present invention, there is provided a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system, the CCP system comprising: The CCP reactor includes: A combustion chamber is provided. a combustion component positioned to combust a fuel in the combustion chamber and direct resulting flue gases into the combustion chamber; a reaction chamber having (1) a first region fluidly connectable to a reactant source to receive a reactant, and (2) a second region downstream of the first region, the reaction chamber in thermal communication with the combustion chamber to heat the reactants to cause a pyrolysis reaction in the reaction chamber, the pyrolysis reaction producing an output including hydrogen gas and carbon; a thermal insulation material disposed to reduce heat loss from at least one of the combustion chamber or the reaction chamber; A CCP system is provided that includes a carbon separation component in fluid communication with a second region of the reaction chamber to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output to form a separated output.

[0006] According to another aspect of the invention, there is provided a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system for converting a hydrocarbon reactant into an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon, the CCP system comprising: a CCP reactor having a plurality of chambers and a thermal insulating material arranged to reduce heat loss from the plurality of chambers, each of the plurality of chambers having a first portion and a second portion opposite the first portion; at least a first chamber having a combustion component connectable to a source of fuel and arranged to direct combustion flue gases into the first chamber; at least a second chamber is fluidly connectable to the input valve for receiving the hydrocarbon reactant and in thermal communication with the first chamber for transferring heat of combustion to the hydrocarbon reactant to cause a pyrolysis reaction that produces an output; A CCP system is provided, characterized in that a carbonization separation component is in fluid communication with the CCP reactor to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output.

[0007] According to yet another aspect of the invention, there is provided a method of operating a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system for generating hydrogen gas, the method comprising: directing reactants into a first chamber of a CCP reactor, the first chamber being in thermal communication with a second chamber of the CCP reactor via a thermally conductive shared wall; combusting the fuel in the second chamber with a combustion component to heat the reactants in the first chamber to a temperature above a reaction temperature, where at least a portion of the reactants are converted into an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon particles; A method is provided that includes separating and removing at least a portion of the carbon particles from the output. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0008] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a system for producing hydrogen gas for local distribution, local consumption, and / or local storage in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology. [Diagram 2] FIG. 1 is a tabular diagram illustrating power, heating, cooling, and natural gas demand and usage for various representative applications in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology. [Diagram 3] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of a reactor system for producing hydrogen gas in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 4] 1 is a schematic diagram of a reactor system including integrated heating features in accordance with various embodiments of the present technique. [Diagram 5] FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an exemplary reactor system for producing hydrogen gas in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 6] 5 is a schematic diagram of a reaction chamber used in the reactor system of FIG. 4 in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 7] FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the relationship between the length of a reaction chamber and the temperature of reactants flowing through the reaction chamber for various flow rates in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 8] FIG. 13 is a graph illustrating the effect of surface area to volume ratio versus flow chamber diameter on a reaction in a reaction chamber in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 9]FIG. 1 shows representative dimensions of a reaction chamber to meet homogeneous reaction conditions for obtaining maximum pressure drop across the reactor in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 10] 5 is a schematic diagram of the reactor system of FIG. 4 including multiple reaction chambers in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 11] 1 is a schematic diagram of representative components of a reactor system configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 12] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating exemplary components of a reactor system configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 13] 1 is a schematic diagram of exemplary components of a reactor system configured in accordance with further embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14A] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14B] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14C] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14D] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14E] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14F] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14G] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reaction system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14H] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14I]1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14J] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14K] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 14L] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 15A] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of an RTP reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 15B] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of an RTP reactor system including a carbon removal component configured in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 16A] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component constructed in accordance with further embodiments of the present invention. [Figure 16B] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component constructed in accordance with further embodiments of the present invention. [Figure 16C] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component constructed in accordance with further embodiments of the present invention. [Figure 16D] 1 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor system including a carbon removal component constructed in accordance with further embodiments of the present invention. [Figure 17A] FIG. 13 illustrates test data demonstrating the effectiveness of carbon removal techniques in accordance with embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 17B] FIG. 13 illustrates test data demonstrating the effectiveness of carbon removal techniques in accordance with embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 17C] FIG. 13 illustrates test data demonstrating the effectiveness of carbon removal techniques in accordance with embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 18A]FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary reactor model having axial and radial pyrolysis zones in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 18B] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary reactor model having axial and radial pyrolysis zones in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 18C] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary reactor model having axial and radial pyrolysis zones in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 19A] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 19B] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 19C] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 19D] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 19E] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 19F] FIG. 18B shows predicted performance parameters for the representative reactor model shown in FIGS. 18A-18C. [Figure 20A] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20B] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20C] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20D] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20E] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20F] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20G] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 20H] FIG. 1 illustrates test data for various exemplary pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. [Figure 21] FIG. 1 illustrates the relationship between heat loss and pyrolysis conversion percentage for various ratios of reactants to fuel for combustion in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 22] FIG. 1 illustrates spectral data obtained from testing of a reactor constructed in accordance with embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 23] 1 is a schematic diagram of a cyclone separator for separating carbon from hydrogen gas according to some embodiments of the present technique. [Figure 24A] 1 is a partial schematic isometric view of a carbon collection system according to various embodiments of the present technology; [Figure 24B] 1 is a partial schematic isometric view of a carbon collection system according to various embodiments of the present technology; [Figure 24C] 1 is a partial schematic isometric view of a carbon collection system according to various embodiments of the present technology; DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0009] For purposes of explanation, the following description is provided in several sections under corresponding headings. As will be understood, elements described under any heading may be applied to systems described under other headings without limitation, unless expressly specified otherwise. The sections include: 1. Overview 2. Representative Total Combustion Pyrolysis Systems 3. Representative regenerative pyrolysis systems 4. Representative combined combustion and pyrolysis systems 5. Typical reactor configuration with carbon deposit removal system 6. Representative Test and Simulation Data 7.Liquid intermediate products 8. Typical Gas-borne Carbon Removal System

[0010] 1. Overview Hydrogen transport and storage technologies and infrastructure are needed to enable widespread use of hydrogen produced by industrial reactors using steam methane reforming (SMR) and gasification. This requires replacing existing natural gas pipelines with hydrogen compatible materials or finding more economical and mass / volume efficient ways to store or transport hydrogen. Currently, state of the art hydrogen storage has an approximate ratio of 5:95 for hydrogen weight to storage tank weight. This and other factors indicate that large scale replacement of gas pipelines and creation of new transport infrastructure would be prohibitively expensive and / or slow to rapidly adopt. Due to these constraints, hydrogen use is primarily limited to on-site use as a chemical molecule near where hydrogen is produced. For example, in the United States, there are approximately 1,600 miles of hydrogen pipelines (mostly located near refineries / chemical plants) versus 2,000,000 miles of natural gas lines. However, current industrial methods of hydrogen production emit large amounts of various greenhouse gases (GHGs), limiting their potential for scale-up. Similarly, decarbonizing these current production methods requires carbon capture and storage (CCS), which is difficult and uneconomical to operate at small scale. Finally, current methods of hydrogen production are inefficient at small scale. Taken together, these factors limit the potential of current hydrogen production methods to downsize in scale to meet local demand and avoid the challenges and costs of hydrogen transportation and storage.

[0011] If hydrogen could be produced locally, avoiding transportation and storage, with low GHG emissions, hydrogen could expand its use base beyond its use in chemicals as a reactant into applications including the building sector (heating, cooling, electricity), power or electricity generation (electricity), transportation fuel (e.g., for trucks, transit, cars and / or other vehicles), other industrial sectors (steel, glass, cement), and / or other traditional chemical plant users. Switching to hydrogen as a combustion fuel or clean chemical reactant would provide enormous environmental benefits.

[0012] For example, in the building sector (commercial and residential), space heating and water heating using fossil fuels are one of the largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, switching to hydrogen combustion in residential heating appliances would provide enormous environmental benefits. Hydrogen can also be converted directly to electricity using fuel cells or other devices, or indirectly via thermoelectric converters and heat engines at the building level. Using hydrogen for on-site power generation (e.g., within the same building, in the same area, within a single appliance and / or housing, within traditional appliances and / or spaces traditionally designated for on-site cogeneration) would result in even less reliance on carbon-emitting power sources, which would provide further environmental benefits.

[0013] Systems for producing hydrogen gas for on-site distribution, on-site consumption, and / or on-site storage, as well as related devices and methods, are disclosed herein. In some embodiments, a representative system includes an input line that can be coupled to a source of reactants including a hydrocarbon or a mixture of hydrocarbons, and a reactor in fluid communication with the input line. The reactor has one or more flow channels positioned to transfer heat to the reactants to convert the hydrocarbons into an output (e.g., an output product stream) including hydrogen gas, carbon particulates, and heat (as well as other gases, e.g., remaining reactants). The overall system may further include a carbon removal system that removes carbon from the reactor, and a separation system operatively coupled to the reactor to separate the hydrogen gas from the carbon particulates in the output stream. In various embodiments, the system may further include components for on-site consumption of the filtered hydrogen gas. For example, the system may further include one or more burners that burn all or a portion of the hydrogen gas, and one or more heat paths coupled between the burners and the reactor (and / or a particular chamber within the reactor) to transfer heat from the burners to the reactor. In some embodiments, for example, the operation of the system includes a heating period and a subsequent operating period. During the heating period, the reactor cannot transfer enough heat to the reactants to cause pyrolysis at a desired rate (e.g., because the reactor and / or reactor walls are not yet hot enough). Thus, the pyrolysis reaction occurs at a relatively low rate (e.g., a relatively small amount of the reactants are passed through the reactor and / or a large percentage of the reactants do not react during this pass), and the hydrogen gas production rate is relatively low. As a result, all (or most) of the hydrogen gas produced by the reaction may be required to continue to heat the reactor. During the operating period, the reactor (and / or walls within the reactor) are at a sufficient temperature to drive the pyrolysis reaction at a desired rate. Thus, excess hydrogen gas may be produced, with only a small portion of the hydrogen gas being consumed to continue to heat the reactor. To transfer heat, in one example, the thermal path may direct hot flue gas from the burner onto and / or into the reactor.In certain embodiments, the burner may be disposed within a first chamber of the reactor and heat may be transferred into the second chamber by thermal conduction and / or thermal radiation through a shared wall.

[0014] The system may further include one or more generators operably coupled to the reactor and / or burner. The generator receives hydrogen and / or heat to generate electricity. The electricity may be used to power various components of the system and / or may be directed to a grid. The grid may power a single-family home, a multi-family home, a commercial building, and / or any other suitable space. In some embodiments, more power is produced for nearby use (e.g., at the building level) than is consumed. In some such embodiments, excess power is exported to an external power source or grid. In some such embodiments, excess power is stored in a secondary electrochemical or thermal storage system for later consumption at the building scale. The overall system may also include a circulation system operably coupled to the generator by the reactor, burner, and / or thermal path. The circulation system receives excess heat from other components in the system and circulates this heat within a heating and / or hot water network for a single-family home, multi-family dwelling, commercial building, and / or any other suitable space.

[0015] The system may further include one or more means for utilizing the hydrogen product for use as a chemical reactant by supplying it to an oil or gas refinery, a chemical plant for use of H2 as a reactant, or to a gas supply system for purification and storage by compression and storage in a tank. The compressed hydrogen gas tanks may then be distributed for various uses, such as fuel cell stations, dedicated and small scale hydrogen users for fine chemical production.

[0016] As disclosed herein, the representative system may be scaled (scaled down or scaled up) to suit the appropriate application: (a) residential, residential area, or single commercial building level; (b) industrial users - small-scale hydrogen users or large-scale users; and / or (c) fuel applications - e.g., fuel cell stations to power automobiles, or other power generation or heat generation purposes. For any of these embodiments, hydrogen can be generated close to the point of use, thereby avoiding the need for infrastructure overhauls to allow for the creation of hydrogen or hydrogen / natural gas mixed grids or networks. That is, the disclosed system design allows partial or complete decarbonization of the aforementioned sectors without any changes to the natural gas network, because hydrogen is generated on-site from natural gas and also consumed on-site. However, small-scale pyrolysis reactors also pose many challenges. To address these challenges, various embodiments disclosed herein include features that tailor pyrolysis reactors for small-scale applications, distribution applications, and / or integration with residential heating systems.

[0017] Exemplary systems may further include one or more means for generating a solid carbon by-product. The solid carbon collected from the system may be used in a variety of applications, including, but not limited to, soil conditioner for water and nutrient retention, road construction, tires, building construction, waterproofing materials, carbon black, activated carbon, graphitic carbon, additives for polymer and metal composites, binder or filler materials, catalyst supports, refractories, carbon-carbon brakes, thermal pastes for inks and coatings, replacement of metallurgical coke for steel production, and / or recycled to pyrolysis reactor systems to act as a catalyst or nucleation site to aid in the pyrolysis reaction of hydrocarbon fuels. The bulk carbon by-product may be separated into various grades and may be chemically and / or physically functionalized for various intended uses.

[0018] Representative systems may further include features for the incomplete conversion of the hydrocarbon fuel to an intermediate product that may be condensed into a liquid or solid (e.g., wax) hydrocarbon product. The intermediate product may also be produced intermittently to generate sufficient quantities to be used as a binder for the primary by-product (e.g., solid carbon). Alternatively, the intermediate product may be used as a fuel or chemical product with high physical and energy density that is easier to transport compared to the gaseous natural gas feed or the complete conversion product - hydrogen.

[0019] The system may further include one or more means for removing solid carbon by-products from the reactor and separating them from the gaseous hydrogen. Methods include both mechanical and non-mechanical means for periodically or continuously removing carbon. Some representative techniques are described below.

[0020] The system may further include components and methods for controlling the system during start-up, shutdown, and steady-state operation, detecting its own operation, and / or communicating with an operator. For example, one or more sensors may detect pressure drop and flow rate, and valves and / or other components may be adjusted via a suitable controller to optimize operation or adjust operation to meet momentary varying demands for hydrogen production. The system may further include a communication device for remote monitoring, as well as an on-site monitoring station (e.g., via a screen and / or other indicator to an operator). The system may further include a valve subsystem that allows the system to heat and / or have an endotherm initially provided by a first combustion fuel (e.g., natural gas and / or another suitable hydrocarbon). Then, once the system reaches a suitable operating motion, the valves may switch to heating the system and / or providing an endotherm via a second combustion fuel (e.g., hydrogen generated by the pyrolysis reaction in the system and / or a mixture of the produced hydrogen and the first combustion fuel). The system may be configured to operate in a continuous / steady state mode or may be configured to turn on and off according to commands or signals from an operator, a sensor, and / or other automated systems. For example, the system may be turned on or off according to heat demand in a building, and may include hardware for communicating with a thermostat or other HVAC control system. The system may include a control unit that turns the unit off or starts as needed for maintenance.

[0021] For ease of reference, the systems and components described herein may be described herein with reference to the top, bottom, upper, lower, upward, downward, and / or horizontal, x-y, vertical, or z-direction relative to the spatial orientation of the illustrated embodiments. However, it should be understood that the systems and components described herein can be moved to and used in different spatial orientations without altering the structure and / or functionality of the disclosed embodiments of the technology.

[0022] Additionally, although described herein primarily as a system for cracking natural gas into hydrogen gas for on-site consumption, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the scope of the technology is not so limited. For example, the pyrolysis reactors described herein can also be used to crack any other suitable hydrocarbon or mixture of hydrocarbons. Thus, the scope of the technology is not limited to any particular subset of embodiments.

[0023] Exemplary systems disclosed herein include regenerative pyrolysis (RTP) reactors and / or combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) reactors. RTP reactors typically have at least two reaction vessels or chambers operating in parallel, one well-heated vessel performing the pyrolysis reaction and the other vessel being heated. CCP reactors typically have a common wall or surface between the combustion and reaction chambers, e.g., in a concentric or annular arrangement.

[0024] 2. Representative Total Combustion Pyrolysis Systems 1 is a block diagram of a system 100 that can produce and / or utilize (e.g., distribute, consume, and / or store) hydrogen gas on a localized scale or scale in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology. In some embodiments, the production and utilization of hydrogen gas by the system 100 occurs within a single-family home. For example, the system 100 can be embodied as a single appliance positioned in a space traditionally occupied by a conventional natural gas furnace or burner and / or can serve as a direct replacement for these conventional appliances. In another example, the system 100 can take the form of multiple devices and / or appliances operably coupled to each other. Additionally, in some embodiments, the system 100 produces and utilizes hydrogen gas on other localized scales. For example, as described in more detail below, system 100 may produce and utilize hydrogen gas for a studio, a single-family home, a multi-family home, an apartment, a residential community, a public facility (e.g., a single store, a government building, a hospital, a school, or any other suitable space), a commercial building (e.g., an office building), a data center, or any other suitable space. Because system 100 produces and utilizes hydrogen gas on-site, system 100 may be implemented to replace and / or complement existing use of hydrocarbon fuels (e.g., natural gas, methane, and other hydrocarbons) and to replace and / or complement existing power sources, without any infrastructure overhaul.

