Quantum computing method and quantum operation control layout

Abstract

According to one embodiment, a method of performing quantum computation on a quantum system is provided. The method includes encoding a computational problem into a problem Hamiltonian of a component of the quantum system. The method includes mapping one or more side conditions associated with the computational problem to an exchange Hamiltonian of a first portion of the components of the quantum system. The method includes initializing the components of the quantum system to an initial state. The method includes evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system. The interactions include interactions determined by a final Hamiltonian, interactions determined by an exchange Hamiltonian, and interactions determined by a driving Hamiltonian. The final Hamiltonian is a sum of a problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian. The driving Hamiltonian is a Hamiltonian of a second portion of the components of the quantum system. The method includes measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system to obtain a readout.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] Embodiments described herein relate to methods for performing quantum computation on a quantum system. Further embodiments are directed to apparatus and systems for performing quantum computation on a quantum system, in particular for performing quantum computation according to said methods. Further embodiments described herein relate to methods for determining a quantum operation control layout for a quantum computation on a quantum system, the quantum operation control layout itself, computer program products including a quantum operation control layout, and methods for performing a quantum computation on a quantum system using a quantum operation control layout. Further embodiments are directed to apparatus or systems for determining a quantum operation control layout for a quantum computation on a quantum system and / or for performing a quantum computation on a quantum system using a quantum operation control layout, in particular an apparatus or system configured to perform the methods described herein, and uses of said apparatus or systems. [Background technology]

[0002] Computing devices based on classical information processing, i.e., computing devices that do not utilize quantum mechanical effects, began as hardwired computers capable of performing only specific operations. The transition to fully programmable computers revolutionized the field and inaugurated the information age. Currently, quantum computing devices, i.e., computing devices that utilize quantum mechanical effects to solve computational problems in addition to using classical information processing, are probably still at a stage comparable to hardwired computers in that they can only tackle computational problems for which they are specifically designed.

[0003] EP 3113084 describes a method and apparatus for solving computational problems using a quantum system. The quantum computational method / apparatus accepts computational problems, in particular NP-hard or NP-complete computational problems, such as the (classical) Ising spin model with N spins and all-to-all pairwise interactions. The quantum method / apparatus encodes the computational problem into a simplex problem Hamiltonian of the quantum system with adjustable parameters. For example, for a (classical) Ising spin model with N spins and all-to-all pairwise interactions between the N spins, each term in the simplex problem Hamiltonian can be considered to correspond to one of the pairwise interactions. Thus, there are N(N-1) / 2 simplex terms of the problem Hamiltonian acting on a corresponding number of quantum bits (qubits) of the quantum system, and a similar number of adjustable parameters. The qubits of the quantum system represent the parity of the spins of the Ising spin model, with the state |0> indicating an antiparallel arrangement of the corresponding spins of the Ising spin model, and the state |1> indicating a parallel arrangement.

[0004] Furthermore, in EP 3113084 a short-range Hamiltonian is provided to compensate for the increased number of degrees of freedom of the quantum system compared to the Ising spin model. The short-range Hamiltonian is the sum of at least N(N-1) / 2-N constraint Hamiltonians, where each constraint Hamiltonian acts with constraint strength C on up to four qubits forming a plaquette of a square lattice containing the qubits of the quantum system. The constraint Hamiltonian ensures consistency with the Ising spin model in that it enforces the existence of an even number (0, 2, etc.) of states |0> in the subset of qubits corresponding to spins with antiparallel alignment in a closed loop, beyond the spins in the Ising spin model.

[0005] The final Hamiltonian is the sum of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian. The ground state of the final Hamiltonian, or at least a thermal state close to it, contains information about the solution of the computational problem encoded in the parameters of the problem Hamiltonian. Measuring the quantum system in such a state reveals information about the solution of the computational problem. The ground state of the final Hamiltonian, or a thermal state close to it, can be reached by quantum annealing, i.e., an adiabatic sweep from the ground state of the initial Hamiltonian to the ground state of the final Hamiltonian, as described in EP 3113084. Alternatively, the ground state can be reached by counter-diabatic driving using a Hamiltonian with an additional anti-adiabatic part, as described in WO 2020 / 259813. Both adiabatic and anti-adiabatic quantum computing can be considered as analog quantum computing. A digital version of quantum computing using quantum gates is described in WO 2020 / 156680. A state approximating the ground state of the final Hamiltonian can be reached by a sequence of unitary operators acting on the initial state. The unitary operators are propagators of the driving Hamiltonian, the problem Hamiltonian and the short-distance Hamiltonian, and the sequence of unitary operators, and their parameters can be optimized using classical feed-forward algorithms. The unitary operators can be implemented by highly parallelizable application of quantum gates acting on the local or nearest neighbors of the qubits in a square lattice.

[0006] Since the (classical) computational problem is encoded in the parameters of the problem Hamiltonian, these methods and apparatus provide a fully programmable quantum computing architecture, as opposed to a hardwired quantum computing device. Quantum computing architectures are also scalable. However, scaling can be resource intensive. For example, as the number of spins N in the (classical) Ising spin model grows, the size of the quantum system (number of qubits) grows quadratically with N. Furthermore, EP 3113084 describes that the method / apparatus can be applied to the Ising spin model with three-body interactions and can be implemented in a three-dimensional lattice of qubits in a quantum system, and states that the method / apparatus can be generalized to d-body interactions. Quantum operations in a quantum system of qubits arranged on a three-dimensional lattice may be possible, but may be difficult to perform. Furthermore, d-body interactions lead to implementation in higher dimensional lattices, following the teachings of EP 3113084, but this is impractical due to the limited number of spatial dimensions in our world.

