Machine learning model for detecting bubble within nucleotide-sample slide for sequencing

Abstract

To provide a machine learning model for detecting a bubble within a nucleotide-sample slide for sequencing.SOLUTION: In a system environment 100 that includes one or more server devices connected to user client devices and sequencing devices via a network, a bubble detection system having a machine learning model for detecting a bubble within a nucleotide-sample slide for sequencing receives data identifying nucleobase calls and data identifying quality metrics for the nucleobase calls during sequencing cycles, and utilizes a machine learning model to detect a presence of a bubble in a nucleotide-sample slide based on particular nucleobase calls and threshold markers for the quality metrics. By utilizing call data and quality metrics, the system can use readily available sequencing data in a platform-independent approach to detect bubbles using a uniquely trained machine learning model.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 170,072, filed April 2, 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [Background technology]

[0002] In recent years, biotechnology companies and research institutes have been improving hardware and software platforms for nucleotide sequencing and analysis. For example, some existing nucleic acid sequencing systems determine individual nucleobases of a nucleic acid sequence by using traditional Sanger sequencing. In contrast, some existing systems determine such nucleobase sequences by performing sequencing-by-synthesis (SBS). By using SBS, existing systems can monitor thousands, tens of thousands, or even more nucleic acid polymers synthesized in parallel to detect more accurate base calls and capture other sequencing information from larger base call datasets. In some cases, existing systems synthesize oligonucleotides in monoclonal colonies within wells of a nucleotide-sample slide, such as a flow cell. After a camera captures images of fluorescent tags that emit color from the nucleobases incorporated into such oligonucleotides, some existing systems, for example, transmit the image data to a device with sequencing data analysis software, analyze the image data for base calls, and determine the nucleobase sequence of the nucleic acid polymer (e.g., the gene-coding region of the nucleic acid polymer).

[0003] Despite these advances in sequencing, existing nucleic acid sequencing systems exhibit several technical drawbacks, such as impeding base calling accuracy and error detection, requiring inefficient resequencing and reanalysis of nucleotide samples, and limiting error detection to specific hardware on the sequencing device. Indeed, existing systems often make inaccurate base calls or capture unreliable image data because fluids and gases passing through the sequencing device or slide can create underlying irregularities in the image data. For example, bubbles (e.g., air or oil bubbles) in a nucleotide-sample slide can interfere with, generate noise in, or otherwise cause data quality issues with, the data signature from such image data for base calling. Such bubbles can not only distort the data signature for base calling, but also inhibit or reduce run quality or yield. Despite the problems caused by bubbles, both existing nucleic acid sequencing systems and existing sequencing data analysis software often lack effective means for detecting bubbles.

[0004] Due in part to bubble-induced or other sequencing errors, existing nucleic acid sequencing systems often inefficiently resequence and reanalyze nucleotide samples. In particular, existing systems and software often perform or consume additional processing, computing, storage resources, and time to generate quality data to correct for data affected by bubble interference. By way of example, a sequencing run may be subject to several types of problems, such as failed sequencing reactions, contamination, insufficient sample loading, or the presence of bubbles. Because existing systems often cannot identify the presence of bubbles or distinguish bubble interference from other errors, such systems often require the user to repeat the sequencing run before successfully identifying the problem.

[0005] While basic mechanical methods for bubble detection have been developed or explored, such detection methods can be inefficient and limited to specific platform types. For example, existing nucleic acid sequencing systems often require additional information about the sequencing run to identify the presence of bubbles or other sources of sequencing errors. More specifically, conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems that flow fluid through tubing into a cartridge often require additional hardware to capture data indicating the presence of bubbles. For example, existing systems often require additional tubing cameras, tubing detectors, or other types of sensors. In certain cases, such systems use ultrasound or capacitance-sensing detectors to identify bubbles passing through the tubing. However, such local hardware on the sequencing device is limited to wet platforms with tubing and requires additional processing, storage, and analysis resources to implement such bubble detection methods.

[0006] Beyond the inefficiency of existing mechanisms for detecting bubbles in wet sequencing platforms, some such bubble detection methods are limited to specific hardware on the sequencing device. As mentioned, some conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems attempt to detect bubbles by utilizing hardware-based bubble detectors. Even if some conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems can include sensors in tubing or other components to detect bubbles, such detection hardware is not only expensive but also impractical for dry sequencing platforms. For example, dry sequencing platforms often perform fluidics operations on single-use consumables that lack tubing to direct fluids into the consumable. Such dry sequencing platforms either cannot utilize dedicated bubble detection sensors, or such sensors are impractical by requiring bulky redesign of expensive sequencing devices or consumable nucleotide-sample slides. [Prior art documents] [Patent documents]

[0007] [Patent Document 1] U.S. Patent No. 8,392,126 [Patent Document 2] U.S. Patent No. 6,210,891 [Patent Document 3] U.S. Patent No. 6,258,568 [Patent Document 4] U.S. Patent No. 6,274,320 [Patent Document 5] International Publication No. 2004 / 018497 [Patent Document 6] U.S. Patent No. 7,057,026 [Patent Document 7] International Publication No. 91 / 06678 [Patent Document 8] International Publication No. 2007 / 123744 [Patent Document 9] U.S. Patent No. 7,427,673 [Patent Document 10] US Patent Application Publication No. 2007 / 0166705 [Patent Document 11] US Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0188901 [Patent Document 12] US Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0240439 [Patent Document 13] US Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0281109 [Patent Document 14] International Publication No. 2005 / 065814 [Patent Document 15] US Patent Application Publication No. 2005 / 0100900 [Patent Document 16] International Publication No. 2006 / 064199 [Patent Document 17] International Publication No. 2007 / 010251 [Patent Document 18] US Patent Application Publication No. 2012 / 0270305 [Patent Document 19] US Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0260372 [Patent Document 20] US Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0079232 [Patent Document 21] U.S. Patent No. 6,969,488 [Patent Document 22] U.S. Patent No. 6,172,218 [Patent Document 23] U.S. Patent No. 6,306,597 [Patent Document 24] U.S. Patent No. 7,001,792 [Patent Document 25] U.S. Patent No. 7,329,492 [Patent Document 26] U.S. Patent No. 7,211,414 [Patent Document 27] U.S. Patent No. 7,315,019 [Patent Document 28] U.S. Patent No. 7,405,281 [Patent Document 29] US Patent Application Publication No. 2008 / 0108082 [Patent Document 30] US Patent Application Publication No. 2009 / 0026082 [Patent Document 31] US Patent Application Publication No. 2009 / 0127589 [Patent Document 32] US Patent Application Publication No. 2010 / 0137143 [Patent Document 33] US Patent Application Publication No. 2010 / 0282617 [Patent Document 34] US Patent Application Publication No. 2010 / 0111768 [Patent Document 35] U.S. Patent Application No. 13 / 273666 (U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012 / 0270305) [Non-patent literature]

[0008] [Non-Patent Document 1] Ewing B, Green P. Base-calling of Automated Sequencer Traces Using Phred. II. Error Probabilities. Genome Res. 1998 Mar.; 8(3):186-194. PMID: 9521922 [Non-patent document 2] Ronaghi, M., Karamohamed, S., Pettersson, B., Uhlen, M. and Nyren, P. (1996) "Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release." Analytical Biochemistry 242(1), 84-99 [Non-patent document 3] Ronaghi, M. (2001) "Pyrosequencing sheds light on DNA sequencing." Genome Res. 11(1), 3-11 [Non-patent document 4] Ronaghi, M., Uhlen, M. and Nyren, P. (1998) "A sequencing method based on real-time pyrophosphate." Science 281(5375), 363 [Non-Patent Document 5] Metzker, Genome Res. 15:1767-1776 (2005) [Non-patent document 6] Ruparel et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 5932-7 (2005) [Non-Patent Document 7] Deamer, DW & Akeson, M. "Nanopores and nucleic acids: prospects for ultrarapid sequencing." Trends Biotechnol. 18, 147-151 (2000) [Non-patent document 8] Deamer, D. and D. Branton, "Characterization of nucleic acids by nanopore analysis". Acc. Chem. Res. 35:817-825 (2002) [Non-Patent Document 9] Li, J., M. Gershow, D. Stein, E. Brandin, and JA Golovchenko, "DNA molecules and configurations in a solid-state nanopore microscope" Nat. Mater. 2:611-615 (2003) [Non-Patent Document 10] Soni, GV, & Meller, "A. Progress toward ultrafast DNA sequencing using solid-state nanopores." Clin. Chem. 53, 1996-2001 (2007) [Non-Patent Document 11] Healy, K. "Nanopore-based single-molecule DNA analysis." Nanomed. 2, 459-481 (2007) [Non-Patent Document 12] Cockroft, SL, Chu, J., Amorin, M. & Ghadiri, MR "A single-molecule nanopore device detects DNA polymerase activity with single-nucleotide resolution." J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 818-820 (2008) [Non-Patent Document 13] Levene, MJ et al. "Zero-mode waveguides for single-molecule analysis at high concentrations." Science 299, 682-686 (2003) [Non-Patent Document 14] Lundquist, PM et al. "Parallel confocal detection of single molecules in real time." Opt. Lett. 33, 1026-1028 (2008) [Non-Patent Document 15] Korlach, J. et al. "Selective aluminum passivation for targeted immobilization of single DNA polymerase molecules in zero-mode waveguide nano structures." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1176-1181 (2008) Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0009] The present disclosure describes one or more embodiments of a system, method, and non-transitory computer-readable storage medium that provide an advance in the art and / or solve one or more of the above-mentioned problems. For example, the disclosed system uses a machine learning model to accurately and efficiently detect when bubbles affect a nucleic acid sequencing run based on data captured during (or derived from) base calls during such a sequencing run. By way of example, the disclosed system can receive data identifying nucleic acid base calls and quality metrics for such nucleic acid base calls from a sequencing platform during a sequencing cycle. Based on specific nucleic acid base calls and threshold markers for the quality metrics, the machine learning model can detect the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide. By using the call data and quality metrics, the disclosed system can detect bubbles using a uniquely trained machine learning model using readily available sequencing data in a platform-independent approach.

[0010] In some cases, the disclosed systems use machine learning models trained to identify bubbles within specific sections or units (e.g., tiles) of a nucleotide-sample slide (e.g., a flow cell) during a sequencing cycle. Beyond simply detecting the presence of bubbles, in some examples, the disclosed systems can also classify different detected bubbles, such as oil bubbles, air bubbles, or ghost bubbles, or identify other outputs during sequencing, such as tile misalignment and dropped tiles.

[0011] Additional features and advantages of one or more embodiments of the present disclosure will be set forth in the description that follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of such exemplary embodiments. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0012] Various embodiments will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings, which are summarized below. [Figure 1] 1 illustrates an environment in which a bubble detection system can operate in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a foam detection system for detecting the presence of foam, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a bubble detection system operating on one-channel, two-channel, and four-channel array data in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 4A] 1 illustrates an example chart graphing data signatures corresponding to different error classifications, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 4B] 1 illustrates an example chart graphing data signatures corresponding to different error classifications, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 4C] 1 illustrates an example chart graphing data signatures corresponding to different error classifications, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] 1 illustrates an example bubble detection machine learning model, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 6A] 1 illustrates a bubble detection system for training a bubble detection machine learning model and an example aerial image with a bubble in a flow cell, according to one or more embodiments. [Figure 6B] 1 illustrates a bubble detection system for training a bubble detection machine learning model and an example aerial image with a bubble in a flow cell, according to one or more embodiments. [Figure 6C] 1 illustrates a bubble detection system for training a bubble detection machine learning model and an example aerial image with a bubble in a flow cell, according to one or more embodiments. [Figure 7] 1 illustrates a sequence of operations for detecting the presence of a bubble, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] 1 illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary computing device in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0013] The present disclosure describes one or more embodiments of a bubble detection system that utilizes a machine learning model to detect the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide based on data captured (or derived from) during a nucleic acid sequencing run. In some embodiments, for example, the bubble detection system accesses or receives base call data for nucleic acid base calls during a sequencing cycle and quality data identifying quality metrics that estimate errors in such nucleic acid base calls during a sequencing cycle. Such call data and quality data can be specific to a nucleotide-sample slide (e.g., a flow cell) or a section of the slide. From the call data and quality data, the bubble detection system determines a subgroup of nucleic acid base calls corresponding to at least one nucleic acid base (e.g., a subgroup of adenine and guanine base calls) and a subgroup of nucleotide calls that meet a threshold quality value. Based on these subgroups of data as input, the bubble detection system utilizes a machine learning model to detect the presence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide. In some such embodiments, such a bubble detection machine learning model classifies the type of bubble detected.

[0014] As just mentioned, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system receives call data including nucleic acid base calls for cycles of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. Generally, the bubble detection system receives call data identifying nucleic acid bases in each sequencing cycle. The bubble detection system can receive call data organized or packaged according to various types of data. For example, the bubble detection system can receive call data organized according to one-channel data, two-channel data, or four-channel data. In either case, the bubble detection system can receive and utilize call data from various types of sequencing platforms.

[0015] As further described above, the bubble detection system also receives quality data including a quality metric that estimates the error in the nucleic acid base calling for the cycle. In some embodiments, the quality metric indicates the base calling accuracy for the nucleotide-sample slide. For example, the quality metric can include a value that indicates the probability of an incorrect base call. In one or more embodiments, the quality metric includes a quality score (or Q score) that indicates that the probability of an incorrect base call for a section of the nucleotide-sample slide is 1 in 100 for a Q20 score, 1 in 1,000 for a Q30 score, 1 in 10,000 for a Q40 score, etc., although the bubble detection system is flexible in receiving any number of quality metrics as part of determining the presence of a bubble.

[0016] Based on the call data, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system determines a subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase. For example, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system determines the proportion of adenine calls, thymine calls, cytosine calls, or guanine calls. In one example, the bubble detection system determines the proportion or percentage of base calls in each cycle that contain adenine calls and the proportion or percentage of base calls in each cycle that contain thymine calls. Thus, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system determines the percentage (or other subset) of nucleobase calls corresponding to adenine and the percentage (or other subset) of nucleobase calls corresponding to guanine within a particular section of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0017] Based on the quality data, in certain cases, the bubble detection system can also determine a subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric for the quality metric. In some embodiments, the bubble detection system determines a threshold quality metric. For example, the bubble detection system may determine that the threshold quality metric for base calls in a cycle is equal to Q30, corresponding to 99.9% accuracy or a 1 in 1,000 chance that a given base call is incorrect. The bubble detection system further determines a proportion or percentage of base calls that meet the determined threshold quality metric. In particular, the bubble detection system compares the quality metric from the received quality data with the threshold quality metric. Thus, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system determines a percentage (or other subset) of nucleobase calls that meet the threshold quality metric within a particular section of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0018] Upon determining the relevant subset of nucleobase calls, in certain cases, the bubble detection system generates an input matrix for the bubble detection machine learning model, including a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase and a second subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric. More specifically, in one example, the bubble detection system compiles an input matrix using a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric (e.g., for each cycle within the total number of sequencing cycles). The bubble detection system can accommodate various input sizes by adjusting the input matrix based on the number of sequencing cycles. For example, in one embodiment, the input matrix includes three one-dimensional input channels of length N, where the three input channels include a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a second subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric, where N is equal to the number of sequencing cycles.