[0025] In the illustrated embodiment, the overall system 100 includes a reactor system 110, one or more blowers 118, a power generation system 120, a circulation system 130, and a cooling system 140 separate from the circulation system 130. The reactor system 110 includes a reactor 112 operably connected to a fuel source 10 and a carbon separator 114 operably connected to the reactor 112. The reactants from the fuel source 10 include hydrocarbons that can be cracked by the reactor system 110. Examples of suitable reactants include natural gas, methane, gasoline, jet fuel, propane, kerosene, diesel, and / or any other suitable hydrocarbon fuel.

[0026] As described in more detail below, the reactor 112 receives reactants and breaks down the hydrocarbons into hydrogen gas and carbon particulates, which are then sent to a carbon separator 114. The carbon separator 114 removes the carbon particulates from the hydrogen gas, thereby producing hydrogen fuel. The carbon separator 114 can then direct the carbon particulates to a carbon disposal component 20 (e.g., an emptyable bin) so that the carbon can be disposed of, stored, or resold, while the hydrogen gas can be utilized elsewhere within the reactor system 110 and / or throughout the system 100. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the reactor system 110 further includes one or more burners 116 operably coupled to one or more blowers 118 to combust the hydrogen gas. A thermal path between the burners 116 and the reactor 112 can transfer heat generated by combusting the hydrogen gas. For example, the thermal path can direct hot flue gas around and / or into the reactor 112. The reactor 112 receives heat from the burning hydrogen gas and uses this heat to crack further hydrocarbons.

[0027] Additionally or alternatively, the reactor system 110 can direct the hydrogen gas to the power generation system 120 (where the hydrogen gas is consumed) and / or to the hydrogen storage component 30 for distribution and / or later consumption. For example, the hydrogen storage component 30 can be utilized to reheat the reactor 112 after periods of non-use of fuel for combustion. For a reactor 112 having a volume of 0.21 cubic feet and formed as an alumina wall, the amount of energy to heat the reactor 112 from room temperature to an operating temperature of about 1000° C. is approximately 720 kilojoules (kJ). Assuming relatively complete utilization of the heat, this energy can be generated by burning approximately 66 standard liters of hydrogen gas. In another embodiment, hydrogen storage can be utilized to decouple hydrogen generation from hydrogen consumption. That is, stored hydrogen can supplement and / or replace the produced hydrogen stream during periods of high demand. In another embodiment, stored hydrogen can also be redistributed throughout the hydrogen grid. The hydrogen grid can be used to charge fuel cells (e.g., fuel cells subsequently used by system 100, fuel cells used in automobiles, and / or any other suitable fuel cells) and / or redistribute hydrogen to nearby apartments, homes, and / or buildings with high energy demand with minimal additional infrastructure.

[0028] Non-limiting examples of materials that can be used to store hydrogen include typical gas storage tanks and solid materials (or solid substances), such as zeolite, Pd, H3N:BH3, and / or any of the solid materials listed in Table 1 below. TIFF2024520668000002.tif138160 Table 1

[0029] As further shown in FIG. 1 , the power generation system 120 further includes one or more burners 116 operably coupled to the blower 118 for combusting the hydrogen gas, and one or more generators 124 operably coupled to the output of the burners 116 and / or the reactor 112 (e.g., hot gas, hydrogen gas, and / or heat via a physical heat transfer medium, e.g., a heat transfer fluid). The generators 124 use the flue gas from the burners 116, the heat from the burners 116, and / or the output from the reactor 112 to generate electricity. In various embodiments, the generators 124 include a thermionic converter, a thermophotovoltaic system, an alkali metal thermoelectric converter (AMTEC), a fuel cell, an internal combustion engine, a turbine, a microturbine, a thermionic generator, a steam turbine, and / or a Stirling engine. The power generation system 120 can then direct the generated electricity to the grid 40 for local consumption, local storage, and / or local distribution. For example, the grid 40 may include secondary batteries that store a portion of the generated electricity and various electronic devices in the home that consume a portion of the generated electricity. As discussed above, in some embodiments, more electricity is produced than is consumed near the point of use (e.g., on-site). In some such embodiments, the excess electricity is exported to the grid 40 and / or stored in secondary fuels for later consumption.

[0030] 1, the power generation system 120 can direct excess hot flue gas and / or heat to the reactor system 110 and / or circulation system 130. The reactor system 110 can use unconverted heat and flue gas to help heat the reactor so that further hydrocarbons can be cracked into hydrogen gas. The reactor system 110 can then direct excess and / or parasitically lost heat to the circulation system 130 (e.g., by flow of hot gas and / or hot fluid and / or via a physical heat transfer medium, such as a heat transfer fluid or other suitable heat transfer medium).

[0031] In the illustrated embodiment, the circulation system 130 includes a condensing heat exchanger 132 operably coupled to the reactor system 110, a heat sink 134 operably coupled to the power generation system 120, and a circulation pump 136 operably coupled to the condensing heat exchanger 132 and the heat sink 134. The condensing heat exchanger 132 receives excess and / or parasitically lost heat from the reactor system 110. The condensing heat exchanger 132 then recycles the heat (e.g., in a boiler, furnace, and / or similar device) to circulate the heat through the heating grid 50. For example, the condensing heat exchanger 132 can use excess heat from the reactor 112 to provide hot water for an apartment. The heat sink 134 receives excess and / or parasitically lost heat from the power generation system 120. The circulation pump 136 then circulates a fluid (e.g., water, air, or other suitable heat transfer fluid) over and along the heat sink 134 and the condensing heat exchanger 132, transferring heat from the heat sink 134 to the condensing heat exchanger 132, thereby pumping it further into the heating system network 50 for reuse.

[0032] As further shown in FIG. 1, after the components of the system 100 extract heat from the flue gas for various uses, the system 100 may direct the flue gas to an exhaust system 60. In some embodiments, the system 100 replaces all of the hydrocarbons in the reactants with hydrogen gas product from the reactor system 110. Thus, in these embodiments, the flue gas contains only water vapor, only oxygen gas, and / or any other molecules (e.g., nitrogen gas) present in the air from the blower 118. That is, the flue gas does not contain new carbon dioxide molecules that would normally result from the combustion of the hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, the exhaust system 60 utilizes an existing ventilation system in the space in which the system 100 is implemented (e.g., an existing exhaust system to direct carbon dioxide away from the furnace).

[0033] As further shown in FIG. 1 , the power generation system 120 may direct heat and / or electricity into the cooling system 140. The cooling system 140 utilizes the heat and / or electricity to circulate cool air. In various embodiments, the cooling system 140 may include an absorption chiller, a compression air conditioner, and / or a heat pump. In some embodiments, the cooling system 140 is operably coupled directly to the reactor system 110 to receive hydrogen gas and / or heat (not shown). In such embodiments, the cooling system 140 utilizes the hydrogen gas and / or heat to drive a cooling system, such as any of the systems described above. Additionally, in some embodiments, the cooling system 140 may be integrated with and / or incorporated into the circulation system 130.

[0034] In some embodiments, the reactor system 110 and / or the power generation system 120 may direct heat and / or electricity to the heating and / or cooling components rather than circulating energy. For example, the heating component (e.g., the condensing heat exchanger 132) may receive heat from the reactor 112, transfer the heat to a fluid (e.g., water, air, or another suitable fluid), and direct the heated fluid into the heating grid 50 rather than receiving the fluid back. In certain examples, the heating component may receive heat from the reactor 112, transfer the heat to water from an external source, and direct the hot water into the residential space. The used hot water is then drained into the sewer and / or grey water treatment system rather than circulating back into the circulation system 130. In another example, the cooling component may receive heat and / or electricity from the power generation component 124, use the heat and / or electricity to drive a cold air generator, and direct the cold air into the residential space. The cold air then dissipates within the living space while the cooling component can draw in fresh air for cooling from an external source.

[0035] In various embodiments, the reactor system 110, the power generation system 120, the circulation system 130, and / or the cooling system 140 may include one and / or more sensors (not shown) to collect data associated with the components of the system. For example, the sensors may measure the weight or optical properties of the solid carbon produced by the reactor system 110. Data from these sensors may then be used to generate reports regarding the amount of carbon removed from the reactants, which may allow the user to access carbon credits or carbon reduction payments (e.g., from state, federal, and / or commercial carbon markets). The data may also be used to alert the user that the carbon disposal component 20 is full (or close to full), thereby prompting the user to empty the carbon disposal component 20.

[0036] In some embodiments, the sensor can measure an electrical property (e.g., electrical conductivity, frequency dependent conductivity, electrical impedance spectroscopy, and / or any other suitable property) at the reactor 112. In some embodiments, the sensor can perform ultrasonic measurements to determine the flow rate of reactants through the reactor 112 and / or the amount of carbon buildup in the reactor 112. In some embodiments, a gas flow sensor can determine the ratio of reactants (e.g., methane) to products (e.g., hydrogen) exiting the reactor 112. In such embodiments, this ratio may indicate the extent of the pyrolysis reaction occurring in the reactor 112. In some embodiments, a thermocouple or other temperature sensor measures the temperature of the reactor 112, the flue gas from the burner 116, the generator 124, the condenser heat exchanger 132, and / or any other suitable components of the system 100. In some embodiments, a hydrogen gas sensor (e.g., a sensor that passes an electric current through a palladium wire) monitors the reactant conversion rate and / or the hydrogen production rate.

[0037] In some embodiments, the system 100 includes a controller 150 operably coupled to sensors and various components of the system via input / output (I / O) links. Based on any of the measurements described above, the controller 150 can adjust the operation of the system 100. For example, the controller 150 can adjust the input flow rate of the reactants 112 and / or the operating temperature of the reactor 112 (e.g., to increase or decrease the amount of hydrogen in the ratio) based on a measured ratio of reactants to hydrogen gas exiting the reactor 112. In some embodiments, the controller 150 includes a memory that stores historical conditions and hydrogen consumption, as well as a predictive analytics component. Based on any of the measurements described above and data from the memory, the predictive analytics component can determine adjustments to the operation of any of the components in the system 100, and the controller 150 can complete the adjustments. For example, the predictive analytics can determine periods of high and low hydrogen demand, and the controller 150 can toggle the reactor 112 on and off according to the determined periods (e.g., by starting and stopping the input of reactants).

[0038] As discussed above, the system 100 may be scaled to produce and utilize hydrogen gas for a studio, a single-family home, a multi-family home, an apartment, a residential neighborhood, a public facility (e.g., a single store, a government building, a hospital, a school, or any other suitable space), a commercial building (e.g., an office building), a data center, or any other suitable space. Scale may be quantified in terms of typical reactant consumption. For example, when using methane as a reactant, typical scales include natural gas flow rates ranging from about 500 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) to about 37,500 sccm for a single-family home (e.g., a stand-alone house or a single unit in an apartment building), natural gas flow rates ranging from about 150,000 sccm to about 3,750,000 sccm for an apartment building with a centralized system 100, and natural gas flow rates ranging from about 150,000 sccm to about 3,750,000 sccm for a residential neighborhood with a centralized system 100. In another quantification example, when using methane as a reactant, typical scales include natural gas consumption of about 10 million British thermal units (MMBtu / year) to about 164 MMBtu / year (or about 15,981 Btu / hour to about 18,721 Btu / hour) for a single family home, natural gas consumption of about 4,875 MMBtu / year to about 6,300 MMBtu / year for a small apartment complex, natural gas consumption of about 10,000 MMBtu / year to about 15,000 MMBtu / year for a commercial building (e.g., industrial site, and office, campus, natural gas consumption ranging from about 9,500 MMBtu / year to about 136,189 MMBtu / year for commercial buildings (airports, hospitals, malls, and / or any other suitable commercial buildings); natural gas consumption ranging from about 453,963 MMBtu / year to about 1,232,184 MMBtu / year for large apartment complexes and / or residential areas; and natural gas consumption ranging from about 2,468,421 MMBtu / year to about 3,350,000 MMBtu / year for data centers with high power and cooling demands.

[0039] FIG. 2 is a table that provides additional examples of scales for various applications and the power consumed by certain components of system 100 at different scales. As shown, the table shows the power, heating, cooling, and natural gas required for various embodiments of system 100 (FIG. 1) and the approximate scale for each embodiment in terms of demand and usage. Example scales include residential, commercial, district, and data center usage and related needs for power, heat, and cooling. Thus, the table of FIG. 2 provides a technical background to distinguish the needs and system requirements for these embodiments as opposed to the much larger scales used in industrial production of hydrogen. However, it should be understood that the values ​​in the table of FIG. 2 are provided by way of example only, and the present invention does not limit the technology to the specific examples shown.

[0040] Referring back again to FIG. 1, for any of the above applications, the system 100 may include multiple reactors 112 to meet the consumption demands of the space in which the system 100 is deployed. For example, using methane as a reactant, a single reactor may exhibit a CH4 consumption of about 500 sccm to about 172,853,881 sccm, or about 10 MMBtu / year to about 3,350,000 MMBtu / year. This range is significantly lower than the output typical of industrial pyrolysis reactors, even when multiple reactors 112 are used in concert. To enable the reactors 112 to operate efficiently at the scale required for localized consumption, especially at the residential level, the reactors include features to address a number of shortcomings.

[0041] First, in representative embodiments, the carbon produced by the pyrolysis reaction is removed from the reactor 112 and separated from the production stream while balancing safety, efficiency, and convenience concerns. For example, the carbon may be removed from the reactor 112 in a manner that provides separation between the user and the relatively hot components of the reactor 112. Furthermore, the carbon needs to be separated by a system that does not require too frequent (e.g., hourly, daily, weekly, etc.) maintenance, or users may be reluctant to employ the reactor. In another example, the carbon may be separated by a system that does not consume excessive power, or the efficiency of the system 100 may fall below usable levels. Thus, in various embodiments, the reactor system 110 may include features that help address these concerns.

[0042] Second, due to cyclical and / or uneven demand for heat and electricity in residential and / or single building environments, the output of the reactor 112 may need to be adjusted frequently. In some embodiments, the target adjustment scale is on the order of minutes to hours. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the adjustment includes periods when hydrogen gas is not required (e.g., during the work day when no one is in the home) and periods when hydrogen gas is needed at a rate higher than it can be produced by the reactor (e.g., during peak power consumption times).

[0043] Third, the reactor 112 may be subject to space constraints. For example, the reactor may be retrofitted into existing equipment space (e.g., furnace space). Thus, the reactor 112 may have features that allow the reactor 112 to fit the space constraints and operate efficiently despite the space constraints. Relatedly, the system 100 and / or the reactor 112 may have features that help reduce and / or minimize parasitic heat losses, thereby increasing (or maximizing) the energy efficiency from the reactor 112. For example, as described above, the reactor 112 may be coupled to a circulation system 130 to recycle the parasitic heat losses therein. Efficiency concerns of the system 100 and / or the reactor 112 may be particularly important in residential scale reactors, as such reactors may have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio compared to industrial scale systems, and therefore may exhibit more parasitic heat losses. Additionally, the reactor 112 may have monitoring and control schemes specific to residential scale and / or local consumption of hydrogen gas production.

[0044] Additionally, the system 100 can be operated according to different power modes depending on the particular requirements at a particular time. For example, as shown, electricity from the generator 124 can be directed to the reactor system 110 to power one or more components therein, or the reactor 112 can provide energy for the generator 124. The electricity generated by the generator 124 can power a heat generator (e.g., a resistance coil coupled to the reactor, the input valve, the output valve, the carbon separator 114, and / or any other suitable components). In the illustrated embodiment, hot flue gas from the generator 124 is sent directly to a condensing heat exchanger 132 to deliver heat to the circulation system 130.

[0045] 3 is a schematic diagram of material flow through a reactor system 110 in accordance with some embodiments of the present technology. As shown, reactants enter the reactor along an input path 302. As described above, the reactants may be natural gas and / or pure methane. Thus, the input path 302 may be connected to an existing gas line to supply the reactants to the reactor 112. The reactor 112 controllably heats the reactants above an enthalpy point, which represents the minimum energy at which any amount of pyrolysis reactants occurs (e.g., the reactor 112 provides at least the initiation energy). As a result, the reactor 112 produces a pyrolysis reaction that breaks down the hydrocarbons in the reactants into hydrogen gas and carbon. For example, for a methane reactor, the pyrolysis reaction is represented by the following equation: CH4(gas) → C(solid) + 2H2(gas) Furthermore, for CH4, the enthalpy point is about 75 kJ per mole of CH4, which causes CH4 to heat up to about 650°C. In some embodiments, the reactor 112 controllably heats the reactants to a temperature above about 1000°C so that the pyrolysis reaction occurs completely during a relatively short residence time (e.g., on the order of a few seconds). In some embodiments, the reactor 112 is or includes a heated column containing molten material, such as molten metal, molten salt, and / or combinations thereof. The hot liquid may include a pure material or a mixture of multiple materials. In such embodiments, the reactants are pumped below the surface of the liquid in the reactor 112, for example, by a subsurface delivery tube or porous sparger. The reactor includes components to cause the reactants to separate into gas bubbles, which are carried by their buoyancy to the top of the heated column. As the bubbles rise, the hot liquid delivers heat to the reactants to cause the pyrolysis reaction described above. In some embodiments, the reactor 112 includes one or more heat storage devices, which may include a reaction chamber according to some embodiments described below.

[0046] Each reaction chamber has a heat exchange material and one or more flow paths for the reactants in the heat exchange material. The heat exchange material may be selected based on the material's relatively low thermal conductivity, relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion, and / or relatively high thermal stability. In various embodiments, the heat exchange material may include cordierite, mullite, alpha alumina, and / or combinations thereof. As the reactants flow through the flow paths, the heat exchange material delivers heat to the reactants to effect the pyrolysis reactions described above.

