Systems and methods for quantum computing

Abstract

This invention relates to a non-classical (e.g., quantum) computing system and method that utilizes dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits. [Solution] This disclosure describes a non-classical (e.g., quantum) computing system and method that utilizes dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Cross-reference of related applications This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 201,756, titled “Solid Spin Quantum Computers,” filed on 12 May 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0002] The disclosed embodiments generally relate to non-classical (e.g., quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits. [Background technology]

[0003] Non-classical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform computational operations on data. Compared to classical computers, which utilize binary numbers (bits) that always have defined states (0 or 1), non-classical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) that can exist as a superposition of ground states (i.e., some linear combination of ground states |0> and |1>, where ground states |0> and |1> are orthonormal). Various qubits in a non-classical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits may be correlated such that an action on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubits). Quantum actions can be performed to instruct the states of qubits to probabilistically converge to a particular final state that represents a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, non-classical computers may converge to a solution faster than is possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this "quantum advantage" could enable non-classical computers to solve problems that would be difficult to handle using any known classical computer. These problems include factoring large disprime numbers (for example, to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for specific items in large amounts of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules. [Overview of the project]

[0004] In some embodiments, this disclosure describes non-classical (e.g., quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.

[0005] It should be understood that both the general description above and the detailed description below are merely illustrative and explanatory, and do not limit the disclosed embodiments as requested.

[0006] The accompanying drawings, including portions of this specification, illustrate several embodiments and, together with descriptions, serve to illustrate the specific principles and features of the disclosed embodiments. In the drawings, [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0007] [Figure 1A] Figure 1A shows top views of systems for performing non-classical computations according to various embodiments. [Figure 1B] Figure 1B shows side views of the system in Figure 1A according to various embodiments. [Figure 2A] Figure 2A shows examples of electronic energy level diagrams for triplet ground state (GST) molecules in various embodiments. [Figure 2B] Figure 2B shows examples of electronic energy level diagrams for triplet excited state (EST) molecules according to various embodiments. [Figure 3] Figure 3 shows systems for performing non-classical calculations using the systems in Figure 1A or Figure 1B, according to various embodiments. [Figure 4] Figure 4 shows flowcharts illustrating methods for performing non-classical calculations according to various embodiments. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0008] Herein, exemplary embodiments are described in detail and discussed with respect to the accompanying drawings. Unless otherwise defined, technical and / or scientific terms have the meanings generally understood by those skilled in the art. The disclosed embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to carry out the disclosed embodiments. Naturally, other embodiments may be used and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosed embodiments. Thus, the materials, methods and examples are illustrative and not necessarily intended to be limiting.

[0009] As used herein, the term "or" shall convey both a disjunctive and a conjunctive meaning. For example, the phrase "A or B" shall be interpreted as including element A alone, element B alone, and a combination of elements A and B.

[0010] In the figures (also known as "FIGs." or "Figs."), similar numbers refer to the same elements.

[0011] Non-classical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform computational operations on data. Compared to classical computers, which use binary numbers (bits) that always have defined states (0 or 1), non-classical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) that can exist as a superposition of ground states (i.e., some linear combination of ground state |0> and ground state |1>). Various qubits in a non-classical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits may be correlated such that an action on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubits). Quantum actions can be performed to instruct the states of qubits to converge probabilistically to a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, non-classical computers may converge to a solution faster than is possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this "quantum advantage" could enable non-classical computers to solve problems that would be difficult to handle using any known classical computer. These problems include factoring large disprime numbers (for example, to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for specific items in large amounts of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules.

[0012] Numerous chemical and physical systems have been proposed for use as qubits in non-classical computers. For example, considerable resources have been directed towards superconducting qubits that utilize Josephson junctions (i.e., superconductor-insulator-superconductor transitions). These superconducting qubits utilize different quantum tunneling modes through the Josephson junction as their ground state. These superconducting qubits can be fabricated using well-known semiconductor manufacturing techniques, allowing for relatively simple circuit design. However, superconducting qubits suffer from several drawbacks. For example, superconducting qubits generally must be cooled to temperatures just above absolute zero, requiring complex cryogenic systems. The use of such complex cryogenic systems also makes it difficult to entangle beyond a few qubits, limiting the ultimate computational power of superconducting qubit-based non-classical computers.

[0013] Numerous other systems, including arrays of trapped ions, arrays of trapped neutral atoms, and chemical defects in solid lattices, have been used as qubits. One system proposed for use in quantum computing is the so-called nitrogen vacancy (NV) center in diamond. The electron spin associated with the NV center can be optically initialized, and its spin state can be read out by fluorescence detection. Furthermore, the electron spin can be manipulated by microwave (MW) or radio frequency (RF) irradiation and can exhibit relatively long relaxation and coherence times. However, existing NV quantum computers can only support a limited number of qubits before the negative effects associated with increasing the number of qubits lead to a decrease in relaxation and coherence times, thus negating the very properties that make NV quantum computers attractive in the first place. This is because carbon-13( 13 C) This is due to the fact that the natural abundance of spin in diamond is 1.1%. 13 Increasing the isotope concentration of C-spins nearby 13 As the number of C spins increases, the NV center characteristics worsen. Furthermore, 13The random distribution of C spins results in coupling on a very wide scale, and several 13 C spins are very strongly coupled to NV centers (for example, adjacent 13 (In the case of C spins). This can make it difficult to manipulate and control NV centers. Furthermore, all NV centers are 13 Due to the random distribution of C spins, different related 13 Because they have a C-spin bus, NV qubits interact almost exclusively with a single NV spin, resulting in a low signal-to-noise (SNR) and requiring multiple non-classical calculations to achieve a measurable signal. Furthermore, preparing highly crystalline diamond with a controlled NV doping rate can be difficult, making it challenging to prepare diamond controlledly doped at NV centers.

[0014] Therefore, there is a need for qubits based on chemical or physical systems that avoid the problems associated with known qubits. Ideally, such chemical or physical systems should be relatively simple, fabricated on a single device, supporting hundreds or thousands of qubits, allowing each qubit to be operated independently of all other qubits, and having a coherence lifetime substantially longer than the time required to perform quantum operation on each qubit. Systems consistent with the disclosed embodiments may satisfy some or all of these criteria and thus can provide a technical improvement in the implementation of non-classical computations.

[0015] As used herein, the terms “nonclassical computation,” “nonclassical procedure,” “nonclassical operation,” and “nonclassical computer” generally refer to any system or method for performing computational procedures outside the paradigm of classical computation. Nonclassical computation, nonclassical procedure, nonclassical operation, or nonclassical computer may include quantum computation, quantum procedure, quantum operation, or quantum computer.

[0016] As used herein, the terms “quantum computation,” “quantum procedure,” “quantum action,” and “quantum computer” generally refer to any method or system for performing computations using quantum mechanical actions on Hilbert space represented by a quantum device (such as unitary transformations on quantum channels or fully positive trace preservation (CPTP) maps). Thus, quantum and classical (or digital) computations can be analogous in the following aspects: both computations may involve a sequence of instructions that are performed on input information and then provide an output. Various paradigms of quantum computation can decompose quantum actions into a sequence of fundamental quantum actions that simultaneously affect a subset of the qubits of a quantum device. Quantum actions may be selected, for example, based on their locality or ease of physical implementation. A quantum procedure or computation may then consist of a sequence of instructions that can represent different quantum evolutions on a quantum device in various applications. For example, procedures for calculating or simulating quantum chemistry can represent quantum states, as well as annihilation and creation operators for electron spin orbits, by using qubits (such as two-level quantum systems) and universal quantum gate sets (such as Hadamard, controlled Not (CNOT), and π / 8 rotation) via the so-called Jordan-Wigner transform or Blavi-Kitaev transform.

[0017] Further examples of quantum procedures or computations may include procedures for optimization such as quantum approximate optimization algorithms (QAOAs) or quantum minimum discovery. QAOAs may include performing rotations on a single qubit and entangling gates of multiple qubits. In quantum adiabatic computation, instructions may carry a stochastic or non-stochastic path of evolution of an initial quantum system to the final one. Quantum-inspired procedures may include simulated annealing, parallel tempering, master equation solvers, Monte Carlo procedures, and quantum algorithms for approximating the largest independent set. Quantum classical or hybrid algorithms or procedures may include procedures such as variational quantum eigenvalue solvers (VQEs), as well as variational and adiabatic-navigated quantum eigenvalue solvers (VanQver).

[0018] In general, examples of quantum procedures or calculations may include any procedures or calculations described in MA Nielsen and IL Chuang, Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press (2013), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

[0019] A quantum computer may comprise one or more adiabatic quantum computers, quantum gate arrays, one-way quantum computers, topological quantum computers, quantum Turing machines, quantum annealers, Ising solvers, or gate models of quantum computation.

[0020] Host material doped as qubits for performing non-classical calculations This specification provides systems and methods for performing non-classical calculations. The systems and methods generally utilize dopant molecules contained within an organic host material. The dopant molecules typically function as qubits and are associated with an electronic energy level structure, including a triplet electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold may include a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold or a triplet excited state (EST) electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold generally contains three triplet states, which can be linearly coupled to form the ground state of a qubit (for example, with respect to a laboratory reference system, a rotational reference system, or another preferred time-independent or time-dependent reference system). The ground state generally has a long lifetime at temperatures that can be obtained using liquid helium-based cryogenic systems. The dopant molecules are arranged within the host material to allow for relatively strong coupling between nearest dopant molecules, enabling the diffusion of information across the qubit network through entanglement. The quantum states of various dopant molecules may be manipulated individually using optical, MW, or RF techniques, allowing for individual control of each qubit for non-classical computations.