[0019] Regardless of the input format, the bubble detection system can use a bubble detection machine learning model to detect the presence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide based on a subset of the call data and quality data. To detect the presence of such bubbles, the bubble detection system can utilize various types of machine learning models. For example, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system utilizes a neural network, such as a convolutional neural network (CNN), to detect bubbles. In other embodiments, the bubble detection system utilizes other types of machine learning models to detect bubbles. For example, in some implementations, the bubble detection system implements a support vector machine (SVM) or an adaptive boosting machine learning model.

[0020] As alluded to above, the bubble detection system offers several technical benefits and improvements over conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems and corresponding sequencing data analysis software. In particular, the bubble detection system can improve the accuracy with which existing nucleic acid sequencing systems or corresponding software detect the presence of bubbles that interfere with sequencing. The disclosed bubble detection system introduces a first-class machine learning model for detecting bubbles in nucleotide-sample slides that has not been matched by the current state of the art or prior art. As described above, existing systems cannot directly detect bubbles that interfere with sequencing, nor can they use mechanical sensors to detect bubbles that are limited to specific platforms. Unlike such existing systems, the disclosed bubble detection system utilizes a machine learning model trained to accurately detect bubbles in nucleotide-sample slides based on a unique analysis of available data, i.e., call data that identifies nucleobase calls and quality data that identifies quality metrics for such nucleobase calls. By relying on the call data and quality data, the bubble detection system can utilize the trained bubble detection machine learning model to accurately detect the presence of bubbles (and sometimes identify the type of bubble) in nucleotide-sample slides. Unlike traditional mechanical bubble detection methods, the bubble detection system can apply its machine learning models across a variety of sequencing platforms by using readily available call and quality data.

[0021] In addition to novel and accurate bubble detection methods, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system can accurately detect the presence of bubbles within specific sections of a nucleotide-sample slide (e.g., within a tile or tiles of a flow cell) and the corresponding call data affected by the bubbles. More specifically, in certain cases, the bubble detection system automatically detects sections of a nucleotide-sample slide affected by bubbles using a bubble detection machine learning model that delivers call and quality data specific to the slide section. By identifying which sections of the nucleotide-sample slide are affected, the bubble detection system can remove inaccurate data and improve the accuracy and overall quality of the sequencing data. Illustratively, in some implementations, the bubble detection system removes reads for sections of the nucleotide-sample slide from the call data or reduces quality metrics for reads or nucleobase calls corresponding to specific sections of the nucleotide-sample slide affected by bubbles. In some cases, the bubble detection system removes nucleobase calls or reduces quality metrics if the detected bubbles equal or exceed a size threshold or if the data signature for the nucleobase call differs from the norm by a certain threshold.

[0022] In addition to improved accuracy, the bubble detection system improves the efficiency with which conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems and corresponding sequencing data analysis software determine nucleic acid base sequences for nucleic acid polymers. By identifying when bubbles affect or otherwise interfere with the nucleotide-sample slide, the bubble detection system eliminates the need to troubleshoot specific errors and then perform and rerun multiple sequencing cycles to achieve high-quality data. In some such cases, the bubble detection system identifies the specific section of the nucleotide-sample slide affected by the bubble to specifically identify which corresponding portion of the data is corrupted or obstructed by the bubble. Furthermore, the bubble detection system can also improve sequencing efficiency by classifying specific types of bubbles (e.g., oil, air, or ghosting) or other specific error types (e.g., tile misalignment or tile loss) for correction. Thus, the bubble detection system improves the efficiency of sequencing nucleic acid polymers by recognizing and minimizing the number of cycles or data for sections of the nucleotide-sample slide that need to be discarded or reevaluated to accurately sequence the nucleic acid polymer.

[0023] In some embodiments, beyond reducing resequencing efforts or identifying specific bubble-affected data, the bubble detection system improves efficiency compared to conventional nucleic acid sequencing systems and corresponding sequencing data analysis software by reducing the resources typically required to identify bubbles within a sequencing run. As described above, the bubble detection system utilizes a bubble detection machine learning model to detect bubbles within a sequencing run. In at least one embodiment, the bubble detection system utilizes a lightweight CNN to identify the presence of bubbles. Thus, instead of requiring the use of additional hardware on the sequencing device (e.g., tubing sensors) or using computationally heavy neural networks to process additional information, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system more efficiently utilizes computationally light machine learning models to analyze call and quality data available from various sequencing platforms. Thus, in such cases, the bubble detection system creates a lower data footprint compared to using imagery or other sensor data to detect bubbles.

[0024] Regardless of improved efficiency, the bubble detection system also improves the flexibility with which nucleic acid sequencing systems and corresponding sequencing data analysis software detect bubbles. As noted above, in some implementations, the bubble detection system is platform-independent and does not include an additional tube sensor like those found on some fluid-based sequencing devices. In particular, the bubble detection system flexibly utilizes base call and quality data readily accessible from multiple sequencing platforms. In at least one embodiment, the bubble detection system utilizes a CNN with an adaptive max-pooling layer, which allows the bubble detection system to more flexibly analyze variable input sizes. Thus, the bubble detection system can be implemented and utilized by existing sequencing platforms without requiring additional hardware. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system is flexibly applied using various configurable circuits, such as application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) or field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs).

[0025] As indicated by the foregoing discussion, the present disclosure utilizes various terms to describe the features and advantages of the bubble detection system. Further details regarding the meaning of such terms are now provided. For example, as used herein, the term "nucleotide-sample slide" refers to a plate or slide containing oligonucleotides for sequencing nucleotide segments for a sample. In some embodiments, the nucleotide-sample slide includes a slide containing fluidic channels through which reagents and buffers can travel as part of sequencing. For example, in one or more embodiments, the nucleotide-sample slide includes a flow cell containing a small fluidic channel and short oligonucleotides complementary to adapter sequences.

[0026] As used herein, the term "call data" refers to image data or other digital information indicating individual nucleobases or the sequence of nucleobases for a nucleic acid polymer. In particular, call data can include intensity values ​​(e.g., color or light intensity values ​​for individual clusters) from an image captured by a camera of a nucleotide-sample slide, or other data indicating individual nucleobases or the sequence of nucleobases for a nucleic acid polymer. In addition to, or instead of, intensity values, call data can include chromatogram peaks or current changes indicating individual nucleobases in a sequence. Furthermore, in some embodiments, call data includes individual nucleobase calls identifying individual nucleobases (e.g., A, T, C, or G). For example, call data can include data about nucleobase calls in a sequence for a nucleic acid polymer, such as the number of nucleobase calls corresponding to a particular base (e.g., adenine, cytosine, thymine, or guanine). In some embodiments, call data includes information from a sequencing device that utilizes sequencing-by-synthesis (SBS).

[0027] As used herein, the term "nucleobase call" refers to the assignment or determination of a specific nucleobase added to or incorporated into an oligonucleotide for a sequencing cycle. In particular, nucleobase call refers to the assignment or determination of the type of nucleotide incorporated into an oligonucleotide on a nucleotide-sample slide. In some cases, nucleobase call includes the assignment or determination of a nucleobase to an intensity value resulting from a nucleotide added to an oligonucleotide in a nanowell of a nucleotide-sample slide. Alternatively, nucleobase call includes the assignment or determination of a nucleobase to a chromatogram peak or current change resulting from a nucleotide passing through a nanopore of a nucleotide-sample slide. By using nucleobase call, the sequencing system determines the sequence of a nucleic acid polymer. For example, a single nucleobase call can include an adenine call, a cytosine call, a guanine call, or a thymine call.

[0028] As further used herein, the term "sequencing cycle" or simply "cycle" refers to an iteration of adding or incorporating a nucleobase into an oligonucleotide, or an iteration of adding or incorporating a nucleobase into an oligonucleotide in parallel. In particular, a cycle can include an iteration of analyzing one or more images with data indicative of the individual nucleobases added or incorporated into an oligonucleotide, or into an oligonucleotide in parallel. Thus, a cycle can be repeated as part of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. For example, in one or more embodiments, each sequencing cycle involves either a single read, in which the DNA or RNA strand is read in only one direction, or a paired-end read, in which the DNA or RNA strand is read from both ends. Furthermore, in certain cases, each sequencing cycle involves a camera capturing images of a nucleotide-sample slide or multiple sections of a nucleotide-sample slide to generate image data for determining the specific nucleobases added or incorporated into a particular oligonucleotide. Following the image capture step, the sequencing system can remove the specific fluorescent label from the incorporated nucleobase and perform another sequencing cycle until the nucleic acid polymer is completely sequenced. In one or more embodiments, "cycle" refers to a sequencing cycle within a sequencing-by-synthesis (SBS) run.

[0029] As used herein, the term "nucleic acid polymer" refers to a polymer composed of nucleic acid units. In particular, a nucleic acid polymer can include a polymer composed of different nitrogen-containing heterocyclic bases in a sequence. For example, a nucleic acid polymer can include segments or molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or other polymeric forms of nucleic acids or chimeric or hybrid forms of nucleic acids described below. More specifically, in some cases, the nucleic acid polymer is one prepared or isolated by the kit and found in a sample received by a sequencing instrument.

[0030] As used herein, the term "quality data" refers to information indicating the accuracy or quality of nucleic acid base calls for a sequencing cycle. In particular, quality data generally indicates the accuracy of one or more base calls within a sequencing cycle. For example, quality data can include one or more quality metrics.

[0031] As used herein, the term "quality metric" refers to a specific score or other measure that indicates the accuracy of a nucleic acid base call for a sequencing cycle. In particular, a quality metric includes a value that indicates the likelihood that one or more predicted nucleic acid base calls contain an error. For example, in certain implementations, a quality metric can include a Q-score that predicts the error probability of any given base call within a sequencing cycle.

[0032] As used herein, the term "bubble" refers to a spherical or globular globule or other container that encloses a gas, liquid, or other material. In particular, bubbles refer to spherical globules that can enter a nucleotide-sample slide and affect the data quality of a sequencing cycle. For example, bubbles can include air bubbles or oil bubbles that form within a nucleotide-sample slide.

[0033] Further details regarding bubble detection systems will now be provided in connection with exemplary diagrams illustrating example embodiments and implementations of the bubble detection system. For example, Figure 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a system environment (or "environment") 100 in which a bubble detection system 106 operates according to one or more embodiments. As shown, environment 100 includes one or more server devices 102 connected to user client devices 108 and a sequencing device 114 via a network 112. While Figure 1 illustrates one embodiment of bubble detection system 106, alternative embodiments and configurations are possible.

[0034] 1, server device 102, user client device 108, and sequencing device 114 are connected via network 112. Thus, each of the components of environment 100 can communicate via network 112. Network 112 includes any suitable network over which computing devices can communicate. An exemplary network is described in further detail below in connection with FIG. 8.

[0035] As illustrated by FIG. 1 , the sequencing device 114 includes a device for sequencing nucleic acid polymers. In some embodiments, the sequencing device 114 analyzes nucleic acid segments extracted from a sample to generate data using the computer-implemented methods and systems described herein, either directly or indirectly on the sequencing device 114. More specifically, the sequencing device 114 receives and analyzes nucleic acid segments extracted from a sample in a nucleotide-sample slide. In one or more embodiments, the sequencing device 114 utilizes SBS to sequence the nucleic acid polymers. In some embodiments, the sequencing device 114 communicates directly with the user client device 108, in addition to or as an alternative to communicating via the network 112.

[0036] As further illustrated by FIG. 1, server device 102 can generate, receive, analyze, store, receive, and transmit electronic data, such as data for determining nucleic acid base calls or for sequencing nucleic acid polymers. As shown in FIG. 1, server device 102 can receive data from sequencing device 114. For example, server device 102 can collect and / or receive sequencing data, including call data, quality data, and other data related to sequencing of nucleic acid polymers. Server device 102 can also communicate with user client device 108. In particular, server device 102 can transmit nucleic acid base sequences, error data, and other information to user client device 108.

[0037] In some embodiments, server device 102 comprises a distributed server, where server device 102 comprises several server devices distributed across network 112 and located in different physical locations. Server device 102 may comprise a content server, an application server, a communications server, a web hosting server, or another type of server.

[0038] As further shown in FIG. 1 , the server device 102 can include a sequencing system 104. Generally, the sequencing system 104 analyzes sequencing data received from the sequencing device 114 to determine a nucleic acid base sequence for a nucleic acid polymer. For example, the sequencing system 104 can receive raw data from the sequencing device 114 and determine a nucleic acid base sequence for a nucleic acid segment. In some embodiments, the sequencing system 104 determines the sequence of nucleic acid bases in a DNA and / or RNA segment. In addition to processing and determining a sequence for a nucleic acid polymer, the sequencing system 104 also analyzes the sequencing data and detects irregularities in the sequencing cycle. In particular, the sequencing system 104 can use a bubble detection system 106 to detect bubbles in a sequencing cycle and send a corresponding notification to the user client device 108.

[0039] As described above and illustrated in FIG. 1 , bubble detection system 106 analyzes data from sequencing device 114 to detect the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide associated with sequencing device 114. More specifically, in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 receives call data and quality data from sequencing device 114. Based on the call data and quality data, bubble detection system 106 determines a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase and a second subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric. Based on the first subset of nucleobase calls and the second subset of nucleobase calls, bubble detection system 106 implements a bubble detection machine learning model to detect the presence of a bubble. Thus, bubble detection system 106 can include one or more machine learning models (e.g., neural networks, SVMs, adaptive boosting).

[0040] 1, the user client device 108 can generate, store, receive, and transmit digital data. In particular, the user client device 108 can receive sequencing data from the sequencing device 114. Additionally, the user client device 108 can communicate with the server device 102 to receive nucleic acid base sequences and reports of irregularities in the sequencing cycle, such as alerts indicating the presence of bubbles. Accordingly, the user client device 108 can present the sequencing data and bubble notifications to a user associated with the user client device 108 in a graphical user interface.

[0041] 1 can include various types of client devices. For example, in some embodiments, user client device 108 includes a non-mobile device, such as a desktop computer or server, or other type of client device. In yet other embodiments, user client device 108 includes a mobile device, such as a laptop, tablet, mobile phone, or smartphone. Further details regarding user client device 108 are described below with respect to FIG. 8.