[0047] As further shown in FIG. 3, the output from the reactor 112 is split into a hydrogen pathway 310 and a carbon pathway 320 corresponding to the two products from the pyrolysis reaction. Hydrogen gas is directed into the hydrogen pathway 310, and the carbon fines are directed into the carbon pathway 320. As described above, the hydrogen in the hydrogen pathway 310 can be directed back to the reactor system 110 and / or elsewhere in the system 100 (FIG. 1). On the other hand, the carbon pathway 320 can be directed to a disposal system (e.g., the carbon disposal component 20 described with reference to FIG. 1). As shown, the carbon pathway 320 can be in fluid communication with the blower 118, which helps ensure that the carbon fines travel all the way to the carbon disposal component 30 (FIG. 1) without clogging the outlet from the reactor 112. In some embodiments, the splitting is accomplished by a carbon separator (not shown) separate from and in fluid communication with the reactor 112.

[0048] In the illustrated embodiment, the hydrogen path 310 may be further divided into a first hydrogen path 312 and a second hydrogen path 314. A portion of the hydrogen gas is directed toward the burner 116 in the first hydrogen path 312. The burner 116 mixes and combusts the hydrogen gas in the first hydrogen path 312 with air from the blower 118 in the air input path 304 to provide heat to the reactor 112 along the heat flow path 332. This heat compensates for parasitic heat losses from the reactor 112 and provides the energy necessary to heat the reactants above their enthalpy points, thereby causing the pyrolysis reaction. Meanwhile, a portion of the hydrogen gas is directed out of the reactor system 110 along the second hydrogen path 314 for any of the purposes described above with reference to FIG. 1. That is, the hydrogen gas directed out of reactor system 110 along second hydrogen path 314 may be used to generate heat and / or electricity within the overall system 100 (FIG. 1), may be stored for later use, and / or may be subject to further distribution. For example, in a neighborhood or multi-family scale installation, the hydrogen gas exiting reactor system 110 along second hydrogen path 314 may be pumped through a pipe system to individual homes or units for local consumption.

[0049] As further shown in Figure 3, the flue gas from the burner 116, after heating the reactor 112, exits the reactor system 110 through a flue path 334. In some embodiments, the flue path 334 directs the gas to other systems for consumption (e.g., to the power generation system 120 and / or the circulation system 130 described above with reference to Figure 1). In some embodiments, the flue path 334 is directed to an outlet for discharge (e.g., into the exhaust system 60 described above with reference to Figure 1).

[0050] 4 is a schematic diagram of a reactor system 110 including a rapid heating feature integrated into the reactor 112 according to various embodiments of the present technique. The body 412 of the reactor 112 may be surrounded by a chamber 1140. The chamber 1140 has a space 1142 and one or more electric heaters 1144 (two are shown). During periods of low demand, the space 1142 may be evacuated (e.g., creating at least a partial vacuum) to reduce parasitic heat loss. In some embodiments, the interior surface of the chamber 1140 is reflective to further reduce parasitic heat loss. When demand begins to increase, the space 1142 may be filled (e.g., with air) and the electric heater 1144 may pump heat around the body 412 while the burner 116 pumps heat into the body 412 to rapidly reheat the reactor 112. In some embodiments, the electric heater 1144 directs heat around the body 412 during periods of low demand to further reduce parasitic heat losses. Additionally, in some embodiments, the chamber 1140 includes an electrical generator (e.g., a thermoelectric generator) that captures a portion of the parasitic heat losses. In some such embodiments, the captured parasitic heat losses are then used to power the electric heater 1144 to reheat the reactor.

[0051] 3. Representative regenerative pyrolysis systems In some embodiments, the reactor may be of a regenerative type. Such reactors are referred to herein as regenerative thermal processing (RTP) reactors. Such reactors typically have at least two reaction vessels or chambers operating in parallel, one fully heated vessel carrying out the pyrolysis reaction, while the other vessel is heated. When the heat in the first vessel is exhausted, the reaction shifts to the now fully heated second vessel, while the first vessel is reheated.

[0052] 5 is a block diagram of material flow through a regenerative pyrolysis reactor 112 in accordance with an embodiment of the present technique. In the illustrated embodiment, the reactor 112 has an input valve 502 operably coupled to a fuel source 10, two reaction chambers 512 (individually referred to as a first reaction chamber 512a and a second reaction chamber 512b) operably coupled to the input valve 502, and one or more output valves 504 operably coupled to the reaction chambers 512. Each of the reaction chambers 512 may have a heat exchange material and one or more flow paths through the heat exchange material. In various embodiments, the heat exchange material may include cordierite, mullite, alpha alumina, and / or combinations thereof. Additionally, in some embodiments, each of the reaction chambers 512 has a unitary and / or monolithic structure comprised of the heat exchange material. As the reactants flow through one of the reaction chambers 512, the heat exchange material heats the reactants above the enthalpy point of the pyrolysis reaction, causing the hydrocarbons in the reactants to break down into hydrogen gas and carbon particulates. The hydrogen gas can then be used to generate heat and / or electricity. In some embodiments, for example, the hydrogen gas is combusted to preheat and / or maintain heat in the reaction chamber 512.

[0053] As described above, the reaction chambers 512 operate in a cyclical manner. For example, during a first period of time, the input valve 502 can direct the reactants into the first reaction chamber 512a. The first reaction chamber 512a can cause a pyrolysis reaction to occur, thereby breaking down the reactants into carbon particulates and hydrogen gas. The output valve 504 can then direct at least a portion of the output from the first reaction chamber 512a towards the carbon separator 114, the blower 118, and the burner 116. As described above, the carbon separator 114 can remove carbon particulates from the hydrogen gas stream, the blower 118 can mix the hydrogen gas with oxygen, and the burner 116 can combust the hydrogen with oxygen. The flue valve 506 can then direct the resulting hot flue gas into and / or around the second reaction chamber 512b to heat the second reaction chamber 512b. In some embodiments, the hot flue gas burns carbon in the second reaction chamber 512b and further delivers heat to the second reaction chamber 512b. The output valve 504 can direct the hot flue gas exiting the second reaction chamber 512b towards the generator 124 and / or the circulation system 130. The generator 124 uses the hot flue gas to generate and output electricity to the electrical grid 40, while the circulation system 130 uses the hot flue gas to output heat into the heating grid 50. Any remaining flue gas is then discharged via the exhaust system 60.

[0054] During a second time period, the flows through the valves 502, 504, 506 can be reset, utilizing the heat transferred into the second reaction chamber 512b to cause the pyrolysis reaction and reheat the reaction chamber 512a. That is, the input valve 502 directs the reactants into the second reaction chamber 512b, the output valve 504 directs at least a portion of the hydrogen gas from the second reaction chamber 512b towards the burner 116, the flue valve 506 directs the hot flue gas into thermal communication with the first reaction chamber 512a, and the output valve 504 directs the hot flue gas from the first reaction chamber 512a towards the generator 124 and / or the circulation system 130.

[0055] In some embodiments, the reactor 112 cycles the reaction chambers 512 between the operating and preheating stages after a suitable amount of time (e.g., by switching between directing reactants into the first reaction chamber 512a and the second reaction chamber 512b). For example, in various embodiments, the reactor 112 may cycle the reaction chambers 512 between each other after every minute, every two minutes, every ten minutes, every half hour, or any other suitable period of time. In some embodiments, the reactor 112 cycles the reaction chambers 512 between each other when the temperature in the operating reaction chamber (e.g., the reaction chamber in which the pyrolysis reaction occurs) falls below a predetermined temperature. The predetermined temperature may be selected to help ensure that the reactants react sufficiently while in the operating reaction chamber. Below the predetermined temperature, the reactants may not react quickly enough and / or at all in the operating reaction chamber. In various embodiments, the reactor 112 may cycle between reaction chambers 512 when the temperature in the operational reaction chamber falls below about 1200°C.

[0056] In some embodiments, the input and output of the reaction chamber 512 may be connected to the valves 502, 504, 506 by a piping system, and the valves 502, 504, 506 may be coupled to actuators to switch the valves 502, 504, 506 to direct the flow of fluids into the tubes. Thus, the reactor 112 may cycle the reaction chambers 512 between each other by commanding the switches to switch the valves 502, 504, 506. As a result, the reactor 112 may cycle the reaction chambers 512 between each other in a fast and efficient manner, depending on the time the reactor operates the valves. In various embodiments, the reactor 112 may cycle the reaction chambers 512 between each other in less than a minute, less than 30 seconds, less than 10 seconds, or nearly instantly. In some embodiments, each of the valves 502, 504, 506 may simultaneously switch the corresponding valve. In some embodiments, one or more of the valves 502, 504, 506 can sequentially switch the corresponding valves, for example, the output valve 504 can switch the corresponding valve after all of the hydrogen gas from the active reaction chambers has been directed to the appropriate destination.

[0057] The output valve 504 can direct a portion of the hydrogen gas from the active reaction chambers away from the reactor 112, for example to the generator 124 to generate electricity and / or to hydrogen storage. In some embodiments, the stored hydrogen gas can be later used to heat one or more of the reaction chambers 512. In some such embodiments, the use of stored hydrogen allows the reactor 112 to cool between peak usage periods without requiring a separate energy source (e.g., heat and / or electricity) to restart the reactor 112.

[0058] The reactor 112 may include one or more additional components and / or alternative arrangements of one or more of the above-mentioned components. In some embodiments, for example, the carbon separator 114 may be positioned between the reaction chamber and the output valve 504. In some embodiments, the reactor 112 may have multiple output valves 504, multiple carbon separators 114, and / or multiple burners 116. Additionally, in some embodiments, one or more of the components of the reactor 112 are combined. For example, the burner 116 may be integrated with the blower 118 in a single component. In another example, one or more of the valves 502, 504, 506 may be combined in a single component. In some embodiments, the reactor 112 may have three or more reaction chambers 512, for example, three, four, five, ten, and / or any other suitable number of reaction chambers 512. In some such embodiments, two or more reaction chambers 512 are in operation (e.g., used to heat reactants) during operation of the reactor 112. In some such embodiments, two or more reaction chambers 512 are preheated during operation of the reactor 112 .

[0059] 6 is a partial schematic diagram of a reaction chamber 612 used in the reactor 112 of FIG. 5 in accordance with some embodiments of the present technique. In the illustrated embodiment, the reaction chamber 612 has multiple flow channels 680 that extend from a first end 614 of the reaction chamber 612 to a second end 616 of the reaction chamber 612 opposite the first end 614. The flow channels 680 together define a passageway 672 through the heat exchange material of the reaction chamber 612. Thus, during operation, reactants can flow into the flow channels 680 at the first end 614, travel down the passageway 672, and exit the flow channels 680 at the second end 616. The reaction chamber 612 can transfer heat to the reactants moving along the passageway 672, thereby causing a pyrolysis reaction to occur.

[0060] In the illustrated embodiment, the reaction chamber 612 has a circular tubular shape. In various other embodiments, the reaction chamber 612 can have other shapes, such as square, rectangular, hexagonal, and / or other tubular shapes, coils, or other non-axial shapes, and / or any other suitable shapes. Similarly, in the illustrated embodiment, each of the flow channels 680 has a circular tubular shape. In various other embodiments, the flow channels 680 of the reaction chamber 612 can have other shapes, such as square, rectangular, hexagonal, and / or other tubular shapes, coils, and / or any other suitable shapes. The reaction chamber 612 can be fabricated by various known manufacturing techniques applied to the desired structure. For example, the reaction chamber 612 can be fabricated by additive manufacturing processes (e.g., 3D printing), die processes, molding processes, extrusion processes, and / or any combination of manufacturing techniques.

[0061] As shown in FIG. 6, the reaction chamber 612 has a length L and a diameter D1 that correspond to the length of the passage 672. As further shown, each of the flow channels 680 has a diameter D2. The length L, diameter D1, and diameter D2 may each vary depending on the desired output capacity of the reaction chamber 612, the size requirements for the space in which the reactor 112 (FIG. 5) is incorporated, and / or the preferred operating conditions for the reaction chamber 612. Furthermore, the dimensions may be interdependent. For example, the diameter D1 may be set according to the diameter D2 and the desired channel density. In another embodiment, the length L may depend in part on the diameter D2 to help the reactants flowing through the flow channel 680 reach an enthalpy point in the reaction chamber 612. In various exemplary embodiments, the length L of the reaction chamber 612 can range from about 0.5 meters (m) to about 10 m, the diameter D1 of the reaction chamber 612 can range from about 0.1 m to about 1 m, the flow channel diameter D2 can range from about 0.01 centimeters (cm) to about 1 m, and / or the channel density can range from about 1 channel per square inch (CPI) to about 500 CPI. In one embodiment, for example, the length L of the reaction chamber 612 is about 1 m, the diameter D1 of the reaction chamber 612 is about 1.3 cm, the flow channel diameter D2 is about 0.635 cm, and the channel density is about 4 CPI.

[0062] Additional details on how operational considerations can affect each of the dimensions are provided below. As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the exemplary operating conditions described below are merely exemplary, and the reactor may be subject to a variety of other suitable operational considerations to meet the power demands discussed above. For example, although reaction chamber 612 is described below as having reactant input flow rates of 1 standard liter per minute (SLPM) and 5 SLPM, reaction chamber 612 may have any other suitable reactant input flow rates.

[0063] One consideration regarding the dimensions of the reaction chamber is whether the reaction chamber 612 can heat the incoming reactants to a temperature higher than the desired reaction temperature (e.g., higher than the enthalpy point or well above the enthalpy point). For example, for a given heat transfer material, a given reaction chamber temperature, and a given surface area to volume (S / V) ratio (defined by the diameter D2 of the flow channel 680), the reaction chamber 612 transfers heat to the incoming reactants at a rate R1. At the heat transfer rate R1, a certain induction time (e.g., time to heat the reactants to a temperature higher than the desired temperature) and residence time (e.g., reaction time) are required to convert the hydrocarbons in the incoming reactants to hydrogen and carbon by pyrolysis reaction. Thus, at the heat transfer rate R1, the reactants should have a total time requirement to reach a desired degree of conversion in the pyrolysis reaction (e.g., a desired percentage of hydrocarbons cracked). The length L of the reaction chamber 612 and / or the input flow rate of the reactants can be varied to meet the total time requirement. Additionally or alternatively, the S / V ratio can be selected for a set length L to meet the total time requirement. In some embodiments, the desired operating temperature can be between about 1200° C. and about 1600° C. In some such embodiments, the residence time required to convert all or nearly all of the hydrocarbons to hydrogen gas and carbon is in the order of seconds, including less than 1 second. In one embodiment, the operating temperature can vary from about 1200° C. to about 1400° C. in a reactor having an inlet flow rate of about 5 SLPM and a flow channel diameter D2 of about 1.3 cm, resulting in an induction time of about 0.27 seconds and a residence time of about 0.38 seconds. For a reaction chamber with a length L of about 1 m, about 90% of the reactants are converted in the reaction chamber.

[0064] 7 shows an example of the relationship between the length of the reaction chamber 612 and the temperature of the reactants flowing through the reaction chamber 612 for various input flow rates and various heat transfer rates. As shown, 2At a first heat transfer rate of 100 s / s (1000 K) and an input flow rate of reactants of 1 SLPM, the reactants will be heated by 1200° C. over a length L of about 40 cm. In contrast, at this first heat transfer rate and an input flow rate of reactants of 5 SLPM, the reactants will be heated by 1200° C. over a length L of about 100 cm. In further contrast, at an input flow rate of reactants of 5 SLPM and an input flow rate of reactants of 100 W / m 2 At a second heat transfer rate of 100 K, the reactants will increase in temperature by 1200° C. over a length L of about 40 cm. For various embodiments, the inventors have determined that for input flow rates varying from about 1 SLPM to about 5 SLPM, flow channel 680 diameters D2 ranging from about 0.5 cm to about 5 cm, and a desired operating temperature increase of about 1000° C., the required length L may vary from about 0.05 m to about 1.3 m.

[0065] In some embodiments, the size of the reaction chamber 612 can be further reduced by preheating the reactants before they enter the reaction chamber 612. For example, in some embodiments, the reactants are preheated to a temperature of about 500° C. before they enter the reaction chamber 612. In some embodiments, the reactants are preheated using the hot power output from the activated reaction chamber and / or by preheating the reaction chamber. For example, the input lines for the reactants can include a coil that wraps around the output from the activated reaction chamber to cool the output and preheat the reactants at the same time. In another example, as described above with reference to FIG. 5, the input lines for the reactants can include a coil that wraps around the output from the preheat reaction chamber to cool the flue gas and preheat the reactants at the same time.

[0066] Another consideration regarding the dimensions of the reaction chamber is whether the reaction chamber 612 can withstand continuous and / or extended operation. One constraint on such operation is that the heat exchange material within the reaction chamber 612 cannot withstand the relatively high pressure drop across the flow channels 680 at high temperatures (e.g., above 1000° C.). Thus, the dimensions of the reaction chamber 612 and the predetermined operating conditions may be selected based, at least in part, on the expected pressure drop across the flow channels 680 during operation.