[0021] Figure 1A shows a top view of a system 100 for performing non-classical calculations according to various embodiments. In the embodiments shown, the system 100 includes at least one host material 110. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes at least one organic molecule.

[0022] In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a crystalline host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a monocrystalline host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a polycrystalline host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a liquid crystalline host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes an amorphous host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a powdered host material. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a frozen solution host material. In some embodiments, the frozen solution host material includes a solution that is frozen at an extremely low temperature. For example, in some embodiments, the frozen solution host material is frozen at temperatures of at least about 1 Kelvin (K), 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K, or higher, up to about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K, or lower, or at temperatures very close to any two of the aforementioned values.

[0023] In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the linear or branched alkane includes a C4-C20 linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the linear or branched alkane includes a C4 linear or branched alkane, a C5 linear or branched alkane, a C6 linear or branched alkane, a C7 linear or branched alkane, a C8 linear or branched alkane, a C9 linear or branched alkane, a C10 linear or branched alkane, a C11 linear or branched alkane, a C12 linear or branched alkane, a C13 linear or branched alkane, a C14 linear or branched alkane, a C16 linear or branched alkane, a C17 linear or branched alkane, a C18 linear or branched alkane, a C19 linear or branched alkane, or a C20 linear or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes an aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a diaryl ketone. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes naphthalene, anthracene, p-terphenyl, benzoic acid, fluorene, biphenyl, benzene, n-hexane, biphenylene, ortho-terphenyl, meta-terphenyl, para-terphenyl, or benzophenone.

[0024] In some embodiments, the host material includes an isotope-enriched host material. In some embodiments, the host material is isotope-enriched with a particular atomic isotope. In some embodiments, the isotope is hydrogen ( 1 H), deuterium ( 2 H), carbon-13 ( 13 C), nitrogen-15 ( 15 N), fluorine-19 ( 19 F), silicon-29 ( 29 Si), or phosphorus-31 ( 31P) is included. In some embodiments, the host material is at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, up to about 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%. The isotopes are enriched to characterize the isotopes at abundances of 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, isotope enrichment allows for improved control of the magnetic environment of the dopant molecule 120 described herein.

[0025] In some embodiments, the host material 110 does not contain diamond or graphite.

[0026] In some embodiments, the host material 110 is configured to contain a plurality of dopant molecules 120 as described herein.

[0027] In the embodiments shown, system 100 comprises a plurality of dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are contained in a host material 110. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 contains a qubit for use in performing non-classical calculations. The quantum states of the qubits are described in more detail in Figures 2A and 2B.

[0028] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an organic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an organometallic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an inorganic composite molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a GST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with a GST electron manifold as described herein with respect to Figure 2A. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises an EST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with an EST electron manifold as described herein with respect to Figure 2B. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with a PETS electron manifold as described herein with respect to Figure 2B.

[0029] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 contains a [n]acene molecule (wherein n is at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or more, and at most about 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values, such as about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, or about 5 to about 6). In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 contains a xanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 contains a thioxanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 contains a donor-acceptor molecule (a donor moiety containing an electron-rich functional group such as an amine group or a carbazole group, and an acceptor moiety containing an electron-deficient functional group such as an aromatic nitrile, pyrazine, triazine, benzophenone, or sulfone group). In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 comprises acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0030] In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound to at least one other dopant molecule 120 by a binding interaction 130. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound by a binding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, in some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120.

[0031] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is bound to at least one other dopant molecule by a binding interaction 130. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bound by a binding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bound to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the set of dopant molecules 120 to which each dopant molecule 120 is bound is called its “nearest neighbors”.

[0032] In some embodiments, the bond interaction 130 includes an electronic bond interaction. In some embodiments, the bond interaction 130 includes an electronic dipolar bond interaction. In some embodiments, the bond interaction 130 has bond strength. In some embodiments, the coupling strength is at least about 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 kilohertz (kHz), 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 5 kHz, 6 kHz, 7 kHz, 8 kHz, 9 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 40 kHz, 50 kHz, 60 kHz, 70 kHz, 80 kHz, 90 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, 500 kHz, 600 kHz, 700 kHz, 800 kHz, 900 kHz, 1 megahertz (MHz), 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, or so The above range is defined by a maximum of approximately 10MHz, 9MHz, 8MHz, 7MHz, 6MHz, 5MHz, 4MHz, 3MHz, 2MHz, 1MHz, 900kHz, 800kHz, 700kHz, 600kHz, 500kHz, 400kHz, 300kHz, 200kHz, 100kHz, 90kHz, 80kHz, 70kHz, 60kHz, 50kHz, 40kHz, 30kHz, 20kHz, 10kHz, 9kHz, 8kHz, 7kHz, 6kHz, 5kHz, 4kHz, 3kHz, 2kHz, 1kHz, 900Hz, 800Hz, 700Hz, 600Hz, 500Hz, 400Hz, 300Hz, 200Hz, 100Hz, or less, or any two of the aforementioned values. For example, in some embodiments, the binding strength is approximately 100 Hz to approximately 1,000 kHz, approximately 100 Hz to approximately 100 kHz, approximately 100 Hz to approximately 10 kHz, approximately 100 Hz to approximately 1 kHz, approximately 1 kHz to approximately 1,000 kHz, approximately 1 kHz to approximately 100 kHz, approximately 1 kHz to approximately 10 kHz, approximately 10 kHz to approximately 1,000 kHz, approximately 10 kHz to approximately 100 kHz, or approximately 100 kHz to approximately 1,000 kHz. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 is the same. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 is different.

[0033] In some embodiments, multiple dopant molecules 120 are separated by an average distance of 140. In some embodiments, the average distance 140 is at least about 0.3 nanometers (nm), 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, or greater, and at most about 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, 0.9 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.3 nm, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, in some embodiments, the average distance 140 is about 0.3 nm to about 1 nm, about 0.3 nm to about 10 nm, or about 1 nm to about 10 nm.

[0034] In some embodiments, multiple dopant molecules 120 are present in at least about 1 × 10⁻¹⁶ units. 6 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm) -3 ), 2 x 10 6 μm -3 , 3 x 10 6 μm -3 , 4×10 6 μm -3 , 5×10 6 μm -3 , 6×10 6 μm -3 , 7×10 6 μm -3 , 8×10 6 μm -3 , 9×10 6 μm -3 , 1 x 10 7 μm -3 , 2×10 7 μm -3 , 3 x 10 7 μm -3 , 4×10 7 μm -3 , 5×10 7 μm -3 , 6×10 7 μm -3 , 7×10 7 μm -3、8×10 7 μm -3 、9×10 7 μm -3 、1×10 8 μm -3 、2×10 8 μm -3 、3×10 8 μm -3 、4×10 8 μm -3 、5×10 8 μm -3 、6×10 8 μm -3 、7×10 8 μm -3 、8×10 8 μm -3 、9×10 8 μm -3 、1×10 9 μm -3 、2×10 9 μm -3 、3×10 9 μm -3 、4×10 9 μm -3 、5×10 9 μm -3 、6×10 9 μm -3 、7×10 9 μm -3 、8×10 9 μm -3 、9×10 9 μm -3 、1×10 10 μm -3 、2×10 10 μm -3 、3×10 10 μm -3 、4×10 10 μm -3 、5×10 10 μm -3 、6×10 10 μm -3 、7×10 10 μm -3 、8×10 10 μm -3 、9×10 10 μm -3 、1×10 11 μm -3 、2×1011 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 4×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 12 μm -3 、 or more, up to about 1×10 12 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 4×10 11 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 2×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 10 μm -3 、 8×10 10 μm -3 、 7×10 10 μm -3 、 6×10 10 μm -3 、 5×10 10 μm -3 、 4×10 10 μm -3 、 3×10 10 μm -3 、 2×10 10 μm -3 、 1×10 10 μm -3 、 9×10 9 μm -3 、 8×10 9 μm -3 、 7×109 μm -3 、6×10 9 μm -3 、5×10 9 μm -3 、 4×10 9 μm -3 、3×10 9 μm -3 、2×10 9 μm -3 、1×10 9 μm -3 、9×10 8 μm -3 、8×10 8 μm -3 、7×10 8 μm -3 、6×10 8 μm -3 、5×10 8 μm -3 、4×10 8 μm -3 、3×10 8 μm -3 、2×10 8 μm -3 、1×10 8 μm -3 、9×10 7 μm -3 、8×10 7 μm -3 、7×10 7 μm -3 、6×10 7 μm -3 、5×10 7 μm -3 、4×10 7 μm -3 、3×10 7 μm -3 、2×10 7 μm -3 、1×10 7 μm -3 、9×10 6 μm -3 、8×10 6 μm -3 、7×10 6 μm -3 、6×10 6 μm -3 、5×10 6 μm -3 、4×10 6μm -3 , 3 x 10 6 μm -3 , 2×10 6 μm -3 , 1 x 10 6 μm -3 It is contained in the host material 110 at a concentration of, or less than, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0035] Although Figure 1A shows a system containing 9 dopant molecules 120, system 100 may contain any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, system 100 may contain at least approximately 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000. , 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, 200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,000, 600,000, 7,000,000, 800,000, 900,000, 1,000,000 or more, 120 or more dopant molecules, up to approximately 1,000,000, 900,000, 800,000, 700,000, 600,000, 500,000, 400,000, 300,000, 200,000, 100,000, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4, The dopant molecules may include 000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0036] Figure 1A depicts dopant molecules 120 arranged in a sequence, but this depiction is not intended to be limiting. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 may have any number of nearest neighbors as described herein. In some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 may have different numbers of nearest neighbors. For example, one dopant molecule 120 may have eight nearest neighbors, and another dopant molecule 120 may have two nearest neighbors. In some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are arranged in a regular, irregular, or disordered sequence. In some embodiments, the spatial arrangement of nearest neighbors around each dopant molecule 120 is different. In some embodiments, the separation between each nearest neighbor and each dopant molecule 120 is different.