[0042] 1, the user client device 108 includes a sequencing application 110. The sequencing application 110 may be a web application or a native application (e.g., a mobile application, a desktop application) stored and executed on the user client device 108. The sequencing application 110 can receive data from the bubble detection system 106 and can present the sequencing data for display on the user client device 108. Additionally, the sequencing application 110 can provide a notification indicating the presence of a bubble within a section of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0043] 1 , bubble detection system 106 may be located on user client device 108 as part of sequencing application 110. As shown, in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 is implemented (e.g., located completely or partially) on user client device 108. Additionally or alternatively, in some implementations, bubble detection system 106 is implemented (e.g., located completely or partially) on sequencing device 114. In still other embodiments, bubble detection system 106 is implemented by one or more other components of environment 100. In particular, bubble detection system 106 can be implemented in a variety of different ways across server device 102, network 112, user client device 108, and sequencing device 114.

[0044] 1 illustrates components of environment 100 communicating over network 112, in certain implementations, components of environment 100 may also communicate directly with one another, bypassing the network. For example, as previously described, user client device 108 may communicate directly with sequencing device 114. In addition, user client device 108 may communicate directly with bubble detection system 106. Furthermore, bubble detection system 106 may access one or more databases housed on or accessed by server device 102 or elsewhere in environment 100.

[0045] As described above, the bubble detection system 106 can detect the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide. For example, Figure 2 illustrates the bubble detection system 106 performing a sequence of operations 200 to detect the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide, according to one or more embodiments. As part of the sequence of operations 200, the bubble detection system 106 performs an operation 202 to receive call data, an operation 204 to receive quality data, an operation 206 to determine a first subset and a second subset of nucleobase calls, and an operation 208 to detect the presence of a bubble.

[0046] As shown in FIG. 2 , the series of operations 200 includes operation 202 of receiving call data. In particular, when performing operation 202, the bubble detection system 106 receives call data including or indicative of nucleobase calls for a cycle of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. In some cases, the bubble detection system 106 accesses call data from a sequencing device (e.g., imaging data from the sequencing device 114) that indicates the nucleobase calls for each sequencing cycle. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , the bubble detection system 106 receives image data for each sequencing cycle that includes intensity values ​​indicating adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), or guanine (G) calls for each nucleotide-sample slide section. In some embodiments, the call data also indicates the total number or percentage of a particular nucleobase called within a particular cycle. While FIG. 2 illustrates the call data as image data with colors indicating intensity values, the bubble detection system 106 can receive the call data in any suitable format, such as as part of a binary base call (BCL) sequence file or an InterOp metric file.

[0047] In certain implementations, in addition to or instead of receiving image data when performing operation 202, bubble detection system 106 receives call data including individual nucleic acid base calls across cycles of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. For example, in some cases, the call data includes explicit data or textual indications of the nucleotide-A, T, C, or G calls for a particular cycle and section of the sample slide. As noted above, the call data can also include the total number or percentage of a particular nucleic acid base called within a particular cycle.

[0048] As further illustrated in FIG. 2 , the series of operations 200 includes the bubble detection system 106 performing operation 204, which receives quality data. As described above, the quality data includes quality metrics that estimate errors in nucleobase calls for a cycle. In particular, the bubble detection system 106 receives quality data from the sequencing device that indicates the probability of an incorrect nucleobase call for each cycle. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2 , the quality data includes a quality metric that corresponds to the total number of bases called for each cycle. While FIG. 2 illustrates the quality data as a distribution of total base calls associated with a particular quality metric, the bubble detection system 106 can receive the quality data in any suitable format, such as quality metrics in a BCL file or an InterOp metric file. In one or more embodiments, the quality data includes quality metrics as described in further detail below.

[0049] As further indicated above, in some embodiments, the quality metric includes a quality score related to the probability of an incorrect nucleobase call or base calling accuracy. For example, in one or more embodiments, the quality metric includes a Phred quality score based on the Phred algorithm or the revised Phred algorithm developed by Illumina. In some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 determines or uses a Phred score as a quality metric as described in Method and System for Determining the Accuracy of DNA Base Identification, U.S. Patent No. 8,392,126 (filed September 23, 2009), the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. A Phred quality score of Q10 is equivalent to a 1 in 10 probability of an incorrect nucleobase call, meaning that every 10 nucleobase sequencing reads is likely to contain one error. The following table includes additional Phred quality scores and their equivalent probabilities of incorrect nucleobase calls and nucleobase calling accuracy.

[0050] [Table 1]

[0051] Further details regarding Phred quality scores are provided in Ewing B, Green P. Base-calling of Automated Sequencer Traces Using Phred. II. Error Probabilities. Genome Res. 1998 Mar.;8(3):186-194. PMID:9521922, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0052] As further illustrated in FIG. 2 , the series of operations 200 includes operation 206, which determines a first subset and a second subset of nucleobase calls. In particular, when performing operation 206, bubble detection system 106 determines a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase and a second subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric for the quality metric. In some embodiments, the first and second subsets include a proportion or percentage of all nucleobase calls for a given cycle and a particular section of the nucleotide-sample slide (e.g., tile). The following paragraphs provide further details regarding the first and second subsets.

[0053] As illustrated in FIG. 2, bubble detection system 106 determines a first subset corresponding to at least one nucleobase 210. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 2, bubble detection system 106 determines a subset of adenine calls and a subset of guanine calls for each cycle. In one or more embodiments, the first subset comprises a percentage value indicating a portion of all nucleobase calls that correspond to a particular nucleobase. While FIG. 2 shows bubble detection system 106 determining the first subset corresponding to at least one nucleobase 210 by determining a percentage of adenine calls and a percentage of guanine calls, bubble detection system 106 can also determine a first subset that includes any combination of adenine calls, thymine calls, cytosine calls, and guanine calls.

[0054] 2, the bubble detection system 106 also determines a second subset that meets a threshold quality metric 212. The bubble detection system 106 identifies a threshold quality metric and determines a subset of nucleobase calls that meet the threshold quality metric. In some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 determines a threshold quality metric that includes a percentage or proportion of nucleobase calls that meet or exceed a benchmark threshold quality metric. Illustratively, in one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 determines the threshold quality metric to be equal to a Q30 Phred quality score. For each cycle, the bubble detection system 106 determines the percentage (or other subset) of nucleobase calls that meet or exceed the Q30 quality metric.

[0055] After performing operation 206 of determining the first and second subsets of nucleobase calls, bubble detection system 106 performs operation 208 of detecting the presence of a bubble. In particular, when performing operation 208, bubble detection system 106 detects the presence of a bubble in the nucleotide-sample slide by utilizing a bubble detection machine learning model based on the first subset of nucleobase calls and the second subset of nucleobase calls. As shown in FIG. 2 , for example, bubble detection system 106 utilizes bubble detection machine learning model 216 to analyze input matrix 214 and generate output 218.

[0056] In addition to the series of operations 200, in some cases, the bubble detection system 106 further provides an alert to a computing device indicating the presence of a bubble. In particular, the bubble detection system 106 provides a notification or alert for display via a computing device associated with a user. Additionally, or alternatively, the bubble detection system 106 provides an alert to the sequencing device. In either case, the bubble detection system 106 can include an error classification in the alert indicating the type of bubble or error. Furthermore, the alert can include additional information, including the section of the nucleotide-sample slide and / or the sequencing cycle in which the bubble occurred.

[0057] Further, in some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 determines one or more corrective actions based on detecting the presence of a bubble. For example, in some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 reduces a quality metric for a cycle, a specific cycle, or a specific read in a specific section of a nucleotide-sample slide based on detecting the presence of a bubble. In some cases, for example, the bubble detection system 106 can identify nucleobase calls in cycles that reduce the quality metric by identifying unique molecular identifiers (UMIs) for the corresponding reads. Additionally or alternatively, the bubble detection system 106 can remove affected calls from the call data based on identifying a cycle, a specific cycle, or a specific read in a specific section of a nucleotide-sample slide that is affected by a bubble. In some cases, the bubble detection system 106 can include, in an alert, a suggested action to resolve the bubble based on determining the persistence of the bubble. For example, based on determining that the number of detected oil bubbles meets a threshold, the bubble detection system 106 provides an alert that includes a suggested action to check a sequencing device component for oil leaks or to reload the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0058] As described above, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 identifies a specific section of the nucleotide-sample slide that is affected by a bubble. In one example, the section of the nucleotide-sample slide includes a tile of a flow cell. Thus, in one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 performs the sequence of operations 200 on the specific section of the nucleotide-sample slide. Thus, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system 106 receives call data and quality data over a cycle for a single section of the nucleotide-sample slide. Thus, the bubble detection system 106 can identify the specific section of the nucleotide-sample slide that is affected by a bubble.

[0059] 2, bubble detection system 106 utilizes an input matrix 214 as input to a bubble detection machine learning model 216. In one or more embodiments, input matrix 214 includes data for a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase (e.g., a subset of adenine calls and a subset of guanine calls) and a second subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric. As described below with respect to FIG. 5, input matrix 214 can vary in size based on the number of sequencing cycles.

[0060] As further illustrated by FIG. 2 , bubble detection system 106 implements bubble detection machine learning model 216. Bubble detection machine learning model 216 extracts features from input matrix 214 to identify the presence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide. Bubble detection machine learning model 216 can include various types of machine learning models. In some embodiments, bubble detection machine learning model 216 includes a neural network, such as a CNN, or various types of machine learning models, such as an SVM or an Adaptive Boosting machine learning model. FIG. 5 and corresponding discussion further describe an exemplary CNN in accordance with one or more embodiments.

[0061] After passing the input matrix 214 through the bubble detection machine learning model 216, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes the bubble detection machine learning model 216 to generate an output 218. In some embodiments, the output 218 includes (i) an indication of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide, and (ii) an error classification. As illustrated in FIG. 2, for example, the output 218 includes potential error classifications including oil bubbles, air bubbles, and dropouts. In additional embodiments, the output 218 includes an additional error classification of ghost bubbles. FIGS. 4A-4C and corresponding paragraphs further describe error classifications generated by the bubble detection system 106 according to one or more embodiments.

[0062] FIG. 2 provides a general overview of a bubble detection system 106 for determining the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide, according to one or more embodiments. As described above, the bubble detection system 106 can flexibly determine the presence of bubbles based on various types of call data. FIG. 3 illustrates different types of call data that the bubble detection system 106 can utilize in determining the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide. Generally, FIG. 3 illustrates one-channel data 302, two-channel data 304, and four-channel data 306 obtained as part of an SBS cycle. The following paragraphs further describe each of these types of data.

[0063] As illustrated in FIG. 3 , in some embodiments, the call data can include image data in the form of one-channel data 302. In some embodiments, as illustrated in FIG. 3 , the one-channel data includes a two-image complex 312 of a section 310a of a nucleotide-sample slide 308a for a given cycle of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. In certain embodiments, the two-image complex 312 includes a combination of two images, each taken using the same detection channel, the same dye, or the same fluorescent label, captured at different times. Unlike four-channel SBS chemistry, in which the sequencer uses a different fluorescent dye or label for each nucleic acid base, one-channel SBS chemistry uses one fluorescent dye, two chemical steps, and two imaging steps (producing two images) per sequencing cycle. In one-channel chemistry, for example, adenine has a removable label and is labeled only in the first image 318. Cytosine has a linker group that can be attached to a label and is labeled only in the second image 320. Thymine has a permanent fluorescent label and is therefore labeled in both the first image 318 and the second image 320. Guanine is not labeled and therefore does not fluoresce in either image. The bubble detection system 106 determines the nucleobase call based on analyzing the different emission patterns for each base across the two images.

[0064] In one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 acquires one channel of data based on intensity information. In such embodiments, instead of taking two images, the sequencing system 104 takes a single image and associates different intensity values ​​with different nucleobases. In particular, three or more nucleobases bind to one fluorescent dye or label at different intensities. The bubble detection system 106 can associate a range of intensities with a particular nucleobase, or associate the absence of a dye or label with a particular nucleobase. Thus, the bubble detection system 106 determines a nucleobase call based on intensity data using a single channel.

[0065] As further illustrated in FIG. 3 , in certain cases, the bubble detection system 106 receives call data in the form of two-channel data 304. Specifically, the two-channel data 304 includes a two-image complex 314 of a section 310b of a nucleotide-sample slide 308b. Specifically, the two-image complex 314 includes two images, each captured using detection channels specific for two different dyes or different fluorescent labels. Two-channel SBS simplifies nucleotide detection compared to four-channel SBS chemistry by using two fluorescent dyes and two-image complex 314 to determine all four nucleobase calls. For example, in one embodiment, the sequencing instrument's camera captures images using red and green filter bands. Thymine nucleobases are labeled with a green fluorophore, cytosine with a red fluorophore, and adenine with both a red and a green fluorophore. Guanine is permanently dark. The bubble detection system 106 processes the two-image complex 314 using two filter channels to determine which nucleobases are incorporated within each cluster within section 310b of nucleotide-sample slide 308b, thereby determining the nucleobase call.

[0066] As further described above, in some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 receives call data in the form of four-channel data 306. In particular, the four-channel data 306 includes a four-image complex 316 of a section 310c of a nucleotide-sample slide 308c. In particular, the four-image complex 316 includes four images, each captured using a detection channel specific to one of four different dyes or fluorescent labels. A four-channel SBS cycle begins with a chemical step in which all four differently labeled bases are added to the nucleotide-sample slide. An imaging cycle begins and includes capturing the four-image complex 316 using four different filter channels or wavelength bands. The bubble detection system 106 processes the four-image complex 316 to determine which nucleobases are incorporated at each cluster location across the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0067] The bubble detection system 106 determines a subset of nucleobase calls based on the call data. In particular, the bubble detection system 106 stores, processes, and analyzes the one-channel data 302, two-channel data 304, and / or four-channel data 306 to determine base calls for each sequencing cycle. More specifically, the bubble detection system 106 identifies nucleobases by analyzing the distinct emission patterns for each nucleobase across captured images. Upon completion of a sequencing cycle, the bubble detection system 106 determines the total number of nucleobase calls. The bubble detection system further determines a subset of individual nucleobase calls by comparing the number of specific nucleobase calls to the total number of nucleobase calls for the cycle. In one example, the bubble detection system 106 determines 310 adenine calls out of 1,000 total base calls for a given cycle. Based on this determination, the bubble detection system 106 determines that the subset of adenine calls (%A calls) is equal to 0.31.