[0067] For example, the pressure drop across the flow channel 680 depends on the reactant gas or fluid flow rate, the channel diameter D2, and the channel length (e.g., the length L of the reaction chamber 612). Thus, in some embodiments, the diameter D2 of the flow channel 680 and / or the length L of the reaction chamber 612 may be selected to take into account the pressure drop across the flow channel 680. For example, the inventors have determined that for a reaction chamber 612 having a length L of about 5 m, a flow channel diameter D2 of about 0.5 cm to about 1.5 cm, a reactant input flow rate of about 1 SLPM to about 5 SLPM, and an operating temperature of about 1500° C., the pressure drop is less than about 1 pound per square inch (psi), which is within an acceptable range.

[0068] Furthermore, in some embodiments, carbon material deposited on the surface walls of the flow channel 680 (also referred to as "fouling") may partially (or completely) block the flow channel 680 during operation. The reduction in the flow channel diameter D2 due to fouling may adversely affect the dimensions of the reaction chamber 612 selected to meet the pressure drop requirements. For example, carbon particulates may form in the reaction chamber 612 as a result of heterogeneous and / or homogeneous pyrolysis reactions. Heterogeneous reactions occur based on the interaction of reactants with hot surfaces or walls of the reaction chamber 612. In contrast, homogeneous reactions occur in the gas phase of the reactants, resulting in the nucleation and growth of carbon particulates in the gaseous reactants. The carbon particulates generated by the homogeneous reactions are carried by the gas flow to the second end 616 of the reaction chamber 612. Once the carbon particulates exit the reaction chamber 612, they may be collected by a carbon separator, such as a series of cyclones and / or a carbon filter. Carbon particulates resulting from heterogeneous reactions often remain within the flow channel of reaction chamber 612, thereby causing fouling of flow channel 680 over time. The ratio of heterogeneous to homogeneous reactions is influenced by the S / V ratio within flow channel 680 (defined by the diameter D2 of flow channel 680) and the contact time of the reactants with the walls of reaction chamber 612. Thus, in some embodiments, the diameter D2 of flow channel 680 is selected to maximize the amount of pyrolysis reactions that occur as homogeneous reactions.

[0069] FIG. 8 illustrates the effect of the relationship between S / V ratio and diameter D2 of flow channel 680 on the type of reaction in reaction chamber 612 of FIG. 6 for a given input flow rate. In the illustrated relationship, a first region 1902 corresponds to an S / V ratio of about 10,000 / cm to about 1000 / cm. In first region 1902, the pyrolysis reaction is entirely (or nearly entirely) heterogeneous. A second region 1904 corresponds to an S / V ratio between about 1000 / cm to about 100 / cm. In second region 1904, the pyrolysis reaction is primarily heterogeneous with some homogeneous reaction beginning to occur. A third region 1906 corresponds to an S / V ratio between about 100 / cm to about 20 / cm. In third region 1906, the pyrolysis reaction is primarily homogeneous with some heterogeneous reaction remaining. The fourth region 1908 corresponds to an S / V ratio of less than about 20 / cm. In the fourth region 1908, the pyrolysis reaction is entirely (or nearly entirely) a homogeneous reaction. Thus, in some embodiments, the flow channel diameter D2 may be selected within the fourth region 1908 to have a diameter D2 of about 0.2 cm or greater. In such embodiments, fouling may play only a minimal role with respect to pressure drop across the flow channels.

[0070] Moreover, the inventors have determined that the pressure drop for the flow channel in region 1908 meets all of the above-mentioned pressure drop requirements (e.g., exhibits a pressure drop of less than 1 psig / m). For example, FIG. 9 illustrates the relationship between diameter D2 and pressure drop across the flow channel for various input flow rates. In FIG. 9, the minimum diameter for maintaining a pressure drop of less than 1 psig / m is illustrated by line 2002. For example, when the input flow rate is 1 SLPM, the minimum diameter indicated by line 2002 is about 0.3 cm. In another example, when the input flow rate is 50 SLPM, the minimum diameter indicated by line 2002 is about 1.1 cm. As indicated by each of the lines 2002, the minimum diameter for each input flow rate is greater than 0.2 cm for region 1908 described above with reference to FIG. 8. Thus, a diameter that meets the 1 psig / m pressure drop requirement also results in a nearly generally uniform reaction, thereby avoiding concerns regarding pressure drop due to fouling.

[0071] FIG. 10 is a partial schematic diagram of a reactor 112 of the type shown in FIG. 5, according to some embodiments of the present technique. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the reactor 112 has an input valve 602, two reaction chambers 612, two output valves 604 (individually referred to as a first output valve 604a and a second output valve 604b), a carbon separator 114, and a burner 116. In FIG. 10, the flow of materials through the reactor 112 is generally indicated by arrows over a first period of time in the same manner as described above with reference to FIG. 5. However, in the illustrated embodiment, the output valve 604 is combined with the flue valve 506 (FIG. 5) to operate in concert. For example, the first output valve 604a directs output from the first reaction chamber 612a into the carbon separator 114 and the burner 116, while the second output valve 604b directs flue gas from the burner 116 into the second reaction chamber 612b. During a second time period, the flow of fluid through the reactor 112 is reversed. During the second time period, the second output valve 604b directs output from the second reaction chamber 612b into the carbon separator 114 and the burner 116, while the first output valve 604a directs flue gas from the burner 116 into the first reaction chamber 612a.

[0072] As further shown in FIG. 10, the reaction chamber 612 of the reactor 112 may be oriented vertically (e.g., along the z-axis). A vertical orientation may help avoid effects due to fouling by utilizing gravity to help carry carbon particulates out of the reaction chamber 612. Gravity-based assistance in removing carbon particulates may be important because carbon particulates may change the effective fluid density and / or velocity, and therefore the ability of the fluid to carry carbon out of the reactor, even if the carbon is produced by a generally homogeneous reaction. The inventors have determined that for a reaction chamber 612 having a superficial gas velocity of about 1 meter per second (m / s) to about 30 m / s, an operating temperature of about 1400° C., and a nearly 100% pyrolysis operation with respect to CH4 molecules, the reaction chamber 612 has a gas per cubic meter (g / m) of about 268 grams per cubic meter (g / m). 3) to completely avoid fouling effects. The inventors have also determined that for a flow channel 680 (FIG. 6) with a diameter D2 of about 1 cm to about 5 cm and a vertically oriented reaction chamber 612, the carbon particulates stabilize the gas flow through the reaction chamber 612 and are removed from the reaction chamber 612 by the flow of material through the reaction chamber 612. Furthermore, for a flow channel 680 (FIG. 6) with a diameter D2 of about 1 cm to about 5 cm, the carbon is completely removed from the reaction chamber 612, even for horizontal reactant flow and / or vertically upward reactant flow. Furthermore, the inventors have determined that for a flow channel 680 with a larger diameter D2, the pressure drop is lower. Thus, for such a flow channel 680, the inventors have determined that a higher flow rate is possible while avoiding pressure drop concerns.

[0073] 10, the input valve 602 can act as an output valve for a preheat reaction chamber (e.g., the second reaction chamber 612b in the illustrated flow) to direct the hot flue gas out of the reactor 112. Thus, in some embodiments, the input valve 602 can have an input coil wrapped around the output channel from the reaction chamber 612 to preheat the reactants flowing into the reactor 112 using heat from the hot flue gas. Additionally, in some embodiments, the output line from the reactor can be positioned adjacent to the input line to the reactor, so that the hot flue gas can also preheat the reactants flowing into the reactor 112.

[0074] 4. Representative combined combustion and pyrolysis systems FIG. 11 is a partial schematic isometric view of a system 1100 configured in accordance with another embodiment of the present technology. Such a system may be referred to herein as a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system, which includes a first chamber and a second chamber in thermal communication with each other. As a result of the thermal communication, combustion in the first chamber (e.g., combustion chamber) may heat reactants in the second chamber (e.g., reaction chamber), thereby driving the pyrolysis reaction in the second chamber. The thermal communication may be established by any suitable means. For example, a common wall or surface between the first and second chambers arranged in a concentric or annular manner may establish thermal communication therebetween. For example, as shown in FIG. 11, the system 1100 may include a central combustion chamber 1111 (sometimes referred to herein as a "combustor 1111") surrounded by an annular reaction chamber 1112 (sometimes referred to herein as a "reactor 1112"). The combustor 1111 may combust a fuel (e.g., methane, natural gas, hydrogen, and / or another suitable combustible material) with an oxidant (e.g., air, pure oxygen, and / or another suitable oxygen-carrying material) to heat a reaction chamber 1112 disposed radially outward. A hydrocarbon fuel (sometimes referred to herein as a “reactant” and / or “reactant fuel”), e.g., methane or natural gas, is directed into the reaction chamber 1112 and heated by heat resulting from combustion in the combustor 1111. The heat dissociates or decomposes the hydrocarbons via a pyrolysis reaction, resulting in an output including hydrogen gas and carbon particulates (e.g., including unreacted hydrocarbon fuel and / or by-product gases resulting from secondary reactions). A separator 1114 separates the carbon and hydrogen in the output. For example, the separator 1114 may include a screen filter, a baghouse filter, a cyclone separator, a serpentine flow channel, and / or various other suitable structures for removing carbon particulates from the output. In this case, the carbon may be used for any number of purposes, including carbon sequestration.

[0075] The hydrogen is directed to a hydrogen distributor 1116, which directs the hydrogen gas to one or more endpoints. For example, as shown, a portion of the hydrogen gas may be directed back to the combustor 1111 to continue heating the reactor 1112 (e.g., to fully or partially fuel the combustion), while another portion of the hydrogen gas may be directed outside the system 1100 for other purposes. For example, a portion of the hydrogen gas may be directed to a cogeneration facility 1117 where it is mixed with air and combusted to produce heat and electricity. In various other embodiments, the hydrogen gas may be partially directed to a hydrogen storage device for later consumption, used in a generator (e.g., to generate electricity only), loaded into a fuel cell (e.g., for later use to power a vehicle), used in fertilizer production, used in various manufacturing processes (e.g., as a carrier gas in electronics manufacturing, as a float gas in glass manufacturing, and so forth), and / or used in various other suitable facilities.

[0076] As further shown in Figure 11, an exhaust stream from the combustor 1111 (e.g., flue gas resulting from combustion) may be directed into and / or contacted with a heat exchanger 1113 to transfer heat to the hydrocarbon fuel directed into the reactor 1112. That is, the remaining heat in the exhaust stream may be recycled by a regenerative heat exchanger to preheat the hydrocarbon fuel directed into the reactor 1112. By preheating the hydrocarbon fuel, the regenerative heat exchanger may increase the amount of the hydrocarbon fuel that is converted to hydrogen gas and carbon (e.g., by increasing the period of time that the hydrocarbon fuel is above the enthalpy point for the pyrolysis reaction). The relatively cool exhaust may then be directed to an exhaust system 1115 (e.g., similar to exhaust system 60 of Figure 1) for disposal, scrubbing, and / or other post-treatment functions.

[0077] FIG. 12 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary CCP system 1200 including some of the components described above with reference to FIG. 11. In particular, FIG. 12 illustrates a fuel source 1220 that can be fluidly coupled to an input valve 1211 to provide methane, natural gas, and / or another suitable hydrocarbon reactant to a reaction chamber 1212 (e.g., reactor 1112 of FIG. 11). After undergoing a pyrolysis reaction in the reaction chamber 1212, the reaction products (e.g., hydrogen gas, carbon particulates, unreacted hydrocarbon reactants, and the like) are directed into one or more separators 1214. The separators 1214 may include a carbon separator to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output and / or a gas separator to remove at least a portion of the non-hydrogen gases (e.g., unreacted hydrocarbons, by-product gases, and the like) from the output. Hydrogen in the separated output may then be directed into an output valve 1223 for routing to various destinations.

[0078] For example, as shown in FIG. 12, a portion (or all) of the hydrogen may be directed to a hydrogen storage facility 1221 and / or used for various production purposes at block 1222. Additionally or alternatively, a portion (or all) of the hydrogen may be directed to a cogeneration facility 1217. The cogeneration facility 1217 may include a power generator for burning the hydrogen to generate power (e.g., electricity), which is then directed to a power grid or other end user. Unconverted (e.g., excess) heat may be directed to a circulation system. The circulation system may include heat exchangers and / or other components to utilize the excess heat for residential and / or other heating applications. The remaining heat / components are ultimately directed to an exhaust system.

[0079] Additionally or alternatively, a portion (or all) of the hydrogen may be directed to a combustion component 1206, which may include a burner 1210 (or other suitable combustion initiation device, e.g., an igniter, a flame holder, an igniter, and the like), and which may be fluidly coupled to a blower 1209 (or other oxidant source). In some embodiments, the combustion component 1206 may include a blower. Within the combustion component 1206, the hydrogen (and / or any other suitable fuel, e.g., natural gas) may be mixed with air from the blower 1209 and introduced to the burner 1210. In some embodiments, the ratio of fuel for combustion to air entering the burner 1210 is controlled (e.g., to maintain a stoichiometric ratio). At the burner 1210, the hydrogen-air mixture is combusted, thereby generating heat, which is then used to heat the reaction chamber 1212 and the hydrocarbon fuel therein. The exhaust stream (e.g., flue gas) from the combustion process may then be directed through the flue valve 1208 and through the heat exchanger 1213 in the regenerative heat exchanger. The heat exchanger 1213 may absorb excess (e.g., unused) heat from the flue gas and use the absorbed heat to preheat a hydrocarbon fuel from the fuel source 1220 before introducing the hydrocarbon fuel into the reaction chamber 1212. Additionally or alternatively, the heat exchanger 1213 may absorb excess heat from the flue gas and use the absorbed heat to preheat a fuel for combustion (e.g., hydrogen gas, natural gas, air, and the like) before introducing the fuel for combustion into the combustion component 1206. In some embodiments, the heat exchanger 1213 is an interconnected heat-conducting wall located between the flue gas stream (e.g., traveling through the exhaust system) and the hydrocarbon reactant stream entering the reaction chamber 1212 and / or the fuel for combustion entering the burner 1210.

[0080] In some embodiments, the output valve 1223 can actively distribute the isolated output between various destinations. For example, the output valve can have a first position that directs a controlled portion (or all) of the filtered output to the combustion component 1206 and a second position that directs a controlled portion (or all) of the filtered output external to the system 1200 (e.g., to the hydrogen storage facility 1221 and / or the cogeneration facility 1217). In various embodiments, the first and / or second positions can also controllably distribute a portion of the isolated output to any other suitable destination. In some embodiments, the output valve 1223 passively distributes the isolated output. For example, the output valve 1223 can have a junction (e.g., a T-piece) with a first outlet positioned to direct the isolated output to the combustion component 1206 and a second outlet positioned to direct the isolated output external to the system 1200.

[0081] FIG. 13 is a schematic cross-sectional view of another CCP system 1300 including components similar to those described above with reference to FIGS. 11 and 12. As shown, the system 1300 may include two concentric cylinders made of materials selected to withstand high temperatures (e.g., 1000° C. or higher) and can transfer heat between chambers formed therein. In the illustrated embodiment, the inner cylinder forms a combustion chamber 1311, which includes a combustion component 1310 that is coupleable to a fuel source (e.g., a gas meter) to receive a fuel (e.g., hydrogen, hydrogen / natural gas mixture, pure natural gas, and / or other hydrocarbons) along a first flow path F1 and an oxidant (e.g., air, oxygen, and / or another oxygen-carrying component) from an oxidant source along a second flow path F2. The combustion component 1310 then combusts the fuel and oxidant in the combustion chamber 1311. Additionally, natural gas and / or other hydrocarbon reactants are introduced into the outer casing (e.g., reaction chamber 1312, sometimes referred to herein as a pyrolysis furnace) along a third flow path F3. As discussed above with reference to FIG. 12, the input of the hydrocarbon reactants may be controlled by an input valve (see, e.g., FIG. 11). At a sufficiently high temperature, the hydrocarbon reactants dissociate into hydrogen and carbon via a pyrolysis reaction. For example, as discussed above, the pyrolysis reaction for methane in natural gas is as follows: CH4 → C + 2H2, in this case ΔH = 76 kJ / mol methane

[0082] Combustion in the combustion chamber 1311 can heat (or further heat) the hydrocarbon reactants to a sufficiently high temperature. For example, heat generated by combusting fuel and oxygen is transferred radially outwardly and into the outer barrel (e.g., reaction chamber 1312) along a first thermal path H1 through a shared wall W between the combustion chamber 1311 and the reaction chamber 1312 by thermal radiation and thermal conduction. Additionally, insulation 1307 (e.g., a refractory material) can reduce heat loss from the reaction chamber 1312 along a second thermal path H2, thereby helping to retain heat generated from combustion within the system 1300.