[0037] Figure 1B shows side views of system 100 according to various embodiments. In the embodiments shown, system 100 includes at least one host material 110 and a plurality of dopant molecules 120.

[0038] In the embodiments shown, the host material 110 includes a thickness of 150. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a thin film. That is, in some embodiments, the thickness 150 is at least about 0.3 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1,000 nm or more, at most about The range is defined by 1,000 nm, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, 0.9 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.3 nm, or less, or any two of the aforementioned values. For example, in some embodiments, the thickness 150 is approximately 0.3 nm to 1 nm, approximately 0.3 nm to 10 nm, approximately 0.3 nm to 100 nm, approximately 0.3 nm to 1,000 nm, approximately 1 nm to 10 nm, approximately 1 nm to 10 nm, approximately 1 nm to 100 nm, approximately 1 nm to 1,000 nm, approximately 10 nm to 100 nm, approximately 10 nm to 1,000 nm, or approximately 100 nm to 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the use of a thin film host material 110 enables the formation of a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer of dopant molecules 120, as described herein.

[0039] In some embodiments, the thin film is formed on a substrate (not shown in Figure 1B). In some embodiments, the substrate includes a host material 110. In some embodiments, the substrate includes a microfabrication material such as silicon, glass, or sapphire. In some embodiments, the thin film is formed using one or more microfabrication techniques such as wet cleaning, piranha cleaning, RCA cleaning, surface stabilization, spin coating, immersion coating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atmospheric pressure CVD, low pressure CVD, ultra-high vacuum CVD, aerosol-assisted CVD, direct liquid injection CVD, hot wall CVD, cold wall CVD, microwave plasma-assisted CVD, plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), remote PECVD, low-energy PECVD, atomic layer CVD, combustion CVD, fast thermal CVD, photo-initiated CVD, laser CVD, vapor phase growth, physical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, evaporation deposition, pulsed laser deposition, pulsed electron deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, etching, wet etching, dry etching, reactive ion etching (RIE), deep RIE, atomic layer etching, or self-assembly (for forming a self-assembled monolayer).

[0040] In some embodiments, the host material 110 has a thickness of at least approximately 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer (μm), 2 μm, 3 μm m, 4μm, 5μm, 6μm, 7μm, 8μm, 9μm, 10μm, 20μm, 30μm, 40μm, 50μm, 60μm, 70μm, 80μm, 90μm, 100μm, 200μm, 300μm, 4 00μm, 500μm, 600μm, 700μm, 800μm, 900μm, 1 millimeter (mm), 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 7mm, 8mm, 9mm, 10mm or more , maximum approximately 10mm, 9mm, 8mm, 7mm, 6mm, 5mm, 4mm, 3mm, 2mm, 1mm, 900μm, 800μm, 700μm, 600μm, 500μm, 400μm, 300μm, 20 0μm, 100μm, 90μm, 80μm, 70μm, 60μm, 50μm, 40μm, 30μm, 20μm, 10μm, 9μm, 8μm, 7μm, 6μm, 5μm, 4μm, 3μm, 2μm, 1μm, The thickness 150 is defined by 900nm, 800nm, 700nm, 600nm, 500nm, 400nm, 300nm, 200nm, 100nm, 90nm, 80nm, 70nm, 60nm, 50nm, 40nm, 30nm, 20nm, 10nm, 9nm, 8nm, 7nm, 6nm, 5nm, 4nm, 3nm, 2nm, 1nm, or less, or any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the host material 110 is not formed on the substrate.

[0041] In the embodiments shown, multiple dopant molecules 120 are arranged in a pseudo-2D layer. In some embodiments, the pseudo-2D layer includes a slice of thin space in which the multiple dopant molecules 120 are confined. In some embodiments, vectors may be drawn between pairs of dopant molecules 120 in the pseudo-2D layer. In some embodiments, the vectors are angled with a plane defined by the host material 110. In some embodiments, the angle is defined by at least approximately 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, or 90 degrees, and at most approximately 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0 degrees, or any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, by arranging multiple dopant molecules 120 in a pseudo-2D layer, the extent to which each of the multiple dopant molecules 120 must interact with its nearest neighbor located substantially above or below them is reduced, and the quantum dynamics of the multiple dopant molecules 120 are simplified.

[0042] Figure 1B depicts a pseudo-2D layer containing a slice of thin space in which multiple dopant molecules 120 are confined, but the disclosed embodiments are not limited thereto. In some embodiments, the multiple dopant molecules 120 may be located in a thicker layer. In such a thicker layer, each of the multiple dopant molecules 120 may interact with its nearest neighbor located substantially above or below them.

[0043] Electron triplet state for use as the ground state of a qubit Figure 2A shows an example of the electronic energy level diagram 200 for a GST molecule. In some embodiments, the GST molecule is used as a qubit (e.g., the qubit described herein with respect to Figures 1A and 1B). In the embodiments shown, the GST molecule is associated with a GST electronic manifold 210, a first singlet electronic state 220, a second singlet electronic state 230, and an EST electronic manifold 240. In some embodiments, the GST electronic manifold 210 includes a first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, and a third triplet state 213. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213 represent the lowest energy electronic states of the GST molecule. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 211 is represented by |T1>, the second triplet state 212 by |T2>, and the third triplet state 213 by |T3>. In some embodiments, the EST electron manifold 240 includes the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, and the third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, and the EST electron manifold 240 each represent electronic states with higher energy than the GST molecule. As shown in Figure 2A, in some embodiments, the second singlet electronic state 230 has lower energy than the EST electron manifold 240. However, in other embodiments, the second singlet electronic state 230 has higher energy than the EST electron manifold 240.

[0044] In some embodiments, in thermal equilibrium, the GST electronic state 210 is highly occupied (i.e., the electronic wave function of the GST molecule is heavily biased towards the GST electronic state 210, with relatively equal contributions to the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213), while the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, and the third triplet state 243 are not highly occupied.

[0045] In some embodiments, the GST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the collection from a first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, or a third triplet state 213 to a first singlet electronic state 220, a second singlet electronic state 230, a first triplet state 241, a second triplet state 242, or a third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, the GST molecule is configured to relax via radiative decay to return to the first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, or a third triplet state 213, or to return to the first singlet electronic state 220 or a second singlet electronic state 230 via intersystem crossing (ISC). In some embodiments, continuous absorption of electromagnetic energy selectively drives the collection to any combination of the first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, and a third triplet state 213, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution. In this configuration, any combination of the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213 can be “hyperpolarized” as described herein.

[0046] Figure 2B shows an example of the electronic energy levels of an EST molecule, Figure 250. In some embodiments, the EST molecule is used as a qubit (e.g., the qubit described herein with respect to Figures 1A and 1B). In the embodiments shown, the EST molecule is associated with a ground state singlet electronic state 260, an EST electronic manifold 270, and an excited state singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST electronic manifold 270 includes a first triplet state 271, a second triplet state 272, and a third triplet state 273. In some embodiments, the ground state singlet electronic state 260 represents the lowest energy electronic state of the EST molecule, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 represent the next lowest energy electronic states of the EST molecule, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 represents the next lowest energy electronic state of the EST molecule. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 271 is represented by |T1>, the second triplet state 272 is represented by |T2>, and the third triplet state 273 is represented by |T3>.

[0047] In some embodiments, in thermal equilibrium, the ground state singlet electronic state 260 is highly occupied (i.e., the electronic wave function of the EST molecule is heavily biased towards the ground state singlet electronic state 260), while the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 are not highly occupied.

[0048] In some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the group from a ground singlet electronic state 260 to an excited singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to relax via radiative decay to return to the ground singlet electronic state 260, or to return to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 via intersystem crossing (ISC). In some embodiments, continuous absorption of electromagnetic energy selectively drives the group to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution.

[0049] Alternatively, in some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to directly drive the group from the ground singlet electronic state 260 to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electronic state distribution. In either mode, any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 can be "hyperpolarized" as described herein.

[0050] Regardless of whether the qubit contains a GST molecule or an EST molecule, in some embodiments, a linear combination of a first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3> may be used as the ground state of the qubit for non-classical computation. Therefore, the qubit may include the ground state of the first qubit which is a first linear combination (e.g., the ground state of the first qubit |0>=α1|T1>+α2|T2>+α3|T3>) of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> (e.g., with respect to a laboratory reference frame, a rotational reference frame, or another preferred time-independent or time-dependent reference frame), as well as the ground state of the second qubit which is a second linear combination (e.g., the ground state of the second qubit |1>=β1|T1>+β2|T2>+β3|T3>) of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3>. In general, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 are each subject to the normalization condition |α1| 2 +|α2| 2 +|α3| 2 =1 and |β1| 2 +|β2| 2 +|β3| 2 Assuming = 1, they can be any complex number. Furthermore, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 should generally be chosen such that the ground states of the first qubit and the ground states of the second qubit are distinct from each other (e.g., orthogonal).