[0068] As described above, as part of detecting the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes a bubble detection machine learning model to generate an error classification based on a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric for a cycle of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. For example, in certain embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 generates an error classification that identifies errors caused by air bubbles, oil bubbles, ghost bubbles, or dropouts. Each error classification corresponds to a different data signature for metrics from the call data and quality data.

[0069] The bubble detection system 106 can detect bubbles or classify such errors, which correspond to various data signatures shown in FIGS. 4A-4C. According to one or more embodiments, FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C illustrate exemplary charts graphing the progression of input data, shown as data signatures, over cycles within a sequencing run. In particular, FIG. 4A illustrates a data chart showing an exemplary data signature corresponding to a bubble-free nucleotide-sample slide. FIG. 4B illustrates exemplary data signatures corresponding to air bubbles, ghost bubbles, and oil bubbles, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 4C illustrates exemplary data signatures corresponding to suspected bubbles, dropouts, and dropouts occurring within a single cycle, according to one or more embodiments. While FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate charts for data input into a bubble-detection machine learning model (including a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold metric), the bubble detection system 106 does not input the charts themselves into such a model.

[0070] As an overview, the charts in Figures 4A-4C share several common characteristics. For example, Figures 4A-4C illustrate exemplary charts 412a-412g having data signatures corresponding to various error classifications. Metrics graphed by the illustrated charts 412a-412g include error percentages 404a-404g, adenine call percentages 406a-406g, guanine call percentages 408a-408g, and Q30 fulfillment percentages 410a-410g. More specifically, charts 412a-412g show the progression of metrics over sequencing cycles within a sequencing run. Error percentages 404a-404g show the percentage of predicted errors for nucleobase calls in each cycle. Adenine call percentages 406a-406g indicate the percentage (or subset) of all nucleobase calls in each cycle that contain adenine calls. Similarly, guanine call percentages 408a-408g indicate the percentage (or subset) of all nucleobase calls in each cycle that contain guanine calls. Q30 fulfillment percentages 410a-410g indicate the percentage of nucleobase calls in each cycle that meet (fulfill) the Q30 threshold quality metric. In one or more other embodiments, bubble detection system 106 extracts features from other metrics to identify and classify errors.

[0071] As described above, FIG. 4A shows a bubble-free chart 412a. In particular, chart 412a displays a data signature for a nucleotide-sample slide that does not contain bubbles. Generally, bubbles do not correspond to data signatures with relatively stable metrics. For example, error percentage 404a, adenine call percentage 406a, guanine call percentage 408a, and Q30 fulfillment percentage 410a remain relatively stable across sequencing cycles. Chart 412a provides a baseline for comparing charts corresponding to different errors. Based on the data corresponding to chart 412a, bubble detection system 106 does not detect the presence of bubbles.

[0072] In contrast, FIG. 4B illustrates chart 412b with a data signature indicating an air bubble, chart 412c with a data signature indicating a ghost bubble, and chart 412d with a data signature indicating an oil bubble. For example, chart 412b includes metrics in the data signature reflecting nucleobase calls for a nucleotide-sample slide containing an air bubble. Generally, air bubbles result from air entering fluid lines and channels within the nucleotide-sample slide. If air bubbles are generated and captured during the imaging phase of the sequencing cycle, they can adversely affect the data quality of sequencing reads. For example, during the imaging phase, air bubbles can obscure portions of the image or reduce chemical efficiency. More specifically, air bubbles can enter the nucleotide-sample slide through the gasket of the nucleotide-sample slide, causing the laminate to release gas during imaging.

[0073] As shown by chart 412b, the bubble causes a spike in both the error percentage 404b and the guanine call percentage 408b, while also causing a dip in the adenine call percentage 406b and the Q30 fulfillment percentage 410b. As further illustrated in FIG. 4B, the sequencing instrument captured the bubble between the 60th and 80th sequencing cycles. Based on the data corresponding to the data signature shown in chart 412b, bubble detection system 106 detects the presence of a bubble and classifies the bubble as a bubble.

[0074] As further shown in FIG. 4B, chart 412c graphs metrics for a nucleotide-sample slide containing ghost bubbles. Ghost bubbles refer to air or oil bubbles that occur outside of the imaging stage. For example, in contrast to air and oil bubbles that occur when the sequencing instrument's camera takes a picture of the nucleotide-sample slide, ghost bubbles affect quality data by affecting the chemical steps leading up to (and following) the imaging stage. For example, ghost bubbles can occur during incorporation, when primers and nucleotides are washed onto the nucleotide-sample slide, or during deblocking, when fluorescent terminal blocking groups are removed.

[0075] As illustrated in chart 412c, a ghost bubble occurring sometime after the 80th sequencing cycle causes the error percentage 404c to rapidly increase and remain elevated for the remaining sequencing cycles. In addition, the Q30 fulfillment percentage 410c, mirroring the error percentage 404c, drops sharply in the same sequencing cycle. As further illustrated in chart 412c, the adenine call percentage 406c and the guanine call percentage 408c remain similar compared to the control. Based on the data corresponding to the data signature shown in chart 412c, bubble detection system 106 detects the presence of a bubble and classifies the ghost bubble as a bubble.

[0076] As also shown in FIG. 4B, chart 412d graphs metrics for a nucleotide-sample slide containing an oil bubble. Generally, oil bubbles occur when oil from a component of the sequencing instrument enters the nucleotide-sample slide. Similar to air bubbles, oil bubbles adversely affect data quality by affecting images captured during the imaging phase of a sequencing cycle. More specifically, oil bubbles absorb dyes or labels and fluorescent light, causing the sequencing instrument to capture excess fluorescent light. For example, as shown by chart 412d, an oil bubble captured between the 20th and 40th sequencing cycles causes sharp peaks in the error percentage 404d and the adenine call percentage 406d. Chart 412d also graphs a smaller dip in the guanine call percentage 408d and a more pronounced dip in the Q30 fulfillment percentage 410d. Based on the data corresponding to the data signatures shown in chart 412d, the foam detection system 106 detects the presence of foam and classifies the oil foam as foam.

[0077] As mentioned above, Figure 4C illustrates exemplary charts corresponding to additional error classifications. In particular, Figure 4C illustrates chart 412e corresponding to a suspected bubble, chart 412f corresponding to a dropout, and chart 412g corresponding to a dropout within a single cycle.

[0078] As shown in FIG. 4C , for example, chart 412e graphs metrics for a nucleotide-sample slide with a suspected bubble. Generally, a suspected bubble can indicate the absence of a bubble, one of the aforementioned bubbles (e.g., an air bubble, a ghost bubble, or an oil bubble), or another type of error. Notably, while certain bubble classifications (e.g., an air bubble, a ghost bubble, and an oil bubble) are linked to distinct data signatures, such data signatures may also contain some variation. Additionally, other errors in addition to bubbles may affect the quality of the data. Thus, in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 generates a classification of “no bubble” based on a subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to the data signatures in chart 412e. Alternatively, in certain implementations, bubble detection system 106 generates a classification of “unknown bubble type” or “unknown error type” based on a subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to the data signatures in chart 412e. In one or more embodiments, a suspect foam classification corresponds to a data signature that varies slightly from a typical data signature for a particular foam classification or from a no-foam data signature (eg, as illustrated in FIG. 4A).

[0079] Illustratively, chart 412e shows a peak in error percentage 404e and a corresponding dip in Q30 sufficiency percentage 410e. However, the adenine call percentage 406e and guanine call percentage 408e of chart 412e remain relatively unaffected. In one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 determines the classification of a suspected bubble based on features of the input matrix that are similar to those of air, oil, or ghost bubbles, but exceed a threshold difference. Based on data corresponding to the data signatures shown in chart 412e, the bubble detection system 106 detects the presence of a bubble but does not classify the bubble.

[0080] Figure 4C further illustrates charts 412f and 412g corresponding to nucleotide-sample slides with dropouts. Generally, a dropout refers to when the camera captures no or limited image data for a section (e.g., a tile in a flow cell) or cluster within a section of a nucleotide-sample slide. Such dropouts are distinct from and do not refer to image data having a dark signal or intensity value indicative of a nucleotide lacking a particular fluorescent label or a nucleotide with a label that is not illuminated by light of a particular wavelength. Dropouts can occur at various stages of a sequencing cycle. As shown by chart 412f, dropouts can occur during the cluster or section registration (alignment) stage of SBS sequencing. Additionally, as shown by chart 412g, dropouts can occur in a single cycle.

[0081] As discussed above, chart 412f illustrates the effects of dropouts that occur during cluster or section registration. Generally, a cluster refers to a group of nucleic acid segments or cloned segments from a sample. In particular, a cluster represents thousands of copies of the same DNA or RNA segment. For example, in one or more embodiments, the clusters are immobilized on sections of a nucleotide-sample slide. In some embodiments, the clusters can be uniformly spaced using a patterned nucleotide-sample slide.

[0082] During cluster and section registration, the sequencing system 104 records the positions of the clusters and sections for imaging. In some embodiments, the sequencing system 104 also records intensity values ​​during cluster and section registration. Generally, dropouts occurring during cluster registration result in the sequencing system 104 being unable to register a particular cluster for the duration of a sequencing cycle. As shown by chart 412f, dropouts occurring during section or cluster registration have a longer-lasting effect. In particular, the error percentage 404f shows a sharp increase around the 120th sequencing cycle, and the Q30 fill percentage 410f shows a corresponding decline. Based on the data corresponding to the data signature shown in chart 412f, the bubble detection system 106 detects dropout events during registration.

[0083] Dropouts occurring during cluster and section registration can have a variety of causes. For example, dropouts during cluster registration may indicate the presence of a bubble covering an entire section of the nucleotide-sample slide. Additionally, dropouts during cluster registration may indicate other types of irregularities. For example, dropouts may indicate an error in software or hardware functionality. In one example, dropouts indicate a failed direct memory access (DMA) transfer between the sequencing device and the user client or server device. Additionally, dropouts may signal a hardware failure in a sensor or camera that results in the deletion of data associated with a particular nucleotide-sample slide section or cluster. For example, a sensor in the sequencing device may be out of focus.

[0084] As further illustrated by chart 412g in FIG. 4C , the bubble detection system 106 can detect dropouts that occur during a sequencing cycle. In particular, during a given cycle, the sequencing instrument may erroneously exclude data for a cluster or section of the nucleotide-sample slide. For example, the sequencing instrument may experience a mechanical error that causes a sensor to drop a cluster or section of the nucleotide-sample slide during a cycle. In another example, the sequencing instrument may experience a real-time analysis (RTA) error that causes a dropout during a sequencing run. As shown by chart 412g, a dropout in a single sequencing cycle may manifest as a significant dip in the Q30 fulfillment percentage 410g and a corresponding smaller dip in the error percentage 404g. Furthermore, both the adenine call percentage 406g and the guanine call percentage 408g have data gaps corresponding to the cycle affected by the dropout. Based on the data corresponding to the data signature shown in chart 412f, the bubble detection system 106 detects a dropout event during a single cycle.

[0085] 4B-4C illustrate exemplary charts displaying data signatures of various error classifications. In some embodiments, the foam detection system 106 utilizes a foam detection machine learning model to extract features from an input matrix to determine the presence of foam and the corresponding classification of the foam. As previously discussed, the foam detection machine learning model may include a neural network. FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary configuration of a foam detection neural network in accordance with one or more embodiments. In particular, FIG. 5 illustrates a foam detection neural network 500 including a feature extraction layer 502, a classification layer 504, and an adaptive max-pooling layer 508. As shown, the foam detection neural network 500 includes a trained neural network that the foam detection system 106 applies to the input matrix 510. The foam detection system 106 further utilizes the foam detection neural network 500 to generate an output classification 506.

[0086] 5, the foam detection neural network 500 comprises a trained neural network. In particular, in one or more embodiments, the foam detection system 106 utilizes a training data set to train the foam detection neural network 500. In one embodiment, the foam detection system 106 accesses a training data set that includes ground truth classifications for a training input matrix. Figure 6A and the corresponding description provide additional explanation regarding how the foam detection system 106 trains the foam detection neural network 500, according to one or more embodiments.

[0087] As further illustrated in FIG. 5, the bubble detection system 106 applies the bubble detection neural network 500, after training, to an input matrix 510. As illustrated in FIG. 5, for each section of a nucleotide-sample slide (e.g., a tile of a flow cell), the input matrix 510 includes three one-dimensional input channels of length N, where N is equal to the number of SBS cycles in the run. In some embodiments, the three one-dimensional input channels include a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a subset of nucleobase calls that meet a threshold quality metric (e.g., %Q30). The size of the input matrix 510 is variable and can therefore accommodate a wide range of sequencing run lengths.

[0088] In addition to training a machine learning model to detect and classify bubbles, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system 106 trains such a model to distinguish between bubbles introduced during specific sequencing chemistry steps or stages. Bubbles occurring during different SBS or Sanger chemistry steps or stages can result in unique data signatures. For example, by using training data corresponding to such unique data signatures specific to the chemistry step or stage in which bubbles enter or interfere with the nucleotide-sample slide, the bubble detection system 106 can train a bubble detection machine learning model to detect and distinguish between bubbles introduced during specific SBS chemistry steps or stages. In some embodiments, for example, the bubble detection system 106 distinguishes between bubbles introduced during a sequencing step (e.g., incorporation or deblocking) or during an imaging step (e.g., scanning mix of reagents in a flow cell).

[0089] As described above and shown in FIG. 5 , in some embodiments, the bubble detection neural network 500 comprises a lightweight CNN. The bubble detection neural network 500 may comprise a CNN having lower network layers (e.g., convolutional and deconvolutional layers) and upper neural network layers (e.g., fully connected layers). In alternative embodiments, the bubble detection neural network 500 employs a different neural network architecture. Furthermore, in some implementations, the bubble detection neural network 500 does not use downsampling methods, such as implementing max-pooling layers to reduce dimensionality after convolution operations. In such implementations, the bubble detection system 106 excludes max-pooling layers to preserve representation size, particularly for short sequencing runs (e.g., N=36).

[0090] 5, the foam detection neural network 500 includes an adaptive max pooling layer 508. In some implementations, the adaptive max pooling layer 508 is located between the feature extraction layer 502 and the classification layer 504 of the foam detection neural network 500. By implementing the adaptive max pooling layer 508, the foam detection system 106 specifies the representation size and spatially collapses the features for input to the classification layer 504. Implementing the adaptive max pooling layer 508 improves the efficiency of the foam detection neural network 500. In an alternative to the CNN shown in FIG. 5, in some cases, the foam detection neural network 500 does not include the adaptive max pooling layer 508.