[0083] The output from the reaction (e.g., H2, residual hydrocarbons, and carbon) enters the separator 1314 at the reaction chamber 1312 along a fourth flow path F4. The separator 1314 separates solid particles (e.g., carbon particulates) from the gaseous hydrogen and remaining gaseous reactants in the output. The carbon is then moved (e.g., manually, mechanically, hydraulically, and otherwise) along a fifth flow path F5 to a carbon disposal system 1315. A first portion of the gaseous products from the reaction chamber 1312 (sometimes referred to herein as the separated output) can then exit the separator 1314 along a sixth flow path F6. A portion of the separated output can then return to the combustion component 1310 along a seventh flow path F7 and is combusted in the combustion chamber 1311. A second portion of the separated output can be directed away from the system 1300 along an eighth flow path F8 for use for various purposes as described above (e.g., for storage in the hydrogen storage device 1316). As will be appreciated, the first portion may include any suitable portion of the isolated output, such as 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, 100% and / or any other suitable portion of the isolated output, and similarly, the second portion may include any suitable portion of the isolated output.

[0084] A portion of the solid carbon produced by the pyrolysis reaction in the reaction chamber 1312 will adhere and / or accumulate on the walls of the reaction chamber 1312 over time, thereby forming bridges and / or agglomerates. Carbon deposits may result in plugging in the reaction chamber 1312, which may overpressurize the system 1300 and / or reduce the productivity of the system 1300. Undesirable changes include temperature and / or pressure changes, for example, by cooling or shutting down the reactor, or requiring several parallel systems, some of which are idle and some of which are in use. All of the above deleterious changes may result in reduced efficiency, and therefore embodiments of the present technology that reduce or eliminate such processes may improve efficiency.

[0085] For example, various embodiments provided herein relate to methods and apparatus for removing deposited and / or accumulated carbon in an intermittent or continuous manner, thereby allowing at least quasi-continuous operation without the need to significantly change reactor conditions. For example, a representative carbon removal apparatus includes a plunger or piston 1306 (referred to herein as "plunger 1306"), various embodiments of which are described in further detail below. The plunger 1306 can move along the longitudinal axis of the reaction chamber 1312, and as the plunger moves, can scrape contaminants off the walls of the reaction chamber 1312. The scraping action loosens, breaks up, and / or otherwise removes the carbon deposits, thereby reducing the deleterious changes described above.

[0086] The concentric configurations shown in Figures 11 and 13 allow for increased (e.g., maximized) heat usage. For example, combustion heat loss by thermal radiation / conduction from the inner barrel to its neighboring outer barrel is directly used to input heat to the endothermic pyrolysis reaction taking place in the outer barrel. Furthermore, heat from the inner barrel can only flow radially outward through the reaction chamber 1312. Thus, because the insulation 1307 radially surrounds the reaction chamber 1312, heat loss by thermal radiation / conduction radially outward from the reaction chamber 1312 is reduced. Thus, heat from combustion in the inner barrel can effectively heat the hydrocarbon reactants in the outer barrel.

[0087] The flue gas leaving the combustion chamber 1311 typically contains H2O, N2, residual H2, residual hydrocarbon fuel, and trace amounts of NO x , S.O. x, CO2, and / or CO. The flue gas can carry heat not transferred to the reaction chamber 1312 (sometimes referred to herein as "excess heat" and / or "unused heat") out of the combustion chamber 1311 along a ninth flow path F9. The excess heat in the exhaust stream can be at least partially recovered by the regenerative heat exchanger 1313, thereby preheating the hydrocarbon reactants entering the reaction chamber 1312 and / or the fuel for combustion (e.g., air, nitrogen, natural gas, and / or another hydrocarbon fuel) entering the reaction chamber. By preheating the hydrocarbon reactants, for example, the regenerative heat exchanger 1313 can increase the efficiency of the system 1300. For example, the preheated hydrocarbon reactants can reach pyrolysis temperatures more quickly in the reaction chamber 1312, thus allowing more time for the pyrolysis reaction to complete before exiting the reaction chamber 1312. As a result, the output from the reaction chamber 1312 can have a large ratio of hydrogen gas and carbon to unreacted hydrocarbons. In another example, the fuel for combustion can be preheated to reduce the heat input required to cause combustion, thereby allowing the excess heat to be used to reduce the input energy of the combustion components. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the plasma can be used to preheat the exhaust stream to a target temperature to speed up kinetics.

[0088] During the start-up phase, the system 1300 uses stored hydrogen, natural gas (e.g., 12) and / or other hydrocarbons until the CCP reactor is heated to a temperature suitable for the pyrolysis reaction to proceed at a rate sufficient to provide a portion of the hydrogen in the output to the combustion component. At that point, a control unit (coupled to temperature and / or other sensors) can direct valves (e.g., output valves 1223 in FIG. 12) and / or other hardware to switch to the recirculation method described above, in which a portion of the hydrogen in the output is combusted to generate heat to enable hydrocarbon pyrolysis.

[0089] The control system may include any of a wide variety of suitable sensors to control corresponding aspects of the system operation, including the start-up phase described above. The sensors may measure temperature, composition, and / or pressure of any of the gas streams at various points throughout the system, and / or may measure other operating parameters. Data from the sensors may be transmitted to an operator or an automated control system, and such data may be used to control and / or improve (e.g., optimize) the performance of the system and / or monitor its operation, for example, to indicate when preventive maintenance is required. Other sensors or control loops may determine how much of the produced hydrogen is recycled to the burner / combustion feed stream and / or how much natural gas is mixed into the combustion feed stream, and may operate one or more valves or other components accordingly, thereby adjusting operating conditions resulting from the system 1300 to the changing demand for and / or hydrogen produced by the system 1300 during system start-up (e.g., to accommodate changes in demand from end users during system start-up). Additionally or alternatively, other sensors or control loops can determine how much carbon has accumulated in the pyrolysis chamber (e.g., as indicated by pressure changes in a particular portion of the system) and one or more carbon removal mechanisms can be activated / initiated (e.g., actuating plunger 1306) to loosen (e.g., scrape, remove, scrape, scrape off, flake off, and / or clean) at least a portion of the carbon deposits.

[0090] A control loop can be used to periodically activate the carbon removal mechanism, for example, at a predetermined time interval, activation time interval, and / or cumulatively at intervals of pyrolysis feed stream. Other sensors or control loops can detect when the carbon collection system is full and can automatically trigger an emptying process or send a signal to an operator to perform such a process. Still other sensors or control loops can adjust the flow rates of combustion gases and pyrolysis gases according to temporally changing demands from end users for hydrogen, heat, or electricity. For example, a control loop can actuate a valve to prevent additional hydrocarbon reactants from entering the reaction chamber 1312 while the plunger 1306 is actuated (e.g., when the plunger 1306 completely blocks the flow path through the reaction chamber 1312). In another embodiment, the control loop can maintain some (or all) of the flow of hydrocarbon reactants while the plunger 1306 is actuated. Yet another sensor or control loop may communicate with the cogeneration system to detect problems or failures and turn off reactors accordingly or adjust combustion or pyrolysis flow rates accordingly to meet demand. Yet another sensor or control loop may monitor for safety conditions (e.g., leaks) and safely turn off the system or parts of the system. Another sensor or control loop may measure hydrogen production and send a signal to an operator to, for example, charge end user fees based on end user consumption of hydrogen.

[0091] 5. Typical reactor configuration with carbon deposit removal system 14A and 14B are partial schematic cross-sectional and plan views, respectively, of a representative system 1400a with a concentric reactor / combustion chamber arrangement. FIGS. 14A and 14B show simplified versions of the system described above with reference to FIG. 13. As shown in FIG. 14, the system 1400a may include a central first chamber 1411 that is at least partially surrounded by a concentric second chamber 1412. The second chamber 1412 may be surrounded by insulation 1407 (e.g., one or more solid, liquid, and / or gaseous materials, and / or a vacuum chamber) to reduce or eliminate heat loss from the first and second chambers 1411, 1412. In the illustrated embodiment, the first chamber 1411 is used as a combustion chamber, while the second chamber 1412 is used as a reaction chamber. However, as explained in detail with reference to FIG. 14C, the utilization can be switched (e.g., the first chamber 1411 can be used as a reaction chamber and the second chamber 1412 can be used as a combustion chamber). Referring back to the illustrated embodiment, reaction gases ("reactants") (e.g., a hydrocarbon reactant) are introduced into the second chamber 1412 as indicated by arrow R. The combustion component 1410a combusts a fuel (e.g., hydrogen gas, natural gas, and / or any other suitable fuel) to generate the heat necessary to carry out a pyrolysis reaction in the second chamber 1412. The heat is transferred into the second chamber by thermal conduction and / or thermal radiation through the shared wall of the concentric chambers and to the reactants in the second chamber. Once the reactant temperature exceeds the enthalpy point, the pyrolysis reaction decomposes the reactants to generate an output including hydrogen gas and carbon.

[0092] As will be appreciated, although the flow in the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 is shown in a parallel flow manner, the flow may be counter-current (e.g., the flow in the two chambers flows in opposite directions). The second chamber 1412 (e.g., in the second chamber, where the pyrolysis reaction produces carbon particles) may be oriented vertically, and the flow in the second chamber is top-to-bottom to utilize the flow from top to bottom to utilize gravity to aid in the removal of carbon. In the parallel flow manner of the system 1400a, the combustion component 1410a is also mounted on the top, with the flame facing downward. In this orientation, it is very easy to manage the flow of hydrogen gas (and other fuel gases) and / or condensed water resulting from the combustion. This allows the system 1400a to maintain a stable flame. However, the parallel flow manner may result in poor heat transfer from the combustion in the first chamber 1411 to the reactant gas in the second chamber 1412, resulting in a low degree of conversion. Additionally or alternatively, a parallel flow system may not provide sufficient residence time to preheat the incoming natural gas stream, again resulting in a low degree of conversion. In contrast, a counterflow system, where the combustion component 1410a is located at the bottom of the first chamber 1411 and faces upward, and the reactants flow from top to bottom in the second chamber 1412, may provide a longer residence time for heat exchange and / or a larger surface area between the high flue gas and the reactants, allowing for better heat transfer to preheat the incoming natural gas. Thus, the counterflow system may improve the overall degree of conversion. However, the counterflow system may require a water management and / or removal system to prevent hydrogen gas and / or condensed water from the combustion from interfering with the combustion. For example, the counterflow system may either maintain a sufficiently high temperature throughout the first chamber (where all water remains in the gas phase) or provide a flow path to direct the condensed water away from the flame in the combustion component 1410a.

[0093] As discussed above, because carbon produced by the pyrolysis reaction in the second chamber 1412 may precipitate on the walls of the second chamber 1412, the system 1400a may include a movable plunger 1406a. The movable plunger 1406a may scrape the walls of the second chamber 1412 to loosen, break up, and / or otherwise remove the deposited carbon. In various embodiments, the plunger 1406a may be one of multiple plungers or may be in the form of a single annular plunger. In various embodiments, the plunger 1406a may have a single scraper structure. In other embodiments, the plunger 1406a may have one or more sharp knife blades to aid in removing the carbon, and / or an optional vacuum pump to aid in implementing a gravity assisted process to remove particulate carbon from the second chamber 1412 and into the separator 1414. For any of these embodiments, the plunger 1406a may move longitudinally (e.g., upward and / or downward in the illustrated orientation) within the second chamber 1412 while remaining in contact with the wall to remove carbon buildup. Additionally or alternatively, the system 1400a may periodically and / or occasionally pump air or another oxidant into the second chamber 1412 to burn off residual carbon.

[0094] The carbon products removed by the plunger 1406a are directed (e.g., carried by gravity and / or the flow of gas in the second chamber 1412) to a separator 1414. The separator 1414 may have a baffle 1405 that forms a serpentine flow path through which particulate carbon can fall through the gas flow and various other features (e.g., screens, filters, cyclone-type separators, other flow blockers, and the like) to be separated from the output.

[0095] The combustion products (e.g., flue gas) may be directed to (e.g., in contact with) a regenerative heat exchanger to preheat the combustion fuel applied to the first chamber 1411 and / or the reactants applied to the second chamber 1412. The combustion products may then be directed to an exhaust system.

[0096] In the exemplary embodiment described above with reference to Figures 14A and 14B, the reaction chamber is arranged concentrically around the combustion chamber. Figure 14C shows a system 1400b in which these positions are reversed. Specifically, the first chamber 1411 is located in a central location and serves as the reaction chamber, while the second chamber 1412 is arranged concentrically outward from the first chamber 1411 and serves as the combustion chamber. In some such embodiments, the combustion component 1410b includes a concentric burner to match the concentric configuration of the second chamber 1412. In the illustrated embodiment, the combustion component 1410b has multiple burners (e.g., 2, 4, 5, 10, and / or any other suitable number) arranged circumferentially around the second chamber 1412. The plunger 1406b may be, for example, a simple circle shape to match the circular cross-sectional shape of the first chamber 1411.

[0097] As will be appreciated, for any of the systems 1400a, 1400b described above with reference to Figures 14A-14C, the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be scaled to meet various demands. For example, a high power system will generally require a chamber with a larger diameter than that of a low power system. In various embodiments, the diameter of the first chamber 1411 may be between about 0.01 millimeter (m) and about 10 m, and the diameter of the second chamber 1412 may be between about 0.1 m and about 20 m (while maintaining a larger diameter than the first chamber 1411). Additionally or alternatively, the flow rate (and / or combustion rate) of the hydrocarbon reactant in the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be scaled to increase or decrease the volume of the output (and the amount of hydrogen gas in the output). For example, increasing the flow rate of the hydrocarbon reactant may increase the volume of the output. However, increasing the flow rate may result in diminishing benefits (e.g., there may be an insufficient amount of hydrogen gas in the output if the heat from the combustion cannot heat the hydrocarbon reactants to a sufficient temperature and / or at a sufficient rate). In another example, increasing the flow rate of fuel gas delivered to combustion may increase the ratio of hydrogen gas to unreacted hydrocarbon reactants in the output.

[0098] 14D and 14E are partial schematic cross-sectional and plan views, respectively, of a system 1400c including concentric chambers according to another embodiment of the present technology. In particular, the system 1400c includes a central first chamber 1401 ("first chamber 1401") and successive concentric second and third chambers 1402, 1403 disposed radially outward from the first chamber 1401. All three of the aforementioned chambers can operate as either combustion or reaction chambers depending on the operational phase or mode of the system 1400c. Thus, for example, each of the first through third chambers 1401-1403 may have a corresponding combustion component shown as three combustion components 1410c1, 1410c2, 1410c3. Each chamber may further include a corresponding plunger 1406c1, 1406c2, 1406c3 for removing particulate carbon from the chamber when the chamber is operating as a reaction chamber. For example, in the configuration shown in FIG. 14D, the first chamber 1410c1 and the third chamber 1410c3 operate as reaction chambers, and reactants flow downward into the first chamber 1410c1 and the third chamber 1410c3 along reactant arrow R. Additionally, the intermediate second chamber 1410c2 may operate as a combustion chamber, in which case the second combustion component 1410c2 may be activated to heat the reactants flowing into the first and third chambers 1410c1, 1410c3. In one aspect of the illustrated embodiment, the plunger 1406c2 for the active combustion chamber (eg, the second chamber 1402) may be recessed so as to be positioned above the burner 1410c2 so as not to interfere with the combustion process.

[0099] In some embodiments, the first to third chambers 1401-1403 cycle between operating as combustion chambers and operating as reaction chambers during different operational phases and / or to accommodate varying power demands. Purely by way of example, the second chamber 1402 may operate as a combustion chamber (e.g., with combustion and no pyrolysis) during a first operational phase, while the first and third chambers 1401, 1403 operate as reaction chambers (e.g., with pyrolysis and no combustion). During a second operational phase, the roles may be reversed, so that the first and third chambers 1401, 1403 operate as combustion chambers and the second chamber 1402 operates as a reaction chamber. In another embodiment, the second chamber 1402 may operate full-time as a combustion chamber, while the first and third chambers 1401, 1403 rotate between active reaction and cleaning phases. That is, during a first operation phase, the first chamber 1401 may operate as a reaction chamber and the third chamber 1403 may be cleaned by the plunger 1406c3, and then during a second operation phase, the third chamber 1403 may operate as a reaction chamber and the first chamber 1401 may be cleaned by the plunger 1406c1.

[0100] For cyclic operation, each of the first through third chambers 1401-1403 may be fluidly coupled to an input valve (e.g., input valve 1211 of FIG. 12) that is fluidly coupled to a reactant source. Additionally, the input valves and the combustion components 1410c1, 1410c2, 1410c3 may be operatively coupled to a controller (e.g., controller 150 of FIG. 1) to cycle through the various phases. For example, in the first phase of operation described above, the controller may cause the combustion component 1410c2 to combust fuel, which may cause the input valves to direct the reactants into the first and third chambers 1401, 1403. As a result, combustion (but not pyrolysis) occurs in the second chamber 1402, and pyrolysis (but not combustion) occurs in the first and third chambers 1401, 1403. During the second phase of operation described above, the controller may reverse the operation.

[0101] 14F and 14G are partial schematic cross-sectional side and plan views, respectively, of a system 1400e configured in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present technology. As shown in FIG. 14F, the system 1400e includes a central second chamber 1412 (e.g., a reaction chamber) and a concentrically surrounding first chamber 1411 (e.g., a combustion chamber). The first chamber 1411 may include one or more combustion components 1410e (two are shown in the cross-sectional view of FIG. 14F and six are shown in the plan view of FIG. 14G). Each of the combustion components 1410e is disposed within the first chamber 1411 and oriented to direct combustion flue gas into contact with a shared wall of the second chamber 1412. As in the above embodiment, a plunger 1406 can be used to remove carbon particulates from the wall of the second chamber 1412. As best shown in FIG. 14G, the system 1400e may have an asymmetric circular cross-sectional shape. Alternatively, as can be seen by the embodiment shown in plan view in FIG. 14H, the system 1400e may have a rectangular cross-sectional shape.