[0051] In some embodiments, the lifetime of the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit (e.g., coherence lifetime or relaxation lifetime) is at least about 100 microseconds (μs), 200 μs, 300 μs, 400 μs, 500 μs, 600 μs, 700 μs, 800 μs, 900 μs, 1 millisecond (ms), 2 milliseconds, 3 milliseconds, 4 milliseconds, 5 milliseconds, 6 milliseconds, 7 milliseconds, 8 milliseconds, 9 milliseconds, 10 milliseconds, 15 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 25 milliseconds, 30 milliseconds, 35 milliseconds, 40 milliseconds, 45 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 55 milliseconds, 60 milliseconds, 6 5 milliseconds, 70 milliseconds, 75 milliseconds, 80 milliseconds, 85 milliseconds, 90 milliseconds, 95 milliseconds, 100 milliseconds, 125 milliseconds, 150 milliseconds, 175 milliseconds, 200 milliseconds, 225 milliseconds, 250 milliseconds, 275 milliseconds, 300 milliseconds, 325 milliseconds, 350 milliseconds, 375 milliseconds, 400 milliseconds, 425 milliseconds, 450 milliseconds, 475 milliseconds, 500 milliseconds, 525 milliseconds, 550 milliseconds, 575 milliseconds, 600 milliseconds, 625 milliseconds, 650 milliseconds, 675 milliseconds, 700 milliseconds, 725 milliseconds, 800 milliseconds, 825 milliseconds, 850 milliseconds, 875 milliseconds Seconds, 900 milliseconds, 925 milliseconds, 950 milliseconds, 975 milliseconds, 1 second (s), 2 seconds, 3 seconds, 4 seconds, 5 seconds, 6 seconds, 7 seconds, 8 seconds, 9 seconds, 10 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds, 40 seconds, 50 seconds, 1 minute (min), 2 minutes, 3 minutes, 4 minutes, 5 minutes, 6 minutes, 7 minutes, 8 minutes, 9 minutes, 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, 40 minutes, 50 minutes, 1 hour (h), 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours, 5 hours, 6 hours, 7 hours, 8 hours, 9 hours, 10 hours, or more, up to approximately 10 hours, 9 hours, 8 hours, 7 hours, 6 hours, 5 hours, 4 hours, 3 hours, 2 hours, 1 hour, 50 minutes, 40 minutes, 30 minutes, 20 minutes, 10 minutes, 9 minutes, 8 minutes, 7 minutes, 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 50 seconds, 40 seconds, 30 seconds, 20 seconds, 10 seconds, 9 seconds, 8 seconds, 7 seconds, 6 seconds, 5 seconds, 4 seconds, 3 seconds, 2 seconds, 1 second, 975 milliseconds, 950 milliseconds, 925 milliseconds, 900 milliseconds, 875 milliseconds, 850 milliseconds, 825 milliseconds, 800 milliseconds, 775 milliseconds, 750 milliseconds, 725 milliseconds, 700 milliseconds, 675 milliseconds, 650 milliseconds, 625 milliseconds, 600 milliseconds, 575 milliseconds, 550 milliseconds, 525 milliseconds, 500 milliseconds, 475 milliseconds, 450 milliseconds, 425 milliseconds, 400 milliseconds, 375 milliseconds,The lifetime is defined as 350 milliseconds, 325 milliseconds, 300 milliseconds, 275 milliseconds, 250 milliseconds, 225 milliseconds, 200 milliseconds, 175 milliseconds, 150 milliseconds, 125 milliseconds, 100 milliseconds, 95 milliseconds, 90 milliseconds, 85 milliseconds, 80 milliseconds, 75 milliseconds, 70 milliseconds, 65 milliseconds, 60 milliseconds, 55 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 45 milliseconds, 40 milliseconds, 35 milliseconds, 30 milliseconds, 25 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 15 milliseconds, 10 milliseconds, 9 milliseconds, 8 milliseconds, 7 milliseconds, 6 milliseconds, 5 milliseconds, 4 milliseconds, 3 milliseconds, 2 milliseconds, 1 millisecond, 900 μs, 800 μs, 700 μs, 600 μs, 500 μs, 400 μs, 300 μs, 200 μs, 100 μs, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0052] In some embodiments, lifetime is defined as the half-life for the electronic state of a qubit to return from a hyperpolarized electronic state distribution to a thermal equilibrium electronic state distribution. In some embodiments, lifetime is measured at the intended operating temperature of the qubit, such as at least about 1K, 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K or higher, and at most about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K or lower, or at temperatures between any two of the aforementioned values ​​(e.g., about 4K to about 20K). In some embodiments, the bipolar coupling strength described herein with respect to Figures 1A and 1B (e.g., the coupling interaction 130 shown in Figures 1A and 1B) is greater than a multiple of the reciprocal of the lifetime. In some embodiments, the multiple is at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more, and at most about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0053] Optical hyperpolarization and initialization of qubit states In some embodiments, hyperpolarization enables nonclassical computations to be performed with a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In some embodiments, hyperpolarization allows a qubit to be initialized with the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit (or any linear combination thereof) thereby initializing a nonclassical computation. In some embodiments, hyperpolarization enables coherent manipulation of the quantum states of qubits for performing nonclassical computations.

[0054] In some embodiments, hyperpolarization allows one or more qubits to be placed in a specific quantum state (e.g., the ground state of the first qubit, the ground state of the second qubit, or any linear combination thereof). In some embodiments, the qubits are initialized after such hyperpolarization.

[0055] In the context of GST or EST molecules, in some embodiments, hyperpolarization describes a state in which the absolute difference between one set of electronic states (e.g., the first singlet electronic state of a GST molecule or the ground singlet electronic state of an EST molecule) and another set of electronic states (e.g., any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> of a GST or EST molecule) exceeds the absolute difference of the corresponding difference in thermal equilibrium.

[0056] In some embodiments, the collective difference between two electronic states is the difference between the two electronic states divided by the total collective of the two electronic states. The collective difference may be expressed as a fractional collective difference or as a percentage collective difference. In some embodiments, the group difference (expressed as a percentage) is at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more, and at most about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0057] As described herein, in some embodiments, a qubit (either a GST molecule or an EST molecule) is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy to drive the collection into any combination of a first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3>, thereby generating hyperpolarization. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy has a central wavelength selected to drive the collection into any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3>. In some embodiments, the central wavelength is within the infrared (IR), visible, or ultraviolet (UV) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In some embodiments, the central wavelength is at least approximately 200nm, 210nm, 220nm, 230nm, 240nm, 250nm, 260nm, 270nm, 280nm, 290nm, 300nm, 310nm, 320nm, 330nm, 340nm, 350nm, 360nm, 370nm, 380nm, 390nm, 400nm, 410nm, 420nm, 430nm, 440nm, 450nm, 460nm, 470nm, 480nm, 490nm, 500nm, 510nm, 520nm, 530nm, 540nm, 550nm, 560nm, 570nm, 580nm, 590nm, 600nm nm, 610nm, 620nm, 630nm, 640nm, 650nm, 660nm, 670nm, 680nm, 685nm, 690nm, 700nm, 710nm, 720nm, 730nm, 740nm, 750nm, 760nm, 770nm, 780nm, 790nm, 800nm, 810nm, 820nm, 830nm, 840nm, 850nm, 860nm, 870nm, 880nm, 890nm, 900nm, 910nm, 920nm, 930nm, 940nm, 950nm, 960nm, 970nm, 980nm, 990nm, 1,000nm or more, up to approximately 1,000nm, 990nm, 980nm, 970nm, 960nm, 950nm, 940nm, 930nm, 920nm, 910nm, 900nm , 890nm, 880nm, 870nm, 860nm, 850nm, 840nm, 830nm, 820nm, 810nm, 800nm, 790nm , 780nm, 770nm, 760nm, 750nm, 740nm, 730nm, 720nm, 710nm, 700nm, 690nm, 680nm , 670nm, 660nm, 650nm, 640nm, 630nm, 620nm, 610nm, 600nm, 590nm, 580nm, 570nm , 560nm, 550nm, 540nm, 530nm, 520nm, 510nm, 500nm, 490nm, 480nm, 470nm, 460nm, 450nm, 440nm, 430nm, 420nm, 410nm, 400nm, 390nm, 380nm, 370nm, 360nm, 350nm, 340nm, 330nm, 320nm, 310nm, 300nm, 290nm, 280nm, 270nm, 260nm, 250nm, 240nm, 230nm, 220nm, 210nm, 200nm, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0058] Optical initialization of individual qubits Returning to the discussion of Figures 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 experience different physicochemical environments due to their different positions or orientations within the host material 110. In some embodiments, these different physicochemical environments cause the different dopant molecules 120 to have slightly different electronic energy level structures. For example, returning to the discussion of Figure 2A, the energy difference between any two of the first triplet state 211, second triplet state 212, third triplet state 213, first singlet electronic state 220, second singlet state 230, first triplet state 241, second triplet state 242, and third triplet state 243 may depend on the physicochemical environment of the relevant dopant molecules, which may shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states. Similarly, returning to the discussion in Figure 2B, the energy difference between any two of the ground state singlet electronic state 260, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 may depend on the physicochemical environment of the relevant dopant molecule, which may shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states.

[0059] Returning to the discussion of Figures 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 may allow for individual treatment of each dopant molecule 120. For example, if the bandwidth of the light energy used to initialize each dopant molecule is sufficiently narrow (e.g., small compared to the difference between the wavelength required to initialize a given dopant molecule 120 and the wavelength required to initialize another dopant molecule 120), then each dopant molecule 120 can be individually treated optically.