[0091] By using the adaptive max pooling layer 508, in some embodiments, the bubble detection neural network 500 is translationally invariant. More specifically, a translationally invariant network produces the same output regardless of the specific change in the input. In one example, a translationally invariant version of the bubble detection neural network 500 simply indicates the presence and classification of a bubble in a nucleotide-sample slide section, but does not indicate the specific cycle in which the bubble occurred. By removing or adjusting parameters of the adaptive max pooling layer 508, the bubble detection system 106 can specify additional classifications to include in the output. For example, the bubble detection neural network 500 can generate an indication of the specific cycle in which the bubble occurred in addition to the error classification.

[0092] As mentioned above, Figure 5 illustrates a classification layer 504 as part of the bubble detection neural network 500. As shown here, the classification layer 504 includes a fully connected neural network that classifies features extracted by the feature extraction layer 502. In one or more implementations, the classification layer 504 can generate a multi-class output, indicating multiple error classifications for a single section of a nucleotide-sample slide. For example, the classification layer 504 can generate classifications for both oil bubbles and air bubbles for a single section.

[0093] As further shown in FIG. 5 , the bubble detection neural network 500 includes an output classification 506. In some embodiments, the bubble detection neural network 500 outputs a corresponding confidence or probability score. Based on determining that the confidence or probability score for a particular classification meets a confidence threshold, the bubble detection system 106 determines a particular classification of either an oil bubble, an air bubble, or a dropout for the input matrix 510. In other words, the bubble detection system 106 detects a bubble or dropout event and classifies it as either an oil bubble, an air bubble, or a dropout based on a confidence score that meets a particular threshold. While FIG. 5 illustrates oil bubble, air bubble, and dropout classifications, the output classification 506 can include any number of additional classifications. For example, the output classification 506 can include a ghost bubble classification, a registration dropout classification, an imaging dropout classification, a suspect bubble classification, and other error classifications.

[0094] The bubble detection neural network 500 in FIG. 5 illustrates an exemplary configuration of a CNN according to one or more implementations. In other embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes machine learning models with various other configurations. Alternatively, the bubble detection system 106 can utilize a neural network with a different configuration to identify specific cycles affected by bubbles. For example, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system 106 incorporates an attention layer into a CNN to generate classifications indicating specific locations (e.g., clusters, sections) on the nucleotide-sample slide affected by bubbles. The bubble detection system 106 can also implement other types of deep neural networks. For example, the bubble detection system 106 can implement a long short-term memory (LSTM) network or other types of recurrent neural networks. Furthermore, in additional embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes different types of machine learning models as the bubble detection neural network 500. In some examples, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes an SVM or an adaptive boosting (AdaBoost) machine learning model.

[0095] In some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 detects the presence of bubbles in a section of a nucleotide-sample slide using nucleobase call data corresponding to the spatial image (or reconstructed spatial image). For example, as described above, the bubble detection system 106 can use the spatial image of a section (e.g., a tile) or subsection (e.g., a subtile) of the nucleotide-sample slide to train an image-machine learning model to detect or classify bubbles. In some embodiments, for example, the bubble detection system 106 identifies ground-truth classification labels for nucleobase call data (e.g., from a BCL or BAM file) corresponding to spatial image data with the presence or absence of correctly detected bubbles to train a bubble detection machine learning model (e.g., bubble detection neural network 500).

[0096] As alluded to immediately above, FIGS. 6A-6C generally illustrate a bubble detection system 106 that uses nucleobase call data corresponding to spatial images to train an image machine learning model and a bubble detection machine learning model, according to one or more embodiments. In particular, FIG. 6A illustrates a bubble detection system 106 that uses spatial images of a nucleotide-sample-slide section to train an image machine learning model, generates ground-truth classification labels for such spatial images and corresponding nucleobase call data, and utilizes the nucleobase call data and ground-truth classification labels to further train a bubble detection machine learning model. FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary spatial image generated by the bubble detection system 106, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 6C illustrates an exemplary sequencing run image depicting a portion of a nucleotide-sample slide, according to one or more embodiments.

[0097] As described above, in some implementations, bubble detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 to detect or classify bubbles based on spatial images (or reconstructed spatial images) of sections or subsections of a nucleotide-sample slide. By way of example, FIG. 6A shows bubble detection system 106 using spatial images 606a-606n to train image machine learning model 608 and identify nucleobase call data 602a-602n and ground-truth classification labels 604a-604n corresponding to spatial images 606a-606n. Bubble detection system 106 then uses nucleobase call data 602a-602n and ground-truth classification labels 604a-604n to train bubble detection machine learning model 622. While FIG. 6A illustrates bubble detection system 106 training image machine learning model 608, such training or use of image machine learning model 608 is optional and represents one or more embodiments. Indeed, in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 uses some or all of the nucleobase call data 602a-602n and ground-truth classification indicators 604a-604n to train bubble detection machine learning model 622 without training or using image machine learning model 608. Accordingly, Figure 6A includes a dotted line around image machine learning model 608 and the corresponding output and determined loss to indicate that such training and use is optional.

[0098] Briefly, this disclosure describes an initial training iteration followed by an overview of subsequent training iterations shown in Figure 6A. As an overview, in the initial training iteration depicted by Figure 6A, bubble detection system 106 utilizes nucleobase call data 602a to generate or reconstruct a spatial image 606a. Bubble detection system 106 utilizes a spatial image 606a as input for an image machine learning model 608, which subsequently generates a bubble classification 610a.

[0099] As shown in FIG. 6A, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes the nucleobase call data 602a-602n to generate spatial images 606a-606n. In one or more embodiments, the nucleobase call data 602a-602n includes nucleobase calls and quality metrics corresponding to sections or subsections within a nucleotide-sample slide for a given sequencing cycle. In certain circumstances, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes a BCL sequence file or a BAM ( * nucleobase call data 602a-602n from a nucleotide-sample slide (.bam) file. Some such nucleobase call data can include, for example, a pattern of nucleobase calls (e.g., a circular pattern of A or G calls) that indicates the presence of a bubble within a tile or subtile of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0100] As further illustrated in FIG. 6A , in one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 generates or reconstructs spatial images 606a-606n based on the nucleobase call data 602a-602n. Generally, the bubble detection system 106 incorporates the nucleobase calls into a spatial pattern by generating a spatial representation of the nucleobase calls from a BCL or BAM file arranged according to the location of the nucleotide-clusters on the sample slide. In one example, the bubble detection system 106 color-codes the spatial images 606a-606n by linking the nucleobases to specific colors. For example, the bubble detection system 106 may associate A calls with yellow, G calls with blue, C calls with red, and T calls with green. FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary spatial image according to one or more embodiments.

[0101] In one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 reduces the size of the aerial images 606a-606n before inputting them into the image machine learning model 608. In at least one example, the bubble detection system 106 downsamples the aerial images 606a-606n. For example, the bubble detection system 106 processes the aerial images 606a-606n to remove high-frequency information and retain low-frequency information about the input. Thus, in some cases, the bubble detection system 106 can apply the image machine learning model 608 to low-frequency versions of the aerial images 606a-606n to improve efficiency.

[0102] For example, after inputting the spatial image 606a as part of an initial training iteration, the bubble detection system 106 executes the image machine learning model 608. As alluded to above, the image machine learning model 608 can be a neural network such as a CNN. In some cases, the image machine learning model 608 takes the form of a dense convolutional network (DenseNet) or a residual neural network (ResNet), to name a few examples.

[0103] As further illustrated in FIG. 6A , upon receiving input data for the initial training iteration, the image machine learning model 608 determines a bubble classification 610a. Furthermore, the image machine learning model 608 predicts the location of detected bubbles within a section or subsection of a nucleotide-sample slide based on spatial patterns within the input data. For example, the image machine learning model 608 generates a bubble classification 610a that includes indicators indicating the presence and location of bubbles within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide. Generally, bubbles are associated with circular spatial patterns within the nucleobase call data 602a or the spatial image 606a. Thus, in some embodiments, the bubble classification 610a includes the bubble classification along with the bubble location. For example, the bubble classification 610a can indicate a predicted section or subsection of the nucleotide-sample slide that includes a bubble or a portion of a bubble. The bubble classification 610a can also indicate a predicted section or subsection of the nucleotide-sample slide that does not include a bubble or a portion of a bubble.

[0104] 6A , the bubble detection system 106 compares the bubble classification 610a to the ground-truth classification indicators 604a using a loss function 612. In some implementations, the ground-truth classification indicators 604a include ground-truth bubble classifications and bubble locations corresponding to the nucleobase call data 602a. For example, the ground-truth classification indicators 604a can indicate (i) specific sections or subsections of the nucleotide-sample slide that contain bubbles or portions of bubbles, and (ii) specific sections or subsections of the nucleotide-sample slide that do not contain bubbles or portions of bubbles.

[0105] Depending on the type of image machine learning model 608, bubble detection system 106 can use various loss functions for loss function 612. In a particular embodiment, bubble detection system 106 uses a cross-entropy loss function (e.g., for a CNN). For example, bubble detection system 106 can use a pixel-wise cross-entropy loss function for a DenseNet or ResNet, or some other suitable loss function (e.g., pixel-wise L1 or L2, feature-wise perceptual loss). Regardless of the type of loss function 612, bubble detection system 106 determines losses 614a-614n from loss function 612 based on a comparison of bubble classification 610a to ground-truth classification indicators 604a. Indeed, in a particular implementation, losses 614a-614n can include separate losses for specific sections (e.g., tiles or subtiles) of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0106] Based on the losses 614a-614n determined from the loss function 612, the bubble detection system 106 then adjusts the parameters of the image machine learning model 608. By adjusting the parameters, the bubble detection system 106 increases the accuracy with which the image machine learning model 608 determines the presence and location of bubbles based on the aerial images through multiple training iterations. Indeed, as further shown in FIG. 6A , the bubble detection system 106 performs subsequent training iterations. As suggested by FIG. 6A , in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 iteratively inputs the aerial images 606b-606n into the image machine learning model 608 to generate bubble classifications 610b-610n, iteratively compares the bubble classifications 610b-610n to ground-truth classifications 604b-604n to determine losses 614b-614n, and iteratively adjusts the parameters of the image machine learning model 608. In some cases, the bubble detection system 106 performs training iterations until the parameters (e.g., values ​​or weights) of the image machine learning model 608 do not change significantly over the training iterations or otherwise meet a convergence criterion.

[0107] As alluded to above, in some embodiments, foam detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 as part of identifying a training dataset for the foam detection machine learning model. Additionally, or alternatively, in some embodiments, foam detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 as the foam detection machine learning model. In yet additional embodiments, foam detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 in addition to foam detection machine learning model 622 to improve the accuracy of the generated classifications. In one example, foam detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 to filter out false positives generated by foam detection machine learning model 622.

[0108] As described above, in certain implementations, bubble detection system 106 utilizes image machine learning model 608 to identify or generate training dataset 620 for the bubble detection machine learning model. For example, in some cases, bubble detection system 106 identifies nucleobase calls from nucleobase calls 602a-602n as part of training dataset 620, and image machine learning model 608 accurately detects the presence (or absence) of a bubble within a section (e.g., a tile or subtile) of a nucleotide-sample slide indicated by a corresponding spatial image. Upon identifying such a nucleobase call from a BCL or BAM file for training dataset 620, bubble detection system 106 similarly identifies a corresponding ground-truth classification indicator from ground-truth classification indicators 604a-604n for training dataset 620 that accurately indicates the presence (or absence) of a bubble. In some examples, the ground-truth classification indicator is modified to accurately indicate the presence (or absence) of a bubble within a section of a nucleotide-sample slide for the corresponding nucleobase call selected for inclusion in training dataset 620. As shown in FIG. 6A, the bubble detection system 106 selects combinations of (i) nucleic acid base calls, (ii) corresponding quality metrics, and (iii) corresponding ground-truth classification labels for spatial images that produced accurately detected bubble presence or absence from the image machine learning model 608 for inclusion in the training dataset 620.

[0109] Instead of using the image machine learning model 608 to identify the training dataset 620, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 identifies, as part of the training dataset 620, nucleobase calls from the nucleobase calls 602a-602n in which a researcher accurately detects the presence (or absence) of bubbles in a section (e.g., a tile or subtile) of a nucleotide-sample slide depicted by a corresponding spatial image. In other words, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 uses spatial images 606a-606n identified by a human with technical expertise (rather than the image machine learning model 608) to select nucleobase calls from the nucleobase calls 602a-602n for inclusion in the training dataset 620. In some such cases, the bubble detection system 106 uses nucleobase calls from the BCL or BAM files corresponding to such spatial images having sections containing (or not containing) bubbles identified by a human. As shown in FIG. 6A, the bubble detection system 106 alternatively selects for inclusion in the training dataset 620 a combination of (i) nucleic acid base calls, (ii) corresponding quality metrics, and (iii) corresponding ground-truth classification labels for spatial images in which a technician or researcher correctly detected the presence or absence of bubbles.

[0110] Regardless of how the training dataset 620 is selected, as further shown in FIG. 6A , the bubble detection system 106 utilizes the training dataset 620 to train a bubble detection machine learning model 622 (e.g., the bubble detection neural network 500 illustrated in FIG. 5 ). As described above, in some cases, the bubble detection system 106 utilizes a training input matrix from the training dataset 620 that includes a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase and a second subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric. More specifically, the bubble detection system 106 generates a training input matrix that includes a subset (e.g., a percentage) of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric (e.g., Q30) from the training dataset 620. In such an embodiment, the bubble detection machine learning model 622 is trained to generate an error classification (e.g., air bubble, oil bubble, etc.).

[0111] Instead of inputting such a subset of nucleobase calls from training dataset 620, in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 inputs nucleobase calls arranged according to clusters within a section of a nucleotide-sample slide and corresponding quality metrics to bubble detection machine learning model 622. By using the nucleobase calls arranged according to clusters as input for bubble detection machine learning model 622, bubble detection system 106 can identify a pattern of nucleobase calls indicative of the presence or absence of a bubble. For example, such nucleobase calls may reflect a pattern of nucleobase calls (e.g., a circular pattern of A calls or a circular pattern of G calls) that is indicative of the presence of a bubble within a section (e.g., a tile or subtile) of a nucleotide-sample slide.

[0112] Regardless of the form of the training dataset 620, as illustrated by FIG. 6A , the bubble detection system 106 uses the training dataset 620 to train a bubble detection machine learning model 622. In a first training iteration, for example, the bubble detection system 106 inputs an input matrix including a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase from the training dataset 620 and a second subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric. Alternatively, the bubble detection system 106 inputs the nucleobase calls arranged according to clusters within a section of the nucleotide-sample slide and the corresponding quality metric from the training dataset 620.