[0102] 14I and 14J are partial schematic isometric and plan views, respectively, of a system 1400f configured in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present technology. In this illustrated embodiment, the system 1400f includes a plurality of first chambers 1411 (15 are shown), a plurality of second chambers 1412 (15 are shown), and insulation 1407 surrounding the first and second chambers 1411, 1412. In operation, one or more (or all) of the first chambers 1411 can operate as a combustion chamber, and one or more (or all) of the second chambers 1412 can operate as a reaction chamber. Thus, each of the first chambers 1411 may have a corresponding combustion component (see, e.g., FIG. 14D) arranged to combust a fuel in the first chamber 1411. Alternatively, the system 1400f may include a single combustion component with individual burners and / or outlets (see, e.g., FIG. 14C) positioned to cause a portion of the combustion in the first chamber 1411 and / or direct flue gases resulting from the combustion through the first chamber 1411. Similarly, each of the second chambers 1412 may have a corresponding plunger and a corresponding input valve (neither shown).

[0103] As best shown in FIG. 14J, the first chamber 1411 and the second chamber 1412 may be arranged in an alternating arrangement, so that, for example, the first chamber 1411 only shares a wall with the second chamber 1412 or the insulation 1407. Thus, heat generated within the first chamber 1411 is primarily radiated and / or conducted outward into the second chamber 1412 (e.g., heat directed into the insulation 1407 is primarily reflected). As will be appreciated, each of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may have a different cross-sectional shape. Purely by way of example, each of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may have a square cross-sectional shape. The square cross-sectional shape can increase the surface area of ​​the shared wall between the first chamber 1411 and the second chamber 1412, which can help increase heat transfer between the first chamber 1411 and the second chamber 1412. In various other embodiments, each of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 can be of a hexagonal cross-section, an octagonal cross-section, and / or any other suitable cross-sectional shape.

[0104] In some embodiments, a subset of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be operated depending on the operating stage of the system 1400f. For example, a first subset of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be operated while a second chamber 1412 of the second subset is being scrubbed by their corresponding plunger. Then, the operation may be swapped so that a second chamber 1412 of the first subset can be scrubbed by their corresponding plunger. As another example, the number of operating first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be scaled according to the demand for power. That is, when the demand for power is low, only a few of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 are in operation. As the demand increases, the number of operating first and second chambers 1411, 1412 may be increased to meet the increased demand.

[0105] 14K and 14L are partial schematic isometric and plan views, respectively, of a system 1400g configured in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present technology. In the illustrated embodiment, the system 1400g includes a plurality of first chambers 1411 (25 are shown) penetrating larger second chambers 1412. In this case, the second chambers 1412 are surrounded by insulation 1407. Each of the first chambers 1411 may operate as a combustion chamber, and the second chambers 1412 may operate as a reaction chamber. Thus, each of the first chambers 1411 may have a corresponding combustion component (see FIG. 14D) arranged to combust fuel in the first chambers 1411. Alternatively, the system 1400f may include a single combustion component with individual burners and / or outlets positioned to cause a portion of the combustion in the first chamber 1411 and / or direct flue gases resulting from the combustion through the first chamber 1411 (see, e.g., FIG. 14C ).

[0106] The system 1400g can include one or more plungers (see, e.g., FIG. 14D) that can penetrate the second chamber 1412 to scrape the wall of the second chamber. In some embodiments, the plunger has a relatively small cross-sectional area and can move within the footprint of the second chamber 1412. In such embodiments, the plunger can scrape a portion of the second chamber 1412 while the remainder acts as a reaction chamber and moves continuously to cyclone the various scraped portions.

[0107] As can be appreciated, the configuration of the first and second chambers 1411, 1412 can be interchanged, i.e., each of the first chambers 1411 can serve as a reaction chamber, while the second chamber 1412 serves as a combustion chamber surrounding the reaction chamber.

[0108] The plunger arrangement for removing carbon from the walls of the reaction chamber can be utilized in a CCP reactor as described above and / or in an RTP reactor as described below with reference to FIGS. 15A and 15B. In FIG. 15A, a common chamber 1501 has a combustion component 1510 that can control the amount of oxygen present in the common chamber 1501 while burning a fuel and heating a hydrocarbon reactant. The combustion component 1510 can have a burner to heat the common chamber 1501 and / or an input valve to provide a hydrocarbon reactant to be pyrolyzed in the common chamber 1501. During combustion, the combustion component 1510 can control the oxygen level in the common chamber 1501 so that all of the oxygen is consumed by the burner. As a result, the hydrocarbon reactant undergoes a pyrolysis reaction rather than combustion as it is being heated. In some embodiments, the combustion fuel and the hydrocarbon reactant are the same. For example, both the combustion fuel and the hydrocarbon reactant can be natural gas. In some embodiments, the combustion component 1510 may ensure that there is not enough oxygen present to combust all of the natural gas input into the common chamber 1501. As a result, a first portion combusts and heats a second portion, which undergoes a pyrolysis reaction.

[0109] As further shown in FIG. 15A, the plunger 1506a may have a ring-shaped body with an open central portion. The shape of the ring allows the plunger 1506a to scrape the walls of the common chamber 1501 while the combustion flue gas, hydrogen gas, carbon particulates, and / or unreacted hydrocarbons are moving through the common chamber 1501. The output from the common chamber 1501 then flows through the output valve 1523 and into the separator 1514. The output valve 1523 may have a first position that directs the output to an exhaust system, for example, when the common chamber 1501 is undergoing a heating cycle (e.g., only the combustion flue gas is leaving the common chamber). As described above, the separator 1514 may remove the carbon and / or non-hydrogen gas from the output. The separated output may then be directed to a destination (e.g., back into the common chamber 1501 where combustion is to take place, to a hydrogen storage tank, and / or to any other suitable destination).

[0110] In FIG. 15B, the reaction chamber 1512 is heated by a separate combustion process. The separate combustion process may be performed in a separate chamber that does not share a common wall (e.g., in a second chamber) with the reaction chamber 1512. Instead, the second combustion process may be thermally coupled to the reaction chamber 1512 by another device. For example, flue gas from the combustion process may be directed into the reaction chamber 1512 immediately after the combustion process. Additionally or alternatively, the combustion process may be performed adjacent to the reaction chamber 1512 and thermally coupled by heating through thermal radiation. Additionally or alternatively, the combustion process may be completed in advance in the reaction chamber 1512 to preheat the reaction chamber 1512. As further shown in FIG. 15B, the plunger 1506b may be used to remove carbon particulates from the wall of the reaction chamber 1512 in the manner described above. In the illustrated embodiment, the plunger 1506b does not include an open center through which gas can be inserted. Alternatively, for example, plunger 1506b may be actuated within reaction chamber 1512 after a reaction process cycle (eg, before reheating reaction chamber 1512).

[0111] 16A-16C are partial schematic diagrams of another example configuration for removing carbon particulates from the reaction chamber and / or output in addition to or in lieu of the plunger 1406a and separator 1414 described above with reference to FIG. 14A. For example, FIG. 16A illustrates a system 1600a generally similar to the system 1400a described above with reference to FIG. 14A. The system 1600a includes a first chamber 1411, a surrounding second chamber 1412, a combustion component 1410a arranged to combust fuel in the first chamber 1411, and a plunger 1406a operable to remove carbon from the walls of the second chamber 1412. However, as illustrated, the system 1600a may further include one or more lock hoppers 1621 in fluid communication with the second chamber 1412. The lock hoppers 1621 allow for continuous filtration and / or removal of solid carbon from the output from the second chamber 1412. The lock hopper 1621 may direct the separated output to a separator 1414 to further separate the gaseous products from the solid carbon products. For example, the output may be passed through a cyclone, baghouse, and / or other device to separate the gaseous substances (e.g., hydrogen gas, stranded hydrocarbon reactants, and the like) from the solid materials in the output. Purely by way of example, in the illustrated embodiment, the output is passed through a liquid column 1622 to further separate the gaseous substances from the solid materials in the output.

[0112] FIG. 16B is a partial schematic cross-sectional view of a system 1600b including one or more screw-type extruders 1623 (two shown, sometimes referred to herein as "augers 1623") that can remove carbon from the walls of the second chamber 1412, instead of the plunger 1406a described above with reference to FIG. 16A. Each auger 1623 may have a rotating screw-shaped member that scrapes particulate carbon from the walls of the second chamber 1412. In some embodiments, the augers 1623 move axially along the length of the second chamber 1412 to remove particulates from the entire length (e.g., entire height) of the second chamber 1412 and / or are removed during operation. In some embodiments, the augers 1623 remain in a fixed longitudinal position and scrape the walls of the second chamber 1412 and / or push the removed carbon out of the second chamber 1412. In some embodiments, the second chamber 1412 has a single auger 1623 (e.g., having a hollow portion corresponding to the first chamber 1411) that is concentric with and surrounds the first chamber 1411.

[0113] In some embodiments, for example as shown in the plan view of Figure 16C, two augers 1623 may be coupled together and may travel along a circular path through the annular second chamber 1412 to remove particulates from the inner and outer circumferential walls of the second chamber 1412. The augers 1623 may thus rotate about their own axes, as indicated by arrow C, and orbit about a common central axis, as indicated by arrow D. By rotating about the common central axis, a portion of the second chamber 1412 remains in use while the augers 1623 remove carbon from the walls.

[0114] As can be appreciated, in embodiments where the first chamber 1411 operates as a reaction chamber, the system can include one or more augers 1623 disposed and / or movable within the first chamber 1411. For example, two augers 1623 can rotate about a central axis to clean the peripheral walls of the first chamber 1411, while the central portion and other walls of the first chamber 1411 remain in use. In another embodiment, a single auger with approximately the same diameter as the first chamber 1411 can scrape the walls of the first chamber 1411 all at once.

[0115] 16D is a cross-sectional view of a system 1600d configured in accordance with yet another embodiment of the present technology. In the embodiment shown, the system includes an arrangement of gas jets 1624 (e.g., in place of auger 1623) to remove carbon particulates from the chamber walls with a pressurized fluid and / or prevent the particulates from accumulating altogether.

[0116] 6. Representative Test and Simulation Data Figures 17A-17C show test data obtained for an exemplary carbon removal system configured according to embodiments of the present technology. The figures compare carbon removal efficiency for (a) a system utilizing fluid flow for carbon particulate removal and (b) a system including a mechanical remover in addition to fluid flow. Figure 17A shows that methane flow through a hydrogen and carbon producing reactor can collect up to 66% of the total carbon produced in the process over 60 minutes at 1 SLPM methane flow and 1150°C. In another example, 5 SLPM methane flow operating at 1500°C for 30 minutes produced 43% carbon outside the reactor in the carbon separator.

[0117] The system was also tested with a mechanical device made of a superalloy rod with a cylindrical piston or plunger on the end. The plunger was used to push the carbon generated in the reactor into a carbon separator. In a comparable test with 5 SLPM methane flow for 30 minutes at 1500°C, the amount of carbon collected in the carbon separator (carbon collected divided by total carbon generated) increased from 43% to 77% with the additional placement of the plunger. Further testing showed that after carbon removal, the total carbon collected increased from 77% to 86% when the plunger was reapplied after 33 minutes. With increasing number of carbon removal cycles, the carbon collection rate asymptotically increases to 100%. Figure 17B shows representative collection values ​​for multiple methane flow rates over multiple tests with and without the plunger. Figure 17C shows the increase in carbon collection rate with successive run strokes after the initial removal.

[0118] Figures 18A-C are simulations used to compare the performance of a regenerative pyrolysis (RTP) reactor with that of a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) reactor. Figures 18A and 18B are cross-sectional views of a tubular reactor. For the RTP reactor (Figure 18A), the fluid is switched in a cyclical manner from combustion gas to pyrolysis gas. In other words, the named combustion zone alternates between a heating stage, where the zone is heated by burning the incoming gas, and a pyrolysis stage, where the incoming gas is pyrolyzed in the now heated reactor. In the CCP reactor (Figure 18B), the combustion is performed in a central combustion zone, and pyrolysis is performed in a radially outer concentric pyrolysis zone. Simulations were performed for 5SLPM hydrogen combustion and 5SLPM methane pyrolysis. In the RTP system, the fluid is switched in a cyclical manner from combustion gas to pyrolysis gas as described above. Therefore, the steady state combustion temperature profile at the end of the combustion process was considered as the starting condition for the pyrolysis stage. Figure 18C is discussed below after the description of Figures 19A-19F below.

[0119] FIG. 19A shows the fluid temperature profile as a function of distance along the length of the combustion zone for the RTP and CCP reactors. Assuming adiabatic conditions, the fluid and alumina wall temperatures increased with distance. FIG. 19B shows the temperature profile as a function of distance along the length of the pyrolysis zone for the RTP and CCP reactors. The pyrolysis process was simulated until steady state was achieved (referred to as RTP-End of pyrolysis in FIG. 19B). For the CCP system, the pyrolysis and combustion sections of the reactor are simulated at steady state. The combustion temperatures obtained for the RTP system are higher than those of the CCP system, and the pyrolysis temperatures are higher for the CCP system compared to the RTP system. The alumina wall temperatures for the CCP system are also lower than those of the RTP system, as shown by the temperature profile as a function of distance along the length of the pyrolysis zone shown in FIG. 19C.

[0120] The above examples assume that the outer walls are adiabatic (e.g., zero heat is lost to the surrounding environment). In practice, a significant factor for RTP and CCP reactor systems is heat loss to the surrounding environment. Figures 19D-19F show the effect of heat loss from non-insulated walls in a CCP system. In particular, Figure 19D shows the fluid temperature profile as a function of distance along the length of the combustion zone for adiabatic and non-insulated walls, Figure 19E shows the temperature profile as a function of distance along the length of the pyrolysis zone for adiabatic and non-insulated walls, and Figure 19F shows the alumina wall temperature along the length of the CCP reactor assuming adiabatic and non-insulated conditions. Reducing (e.g., minimizing) heat loss to the surrounding environment significantly improves the performance of the RTP system. In a CCP system, combustion occurs within the inner barrel. Heat loss from combustion is utilized for pyrolysis reactions in the surrounding pyrolysis zone. Thus, the primary heat loss mechanism in a CCP system is loss from the pyrolysis zone to the surrounding environment. For both RTP and CCP systems, effective insulation significantly improves performance.

[0121] FIG. 18C shows a typical CCP reactor in which the outer wall is not thermally insulated. Instead, the outer wall has a thermal conductivity of 0.15 W / m / K and a heat loss coefficient of 3 W / m 2 The reactor has an insulating layer with a thermal conductivity of 0.5 K, an emissivity of 0.7 (heat transfer by thermal radiation), and an outside temperature of 25° C. FIGS. 19D-19F compare fluid and wall temperatures for adiabatic and non-adiabatic models, showing the impact of the assumption that the walls are adiabatic, and the importance of effective insulation around the reactor. A non-adiabatic reactor requires a longer residence time to achieve the same conversion as a reactor that is adiabatic. Therefore, the insulation thickness can be increased to reduce heat loss to the surroundings. In at least some embodiments, one or more additional channels (e.g., concentric channels) can be provided between the insulation and the pyrolysis zone. These additional channels can circulate a heat transfer fluid (e.g., methane that is then directed into the reaction chamber to be pyrolyzed), which is employed as a means of capturing heat that would otherwise be wasted. In other embodiments, the additional channels can be evacuated to provide additional insulation, or can be used to carry out additional pyrolysis reactions.

[0122] Thus, exemplary systems have configurations that are selected for safety and to enhance (e.g., optimize) operation while meeting particular end-user demands. Exemplary parameters selected to achieve these results include the dimensions and ratios of the combustion and pyrolysis chambers, the ratio of combustion and pyrolysis feed flow rates (which may vary as a function of time), and / or the flow ratios (e.g., mass or volume ratios) of hydrogen to hydrocarbons in the combustion gas feed (which may also vary as a function of time).

[0123] Similarly, materials may be selected to maximize or otherwise regulate the heat transfer from the combustion chamber to the pyrolysis chamber. For example, the combustion chamber may include high temperature compatible materials, such as metals with coatings (e.g., ceramic-coated refractory metals such as W, Mo, Nb, or Ta), ceramics (carbides, nitrides, borides, or oxides, such as aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, aluminum nitride, zirconium boride, zirconium oxide, yttrium-doped zirconium oxide, refractory bricks, or the like), and / or composites (e.g., carbon matrix composites). Similarly, materials may be selected for the pyrolysis chamber to minimize or otherwise regulate the heat transfer from the pyrolysis chamber to the exterior of the system. Materials may include any of the materials mentioned above. Various surfaces may or may not be finely polished to regulate the heat transfer, or may be coated with reflective or non-reflective (low or high emissivity) materials. "Fire-resistant" materials can include bulk materials taken from the list above, aerogels, vacuum environments, low pressure gases (e.g., He or Ar), insulating sheets, or some combination, composite, or other combination (e.g., layers) of the above materials.