[0060] For example, the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120 may have different electronic energy level structures. Therefore, in some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength. In some embodiments, the first or second central wavelength includes any central wavelength described herein. In some embodiments, the first and second central wavelengths are different from each other.

[0061] In some embodiments, a first center wavelength is associated with a first wavelength range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first full width at half maximum (FWHM). In some embodiments, a second center wavelength is associated with a second wavelength range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, 20 MHz, 25 MHz, 30 MHz, 35 MHz, 40 MHz, 45 MHz, 50 MHz, 55 MHz, 60 MHz, 65 MHz, 70 MHz, 75 MHz, 80 MHz, 85 MHz, 90 MHz, 95 MHz, 100 MHz or more, at most about 100 MHz, 95 MHz, 90 MHz, 85 MHz, 80 MHz, 75 MHz, 70 MHz, 65 MHz, 60 MHz, 55 MHz, 50 MHz, 45 MHz, 40 MHz, 35 MHz, 30 MHz, 25 MHz, 20 MHz, 15 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0062] In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range are different. In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range do not overlap (for example, within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to, or wider than, the bandwidth of the light source directed to the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first and second wavelength ranges allows the first dopant molecule 120 to absorb light energy while the second dopant molecule 120 does not. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first and second wavelength ranges allows the second dopant molecule 120 to absorb light energy while the first dopant molecule 120 does not. This procedure may be called the “individual optical initialization” of the first and second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the individual optical initialization of the first and second dopant molecules 120 causes the first and second dopant molecules 120 to emit different amounts of light energy. In some embodiments, measuring the light energy causes the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to collapse into an electronic energy eigenstate of at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule to a desired initial quantum state.

[0063] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the principles of individual optical initialization described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, individual optical initialization may be at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000. This may apply to 0, 9,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or two dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0064] These individual optical initializations may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, these dopant molecules 120 may be separated from each other by a relatively small distance compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from each other by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure proper coupling between nearest dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist may be about 500 nm, so that the light energy corresponds to about 5,000 qubits. Thus, individual optical initializations may enable the manipulation of individual qubits even when the light energy is directed to hundreds or thousands of qubits.

[0065] In some embodiments, the individual optical initialization of a qubit may enable the individual initialization of the qubit in the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit (or any linear combination thereof), thereby initializing non-classical computations.

[0066] RF or MW operation of individual qubits In some embodiments, the first and second qubit states described herein are separated by an energy difference in the RF or MW portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore, in some embodiments, the manipulation of the quantum state of each qubit may be performed using RF or MW energy. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the different physicochemical environments of different dopant molecules 120 produce wavelength or frequency shifts that are not large enough to allow individual optical initialization of each qubit. In such embodiments, multiple qubits may first be optically initialized simultaneously, for example, using a broadband light source, as described herein. In some embodiments, the quantum state of each qubit is then manipulated individually using RF or MW energy.

[0067] In some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a first electromagnetic energy having a first center frequency, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb a second electromagnetic energy having a second center frequency. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 20 MHz, 30 MHz, 40 MHz, 50 MHz, 60 MHz, 70 MHz, 80 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 MHz, 200 MHz, 300 MHz, 400 MHz, 500 MHz, 600 MHz, 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1 gigahertz (GHz), 2 GHz, 3 GHz, 4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz, 7 GHz, 8 GHz, 9 GHz, 100 GHz, or higher. The frequencies are, at most, approximately 100 GHz, 90 GHz, 80 GHz, 70 GHz, 60 GHz, 50 GHz, 40 GHz, 30 GHz, 20 GHz, 10 GHz, 9 GHz, 8 GHz, 7 GHz, 6 GHz, 5 GHz, 4 GHz, 3 GHz, 2 GHz, 1 GHz, 900 MHz, 800 MHz, 700 MHz, 600 MHz, 500 MHz, 400 MHz, 300 MHz, 200 MHz, 100 MHz, 90 MHz, 80 MHz, 70 MHz, 60 MHz, 50 MHz, 40 MHz, 30 MHz, 20 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency lies within the RF portion or MW portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

[0068] In some embodiments, the first and second center frequencies are different from each other. In some embodiments, the first center frequency is associated with a first frequency range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second center frequency is associated with a second frequency range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth depends on the power of the RF energy or MW energy supplied to the first or second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth includes the natural bandwidth of the first or second dopant molecule 120.For example, in some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth is at least about 100Hz, 200Hz, 300Hz, 400Hz, 500Hz, 600Hz, 700Hz, 800Hz, 900Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 3kHz, 4kHz, 5kHz, 6kHz, 7kHz, 8kHz, 9kHz, 10kHz, 20kHz, 30kHz, 40kHz, 50kHz, 60kHz, 70kHz, 80kHz, 90kHz, 100kHz, 200kHz, 300kHz, 400kHz, 500kHz, 600kHz, 700kHz, 800kHz, 900kHz, 1MHz, 2MHz, 3MHz, 4MHz, 5MHz, 6MHz, 7MHz, 8MHz, 9MHz, 10MHz, 20MHz, 30MHz, 40MHz, 50MHz, 60MHz, 70MHz, 80MHz, 90MHz, 100MHz, or higher. The maximum frequency range is approximately 100MHz, 90MHz, 80MHz, 70MHz, 60MHz, 50MHz, 40MHz, 30MHz, 20MHz, 10MHz, 9MHz, 8MHz, 7MHz, 6MHz, 5MHz, 4MHz, 3MHz, 2MHz, 1MHz, 900kHz, 800kHz, 700kHz, 600kHz, 500kHz, 400kHz, 300kHz, 200kHz, 100kHz, 90kHz, 80kHz, 70kHz, 60kHz, 50kHz, 40kHz, 30kHz, 20kHz, 10kHz, 9kHz, 8kHz, 7kHz, 6kHz, 5kHz, 4kHz, 3kHz, 2kHz, 1kHz, 900Hz, 800Hz, 700Hz, 600Hz, 500Hz, 400Hz, 300Hz, 200Hz, 100Hz, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0069] In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range are different. In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range do not overlap (for example, within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to, or narrower than, the bandwidth of RF energy or MW energy directed to the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first and second frequency ranges allows the first dopant molecule 120 to absorb RF energy or MW energy, while the second dopant molecule 120 does not absorb RF energy or MW energy. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first and second frequency ranges allows the second dopant molecule 120 to absorb RF energy or MW energy, while the first dopant molecule 120 does not absorb RF energy or MW energy. This procedure may be referred to as the "individual RF or MW operation" of the first and second dopant molecules 120.

[0070] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the principles of individual RF or MW operations described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, individual RF or MW operations may be at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000, 9, This may apply to dopant molecules 120 of the range defined by 000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or two dopant molecules 120, or any number of dopant molecules 120 defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0071] These individual RF or MW operations may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, these dopant molecules 120 may be separated from each other by a relatively small distance compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from each other by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure proper coupling between nearest dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist may strike hundreds or thousands of qubits, as described herein.

[0072] Therefore, individual RF or MW operations may enable individual coherent operations on the quantum state of each qubit after the optical initialization of the qubits (individually or simultaneously). In some embodiments, the coherent operations include an implementation of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0073] Storage of non-classical information in nuclear spin degrees of freedom In some embodiments, non-classical information (such as that obtained during or after any of the non-classical operations described herein) may be transmitted from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule 120 to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120 or at least one nearby molecule contained within the host material 110 (referred to as a “nearby host molecule”). In some embodiments, the information may be transmitted by implementing a swap gate between the electronic state and nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the swap gate may be implemented by applying RF energy or MW energy to at least one dopant molecule 120 and the nuclear spin state, as described herein.

[0074] In some embodiments, transferring non-classical information to the nuclear spin states provides an increase in readout fidelity, initialization fidelity, or lifetime, thereby improving the overall fidelity of the non-classical computation.

[0075] In some embodiments, one or more of the dopant molecules 120 may be excited to a higher level of electronic triplet state (i.e., an electronic triplet state with higher energy than either of the states shown in Figure 2A or Figure 2B) by the application of electromagnetic energy. In some embodiments, one or more dopant molecules 120 may then relax from the higher level of electronic triplet state at a relatively high ISC rate, allowing the electronic state of one or more dopant molecules 120 to rapidly relax to a singlet state. For example, the EST molecule described herein with respect to Figure 2B may be photopumped from the EST electron manifold 270 to a higher level of electronic triplet state and then decayed to the ground state singlet electronic state 260. In some embodiments, such “reverse ISC” (RISC) procedure allows one or more dopant molecules to be selectively returned to a singlet state after the transfer of non-classical information to the nuclear spin state. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure reduces magnetic noise associated with the electron spin of the PETS molecule, thereby extending the lifetime of the PETS molecule. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure includes a “triplet shielding” procedure (as described in AA Demissie et al, “Triplet Shelving in Fluorescein and its Derivatives Provides delayed, Background-Free Fluorescence,” J. Phys. Chem A 124(7), 1437-1443 (2020), https: / / doi.org / 10.1021 / acs.jpca.9b11040, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes).

[0076] Optical readout of individual qubits In some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 may allow for individual optical readout of the quantum state of each dopant molecule 120 after non-classical operation. For example, the quantum state of each dopant molecule 120 may be individually optically read out based on the wavelength of light emitted by the dopant molecule 120, which may vary based on the physicochemical environment of each dopant molecule 120.