[0113] Based on the input data, the bubble detection machine learning model 622 determines a predicted classification indicator 624 indicating the presence or absence of bubbles. In some cases, the predicted classification indicator 624 indicates the presence or absence of particulate-type bubbles (e.g., air bubbles, oil bubbles) and specific sections of the nucleotide-sample slide. For example, the predicted classification indicator 624 may indicate the presence or absence of bubbles within a tile or subtile of a flow cell. As described above, in one or more embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 determines a confidence score corresponding to each classification from the predicted classification indicators 624. Thus, the bubble detection system 106 can determine the predicted classification indicator 624 based on the generated confidence scores.

[0114] 6A , the bubble detection system 106 compares the predicted classification indicators 624 to corresponding ground-truth classification indicators from a training dataset 620 using a loss function 626. In some implementations, the ground-truth classification indicators from the training dataset 620 include ground-truth bubble classifications and bubble locations corresponding to the input nucleobase call data and quality metrics. Similar to the training process described above, for example, the ground-truth classification indicators can indicate (i) specific sections or subsections of the nucleotide-sample slide that contain bubbles or portions of bubbles, and (ii) specific sections or subsections of the nucleotide-sample slide that do not contain bubbles or portions of bubbles.

[0115] Depending on the form of bubble detection machine learning model 622, bubble detection system 106 can use various loss functions for loss function 626. In one particular embodiment, bubble detection system 106 uses a cross-entropy loss function (e.g., for a CNN). However, any suitable loss function can be used as loss function 626. Regardless of the form of loss function 626, bubble detection system 106 determines loss 626a from loss function 628 based on a comparison of predicted classification labels 624 to corresponding ground-truth classification labels from training dataset 620. Indeed, in one particular implementation, loss 628a can include separate losses for specific sections (e.g., tiles or subtiles) of the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0116] Based on loss 628a determined from loss function 626, bubble detection system 106 then adjusts the parameters of bubble detection machine learning model 622. By adjusting the parameters, bubble detection system 106 increases the accuracy with which bubble detection machine learning model 622 determines the presence and location of bubbles over multiple training iterations. Indeed, as further shown in FIG. 6A , bubble detection system 106 performs subsequent training iterations. As suggested by FIG. 6A , in some embodiments, bubble detection system 106 iteratively inputs data derived from nucleic acid base calls and quality metrics from training dataset 620 into bubble detection machine learning model 622 to generate predicted classification labels, iteratively compares the predicted classification labels to corresponding ground-truth classification labels from training dataset 620 to determine losses 628a-628n, and iteratively adjusts the parameters of bubble detection machine learning model 622. In some cases, the bubble detection system 106 performs training iterations until the parameters (e.g., values ​​or weights) of the bubble detection machine learning model 622 do not change significantly over the training iterations or otherwise meet convergence criteria.

[0117] In addition to generating a predicted classification indicator, in some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 trains a bubble detection machine learning model 622 to infer bubble size. In particular, the bubble detection machine learning model 622 can extract features from the nucleobase calls of the training dataset 620 to predict the size of identified bubbles. By way of example, the bubble detection system 106 can train the bubble detection machine learning model 622 to determine a predicted bubble diameter based on spatial data derived from the nucleobase calls and quality metrics. Alternatively, the bubble detection system 106 can train the bubble detection machine learning model 622 to determine bubble size based on the intensity of a spike or dip in the percentage or Q30 percentage of nucleobase calls. Thus, the bubble detection system 106 can train the bubble detection machine learning model 622 to generate a predicted bubble size based on an analysis of the input data.

[0118] As described above, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 reduces a quality metric (e.g., a Q-score) for a given read, cycle, section, or subsection of a nucleotide-sample slide based on determining the presence of a bubble. In some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 reduces the quality metric based on the size or diameter of the detected bubble. For example, the bubble detection system 106 uses the bubble detection machine learning model 622 to generate a predicted diameter of the detected bubble, with larger diameter sizes associated with a larger reduction in the quality metric. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 determines a threshold bubble diameter value below which the bubble detection system 106 does not change the quality metric. In particular, the bubble detection system 106 can determine that smaller bubbles have a negligible impact on read quality.

[0119] As previously described, bubble detection system 106 can identify or generate a spatial image that includes a spatial pattern that corresponds to the nucleobase calls. FIG. 6B illustrates an exemplary spatial image according to one or more embodiments. In particular, FIG. 6B illustrates a spatial image 636 that includes tiles 640 with spatial pattern 638. As shown, bubble detection system 106 constructs a spatial image 636 using nucleobase calls 642. Alternatively, bubble detection system 106 receives a spatial image 636 as a spatial image for a technician or researcher to identify bubbles within tiles 640.

[0120] As previously mentioned, in some embodiments, the bubble detection system 106 can analyze the shape of the spatial patterns identified in the spatial image 636 to determine the presence or absence of bubbles or other artifacts. As shown by FIG. 6B , for example, the bubble detection machine learning model 622 can detect circular patterns of G calls as indicative of bubbles. Indeed, in certain implementations, the bubble detection system 106 associates circular spatial patterns of particular nucleobase calls (e.g., A calls or G calls) with bubbles and associates non-circular or alternative spatial patterns with other types of artifacts. With respect to the latter artifacts, for example, the bubble detection system 106 can associate alternative spatial patterns with artifacts such as low occupancy regions or amplicon regions.

[0121] To help visualize actual examples of bubbles within a nucleotide-sample slide, the present disclosure includes FIG. 6C. In particular, FIG. 6C illustrates a sequencing run image 650 showing a portion of a flow cell 658, including tiles 656a-656c. As illustrated in FIG. 6C, sequencing run image 650 shows dark circular regions corresponding to bubbles 654a-654c that cross or reside within various tiles. For example, FIG. 6C illustrates that bubble 654b spans tiles 656a and 656b, while bubble 654c is contained within tile 656c.

[0122] 6C illustrates an exemplary sequencing run image showing the appearance of a bubble on a flow cell. As previously discussed, accessing, storing, and processing image data is computationally expensive and often impractical. Therefore, in some implementations, the bubble detection system 106 does not access the sequencing run image 650, but instead accesses and processes nucleic acid base call data and quality metrics (from various file types) to confirm the presence or absence of bubbles, as described above.

[0123] 1-6B, corresponding text, and examples provide several different methods, systems, apparatus, and non-transitory computer-readable media for bubble detection system 106. In addition to the above, one or more embodiments may also be described in terms of flowcharts that include operations for achieving a particular result, such as the flowchart of operations shown in FIG. 7. Furthermore, operations described herein may be repeated or performed in parallel with each other or with different occurrences of the same or similar operations.

[0124] FIG. 7 illustrates a flowchart of a series of operations 700 for detecting the presence of bubbles in a nucleotide-sample slide. While FIG. 7 illustrates operations according to one embodiment, alternative embodiments may omit, add, rearrange, and / or modify any of the operations shown in FIG. 7. The operations of FIG. 7 may be performed as part of a method. Alternatively, a non-transitory computer-readable medium may contain instructions that, when executed by one or more processors, cause a computing device to perform the operations of FIG. 7. In some embodiments, a system may perform the operations of FIG. 7.

[0125] In one or more embodiments, the series of operations 700 is performed on one or more computing devices, such as the computing device illustrated in Figure 8. Additionally, in some embodiments, the series of operations 700 is performed in a digital environment for sequencing nucleic acid polymers. For example, the series of operations 700 is performed on a computing device having a memory that includes a bubble detection machine learning model. In some embodiments, the memory also stores training data including ground-truth classifications and a training input matrix.

[0126] 7, the series of operations 700 includes an operation 702 for receiving call data. In particular, operation 702 includes receiving call data for a nucleotide-sample slide, the call data including nucleobase calls for a cycle of sequencing a nucleic acid polymer. In some embodiments, operation 702 further includes receiving call data including nucleobase calls based on one-channel intensity data including a single image for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for a given cycle of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer, two-channel data including two images for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for a given cycle of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer, or four-channel data including four images for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for a given cycle of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer.

[0127] 7 includes receiving quality data 704. In particular, operation 704 includes receiving quality data including quality metrics that estimate errors in nucleobase calls for cycles for a nucleotide-sample slide.

[0128] The series of operations 700 includes operation 706 of determining a first subset of nucleobase calls and a second subset of nucleobase calls. In particular, operation 706 includes determining, from the nucleobase calls for the cycle, a first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase and a second subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric for the quality metric. In some embodiments, operation 706 further includes determining, for the cycle of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer, the first subset of nucleobase calls corresponding to at least one nucleobase by determining at least one of a subset of adenine calls, a subset of thymine calls, a subset of cytosine calls, or a subset of guanine calls.

[0129] 7, the series of operations 700 includes operation 708 of detecting the presence of a bubble using a bubble detection neural network. In particular, operation 708 includes detecting the presence of a bubble in the nucleotide-sample slide using a bubble detection machine learning model based on the first subset of nucleobase calls and the second subset of nucleobase calls. Additionally, in one or more embodiments, the bubble detection neural network includes at least one of a support vector machine or an adaptive boosting machine learning model.

[0130] In some implementations, operation 708 further includes utilizing a layer of the bubble detection machine learning model to detect the presence of a bubble by extracting features from an input matrix including a subset of adenine calls, a subset of guanine calls, and a second subset of nucleobase calls that satisfy a threshold quality metric for the cycle of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer. Furthermore, in one or more embodiments, operation 708 includes detecting the presence of a bubble by detecting at least one of an air bubble, an oil bubble, or a ghost bubble within the nucleotide-sample slide. Additionally, in some embodiments, the bubble detection machine learning model includes a convolutional neural network including a feature extraction layer, a classification layer, and an adaptive max-pooling layer between the feature extraction layer and the classification layer.

[0131] In one or more embodiments, operation 708 further includes the additional operation of detecting the presence of a bubble by utilizing a bubble detection machine learning model to generate a probability that the section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains a bubble and determining that the probability meets a threshold indicating the presence of a bubble.

[0132] In some embodiments, the series of operations 700 includes the additional operations of receiving call and quality data for the section of the nucleotide-sample slide and detecting the presence of a bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide. More specifically, in some embodiments, the additional operations further include detecting the presence of a bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide by detecting a bubble within a tile of the flow cell.

[0133] Additionally, in some implementations, the series of operations 700 further includes the additional operation of determining the presence of a bubble during one or more of the cycles of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer.

[0134] Additionally, in one or more embodiments, the series of operations 700 further includes an operation of providing an alert for display on a computing device indicating the presence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide.

[0135] Additionally, in some embodiments, the series of operations 700 includes an additional operation of determining the presence of bubbles during the cycles of sequencing the nucleic acid polymer.

[0136] The methods described herein can be used in conjunction with various nucleic acid sequencing techniques. Particularly applicable techniques involve attaching nucleic acids to fixed positions within an array so that their relative positions do not change, and repeatedly imaging the array. For example, embodiments in which images are obtained in different color channels corresponding to different labels used to distinguish one nucleotide base type from another are particularly applicable. In some embodiments, the process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a target nucleic acid can be an automated process. A preferred embodiment involves sequencing-by-synthesis ("SBS") techniques.

[0137] SBS technology generally involves the enzymatic extension of nascent nucleic acid chain by repeatedly adding nucleotide to template chain.In the traditional method of SBS, a single nucleotide monomer can be provided to target nucleic acid in the presence of polymerase in each delivery.However, in the method described herein, multiple kinds of nucleotide monomers can be provided to target nucleic acid in the presence of polymerase during delivery.

[0138] The SBS techniques described below can utilize single-read sequencing or paired-end sequencing. In single-read sequencing, the sequencer reads a fragment from one end to the other to generate a base-paired sequence. In contrast, during paired-end sequencing, the sequencer starts with one read, finishes reading a specified read length in the same direction, and starts another read from the opposite end of the fragment.

[0139] SBS can utilize nucleotide monomers with terminator moieties or nucleotide monomers lacking any terminator moiety. Methods utilizing nucleotide monomers lacking terminators include, for example, pyrosequencing and sequencing using γ-phosphate-labeled nucleotides, as described in more detail below. In methods using nucleotide monomers without terminators, the number of nucleotides added in each cycle is generally variable and depends on the template sequence and the mode of nucleotide delivery. In SBS techniques utilizing nucleotide monomers with terminator moieties, the terminators can be effectively irreversible under the sequencing conditions used, as in traditional Sanger sequencing using dideoxynucleotides, or the terminators can be reversible, as in the sequencing method developed by Solexa (now Illumina).

[0140] SBS techniques can use nucleotide monomers that have a label moiety or lack a label moiety. Therefore, incorporation events can be detected based on the properties of the label, such as the fluorescence of the label, the properties of the nucleotide monomer, such as molecular weight or charge, or by-products of nucleotide incorporation, such as the release of pyrophosphate. In embodiments in which two or more different nucleotides are present in the sequencing reagent, the different nucleotides can be distinguishable from one another, or alternatively, two or more different labels can be distinguishable under the detection technique used. For example, different nucleotides present in the sequencing reagent can have different labels, which can be distinguished using appropriate optical systems, as exemplified by the sequencing method developed by Solexa (now Illumina).

[0141] A preferred embodiment is pyrosequencing, which detects the release of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) when a specific nucleotide is incorporated into a nascent strand (Ronaghi, M., Karamohamed, S., Pettersson, B., Uhlen, M., and Nyren, P. (1996) "Real-time DNA sequencing using detection of pyrophosphate release." Analytical Biochemistry 242(1), 84-9; Ronaghi, M. (2001) "Pyrosequencing sheds light on DNA sequencing." Genome Res. 11(1), 3-11; Ronaghi, M., Uhlen, M., and Nyren, P. (1998) "A sequencing method based on real-time pyrophosphate." Science 281 (5375),363; U.S. Patent Nos. 6,210,891, 6,258,568, and 6,274,320, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. In pyrosequencing, released PPi can be detected by its immediate conversion to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by ATP sulfurase, and the level of generated ATP is detected via luciferase-generated photons. Nucleic acids to be sequenced can be attached to features in an array, and the array can be imaged to capture chemiluminescent signals generated by nucleotide incorporation into the array features. Images can be obtained after treating the array with specific nucleotide types (e.g., T, C, or G). Images obtained after the addition of each nucleotide type differ in terms of which features in the array are detected. These differences in the images reflect the different sequence content of the features on the array. However, the relative positions of each feature remain unchanged in the image. The images can be stored, processed, and analyzed using the methods described herein.For example, images obtained after treating the array with each different nucleotide type can be processed in the same manner as exemplified herein for images obtained from different detection channels for reversible terminator-based sequencing methods.