[0124] Heat transfer features may be provided on various surfaces. For example, the combustion chamber inner or outer walls may have fins, channels, and / or other surface area increasing features. The combustion and / or pyrolysis gases may be directed to swirl, thereby promoting heat transfer. The pyrolysis gases may have multiple entry points along the diameter, circumference, and / or height of the pyrolysis chamber to optimize hydrogen pyrolysis and yield or remove carbon. The combustion gases may have multiple entry points along the diameter, circumference, or length of the combustion chamber to enhance (e.g., optimize) combustion and / or heat transfer. Similarly, the walls of the combustion chamber may themselves be or house burners, such as porous media burners or catalytic surface burners.

[0125] The pyrolysis and combustion chambers do not have to have circular cross sections. For example, the chambers may be of hexagonal or octagonal cross-sectional shape. The pyrolysis and combustion chambers also do not have to have the same effective diameter along the flow axis. For example, to facilitate carbon removal, the pyrolysis chamber may have outwardly tapered side walls so that its diameter increases away from the gas inlet. In this manner, the gas expands, thereby slowing down the particles. Furthermore, the large diameter opening prevents clogging of the reactor over time and simplifies the collection of fine particles at the reactor outlet. This manner may also reduce the frequency of using mechanical devices to remove carbon from the reactor. The CCP system may include a single combustion channel and a single pyrolysis channel or any suitable number of channels, for example, as described above with reference to FIG. 14C.

[0126] In an installation containing multiple individual CCP systems, the first reactor (A) can be operated and its hydrogen output can be used as a feed for the second reactor (B). This is particularly useful during start-up or during time-transient demands for hydrogen production during which the second reactor (B) can be turned on or off or otherwise varied, as this avoids the need to burn hydrocarbons to restart the heating of the second reactor (B), and instead allows the second reactor (B) to be heated without burning hydrogen and producing greenhouse gases.

[0127] 20A-20H show test data for various representative pyrolysis reactor systems according to embodiments of the present technology. In particular, the tests show the improvements resulting from the various features described above as well as the results for various operating conditions (e.g., flow rates). For example, the tests show the benefits of a ceramic integral wall containing mullite to improve heat transfer between the combustion and reaction chambers in a CCP reactor system. In another example, the effects of preheating air prior to combustion, preheating methane (e.g., used as a hydrocarbon reactant), and varying the flow rate of methane into the reactor system were tested. The table in FIG. 20A shows the results of a representative test. The tests included varying the proximity of the integral wall to the flame generated by the combustion, the number of cells per square inch of the integral wall, and the improved thermal insulation. The table in FIG. 20A also shows the effects of a tube-in-tube type reactor (e.g., a reactor with concentric combustion and reaction chambers (e.g., as shown in FIG. 14A and FIG. 14B)).

[0128] FIG. 21 shows the relationship between heat loss and pyrolysis conversion percentage, i.e., hydrocarbon reactant ratio, for several representative combustion fuels. Specifically, FIG. 21 shows the relationship for a representative ratio of hydrogen gas (as combustion fuel) to methane gas (as hydrocarbon reactant). This relationship is determined by global mass and energy balance limits. As a result, for example, pyrolysis conversion is maximized when heat loss is minimized. As FIG. 21 clearly shows, a higher ratio of combustion fuel to hydrocarbon reactant may result in more heat being lost during maintenance.

[0129] 7.Liquid intermediate products In addition to the solid carbon removal techniques mentioned above, a typical reactor can include liquid removal techniques, such as producing liquid hydrocarbons by controlling the point at which the reaction in the reactor stops. The reaction can not proceed all the way to gaseous hydrogen and solid carbon, but some or all of the reactants may take the form of resins or heavy hydrocarbons. This can be a simple way to remove some or all of the carbon, since (a) the hydrocarbon resins can capture the carbon and / or (b) they can break off and fall out of the reactor under the action of gravity. Adjustment of the reaction conditions can also be used to control the amount of hydrogen produced.

[0130] In a particular embodiment, experiments were performed using a 25 mm ID, 1000 mm long alumina reactor. For a given volumetric flow rate, the residence time in the reactor is shorter for a 25 m reactor than it is for a 60 mm ID reactor. At 1 SLPM and 1250°C, the carbon collected outside the reactor was higher for the 25 mm reactor compared to the 60 mm reactor (47.8% vs. 58.2%) when the carbon conversion values ​​were very similar. Most notably, at 5 SLPM, 16% H2 was identified in the outlet gas analyzer, but no carbon was collected in the carbon separator 114 (see, e.g., FIG. 14A). The carbon separator may have one or more separation components for particulate separation, such as, but not limited to, baffles, bag filters, and / or liquid bubblers. The inventors found that oil formation was observed at the inlet of the collection box. The residence time in the reactor was not sufficient to completely convert CH4 to carbon, but only to resinous hydrocarbons. This is quite evident when comparing the percentage conversion of methane to carbon for the two diameters (25mm vs. 60mm) at the same flow rates, e.g., 5SLPM, 1250°C.

[0131] The liquid products were characterized by chromatograph / mass spectrometer to determine the composition. The chromatograms are shown in FIG. 22. The main selected peaks are at the retention times expressed in minutes, namely, 21.525 (23.795%) corresponding to phenanthrene, 21.606 (5.175%) corresponding to phenanthrene, 24.322 (8.437%) corresponding to pyrene, and 24.881 (31.153%) also corresponding to pyrene. Phenanthrene is C 14 H 10 and pyrene is C 16 H 10 Both molecules are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and are in the liquid phase at ambient conditions.

[0132] 8. Representative Gas Transmission Carbon Removal System Solid and liquid carbon capture techniques have been described above. Exemplary systems may further include a separation system for gas-borne (gas-carried) carbon particulates, for example as part of any of the carbon / hydrogen separators described above.

[0133] Figure 23 is a schematic diagram of a cyclone separator 2300 that may be utilized in any of the separators described above, such as the carbon separator 114 shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 23, the cyclone separator 2300 has a main barrel 2302 in fluid communication with an inlet pipe 2310 (individually referred to as a first inlet pipe 2310a and a second inlet pipe 2310b), a cone section 2304 in fluid communication with the main barrel 2302, a collection section 2306 in fluid communication with the cone section 2304, and a dipleg 2308 in flow communication with the collection section 2306.

[0134] The first inlet pipe 2310a may be in fluid communication with an outlet from any of the reactors described above to receive a mixture including carbon particulates and hydrogen gas along a reactor output path 2312. The second inlet pipe 2310b may be connected to a catalyst vapor source to receive catalyst vapor along a catalyst input path 2314. As shown in FIG. 23, the catalyst input path 2314 impacts the reactor output path 2312 in the main barrel 2302 to create a cyclone moving downwardly into the cyclone separator 2300. The cyclone then exerts a centrifugal force on the mixture of carbon particulates and hydrogen gas flowing through the cyclone. Based on the impact caused by this force and the difference in density between the hydrogen gas and the carbon particulates, the mixture separates as it travels through the cyclone separator 2300. The tapered walls of the conical section 2304 maintain the velocity of the cyclone and collect and flow the mixture towards the collection section 2306 and dipleg 2308. Some or all of the carbon particulates are captured in the collection section 2306 and sent to the carbon disposal component 20 (FIG. 1), and then the dipleg 2308 sends the resulting hydrogen gas elsewhere. In some embodiments, the cyclone separator 2300 captures carbon particulates with a diameter of about 10 micrometers (μm) or greater. Carbon particulates with a diameter of less than about 10 μm may escape during output from the cyclone separator 2300. Thus, in various embodiments, the carbon separator 114 may include a series of cyclone separators and / or other particulate capture units, such as a wet scrubbing component, a baghouse filter, and / or an electrostatic precipitator, and / or another suitable component.

[0135] For example, the carbon separator 114 may include a baghouse filter operably coupled to the cyclone separator 2300 to capture additional carbon particulates from the mixture. The baghouse filter is a type of fabric filter air-matter separator employed for particulate removal from manufacturing and other industrial operations to prevent dust and solid particulates from escaping into the open environment. The baghouse utilizes fabric filter bags and / or pleated filters arranged in rows and mounted vertically within a sheet metal housing. A gas stream containing dust is moved by a blower and drawn into the baghouse through a duct system. The gas in the stream then passes through the filter while the particulates remain on the filter media surface, thus separating the particulates from the gas. Over time, the dust begins to accumulate on the filter surface and form a filter cake. Thus, various cleaning systems may be used to remove the dust from the filter and / or the filter may be manually emptied periodically. When utilized in the carbon separator 114, the baghouse filter may receive a stream of hydrogen gas and carbon particulates. Hydrogen gas can pass through the fabric filter, but the filter can trap carbon particulates.

[0136] 24A-C are partial schematic isometric views of carbon collection systems 2420a-c according to various embodiments of the present technology. As shown, each of the carbon collection systems 2420a-c has an inlet and a large storage area to collect carbon from the system 100 (FIG. 1). As shown in FIG. 24A, the carbon collection system 2420a can include a removable storage bin that can be periodically emptied and / or replaced. As shown in FIG. 24B, the carbon collection system 2420b can have a funnel that leads to a bottom opening that allows carbon to be continuously and / or periodically removed from the carbon collection system 2420b. For example, a user can empty the carbon collection system 2420b through the opening once a week. As shown in FIG. 24C, the carbon collection system 2420c can include a disposable storage tank. For example, a user may periodically remove one (or both) of the storage tanks and replace them with an empty storage tank, and then take the full storage tank elsewhere to replace the empty storage tank and / or be disposed of.

[0137] The embodiments described herein may include several advantageous features. For example, the system may operate autonomously using hydrogen produced by the reactor to feed the pyrolysis reaction carried out in the reactor. This differs from conventional reactors that typically use (e.g., exclusively) an external energy source, such as a hydrocarbon fuel or electricity. Another feature is that the system embodiment may run continuously while the carbon is being mechanically removed. This contrasts with conventional techniques that require the reactor to be shut down before the carbon can be collected and removed. Yet another feature is that the system embodiment uses heat of combustion that would otherwise be lost to heat the pyrolysis reactor instead, thus improving overall thermal efficiency. In conventional indirectly heated industrial systems, losses due to thermal radiation are significant, which reduces efficiency. Yet another feature includes a "flow-down" structure that improves the flow of carbon particles by utilizing gravity in a system having flow channels with a surface / volume ratio specifically selected (e.g., optimized) to reduce (e.g., minimize) the amount of particle deposition in the reactor.

[0138] As used herein, "and / or," such as in "A and / or B," refers to A alone, B alone, and both A and B.

[0139] As used herein, "about" and "approximately" refer to values ​​within 10% of the stated value.

[0140] In the event that any material incorporated by reference herein conflicts with the present disclosure, the present disclosure will control.

[0141] From the above, it will be understood that, although certain embodiments of the disclosed technology have been described herein for illustrative purposes, various modifications can be made without departing from the technology. For example, certain features described above in the context of an RTP reactor can be utilized in a CCP reactor, and vice versa. Certain aspects of the technology described in the context of certain embodiments can be combined or eliminated in other embodiments. Furthermore, although advantages associated with certain embodiments of the disclosed technology have been described in the context of these embodiments, other embodiments may also enjoy such advantages, but not all embodiments need to enjoy such advantages to be within the scope of the technology. Thus, the disclosure and related technology can include other embodiments not explicitly shown or described herein.

[0142] The following embodiment section provides additional representative features of the present technology.

[0143] Implementation Item [Embodiment 1] A combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system, comprising: The CCP reactor includes: A combustion chamber is provided. a combustion component positioned to combust a fuel in the combustion chamber and direct resultant flue gases into the combustion chamber; a reaction chamber having (1) a first region fluidly connectable to a reactant source to receive a reactant, and (2) a second region downstream of the first region, the reaction chamber in thermal communication with the combustion chamber to heat the reactants to cause a pyrolysis reaction in the reaction chamber, the pyrolysis reaction producing an output including hydrogen gas and carbon; a thermal insulation material arranged to reduce heat loss from at least one of the combustion chamber or the reaction chamber; a carbon separation component in fluid communication with the second region of the reaction chamber to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output to form a separated output. Embodiment 2. The method further includes an output valve in fluid communication with the carbon separation component to receive the separation output, the output valve having at least a first position and a second position; In the first position, the output valve directs at least a portion of the separated output to enter the combustion component; 2. The CCP system of claim 1, wherein in the second position, the output valve directs at least a portion of the separated output out of the CCP system. [Embodiment 3] The combustion component comprises: an oxidant input valve fluidly coupled to an oxidant source to control the ratio of the fuel to oxygen within the combustion component; and a burner operatively coupled to said oxidant input valve to receive said oxygen and combust a mixture of said fuel and said oxygen in said ratio. [Embodiment 4] A CCP system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 3, characterized in that the reaction chamber is concentric with the combustion chamber and positioned radially outward from the combustion chamber, and the insulating material is concentric with the reaction chamber and positioned radially outward from the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 5] A CCP system described in any one of embodiments 1 to 4, characterized in that the combustion chamber is concentric with the reaction chamber and located radially outward from the reaction chamber, and the insulating material is concentric with the combustion chamber and located radially outward from the combustion chamber. [Embodiment 6] The CCP system of any one of embodiments 1 to 5, further comprising: (1) a regenerative heat exchanger in thermal communication with the flue gas exiting the combustion chamber and (2) one of (a) the fuel flow entering the combustion component or (b) the oxidant entering the combustion chamber, thereby transferring heat from the flue gas to (a) the fuel entering the combustion chamber or (b) the oxidant entering the combustion chamber. [Embodiment 7] The CCP system of any one of embodiments 1 to 6, further comprising a regenerative heat exchanger in thermal communication with both the flow of reactants entering the reaction chamber and the flue gas exiting the combustion chamber to transfer heat from the flue gas to the reactants entering the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 8] The CCP system of any one of embodiments 1 to 7, further comprising a carbon removal device disposed at least partially within the reaction chamber to remove carbon deposits from at least one surface within the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 9] The CCP system of embodiment 8, wherein the carbon removal device includes at least one of a plunger movable along a longitudinal flow path of the reaction chamber to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface, a screw-type extruder rotatably movable to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface, or one or more gas jets positioned to direct a stream of pressurized gas to remove the carbon deposits from the at least one surface. [Embodiment 10] The CCP system of embodiment 8, wherein the carbon removal device includes a plunger movable along the longitudinal flow path of the reaction chamber to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface. [Embodiment 11] The combustion chamber is a first combustion chamber, the combustion component is a first combustion component, the reaction chamber is a first reaction chamber, and the CCP reactor is at least one additional combustion chamber; at least one combustion component positioned to combust the fuel in the at least one additional combustion chamber and direct resulting flue gases into the at least one additional combustion chamber; The CCP system of any one of claims 1 to 10, further comprising at least one additional reaction chamber, each reaction chamber having a first region fluidly connectable to a reactant source to receive the reactant, and a second region opposite the first region. [Embodiment 12] The CCP system of embodiment 11, wherein the insulating material is disposed radially outward from each of the first combustion chamber, the first reaction chamber, the at least one additional combustion chamber, and the at least one additional reaction chamber. [Embodiment 13] A CCP system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 12, characterized in that the reaction chamber is in thermal communication with the combustion chamber by thermal conduction and / or thermal radiation through a shared wall. [Embodiment 14] The CCP system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 13, wherein the reactant comprises natural gas. [Embodiment 15] The CCP system of any one of embodiments 1 to 14, further comprising an input valve fluidly coupled between the reactant source and the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 16] A CCP system as described in any one of embodiments 1 to 14, further comprising an output junction, the output having a first outlet positioned to direct at least a portion of the separated output into the combustion component and a second outlet positioned to direct at least a portion of the separated output out of the CCP system. 17. A combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system for converting a hydrocarbon reactant into an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon, the CCP system comprising: a CCP reactor having a plurality of chambers and a thermal insulating material arranged to reduce heat loss from the plurality of chambers, each of the plurality of chambers having a first portion and a second portion opposite the first portion; at least a first chamber having a combustion component connectable to a source of fuel and arranged to direct combustion flue gases into said first chamber; at least a second chamber fluidly connectable to an input valve for receiving a hydrocarbon reactant and in thermal communication with the first chamber for transferring heat of combustion to the hydrocarbon reactant to effect a pyrolysis reaction that produces the output; A CCP system, wherein a carbonization separation component is in fluid communication with the CCP reactor to remove at least a portion of said carbon from said output. [Embodiment 18] The CCP system of embodiment 17, further comprising a regenerative heat exchanger in fluid communication with the combustion chamber to recover heat from the combustion flue gas exiting the first chamber to preheat the fuel entering the combustion component, the hydrocarbon reactant entering the second chamber, and / or the oxidant entering the combustion component. [Embodiment 19] A CCP system as described in embodiment 17 or 18, wherein the output further includes unreacted hydrocarbon gas, and the CCP system further includes a gas separator in fluid communication with the CCP reactor to receive the output and remove at least a portion of the unreacted hydrocarbon gas from the output. [Embodiment 20] A CCP system according to any one of embodiments 17 to 19, characterized in that the multiple chambers are concentric with one another, the first chamber is positioned radially inward from the second chamber, and the insulating material is positioned radially outward from the second chamber. [Embodiment 21] The combustion component is a first combustion component, and the combustion flue gas is a first combustion flue gas; the second chamber having a second combustion component couplable to the source of the fuel and positioned to direct a second combustion flue gas into the second chamber; The CCP reactor is a third chamber concentric with and radially outward from the second chamber, the third chamber fluidly connectable to the input valve to receive the hydrocarbon reactant and in thermal communication with the first chamber and the second chamber to transfer heat of combustion from the first and / or second combustion components to the hydrocarbon reactant for effecting the pyrolysis reaction; The CCP system of embodiment 20, further comprising a controller operably coupled to each of the first combustion component, the second combustion component, and the input valve to (1) cause combustion but not pyrolysis in at least one of the first and second chambers, and (2) cause pyrolysis but not combustion in at least one of the second and third chambers. 22. The third chamber includes a third combustion component connectable to the source of fuel and positioned to direct the third combustion flue gas into the third chamber; the first chamber is fluidly connectable to the input valve to receive the hydrocarbon reactant and transfer heat of combustion from the second and / or the third combustion components to the hydrocarbon reactant to effect the pyrolysis reaction; The CCP system of embodiment 21, wherein the controller is further operable to (3) cause combustion but not pyrolysis in the third chamber, and (4) cause pyrolysis but not combustion in the first chamber. 23. A method for cleaning a surface of a cleaning apparatus comprising: a first plunger movable along a longitudinal flow path of the first chamber to scrape carbon deposits from at least one surface within the first chamber; and 23. The CCP system of embodiment 22, further comprising: a second plunger movable along the longitudinal flow path of the second chamber to scrape carbon deposits from at least one surface within the second chamber. [Embodiment 24] A CCP system described in any one of embodiments 17 to 23, characterized in that the first chamber is thermally coupled to the second chamber by a heat conductive material forming a wall between the first chamber and the second chamber. 25. A method of operating a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system to generate hydrogen gas, comprising: directing reactants into a first chamber of a CCP reactor, the first chamber being in thermal communication with a second chamber of the CCP reactor via a common thermally conductive wall; combusting a fuel in the second chamber with a combustion component to heat the reactants in the first chamber to a temperature above a reaction temperature, at which at least a portion of the reactants are converted into an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon particles; separating and removing at least a portion of said carbon particles from said output. [Embodiment 26] The method of embodiment 25, further comprising the step of transferring heat from the flue gas exiting the second chamber into the fuel and / or the oxidant entering the combustion component and / or the reactants entering the first chamber. [Embodiment 27] The method of embodiment 25 or 26, further comprising the step of directing at least a portion of the hydrogen gas in the output to enter the combustion component to replenish the fuel entering the combustion component. [Embodiment 28] The method of any one of embodiments 25 to 27, further comprising the step of sloughing off carbon deposits from at least one surface within the second chamber of the CCP reactor with a carbon removal component. Embodiment 29. The method of embodiment 28, further comprising: directing said reactants into said first chamber and performing polishing while combusting said fuel. [Embodiment 30] The method of any one of embodiments 25-29, further comprising the step of preheating the CCP reactor prior to directing the reactants into the first chamber. 31. The method of claim 30, wherein the step of preheating the CCP reactor includes combusting the fuel in the second chamber with the combustion component. [Embodiment 32] The method of embodiment 30, wherein the combustion component is a first combustion component, and the step of preheating the CCP reactor includes a step of combusting the fuel in the first chamber of the CCP reactor with a second combustion component. Embodiment 33. The method of claim 33 further comprising the step of moving the input valve from a first position to a second position; In the first position, the input valve directs the reactants into the first chamber; In the second position, the input valve directs the reactants into a third chamber in thermal communication with the second chamber; 33. The method of any one of claims 25 to 32, comprising the step of combusting the fuel in the second chamber with the combustion component to heat the reactants in the third chamber to a temperature higher than the reaction temperature. [Embodiment 34] The method of embodiment 33, further comprising the step of removing carbon deposits from at least one surface within the first chamber of the CCP reactor while the input valve is in the second position using a carbon removal component. 35. A pyrolysis system, comprising: a combustion chamber having a combustion chamber inlet positioned to receive a fuel, and a combustion chamber outlet positioned to discharge exhaust products; a reaction chamber positioned concentrically with the combustion chamber and having a common heat transfer wall with the combustion chamber, the reaction chamber having a reaction chamber inlet positioned to receive hydrocarbons and a reaction chamber outlet positioned to discharge pyrolysis products; a carbon removal device disposed within the reaction chamber and movable within the reaction chamber to remove carbon deposits from at least one surface within the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 36] The system of embodiment 1, wherein the combustion chamber is positioned radially inward from the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 37] The system of embodiment 1, wherein the combustion chamber is positioned radially outward from the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 38] The system of embodiment 1, wherein said at least one surface includes said common wall. [Embodiment 39] The system of embodiment 1, further comprising a separator coupled to the reaction chamber outlet and configured to separate carbon particles from hydrogen in the pyrolysis product stream exiting the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 40] The system of embodiment 1, further comprising a heat exchanger in thermal communication with both the flow of fuel entering the combustion chamber and the flow of exhaust products exiting the combustion chamber to heat the flow of fuel entering the combustion chamber. [Embodiment 41] The system of embodiment 1, further comprising a heat exchanger in thermal communication with both the hydrocarbon stream entering the reaction chamber and the exhaust product stream exiting the combustion chamber to heat the hydrocarbon stream entering the reaction chamber. [Embodiment 42] The system of embodiment 1, further comprising a flow path coupled between the reaction chamber outlet and the combustion chamber inlet to direct a portion of hydrogen from the pyrolysis products into the combustion chamber. 43. The system of claim 1, wherein said carbon remover includes a plunger positioned to scrape said carbon deposits from said at least one surface.