[0077] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is configured to absorb and emit light. In some embodiments, the optical properties of the light emitted by each dopant molecule 120 correlate with the quantum state of the associated dopant molecule 120. For example, in some embodiments, a dopant molecule 120 in a first qubit state absorbs and emits light having a first property, while a dopant molecule 120 in a second qubit state absorbs and emits light having a second property. In some embodiments, a dopant molecule in a linear superposition between the first and second qubit states absorbs and emits light having a linear superposition of the first and second properties. In some embodiments, the first property is different from the second property. Therefore, in some embodiments, measuring the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120 makes it possible to determine the quantum state of the dopant molecule 120 at the time of measurement. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the intensity of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the polarization state of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second characteristic includes the wavelength of light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second characteristic includes the frequency of light emitted by the dopant molecule 120.

[0078] A system for initializing, manipulating, and reading the qubit state of dopant molecules. Figure 3 shows a system 300 for performing non-classical calculations using the system 100 of Figure 1A or Figure 1B, according to various embodiments. In the embodiments shown, the system 300 includes at least one cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 is configured to include the system 100 described herein with respect to Figures 1A and 1B. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 includes the system 100. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 does not include the system 100. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 is configured to cool the system 100 to an operating temperature such as at least about 1K, 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K or higher, up to about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K or lower, or a temperature between any two of the aforementioned values ​​(e.g., about 4K to about 20K). In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one helium cryogenic cooler. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 comprises at least one closed-cycle helium cryogenic cooler. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one window (not shown in Figure 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as light energy) to pass through it. In some embodiments, the cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one electrical feedthrough (not shown in Figure 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as RF energy or MW energy) to pass through it.

[0079] In the embodiments shown, system 300 includes at least one initialization unit 320. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy 322 to at least one dopant molecule (not shown in Figure 3) of system 100. In some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy 322 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to any linear combination of a first qubit state and a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one wavelength between about 200 nm and about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule in any manner described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 comprises a confocal optical system, a confocal microscope, or a wide-field microscope. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to measure electromagnetic energy (not shown in Figure 3) emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to a third electromagnetic energy 322. In some embodiments, the measured electromagnetic energy indicates whether the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule has been properly initialized. In some embodiments, measuring the emitted electromagnetic energy causes the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to collapse into an electronic energy eigenstate of at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule to a desired initial quantum state. In some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply the third electromagnetic energy 322 in response to the measured electromagnetic energy. For example, in some embodiments, the initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply the third electromagnetic energy 322 to at least one dopant molecule if the measured electromagnetic energy indicates that at least one dopant molecule has not been properly initialized.

[0080] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 includes a single initialization unit 320. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 includes multiple initialization units 320. In some embodiments, the system 300 has at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000 or more initialization units 320, up to approximately 100,000 Includes 0, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one initialization unit 320, or a number of initialization units 320 within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, each initialization unit 320 has at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000 or more qubits, up to about 10,000, 9, It is configured to initialize the quantum state of a number of qubits within the range defined by 000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one qubit, or any two of the aforementioned values.

[0081] In the embodiments shown, system 300 comprises at least one non-classical operation unit 330. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy 332 to at least one dopant molecule of system 100. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 is configured to perform at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one frequency from about 1 MHz to about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit is configured to perform any non-classical operation as described herein in any form with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, the non-classical operating unit 330 comprises at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0082] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 comprises a single non-classical operating unit 330. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 comprises multiple non-classical operating units 330. In some embodiments, the system 300 comprises at least one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, two, three, four, nine, ten, two, three, four, nine, ten, two, three, three, four, nine, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, ten, three, three, three, ten, two, three, three, three, three, ten In some embodiments, each non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to perform non-classical operations on at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one qubit, or a number of qubits within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0083] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 includes at least one storage unit 340. In some embodiments, at least one storage unit 340 is configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and a sixth electromagnetic energy 344 to at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are configured together to transfer information from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are configured together to apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one frequency from about 1 kHz to about 100 MHz. In some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one frequency from about 1 MHz to about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, the storage unit 340 comprises at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0084] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 comprises a single storage unit 340. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 comprises multiple storage units 340. In some embodiments, the system 300 comprises at least one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, two, three, four, nine, ten, two, three, four, nine, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, two, three, three, seven, eight, nine, ten, two, three, three, ten, three, three, ten, three, three, ten, three, three, ten, three, three, ten, three, three, ten, three, ten, three, ten, three, ten, three, ten, ten, three, ten, ten, three, ten, ten, ten, three, ten, ten, ten, ten, three, seven, eight, six, five, four, three, two, or one storage unit 340, or a number of storage units 340 within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, each storage unit 340 is configured to transmit information from an electronic state to the nuclear spin states of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one qubit, or a number of qubits within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0085] In some embodiments, the system 300 does not include a storage unit 340.

[0086] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 includes at least one detection unit 350. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 is configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 is configured to detect the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 is configured to direct a seventh electromagnetic energy 352 toward at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength as described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one wavelength between about 200 nm and about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to a seventh electromagnetic energy 352. In some embodiments, the detection unit 350 comprises a confocal optical system, a confocal microscope, a wide-field microscope, a spectrometer, an optical spectrometer, a fluorescence spectrometer, a UV-Vis spectrometer, a polarimeter, or a polarimeter camera.

[0087] In the embodiments shown, the system 300 comprises a single detection unit 350. However, in some embodiments, the system 300 comprises multiple detection units 350. In some embodiments, the system 300 has at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000 or more detection units 350, up to approximately 100,000 The system comprises 0, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one detection unit 350, or a number of detection units 350 defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, each detection unit 350 has at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits, up to about 10,000, 9,000, 8 It is configured to detect the electronic or nuclear spin states of qubits in the range defined by 1,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or one qubit, or a number of qubits within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0088] In some embodiments, the system 300 includes at least one polarizing beam splitter 360. In some embodiments, the polarizing beam splitter 360 is configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy 322 from the initialization unit 320 to the system 100. In some embodiments, the polarizing beam splitter 360 is configured to direct a seventh electromagnetic energy 352 from the detection unit 350 to the system 100, and in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy 352, to direct light emitted by at least one dopant molecule from the system 100 to the detection unit 350.

[0089] In some embodiments, the system 300 comprises one or more magnetic field sources (not shown in Figure 3). In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources are configured to generate one or more magnetic fields or magnetic field gradients near the system 100. In some embodiments, each magnetic field source includes a permanent magnet, an electromagnet, or a superconducting magnet. In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources include one or more solenoids, Helmholtz coils, anti-Helmholtz coils, saddle coils, Halbach arrays, etc. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are contained within a cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources have a magnetic field of at least about 1 microtesla (μT), 2μT, 3μT, 4μT, 5μT, 6μT, 7μT, 8μT, 9μT, 10μT, 20μT, 30μT, 40μT, 50μT, 60μT, 70μT, 80μT, 90μT, 100μT, 200μT, 300μT, 400μT, 500μT, 600μT, 700μT, 800μT, 900μ T, 1 millitesla (mT), 2mT, 3mT, 4mT, 5mT, 6mT, 7mT, 8mT, 9mT, 10mT, 20mT, 30mT, 40mT, 50mT, 60mT, 70mT, 80mT, 90mT, 100mT, 200mT, 300mT, 400mT, 500mT, 600mT, 700mT, 800mT, 900mT, 1 Tesla (T), or more, up to approximately 1T, 900mT , 800mT, 700mT, 600mT, 500mT, 400mT, 300mT, 200mT, 100mT, 90mT, 80mT, 70mT, 60mT, 50mT, 40mT, 30mT, 2 0mT, 10mT, 9mT, 8mT, 7mT, 6mT, 5mT, 4mT, 3mT, 2mT, 1mT, 900μT, 800μT, 700μT, 600μT, 500μT, 400μT, 300μT The systems are configured to generate average magnetic field strengths of 200μT, 100μT, 90μT, 80μT, 70μT, 60μT, 50μT, 40μT, 30μT, 20μT, 10μT, 9μT, 8μT, 7μT, 6μT, 5μT, 4μT, 3μT, 2μT, 1μT, or less (over the system 100), or within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are configured to generate average magnetic field strengths of at least about 1 microtesla / meter (μTm). -1 ), 2μTm-1 , 3μTm -1 , 4μTm -1 , 5μTm -1 , 6μTm -1 , 7μTm -1 , 8μTm -1 , 9μTm -1 , 10μTm -1 , 20μTm -1 , 30μTm -1 , 40μTm -1 , 50μTm -1 , 60μTm -1 , 70μTm -1 , 80μTm -1 , 90μTm -1 , 100μTm -1 , 200μTm -1 , 300μTm -1 , 400μTm -1 , 500μTm -1 , 600μTm -1 , 700μTm -1 , 800μTm -1 , 900μTm -1 , 1 microtesla / meter (mTm) -1 ), 2mTm -1 , 3mTm -1 , 4mTm -1 , 5mTm -1 , 6mTm -1 , 7mTm -1 , 8mTm -1 , 9mTm -1 , 10mTm -1 , 20mTm -1 , 30mTm -1 , 40mTm -1 , 50mTm -1 , 60mTm -1 , 70mTm -1 , 80mTm -1 , 90mTm -1 , 100mTm -1 , 200mTm -1 , 300mTm -1 , 400mTm -1 , 500mTm -1 , 600mTm -1 , 700mTm -1 , 800mTm -1, 900mTm -1 , 1,000 mTm -1 , or more, up to approximately 1,000 mTm -1 , 900mTm -1 , 800mTm -1 , 700mTm -1 , 600mTm -1 , 500mTm -1 , 400mTm -1 , 300mTm -1 , 200mTm -1 , 100mTm -1 , 90mTm -1 , 80mTm -1 , 70mTm -1 , 60mTm -1 , 50mTm -1 , 40mTm -1 , 30mTm -1 , 20mTm -1 , 10mTm -1 , 9mTm -1 , 8mTm -1 , 7mTm -1 , 6mTm -1 , 5mTm -1 , 4mTm -1 , 3mTm -1 , 2mTm -1 , 1mTm -1 , 900μTm -1 , 800μTm -1 , 700μTm -1 , 600μTm -1 , 500μTm -1 , 400μTm -1 , 300μTm -1 , 200μTm -1 , 100μTm -1 , 90μTm -1 , 80μTm -1 , 70μTm -1 , 60μTm -1 , 50μTm -1 , 40μTm -1 , 30μTm -1 , 20μTm -1 , 10μTm -1 , 9μTm -1 , 8μTm -1 , 7μTm -1 , 6μTm-1 , 5μTm -1 , 4μTm -1 , 3μTm -1 , 2μTm -1 , 1μTm -1 The average magnetic field gradient is set to or less than (over system 100), or to an average magnetic field gradient within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0090] Methods for performing non-classical computations Figure 4 shows a flowchart illustrating method 400 for performing non-classical calculations according to various embodiments. In some embodiments, method 400 is performed using system 100 in Figure 1A or Figure 1B, or system 300 in Figure 3. In 410, a plurality of dopant molecules are obtained that are contained in at least one host material. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules include any dopant molecules described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, the host material includes any host material described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electron manifold, as described herein with respect to Figure 2A or Figure 2B. In some embodiments, the triplet electron manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, as described herein with respect to Figure 2A or Figure 2B.