[0142] In another exemplary type of SBS, cycle sequencing is achieved by the stepwise addition of reversible terminator nucleotides containing cleavable or photobleachable dye labels, as described, for example, in International Publication No. 04 / 018497 and U.S. Patent No. 7,057,026, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference. This approach has been commercialized by Solexa (now Illumina Inc.) and is also described in International Publication Nos. 91 / 06678 and 07 / 123,744, each of which is incorporated by reference herein. The availability of fluorescently labeled terminators, both of which can be reversed and from which the fluorescent label is cleaved, facilitates efficient cyclic reversible termination (CRT) sequencing. Polymerases can also be co-engineered to efficiently incorporate and extend from these modified nucleotides.

[0143] Preferably, in reversible terminator-based sequencing embodiments, the label does not substantially inhibit extension under SBS reaction conditions. However, the detection label may be removable, for example, by cleavage or degradation. Images can be captured after incorporation of the label into arrayed nucleic acid features. In certain embodiments, each cycle involves simultaneous delivery of four different nucleotide types to the array, each nucleotide type having a spectrally distinct label. Four images can then be obtained, each using a detection channel selective for one of the four different labels. Alternatively, different nucleotide types can be added sequentially, with images of the array being obtained between each addition step. In such embodiments, each image shows nucleic acid features incorporating a particular type of nucleotide. Because the sequence content of each feature differs, different features are present or absent in different images. However, the relative positions of the features remain unchanged within the image. Images obtained from such reversible terminator-SBS methods can be stored, processed, and analyzed as described herein. Following the image capture step, the label can be removed, and the reversible terminator moiety can be removed for subsequent cycles of nucleotide addition and detection. Removal of the label after detection in a particular cycle and before the subsequent cycle has the advantage of reducing background signal and crosstalk between cycles. Examples of useful labeling and removal methods are described below.

[0144] In certain embodiments, some or all of the nucleotide monomers can contain reversible terminators. In such embodiments, the reversible terminator / cleavable fluorophore can include a fluorophore attached to the ribose moiety via a 3' ester bond (Metzker, Genome Res. 15:1767-1776 (2005), incorporated herein by reference). Other approaches separate the terminator chemistry from the cleavage of the fluorescent label (Ruparel et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:5932-7 (2005), incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Ruparel et al. describe the development of a reversible terminator that blocks extension using a small 3' allyl group but can be easily deblocked by brief treatment with a palladium catalyst. The fluorophore was attached to the group via a photocleavable linker that can be easily cleaved by 30 seconds of exposure to long-wavelength UV light. Therefore, either disulfide reduction or photocleavage can be used as the cleavable linker. Another approach to reversible termination is the use of a natural terminator followed by the placement of a bulky dye on the dNTP. The presence of a charged bulky dye on the dNTP can act as an effective terminator through steric and / or electrostatic hindrance. The presence of one incorporation event prevents further binding unless the dye is removed. Cleavage of the dye removes the fluorophore, effectively reversing the terminus. Examples of modified nucleotides are also described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,427,673 and 7,057,026, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0145] Additional exemplary SBS systems and methods that can be utilized with the methods and systems described herein are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2007 / 0166705, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0188901, U.S. Patent No. 7,057,026, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0240439, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2006 / 0281109, WO 05 / 065814, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2005 / 0100900, WO 06 / 064199, WO 07 / 010,251, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2012 / 0270305, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0260372, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0146] Some embodiments may utilize detection of four different nucleotides using fewer than four different labels. For example, SBS may be performed using the methods and systems described in the incorporated document, U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0079232. As a first example, pairs of nucleotide types may be detected at the same wavelength but may be distinguished based on differences in intensity for one member of the pair or based on a change to one member of the pair (e.g., via chemical, photochemical, or physical modification) that results in the appearance or disappearance of a distinct signal compared to the signal detected for the other member of the pair. As a second example, three of the four different nucleotide types may be detected under certain conditions, while the fourth nucleotide type may have no detectable label under those conditions or may be minimally detected under those conditions (e.g., minimal detection due to background fluorescence, etc.). Incorporation of the first three nucleotide types into a nucleic acid may be determined based on the presence of their corresponding signals, and incorporation of the fourth nucleotide type into a nucleic acid may be determined based on the absence or minimal detection of any signal. As a third example, one nucleotide type can include a label that is detected in two different channels, while the other nucleotide type is detected in no more than one of the channels. The foregoing three exemplary configurations are not considered mutually exclusive and can be used in various combinations.An exemplary embodiment combining all three examples is a fluorescence-based SBS method that uses a first nucleotide type that is detected in a first channel (e.g., dATP having a label that is detected in the first channel when excited by a first excitation wavelength), a second nucleotide type that is detected in a second channel (e.g., dCTP having a label that is detected in the second channel when excited by a second excitation wavelength), a third nucleotide type that is detected in both the first and second channels (e.g., dTTP having at least one label that is detected in both channels when excited by the first and / or second excitation wavelength), and a fourth nucleotide type that is not detected in either channel or minimally lacks a label (e.g., unlabeled dGTP).

[0147] Furthermore, as described in incorporated U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0079232, sequencing data can be obtained using a single channel. In such so-called single-dye sequencing methods, a first nucleotide type is labeled but the label is removed after the first image is generated, and a second nucleotide type is labeled only after the first image is generated. A third nucleotide type retains its label in both the first and second images, and a fourth nucleotide type remains unlabeled in both images.

[0148] Some embodiments may utilize sequencing by ligation techniques. Such techniques utilize DNA ligase to incorporate oligonucleotides and identify their incorporation. The oligonucleotides typically have different labels that correlate with the identity of specific nucleotides in the sequence to which the oligonucleotides hybridize. As with other SBS methods, images can be obtained after treating an array of nucleic acid sequences with labeled sequencing reagents. Each image shows nucleic acid features that incorporate a specific type of label. Because the sequence content of each feature varies, different features may or may not be present in different images, but the relative positions of the features remain constant within the image. Images obtained from ligation-based sequencing methods can be stored, processed, and analyzed as described herein. Exemplary SBS systems and methods that can be utilized with the methods and systems described herein are described in U.S. Patent Nos. 6,969,488, 6,172,218, and 6,306,597, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0149] Some embodiments can utilize nanopore sequencing (Deamer, DW & Akeson, M. "Nanopores and nucleic acids: prospects for ultrarapid sequencing." Trends Biotechnol. 18, 147-151 (2000); Deamer, D. and D. Branton, "Characterization of nucleic acids by nanopore analysis." Acc. Chem. Res. 35:817-825 (2002); Li, J., M. Gershow, D. Stein, E. Brandin, and J. A. Golovchenko, "DNA molecules and configurations in a solid-state nanopore microscope." Nat. Mater. 2:611-615 (2003), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties). In such embodiments, the target nucleic acid passes through a nanopore. The nanopore can be a synthetic pore or a biological membrane protein, such as α-hemolysin. As the target nucleic acid passes through the nanopore, each base pair can be identified by measuring the fluctuations in the electrical conductance of the pore. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,001,792; Soni, GV & Meller, "A. Progress toward ultrafast DNA sequencing using solid-state nanopores." Clin. Chem. 53, 1996-2001 (2007); Healy, K. "Nanopore-based single-molecule DNA analysis." Nanomed. 2, 459-481 (2007); Cockroft, SL, Chu, J., Amorin, M. & Ghadiri, MR "A single-molecule nanopore device detects DNA polymerase activity with single-nucleotide resolution." J. Am Chem. Soc. 130, 818-820 (2008), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.)The data obtained from nanopore sequencing can be stored, processed, and analyzed as described herein. Specifically, the data can be processed as images according to the exemplary processing of optical and other images described herein.

[0150] Some embodiments can utilize methods involving real-time monitoring of DNA polymerase activity. Nucleotide incorporation can be detected via fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) interactions between a fluorophore-containing polymerase and a γ-phosphate-labeled nucleotide, for example, as described in U.S. Patent No. 7,329,492 and U.S. Patent No. 7,211,414, each of which is incorporated herein by reference, or nucleotide incorporation can be detected using zero-mode waveguides, for example, as described in U.S. Patent No. 7,315,019, and fluorescent nucleotide analogs and engineered polymerases, for example, as described in U.S. Patent No. 7,405,281 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2008 / 0108082, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Illumination can be restricted to a zeptoliter-scale volume around the surface-tethered polymerase so that incorporation of fluorescently labeled nucleotides can be observed with low background (Levene, MJ et al., "Zero-mode waveguides for single-molecule analysis at high concentrations." Science, 299, 682-686 (2003); Lundquist, PM et al., "Parallel confocal detection of single molecules in real time." Opt. Lett. 33, 1026-1028 (2008); Korlach, J. et al., "Selective aluminum passivation for targeted immobilization of single DNA polymerase molecules in zero-mode waveguide nanostructures." Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105, 1176-1181 (2008), the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties). Images obtained from such methods can be stored, processed, and analyzed as described herein.

[0151] Some SBS embodiments involve the detection of protons released upon incorporation of a nucleotide into an extension product. For example, sequencing based on the detection of released protons can be performed using commercially available electrical detectors and related technology from Ion Torrent (Guilford, CT, a subsidiary of Life Technologies), or the sequencing methods and systems described in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 2009 / 0026082 (A1), 2009 / 0127589 (A1), 2010 / 0137143 (A1), or 2010 / 0282617 (A1), each of which is incorporated herein by reference. The methods described herein for amplifying target nucleic acids using kinetic exclusion can be readily adapted to substrates used to detect protons. More specifically, the methods described herein can be used to generate clonal populations of amplicons used to detect protons.

[0152] The SBS method described above can be advantageously performed in a multiplex format, allowing multiple different target nucleic acids to be manipulated simultaneously. In certain embodiments, the different target nucleic acids can be processed in a common reaction vessel or on the surface of a specific substrate. This allows for convenient delivery of sequencing reagents, removal of unreacted reagents, and detection of incorporation events in a multiplexed manner. In embodiments using surface-bound target nucleic acids, the target nucleic acids can be in an array format. In an array format, the target nucleic acids can typically be bound to a surface in a spatially distinguishable manner. The target nucleic acids can be bound by direct covalent attachment, attachment to beads or other particles, or binding to a polymerase or other molecule attached to the surface. The array can contain a single copy of the target nucleic acid at each site (also referred to as a feature), or multiple copies with the same sequence can be present at each site or feature. Multiple copies can be generated by amplification methods such as bridge amplification or emulsion PCR, described in more detail below.

[0153] The methods described herein can be used to detect, for example, at least about 10 features / cm 2 , 100 features / cm 2 , 500 features / cm 2 , 1,000 features / cm 2 , 5,000 features / cm 2 , 10,000 features / cm 2 , 50,000 features / cm 2 , 100,000 features / cm 2 , 1,000,000 features / cm 2 , 5,000,000 features / cm 2 Arrays having features of any of a variety of densities, including 1000, ...2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000, 8000, 9000, 10000, 11000, 12000, 14000, 15000, 16000, 1

[0154] An advantage of the methods described herein is that they provide rapid and efficient detection of multiple target nucleic acids in parallel. Accordingly, the present disclosure provides an integrated system capable of preparing and detecting nucleic acids using techniques known in the art, such as those exemplified above. Thus, the integrated system of the present disclosure can include fluidic components capable of delivering amplification and / or sequencing reagents to one or more immobilized DNA fragments, including components such as pumps, valves, reservoirs, and fluid lines. A flow cell can be configured and / or used in the integrated system for detecting target nucleic acids. Exemplary flow cells are described, for example, in U.S. Patent No. 2010 / 0111768(A1) and U.S. Patent Application No. 13 / 273,666, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. As exemplified for the flow cell, one or more of the fluidic components of the integrated system can be used in the amplification and detection methods. Taking the nucleic acid sequencing embodiment as an example, one or more of the fluidic components of the integrated system can be used to deliver sequencing reagents in the amplification methods described herein and in the sequencing methods exemplified above. Alternatively, an integrated system can include separate fluidic systems for performing the amplification method and for performing the detection method. Examples of integrated sequencing systems that can both produce amplified nucleic acids and sequence the nucleic acids include, but are not limited to, the MiSeq™ platform (Illumina Inc., San Diego, CA) and the devices described in U.S. Patent Application No. 13 / 273,666, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0155] The sequencing system described above sequences nucleic acid polymers present in a sample received by the sequencing device. As defined herein, "sample" and its derivatives are used in the broadest sense and include any sample, culture, etc. suspected of containing a target. In some embodiments, a sample includes DNA, RNA, PNA, LNA, chimeric, or hybrid forms of nucleic acid. A sample can include any biological, clinical, surgical, agricultural, air, or water sample containing one or more nucleic acids. The term also includes any isolated nucleic acid sample, such as genomic DNA, fresh-frozen, or formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded nucleic acid sample. It is also contemplated that a sample can be derived from a single individual, a collection of nucleic acid samples from genetically related members, nucleic acid samples from genetically unrelated members, nucleic acid samples from a single individual (matched), such as a tumor sample and a normal tissue sample, or a sample from a single source containing two different forms of genetic material, such as maternal and fetal DNA obtained from a maternal subject, or the presence of contaminating bacterial DNA in a sample containing plant or animal DNA. In some embodiments, the source of nucleic acid material can include nucleic acid obtained from a newborn, such as is typically used for newborn screening.

[0156] A nucleic acid sample can contain high molecular weight material, such as genomic DNA (gDNA). A sample can contain low molecular weight material, such as nucleic acid molecules obtained from FFPE or archived DNA samples. In another embodiment, the low molecular weight material includes enzymatically or mechanically fragmented DNA. A sample can contain cell-free circulating DNA. In some embodiments, a sample can contain nucleic acid molecules obtained from biopsies, tumors, scrapings, swabs, blood, mucus, urine, plasma, semen, hair, laser capture microdissection, surgical resection, and other clinical or laboratory samples. In some embodiments, a sample can be an epidemiological, agricultural, forensic, or pathogenic sample. In some embodiments, a sample can contain nucleic acid molecules obtained from animals, such as humans or mammalian sources. In other embodiments, a sample can contain nucleic acid molecules obtained from non-mammalian sources, such as plants, bacteria, viruses, or fungi. In some embodiments, the source of the nucleic acid molecules can be an archived or extinct sample or species.