Claims

Claim 1 A combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system, wherein the CCP system comprises a CCP reactor, and the CCP reactor comprises a combustion chamber having a combustion component positioned to direct flue gas resulting from combustion of fuel within the combustion chamber into the combustion chamber, a reaction chamber having a first region fluidly connectable to a reactant source to receive reactants and a second region provided downstream of the first region, the reaction chamber being in thermal communication with the combustion chamber to heat the reactants to cause a pyrolysis reaction within the reaction chamber, the pyrolysis reaction resulting in an output containing hydrogen gas and carbon, a heat insulating material arranged to reduce heat loss from at least one of the combustion chamber or the reaction chamber, a CCP system including a carbon separation component in fluid communication with the second region of the reaction chamber to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output from the separated output to form a separated output. Claim 2 Further comprising an output valve in fluid communication with the carbon separation component to receive the separated output, the output valve having at least a first position and a second position, wherein in the first position, the output valve directs at least a portion of the separated output into the combustion component, and in the second position, the output valve directs at least a portion of the separated output out of the CCP system. The CCP system according to claim 1. Claim 3 The combustion component comprises an oxidant input valve fluidly connected to an oxidant source to control the ratio of the fuel to oxygen within the combustion component, and a burner operatively coupled to the oxidant input valve to receive the oxygen and combust a mixture of the fuel and the oxygen in the ratio. The CCP system according to claim 1. Claim 4 The reaction chamber is concentric with the combustion chamber and is located radially outward of the combustion chamber, and the heat insulating material is concentric with the reaction chamber and is located radially outward of the reaction chamber. The CCP system according to claim 1. Claim 5 The combustion chamber is concentric with the reaction chamber and is located radially outward from the reaction chamber, and the heat insulating material is concentric with the combustion chamber and is located radially outward from the combustion chamber, the CCP system according to claim 1.

6. (1) the flue gas exiting the combustion chamber and (2) either (a) the flow of the fuel entering the combustion component or (b) the oxidant entering the combustion chamber, in thermal communication therewith, thereby transferring heat from the flue gas to (a) the fuel entering the combustion chamber or (b) the oxidant entering the combustion chamber, the CCP system according to claim 1, further comprising a regenerative heat exchanger for this purpose.

7. The CCP system according to claim 1, further comprising a regenerative heat exchanger in thermal communication with both the flow of the reactant entering the reaction chamber and the flue gas exiting the combustion chamber so as to transfer heat from the flue gas into the reactant entering the reaction chamber.

8. The CCP system according to claim 1, further comprising a carbon removal device at least partially disposed within the reaction chamber so as to remove carbon deposits from at least one surface within the reaction chamber.

9. The carbon removal device includes at least one of a plunger that can move along the longitudinal flow path of the reaction chamber to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface, a screw-shaped extruder that can move rotatably to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface, or one or more gas jets positioned to direct a pressurized gas flow to remove the carbon deposits from at least one surface, the CCP system according to claim 8.

10. The carbon removal device includes a plunger that can move along the longitudinal flow path of the reaction chamber to scrape the carbon deposits from the at least one surface, the CCP system according to claim 8.

11. The combustion chamber is a first combustion chamber, the combustion component is a first combustion component, the reaction chamber is a first reaction chamber, and the CCP reactor is at least one additional combustion chamber, and At least one combustion component arranged to combust the fuel in the at least one additional combustion chamber and direct the resulting flue gas into the at least one additional combustion chamber; The CCP system of claim 1, further comprising at least one additional reaction chamber each having a first region fluidly connectable to the reactant source to receive the reactant and a second region opposite the first region. **Claim 12** The CCP system of claim 11, wherein the insulating material is disposed radially outward from each of the first combustion chamber, the first reaction chamber, the at least one additional combustion chamber, and the at least one additional reaction chamber. **Claim 13** The CCP system of claim 1, wherein the reaction chamber is in thermal communication with the combustion chamber by heat conduction and / or heat radiation through a shared wall. **Claim 14** The CCP system of claim 1, wherein the reactant comprises natural gas. **Claim 15** The CCP system of claim 1, further comprising an input valve fluidly coupled between the reactant source and the reaction chamber. **Claim 16** The CCP system of claim 1, further comprising an output junction, the output having a first outlet positioned to direct at least a portion of the separated output into the combustion component and a second outlet positioned to direct at least a portion of the separated output out of the CCP system. **Claim 17** A combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system for converting a hydrocarbon reactant into an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon, the CCP system comprising: A CCP reactor having a plurality of chambers and an insulating material disposed to reduce heat loss from the plurality of chambers, each of the plurality of chambers having a first portion and a second portion opposite the first portion; At least a first chamber having a combustion component connectable to a fuel source and arranged to direct combustion flue gas into the first chamber; At least a second chamber fluidly connectable to an input valve for receiving a hydrocarbon reactant and in thermal communication with the first chamber to transfer combustion heat to the hydrocarbon reactant to cause a pyrolysis reaction to produce the output; A CCP system in which a carbonization separation component is in fluid communication with a CCP reactor to remove at least a portion of the carbon from the output.

18. The CCP system according to claim 17, further comprising a regenerative heat exchanger in fluid communication with the combustion chamber to recover heat from the combustion flue gas exiting the first chamber and preheat the fuel entering the combustion component, the hydrocarbon reactant entering the second chamber, and / or the oxidant entering the combustion component.

19. The output further includes unreacted hydrocarbon gas, and the CCP system further includes a gas separator in fluid communication with the CCP reactor to receive the output and remove at least a portion of the unreacted hydrocarbon gas from the output.

20. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the plurality of chambers are concentric with each other, the first chamber is disposed radially inwardly from the second chamber, and the insulation material is disposed radially outwardly from the second chamber.

21. The combustion component is a first combustion component, and the combustion flue gas is a first combustion flue gas. The second chamber has a second combustion component that can be coupled to the source of the fuel and is arranged to direct a second combustion flue gas into the second chamber. The CCP reactor further has a third chamber that is concentric with the second chamber and is located radially outwardly from the second chamber. The third chamber is fluidly connectable to the input valve to receive the hydrocarbon reactant and is in thermal communication with the first chamber and the second chamber to transfer combustion heat from the first and / or the second combustion component to the hydrocarbon reactant to cause the pyrolysis reaction. The CCP system according to claim 20, further comprising a controller operably coupled to each of the first combustion component, the second combustion component, and the input valve to (1) cause combustion in at least one of the first and second chambers without causing pyrolysis, and (2) cause pyrolysis in at least one of the second and third chambers without causing combustion.

22. The third chamber is connectable to the source of the fuel and has a third combustion component arranged to direct the third combustion flue gas into the third chamber. The first chamber is fluidly connectable to the input valve to receive the hydrocarbon reactant and transfer combustion heat from the second and / or the third combustion component to the hydrocarbon reactant to cause the pyrolysis reaction. The controller is further operably connectable to the third combustion component and the input valve such that (3) combustion occurs in the third chamber but pyrolysis does not occur, and (4) pyrolysis occurs in the first chamber but combustion does not occur, in the CCP system of claim 21. **Claim 23** A first plunger movable along the longitudinal flow path of the first chamber to scrape carbon deposits from at least one surface within the first chamber. The CCP system of claim 22, further comprising a second plunger movable along the longitudinal flow path of the second chamber to scrape carbon deposits from at least one surface within the second chamber. **Claim 24** The CCP system of claim 17, wherein the first chamber is thermally coupled to the second chamber by a heat transfer material forming a wall between the first chamber and the second chamber. **Claim 25** A method of operating a combined combustion and pyrolysis (CCP) system for generating hydrogen gas, the method comprising: directing a reactant into a first chamber of a CCP reactor, the first chamber being in thermal communication with a second chamber of the CCP reactor via a thermally conductive shared wall; burning fuel in the second chamber by a combustion component to heat the reactant in the first chamber to a temperature higher than a reaction temperature, at which at least a portion of the reactant is converted to an output comprising hydrogen gas and carbon particles; separating and removing at least a portion of the carbon particles from the output. **Claim 26** The method according to claim 25, further comprising transferring heat from the flue gas exiting the second chamber into the fuel and / or the oxidant entering the combustion component and / or the reactant entering the first chamber.

27. The method according to claim 25, further comprising directing at least a portion of the hydrogen gas in the output to enter the combustion component to replenish the fuel entering the combustion component.

28. The method according to claim 25, further comprising removing carbon deposits from at least one surface in the second chamber of the CCP reactor by a carbon removal component.

29. The method according to claim 28, wherein the reactant is directed into the first chamber and polishing is performed while burning the fuel.

30. The method according to claim 25, further comprising preheating the CCP reactor before directing the reactant into the first chamber.

31. The method according to claim 30, wherein the step of preheating the CCP reactor includes burning the fuel in the second chamber by the combustion component.

32. The combustion component is a first combustion component, and the step of preheating the CCP reactor includes burning the fuel in the first chamber of the CCP reactor by a second combustion component. The method according to claim 30.

33. Further comprising moving an input valve from a first position to a second position, In the first position, the input valve directs the reactant into the first chamber, In the second position, the input valve directs the reactant into a third chamber in thermal communication with the second chamber, The method according to claim 25, including burning the fuel in the second chamber by the combustion component to heat the reactant in the third chamber to a temperature higher than the reaction temperature.

34. The method according to claim 33, including removing carbon deposits from at least one surface in the first chamber of the CCP reactor by a carbon removal component while the input valve is in the second position.

35. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein a separation output containing at least a portion of the carbon is recycled to the reaction chamber and functions as a catalyst or a nucleation site to assist the pyrolysis reaction of the reactant.

36. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the fuel entering the combustion component and / or the reactant entering the reaction chamber is preheated to a target temperature using plasma.

37. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the air or other oxidant is periodically and / or occasionally supplied to the reaction chamber to burn residual carbon.

38. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the inner wall and / or outer wall of the combustion chamber has a heat transfer function including fins, channels, and other surface area enhancement functions.

39. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the combustion gas of the combustion component and / or the pyrolysis gas of the pyrolysis component are directed to swirl to enhance heat transfer.

40. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the hydrogen gas is burned to heat the second reactor at the start of the second reactor.

41. The CCP system according to claim 1, wherein the hydrogen gas is burned to heat the second reactor at the start of the second reactor.

42. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein at least a portion of the carbon is recycled to the second chamber and functions as a catalyst or a nucleation site to assist the pyrolysis reaction of the hydrocarbon reactant.

43. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the fuel entering the combustion component and / or the hydrocarbon reactant entering the second chamber is preheated to a target temperature using plasma.

44. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the air or other oxidant is periodically and / or occasionally supplied to the second chamber to burn residual carbon.

45. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the inner wall and / or outer wall of the first chamber has a heat transfer function including fins, channels, and other surface area enhancement functions.

46. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the combustion gas of the combustion component and / or the pyrolysis gas of the second chamber are directed to swirl to enhance heat transfer.

47. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the output contains the hydrogen gas, and the hydrogen gas is combusted to heat the second reactor at the start-up of the second reactor.

48. The CCP system according to claim 17, wherein the output contains the hydrogen gas, and the hydrogen gas is combusted to heat the second reactor at the start-up of the second reactor.

49. The method according to claim 25, wherein at least a portion of the carbon particles is recycled to the first chamber and functions as a catalyst or nucleation site to assist in the conversion of at least a portion of the reactants.

50. The method according to claim 25, wherein the fuel and / or the reactants are preheated to a target temperature using plasma.

51. The method according to claim 25, wherein the air or other oxidant is periodically and / or intermittently supplied to the first chamber to combust residual carbon.

52. The method according to claim 25, wherein the hydrogen gas is combusted to heat the second reactor at the start-up of the second reactor.

53. The method according to claim 25, wherein the hydrogen gas is combusted to heat the second reactor at the start-up of the second reactor.

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