[0091] In 420, each dopant molecule is configured as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, the first qubit state includes a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, as described herein. In some embodiments, the second qubit state includes a second linear combination of the first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, and the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, as described herein. In some embodiments, the first or second qubit state has any lifetime as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3, at any temperature as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule is bound to at least one other dopant molecule by an electronic dipolar coupling interaction having any dipolar coupling strength described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3.

[0092] In 430, the non-classical calculation is performed on at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, performing the non-classical calculation includes directing a third electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to a first or second qubit state, as described herein with respect to Figures 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3; applying a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule to perform at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule; and detecting the electronic state or nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule to obtain the result of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy includes any third electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy includes any fourth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the at least one non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0093] In some embodiments, performing non-classical calculations further includes applying a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule before detecting the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, the fifth and sixth electromagnetic energies are configured together to transfer information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy includes any fifth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy includes any sixth electromagnetic energy described herein.

[0094] In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule involves applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy includes any seventh electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule further involves detecting light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy, as described herein with respect to Figure 1A, Figure 1B, Figure 2A, Figure 2B, or Figure 3.

[0095] List of embodiments The aforementioned non-limiting embodiments disclosed herein include:

[0096] Embodiment 1. A system for performing non-classical computation, A host material containing at least one organic molecule, Multiple dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, Each dopant molecule contains a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state. Each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state. The first qubit state includes a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, The second qubit state includes a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state. The first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, The first or second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds at a temperature of 4 Kelvin (K) to 20 K. A system comprising multiple dopant molecules, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron-dipolar bond interaction having a dipolar bond strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz).

[0097] Embodiment 2. The system according to Embodiment 1, wherein the host material includes a crystalline host material, a monocrystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0098] Embodiment 3. The system according to Embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the host material comprises C4-C20 linear or branched alkanes; aromatic hydrocarbons; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; diaryl ketones; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0099] Embodiment 4. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 3, wherein the host material includes a thin film having a maximum thickness of 20 nanometers (nm).

[0100] Embodiment 5. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 4, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0101] Embodiment 6. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 5, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule with n = 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0102] Embodiment 7. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 6, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer.

[0103] Embodiment 8. The system according to Embodiment 7, wherein the pseudo-2D layer includes a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0104] Embodiment 9. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 8, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by an electronic dipolar bond interaction having a dipolar bond strength.

[0105] Embodiment 10. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 9, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is a maximum of 10 nm.

[0106] Embodiment 11. Multiple dopant molecules in a cubic micrometer (μm) 3 ) at least 10 6 The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 10, wherein the dopant molecule is contained in at least one host material at the concentration of [specified concentration].

[0107] Embodiment 12. A system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 11, The first dopant molecule of a plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb a first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength or a first central frequency. A second dopant molecule of multiple dopant molecules is configured to absorb a second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength or a second central frequency. A system in which the first central wavelength or first central frequency is different from the second central wavelength or second central frequency.

[0108] Embodiment 13. The system described in Embodiment 12, A first center wavelength or first center frequency is associated with a first wavelength range or first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth. The second center wavelength or second center frequency is associated with a second wavelength range or second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth. A system in which the first wavelength range or first frequency range within the first FWHM bandwidth and the second wavelength range or second frequency range within the second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

[0109] Embodiment 14. The system according to Embodiment 13, wherein the first or second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 megahertz (MHz).

[0110] Embodiment 15. The system according to any one of Embodiments 12 to 14, wherein the first or second central wavelength is 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0111] Embodiment 16. The system according to Embodiment 13, wherein the first or second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 gigahertz (GHz).

[0112] Embodiment 17. The system according to Embodiment 16, wherein the first or second center frequency is 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0113] Embodiment 18. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0114] Embodiment 19. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0115] Embodiment 20. The system according to Embodiment 19, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0116] Embodiment 21. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 20, wherein the bipolar coupling strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0117] Embodiment 22. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 21, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy toward at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule into a first qubit state or a second qubit state.

[0118] Embodiment 23. The system according to Embodiment 22, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0119] Embodiment 24. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 23, further comprising at least one non-classical operating unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule.

[0120] Embodiment 25. The system according to Embodiment 24, wherein at least one nonclassical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computation operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0121] Embodiment 26. The system according to Embodiment 24 or 25, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0122] Embodiment 27. The system according to any one of Embodiments 24 to 26, wherein, after performing at least one non-classical operation, the result of at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0123] Embodiment 28. The system according to Embodiment 27, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth and sixth electromagnetic energies are jointly configured to transmit information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0124] Embodiment 29. The system according to Embodiment 28, wherein the fifth and sixth electromagnetic energies are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0125] Embodiment 30. The system according to Embodiment 28 or 29, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0126] Embodiment 31. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 30, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0127] Embodiment 32. The system according to Embodiment 31, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0128] Embodiment 33. The system according to Embodiment 31 or 32, wherein at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to a seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0129] Embodiment 34. The system according to Embodiment 33, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, wherein the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0130] Embodiment 35. The system according to Embodiment 34, wherein the first or second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of light.

[0131] Embodiment 36. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 35, further comprising a cryogenic unit comprising at least one host material and configured to cool at least one host material to a maximum temperature of 20K.

[0132] Embodiment 37. The system according to Embodiment 36, wherein the cryogenic unit comprises a helium cryogenic cooler or a closed-cycle helium cryogenic cooler.

[0133] Embodiment 38. A system, A cryogenic unit, It contains at least one host material which contains at least one organic molecule, wherein the host molecule contains a plurality of dopant molecules contained therein. Each dopant molecule contains a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state. Each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state. The first qubit state includes a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, The second qubit state includes a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state. The first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, The first or second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms), The formulation contains at least one dopant molecule that is bonded to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron-dipolar bond interaction having a dipolar bond strength of at least 1 kHz. A cryogenic unit configured to cool at least one host material to a maximum temperature of 20K, A third initialization unit configured to direct electromagnetic energy toward at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to a first or second qubit state, A non-classical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule, A system comprising: at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0134] Embodiment 39. The system according to Embodiment 38, wherein the cryogenic unit comprises a helium cryogenic cooler or a closed-cycle helium cryogenic cooler.

[0135] Embodiment 40. The system according to Embodiment 38 or 39, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0136] Embodiment 41. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 40, wherein at least one nonclassical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computation operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0137] Embodiment 42. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 41, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0138] Embodiment 43. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 42, wherein, after performing at least one non-classical operation, the result of at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0139] Embodiment 44. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 43, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transmit information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0140] Embodiment 45. The system according to Embodiment 44, wherein the fifth and sixth electromagnetic energies are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0141] Embodiment 46. The system according to Embodiment 44 or 45, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0142] Embodiment 47. The system according to any one of embodiments 38 to 46, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0143] Embodiment 48. The system according to any one of embodiments 38 to 47, wherein at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to a seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0144] Embodiment 49. The system according to Embodiment 48, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, wherein the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0145] Embodiment 50. The system according to Embodiment 49, wherein the first or second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of light.

[0146] Embodiment 51. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 50, wherein the host material includes a crystalline host material, a monocrystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0147] Embodiment 52. A system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 51, wherein the host material comprises C4-C20 linear or branched alkanes; aromatic hydrocarbons; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; diaryl ketones; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0148] Embodiment 53. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 52, wherein the host material includes a thin film having a maximum thickness of 20 nanometers (nm).

[0149] Embodiment 54. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 53, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0150] Embodiment 55. A system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 54, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule with n = 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0151] Embodiment 56. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 54, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer.

[0152] Embodiment 57. The system according to Embodiment 56, wherein the pseudo-2D layer includes a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0153] Embodiment 58. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 57, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by an electron-dipolar bond interaction having a dipolar bond strength.