[0157] Additionally, the methods and compositions disclosed herein may be useful for amplifying nucleic acid samples with low-quality nucleic acid molecules, such as degraded and / or fragmented genomic DNA from forensic samples. In one embodiment, a forensic sample can include nucleic acids obtained from a crime scene, from a missing persons DNA database, from a laboratory associated with a forensic investigation, or from a forensic sample obtained by a law enforcement agency, one or more military services, or personnel thereof. A nucleic acid sample can be crude DNA, including purified samples or lysates, derived from, for example, oral swabs, paper, cloth, or other substrates that can be impregnated with saliva, blood, or other bodily fluids. Thus, in some embodiments, a nucleic acid sample can contain small amounts of DNA or fragmented portions of DNA, such as genomic DNA. In some embodiments, target sequences can be present in one or more bodily fluids, including, but not limited to, blood, sputum, plasma, semen, urine, and serum. In some embodiments, target sequences can be obtained from hair, skin, tissue samples, autopsies, or remains of victims. In some embodiments, nucleic acids containing one or more target sequences can be obtained from deceased animals or humans. In some embodiments, the target sequence can comprise nucleic acid obtained from non-human DNA, such as microbial, plant, or entomological DNA. In some embodiments, the target sequence or amplified target sequence is for human identification purposes. In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to methods for identifying features of forensic samples. In some embodiments, the disclosure generally relates to human identification methods using one or more target-specific primers disclosed herein or one or more target-specific primers designed using the primer design criteria outlined herein. In one embodiment, a forensic sample or human identification sample containing at least one target sequence can be amplified using any one or more of the target-specific primers disclosed herein or using the primer criteria outlined herein.

[0158] Components of the foam detection system 106 may include software, hardware, or both. For example, components of the foam detection system 106 may include one or more instructions stored on a computer-readable storage medium and executable by a processor of one or more computing devices (e.g., user client device 108). When executed by one or more processors, the computer-executable instructions of the foam detection system 106 cause the computing devices to perform the foam detection methods described herein. Alternatively, components of the foam detection system 106 may include hardware, such as a dedicated processing device, for performing a particular function or group of functions. Additionally, or alternatively, components of the foam detection system 106 may include a combination of computer-executable instructions and hardware.

[0159] Furthermore, components of bubble detection system 106 that perform the functions described herein with respect to bubble detection system 106 may be implemented, for example, as part of a standalone application, as a module of an application, as a plug-in to an application, as library function(s) that can be called by other applications, and / or as a cloud computing model. Thus, components of bubble detection system 106 may be implemented as part of a standalone application on a personal computing device or a mobile device. Additionally or alternatively, components of bubble detection system 106 may be implemented in any application that provides sequencing services, including, but not limited to, Illumina BaseSpace, Illumina DRAGEN, or Illumina TruSight software. "Illumina," "BaseSpace," "DRAGEN," and "TruSight" are registered trademarks or trademarks of Illumina, Inc. in the United States and / or other countries.

[0160] Embodiments of the present disclosure may include or utilize special purpose or general purpose computers, including computer hardware such as, for example, one or more processors and system memory, as discussed in more detail below. Embodiments within the scope of the present disclosure also include physical and other computer-readable media for carrying or storing computer-executable instructions and / or data structures. In particular, one or more of the processes described herein may be embodied in a non-transitory computer-readable medium and implemented at least in part as instructions executable by one or more computing devices (e.g., any of the media content access devices described herein). Generally, a processor (e.g., a microprocessor) receives instructions from a non-transitory computer-readable medium (e.g., memory, etc.) and executes those instructions, thereby performing one or more processes, including one or more of the processes described herein.

[0161] Computer-readable media may be any available media that can be accessed by a general-purpose or special-purpose computer system. Computer-readable media that store computer-executable instructions are non-transitory computer-readable storage media (devices). Computer-readable media that carry computer-executable instructions are transmission media. Thus, by way of example, and not limitation, embodiments of the present disclosure may include at least two distinctly different kinds of computer-readable media: non-transitory computer-readable storage media (devices) and transmission media.

[0162] Non-transitory computer-readable storage media (devices) include RAM, ROM, EEPROM, CD-ROM, (e.g., RAM-based) solid-state drives (SSD), flash memory, phase-change memory (PCM), other types of memory, other optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium that can be used to store desired program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures and that can be accessed by a general-purpose or special-purpose computer.

[0163] A "network" is defined as one or more data links that enable the transport of electronic data between computer systems and / or modules and / or other electronic devices. When information is transferred or provided to a computer over a network or another communications connection (either hardwired, wireless, or a combination of hardwired or wireless), the computer properly views the connection as a transmission medium. Transmission media can be used to transport desired program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures and can include networks and / or data links that can be accessed by a general-purpose or special-purpose computer. Combinations of the above should also be included within the scope of computer-readable media.

[0164] Furthermore, upon reaching various computer system components, program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures may be automatically transferred from transmission media to non-transitory computer-readable storage media (devices) (or vice versa). For example, computer-executable instructions or data structures received over a network or data link may be buffered in RAM within a network interface module (e.g., a NIC) and then eventually transferred to computer system RAM and / or to less volatile computer storage media (devices) within the computer system. Thus, it should be understood that non-transitory computer-readable storage media (devices) may be included in computer system components that also (or even primarily) utilize transmission media.

[0165] Computer-executable instructions include, for example, instructions and data that, when executed by a processor, cause a general-purpose computer, a special-purpose computer, or a special-purpose processing device to perform a certain function or group of functions. In some embodiments, computer-executable instructions are executed on a general-purpose computer to transform the general-purpose computer into a special-purpose computer that implements elements of the present disclosure. Computer-executable instructions may be, for example, binaries, intermediate format instructions such as assembly language, or even source code. While the subject matter has been described in language specific to structural features and / or methodological acts, it should be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to the described features or acts described above. Rather, the described features and acts are disclosed as example forms of implementing the claims.

[0166] Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the present disclosure may be implemented in networked computing environments having many types of computer system configurations, including personal computers, desktop computers, laptop computers, message processors, handheld devices, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, cellular phones, PDAs, tablets, pagers, routers, switches, etc. The present disclosure may also be implemented in distributed system environments where tasks are performed by both local and remote computer systems that are linked through a network (either by hardwired data links, wireless data links, or a combination of hardwired and wireless data links). In a distributed system environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices.

[0167] Embodiments of the present disclosure may also be implemented in a cloud computing environment. As used herein, "cloud computing" is defined as a model for enabling on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources. For example, cloud computing may be used in markets to provide ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources. The shared pool of configurable computing resources can be quickly configured through virtualization, exposed with low management effort or service provider interaction, and then scaled accordingly.

[0168] Cloud computing models can consist of various characteristics, such as, for example, on-demand self-service, wide area network access, resource pooling, rapid elasticity, and measured service. Cloud computing models can also expose various service models, such as, for example, Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). Cloud computing models can also be deployed using different deployment models, such as private cloud, community cloud, public cloud, and hybrid cloud. In this specification and claims, a "cloud computing environment" is an environment in which cloud computing is employed.

[0169] FIG. 8 illustrates a block diagram of a computing device 800 that may be configured to perform one or more of the processes described above. It will be understood that one or more computing devices, such as computing device 800, may implement bubble detection system 106 and sequencing system 104. As illustrated by FIG. 8, computing device 800 may include a processor 802, memory 804, a storage device 806, an I / O interface 808, and a communication interface 810, which may be communicatively coupled by a communication infrastructure 812. In certain embodiments, computing device 800 may include fewer or more components than those shown in FIG. 8. The following paragraphs describe in more detail the components of computing device 800 shown in FIG. 8.

[0170] In one or more embodiments, processor 802 includes hardware for executing instructions, such as those comprising a computer program. By way of example and not limitation, to execute instructions for dynamically modifying a workflow, processor 802 may retrieve (or fetch) instructions from an internal register, an internal cache, memory 804, or storage device 806, decode them, and execute them. Memory 804 may be volatile or non-volatile memory used to store data, metadata, and programs for execution by the processor. Storage device 806 includes storage devices, such as a hard disk, flash disk drive, or other digital storage device, for storing data or instructions for performing the methods described herein.

[0171] I / O interface 808 allows a user to provide input to, receive output from, or otherwise transfer data to and receive data from computing device 800. I / O interface 808 may include a mouse, a keypad or keyboard, a touchscreen, a camera, an optical scanner, a network interface, a modem, other known I / O devices, or a combination of such I / O interfaces. I / O interface 808 may include one or more devices for presenting output to a user, including, but not limited to, a graphics engine, a display (e.g., a display screen), one or more output drivers (e.g., a display driver), one or more audio speakers, and one or more audio drivers. In certain embodiments, I / O interface 808 is configured to provide graphical data to a display for presentation to a user. The graphical data may represent one or more graphical user interfaces and / or any other graphical content that may be useful in a particular implementation.

[0172] Communications interface 810 may include hardware, software, or both. In any case, communications interface 810 may provide one or more interfaces for communications (e.g., packet-based communications, etc.) between computing device 800 and one or more other computing devices or networks. By way of example and not limitation, communications interface 810 may include a network interface controller (NIC) or network adapter for communicating with an Ethernet or other wired-based network, or a wireless NIC (WNIC) or wireless adapter for communicating with a wireless network such as WI-FI.

[0173] Additionally, communication interface 810 may facilitate communication with various types of wired or wireless networks. Communication interface 810 may also facilitate communication using various communication protocols. Communication infrastructure 812 may also include hardware, software, or both that couple components of computing device 800 to one another. For example, communication interface 810 may use one or more networks and / or protocols to enable multiple computing devices connected by a particular infrastructure to communicate with each other to perform one or more aspects of the processes described herein. To illustrate, a sequencing process may enable multiple devices (e.g., client device, sequencing device, and server device) to exchange information such as sequencing data and error notifications.

[0174] In the foregoing specification, the present disclosure has been described with reference to specific exemplary embodiments thereof. Various embodiments and aspects of the present disclosure will be described with reference to the details discussed herein, and the accompanying drawings illustrate various embodiments. The above description and drawings are illustrative of the present disclosure and should not be construed as limiting the disclosure. Numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of various embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0175] The present disclosure may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects as illustrative only and not restrictive. For example, methods described herein may be performed using fewer or more steps / actions, or steps / actions may be performed in a different order. Moreover, steps / actions described herein may be repeated or performed in parallel with one another or with different occurrences of the same or similar actions. The scope of the present application is therefore indicated by the appended claims, rather than the foregoing description. All changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are intended to be embraced within their scope. [Explanation of symbols]

[0176] 100 System Environment 102 Server equipment 104 Sequencing System 106 Bubble Detection System 108 User client device 110 Sequencing Applications 112 Network 114 Sequencing equipment 800 Computing Devices 802 processor 804 memory 806 Storage device 808 I / O Interface 810 Communication Interface 812 Communications Infrastructure

Claims

1. 1. A system comprising: at least one processor; When executed by the at least one processor, the system: receiving call data for a nucleotide-sample slide, the call data including nucleobase calls derived from one or more images of the nucleotide-sample slide in one or more cycles of a sequencing run; inputting the call data into a foam detection machine learning model; detecting the presence or absence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model based on the call data; a non-transitory computer-readable medium containing instructions to cause A system including:

2. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: receiving the nucleobase calls determined from the one or more images of the section of the nucleotide-sample slide in the one or more cycles, thereby receiving the call data; detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide; The system of claim 1 further comprising instructions to:

3. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: receiving the call data for the section of the nucleotide-specimen slide; detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide; The system of claim 1 further comprising instructions to:

4. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: Detecting the presence or absence of a bubble by detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within a tile or subtile of a flow cell. The system of claim 1 further comprising instructions to:

5. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: detecting the presence of the bubble in the nucleotide-sample slide; reducing a quality metric of a nucleobase call for a given read, a given cycle, a given section, or a given subsection of the nucleotide-sample slide based on determining the presence of the bubble; The system of claim 1 , further comprising instructions to:

6. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model to generate a probability that a section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains the bubble; determining that the probability satisfies a threshold indicating the presence of a bubble; detecting the presence of said bubbles by The system of claim 1 , further comprising instructions to:

7. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model to generate a first probability that the section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains an air bubble and a second probability that the section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains an oil bubble; determining that the first probability or the second probability meets a threshold value indicative of the presence of a bubble; detecting the presence of said bubbles by The system of claim 1 , further comprising instructions to:

8. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: one channel of data comprising a single image for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for a given cycle of the sequencing run; two-channel data comprising two images for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for the given cycle of the sequencing run; or four-channel data comprising four images for each section of the nucleotide-sample slide for the given cycle of the sequencing run; receiving the call data including the nucleobase calls based on The system of claim 1 , further comprising instructions to:

9. When executed by the at least one processor, the system: determining the presence of the bubble during the one or more cycles of the sequencing run. The system of claim 1 , further comprising instructions to:

10. When executed by at least one processor, the computing device receiving call data for a nucleotide-sample slide, the call data including nucleobase calls derived from one or more images of the nucleotide-sample slide in one or more cycles of a sequencing run; inputting the call data into a foam detection machine learning model; detecting the presence or absence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model based on the call data; A non-transitory computer-readable medium containing instructions to cause

11. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: receiving the nucleobase calls determined from the one or more images of the section of the nucleotide-sample slide in the one or more cycles, thereby receiving the call data; detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide; The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10 , further comprising instructions to:

12. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: receiving the call data for the section of the nucleotide-specimen slide; detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide; The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10 , further comprising instructions to:

13. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: Detecting the presence or absence of a bubble by detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within a tile or subtile of a flow cell.

13. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10, further comprising instructions to:

14. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: detecting the presence of the bubble in the nucleotide-sample slide; reducing a quality metric of a nucleobase call for a given read, a given cycle, a given section, or a given subsection of the nucleotide-sample slide based on determining the presence of the bubble; 14. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10, further comprising instructions to:

15. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model to generate a probability that a section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains the bubble; determining that the probability satisfies a threshold indicating the presence of a bubble; detecting the presence of said bubbles by 15. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10, further comprising instructions to:

16. When executed by the at least one processor, the computing device: utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model to generate a first probability that the section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains an air bubble and a second probability that the section of the nucleotide-sample slide contains an oil bubble; determining that the first probability or the second probability meets a threshold value indicative of the presence of a bubble; detecting the presence of said bubbles by 16. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 10, further comprising instructions to:

17. 1. A computer-implemented method comprising: receiving call data for a nucleotide-sample slide, the call data including nucleobase calls derived from one or more images of the nucleotide-sample slide in one or more cycles of a sequencing run; inputting the call data into a foam detection machine learning model; detecting the presence or absence of bubbles in the nucleotide-sample slide utilizing the bubble detection machine learning model based on the call data; 10. A computer-implemented method comprising:

18. receiving the call data, receiving the nucleobase calls determined from the one or more images of the section of the nucleotide-sample slide in the one or more cycles. Including, detecting the presence or absence of the bubble, detecting the presence or absence of the bubble within the section of the nucleotide-sample slide.

20. The computer-implemented method of claim 17, comprising:

19. modifying a quality metric for a nucleobase call based on detecting the presence of the bubble using the bubble detection machine learning model.

19. The computer-implemented method of claim 17 or 18, further comprising:

20. detecting the presence of bubbles Detecting at least one of air bubbles, oil bubbles, or ghost bubbles within the nucleotide-sample slide.

20. The computer-implemented method of any one of claims 17 to 19, comprising:

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