[0154] Embodiment 59. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 58, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is a maximum of 10 nm.

[0155] Embodiment 60. Multiple dopant molecules in a cubic micrometer (μm) 3 ) at least 10 6 The system according to any one of embodiments 38 to 59, wherein the dopant molecule is contained in at least one host material at a concentration of [specify concentration].

[0156] Embodiment 61. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 60, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0157] Embodiment 62. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 60, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a triplet excited state electronic manifold.

[0158] Embodiment 63. The system according to Embodiment 62, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electronic manifold.

[0159] Embodiment 64. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 63, wherein the bipolar coupling strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0160] Embodiment 65. A method for performing non-classical calculations, comprising: obtaining a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, each dopant molecule being associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electronic manifold, the triplet electronic manifold including a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; configuring each dopant molecule as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, the first qubit state including a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the second qubit state including a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the first qubit state being different from the second qubit state, the first qubit state or the second qubit state having a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature of 4 Kelvin (K) to 20 K, and at least one dopant molecule being coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron bipolar coupling interaction having a bipolar coupling strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz); performing non-classical calculations on at least one dopant molecule. <s

[0161] Embodiment 66. Performing non-classical calculations on at least one dopant molecule is Directing third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to a first qubit state or a second qubit state, Applying fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule, Detecting the electronic state or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation, the method according to embodiment 65.

[0162] Embodiment 67. The method according to embodiment 66, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

[0163] Embodiment 68. The method according to embodiment 66 or 67, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0164] Embodiment 69. The method according to any one of embodiments 66 to 68, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0165] Embodiment 70. Further comprising applying fifth electromagnetic energy and sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule before detecting the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transfer information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, the method according to any one of embodiments 66 to 69.

[0166] Embodiment 71. The method according to Embodiment 70, wherein the fifth and sixth electromagnetic energies are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0167] Embodiment 72. The method according to Embodiment 70 or 71, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kHz and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

[0168] Embodiment 73. The method according to any one of Embodiments 66 to 72, wherein detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule involves applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0169] Embodiment 74. The method according to Embodiment 73, further comprising detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, or detecting light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to a seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0170] Embodiment 75. The method according to Embodiment 74, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, wherein the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0171] Embodiment 76. The method according to Embodiment 75, wherein the first or second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of light.

[0172] Embodiment 77. The method according to any one of Embodiments 66 to 76, further comprising cooling at least one host material to a maximum temperature of 20K.

[0173] Embodiment 78. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 77, wherein the host material includes a crystalline host material, a monocrystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0174] Embodiment 79. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 78, wherein the host material comprises C4-C20 linear or branched alkanes; aromatic hydrocarbons; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; diaryl ketones; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

[0175] Embodiment 80. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 79, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a maximum thickness of 20 nanometers (nm).

[0176] Embodiment 81. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 80, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0177] Embodiment 82. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 81, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule with n = 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0178] Embodiment 83. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 82, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer.

[0179] Embodiment 84. The method according to Embodiment 83, wherein the pseudo-2D layer comprises a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0180] Embodiment 85. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 84, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by an electron dipole bond interaction having a dipole bond strength.

[0181] Embodiment 86. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 85, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0182] Embodiment 87. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 86, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of at least 10 3 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm 6 ).

[0183] Embodiment 88. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 87, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0184] Embodiment 89. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 88, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0185] Embodiment 90. The method according to Embodiment 89, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0186] Embodiment 91. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 90, wherein the dipole bond strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0187] Examples Example 1 - Formation of Pentacene:Naphthalene Crystal Naphthalene with a purity of 99% exceeding 50 grams (g) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and further purified by sublimation. Pentacene-d14 (pentacene with deuterium in all 14 hydrogen sites) was also purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification. The self-seeding vertical Bridgman method was used to grow pentacene-doped naphthalene single crystals. Double-walled ampoules were used, with the inner wall having a capillary opening toward the space between the walls. The ampoules filled with naphthalene and pentacene were then moved through a steep temperature gradient, including the melting temperature of naphthalene. This temperature gradient was achieved by a bath with two liquid phases heated to different temperatures. As the ampoule descended into the upper and warmer parts of the bath, the pentacene-naphthalene mixture dissolved in the homogeneous liquid. Crystallization began in the space between the ampoule walls when the bottom of the ampoule reached phase separation in the heated bath. Here, solidification occurred at multiple nuclei, leading to polycrystalline regions within the spaces between the walls. By slowly moving the ampoule within these regions, the number of nucleation events was kept to a minimum, resulting in polycrystals with relatively large crystal grains. As the ampoule was further lowered, the capillary on the inner wall came into contact with the polycrystals. Ideally, a crystal orientation of only one single crystal grain formed within the capillary. This self-seeding process supported the emergence of single crystals within the inner wall of the ampoule.

[0188] The foregoing description is provided for illustrative purposes only. It is not exhaustive and is not limited to the exact forms or embodiments disclosed. Modifications and adaptations of embodiments will be apparent from the specification and practice of the disclosed embodiments. For example, while the described implementations include hardware, systems and methods consistent with this disclosure can be implemented using hardware and software. Furthermore, while certain components are described as being coupled together, such components may be integrated with each other or distributed in any preferred manner.

[0189] Furthermore, while exemplary embodiments are described herein, the scope includes any and all embodiments having equivalent elements, modifications, omissions, combinations (e.g., aspects across various embodiments), adaptations, or alterations based on this disclosure. The elements of the claims should be interpreted broadly on the basis of the language used in the claims and not limited to the examples described herein or any examples described in the course of the application, and such examples should be interpreted as non-exclusive. Furthermore, the steps of the methods of this disclosure can be modified in any way, including rearranging the steps or inserting or deleting steps.

[0190] The features and advantages of this disclosure are evident from the detailed specification, and therefore the attached claims are intended to cover all systems and methods that fall within the true spirit and scope of this disclosure. Where used herein, the indefinite articles "a" and "an" mean "one or more." Similarly, the use of plural words does not necessarily mean plural unless ambiguous in a given context. Furthermore, since numerous modifications and variations readily arise from the study of this disclosure, it is not desirable to limit this disclosure to the exact structures and operations illustrated and described. Therefore, all suitable modifications and equivalents may be utilized within the scope of this disclosure.

[0191] As used herein, unless otherwise specifically stated, the term “or” encompasses all possible combinations, unless impractical. For example, if it is stated that a component may include A or B, then unless otherwise specifically stated or impractical, the component may include A, B, or A and B. As a second embodiment, if it is stated that a component may include A, B, or C, then unless otherwise specifically stated or impractical, the component may include A, B, C, A and B, A and C, B and C, or A and B and C.

[0192] Other embodiments will be apparent from the description and practice of the embodiments disclosed herein. The description and examples are intended to be considered solely as examples having the true scope and spirit of the embodiments disclosed as set forth by the following claims.

Claims

1. A system for performing non-classical computation, A host material containing at least one organic molecule, A plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, Each dopant molecule contains a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state. Each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold. The GST electronic manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state. The first qubit state includes a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, The second qubit state includes a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, The first qubit state is different from the second qubit state. A system equipped with these features.

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the host material includes a crystalline host material, a monocrystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystalline host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the host material comprises C4-C20 straight-chain or branched alkanes; aromatic hydrocarbons; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; diaryl ketones; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylene; meta-terphenylene; para-terphenylene; or benzophenone.

4. The system according to claim 1, wherein the host material includes a thin film having a maximum thickness of 20 nanometers (nm).

5. The system according to claim 1, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

6. The system according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer or a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

7. The system according to claim 1, wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm, or the plurality of dopant molecules are contained in the at least one host material at a concentration of at least 10⁶ dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm³).

8. The first dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb a first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength or a first central frequency. The second dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb a second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength or a second central frequency. The system according to claim 1, wherein the first central wavelength or the first central frequency is different from the second central wavelength or the second central frequency.

9. The first center wavelength or the first center frequency is associated with a first wavelength range or a first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth, The second center wavelength or the second center frequency is associated with a second wavelength range or a second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth, The system according to claim 8, wherein the first wavelength range or the first frequency range within the first FWHM bandwidth and the second wavelength range or the second frequency range within the second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

10. The system according to claim 9, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 megahertz (MHz), or the first center wavelength or the second center wavelength is 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

11. The system according to claim 9, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is up to 100 gigahertz (GHz), or the first center frequency or the second center frequency is between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

12. The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy toward at least one of the plurality of dopant molecules, thereby initializing the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state.

13. The system according to claim 12, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength between 200 nm and 1,000 nm.

14. The system according to claim 12, further comprising at least one nonclassical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one nonclassical operation on the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the at least one nonclassical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computation operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

15. The system according to claim 14, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

16. The system according to claim 14, wherein, after performing the at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule.

17. The system according to claim 14, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transmit information from the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

18. The system according to claim 17, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring the information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state.

19. The system according to claim 18, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 kilohertz (kHz) and 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency between 1 MHz and 100 GHz.

20. The system according to claim 14, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

21. The system according to claim 20, wherein the at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule to obtain the result of the at least one non-classical operation.

22. The system according to claim 21, wherein the at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

23. The system according to claim 22, wherein the light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with the first qubit state and a second optical property associated with the second qubit state, wherein the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

24. The system according to claim 23, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

25. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a cryogenic unit comprising the at least one host material and configured to cool the at least one host material to a maximum temperature of 20 Kelvin (K).

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