[0007] PCT / EP2020 / 069416 describes a method for reducing the resource demands of these fully programmable quantum computing architectures. The size of the quantum system (number of qubits) grows by the number of interaction terms K in the (classical) Ising spin model, which can be substantially lower than the quadratic growth of the number of spins N in the (classical) Ising spin model. Furthermore, PCT / EP2020 / 069416 describes a method for handling any d-body interactions in the (classical) Ising spin model, performing quantum computations on components (in particular qubits) arranged on a two-dimensional surface. For these purposes, a quantum computation control layout is provided, as well as a method and system for determining and using the same. The quantum computation control layout can be loaded into a quantum processing unit to control the quantum operations of the quantum computation, and can be seen as a control program for the quantum computation. PCT / EP2020 / 069416 also describes a method for handling side conditions of individual interactions in the (classical) Ising spin model. Individual interactions that are affected by side conditions in the (classical) Ising spin model do not need to be represented by the components of the quantum system, and their effects can be absorbed in the interactions between the components of the quantum system.

[0008] However, optimization problems or other computational problems related to side conditions, which are often encountered in real-world applications, can give rise to more complex side conditions that relate not only to the individual interactions between the spins of the (classical) Ising spin model, but also to several interactions together, and therefore there is a need for improvements. Summary of the Invention

[0009] According to one embodiment, a method of performing quantum computation on a quantum system is provided. The method includes encoding a computational problem into a problem Hamiltonian of a component of the quantum system. The method includes mapping one or more side conditions associated with the computational problem to an exchange Hamiltonian of a first portion of the components of the quantum system. The method includes initializing the components of the quantum system to an initial state. The method includes evolving a quantum system with interactions of the components of the quantum system. The interactions include interactions determined by a final Hamiltonian, interactions determined by an exchange Hamiltonian, and interactions determined by a driving Hamiltonian. The final Hamiltonian is a sum of a problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian. The driving Hamiltonian is a Hamiltonian of a second portion of the components of the quantum system. The method includes measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system to obtain a readout.

[0010] According to one embodiment, an apparatus is provided for performing quantum computation on a quantum system. The apparatus includes a quantum system including components of the quantum system forming a first portion and a second portion. The apparatus includes an encoder configured to encode a computation problem into a problem Hamiltonian of the components of the quantum system and configured to map one or more side conditions related to the computation problem to an exchange Hamiltonian of the first portion of the components of the quantum system. The apparatus includes a quantum processing unit configured to initialize the components of the quantum system to an initial state and configured to evolve the quantum system by interactions of the components of the quantum system. The interactions include interactions determined by a final Hamiltonian, interactions determined by an exchange Hamiltonian, and interactions determined by a driving Hamiltonian. The final Hamiltonian is a sum of a problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian, and the driving Hamiltonian is a Hamiltonian of the second portion of the components of the quantum system. The apparatus includes a measurement unit configured to measure at least some of the components of the quantum system to obtain a readout.

[0011] According to another embodiment, a method for determining a quantum operation control layout for a quantum computation on a quantum system is provided. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system arranged along a mesh having vertices, a first cell, and a second cell. The vertices of the mesh represent possible locations of the components of the quantum system. Each cell of the first cell indicates that a first quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within the cell is possible during the quantum computation. Each cell of the second cell indicates that a second quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within the cell is possible during the quantum computation. The method includes providing a dataset including data representing hyperedges of a hypergraph and data representing a set of one or more fixed hyperedge relationships. The fixed hyperedge relationships include the set of hyperedges of the hypergraph. The method includes determining a set of generalized cycles, the generalized cycles including the hyperedges of the hypergraph or including the hyperedges of an expanded hypergraph, the expanded hypergraph including at least the hyperedges of the hypergraph and additional hyperedges. Wherein a maximum length of the generalized cycles of the set of generalized cycles does not exceed a maximum number of vertices of the first cell of the mesh. The method includes determining a mesh mapping that maps data representing hyperedges of the hypergraph or expanded hypergraph to vertices of a mesh, where each generalized cycle of a constrained subset of a set of generalized cycles comprises a hyperedge mapped to a first cell of the mesh. Each fixed hyperedge relationship of the set of one or more fixed hyperedge relationships comprises a hyperedge mapped to a cell of a second cell of the mesh. The method includes generating a quantum arithmetic control layout. The quantum arithmetic control layout includes data indicative of layout vertices of the mesh. Each layout vertex corresponds to a hyperedge mapped according to the mesh mapping, the mesh mapping including data indicative of the first set of layout vertices.Each first layout vertex set is comprised of layout vertices in cells of a first cell of the mesh that correspond to a generalized cycle of the constraint subset of the generalized cycle, and includes data indicative of one or more second layout vertex sets, each second layout vertex set is comprised of layout vertices in cells of a second cell of the mesh that correspond to fixed hyperedge relationships of the set of one or more fixed hyperedge relationships.

[0012] According to a further embodiment, there is provided a quantum computation control layout for controlling a quantum computation on a quantum system. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system arranged along a mesh. The mesh has vertices, a first cell and a second cell. The vertices of the mesh represent possible locations of the components of the quantum system. Each cell of the first cell of the mesh indicates that a first quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged in that cell is possible during the quantum computation. Each cell of the second cell of the mesh indicates that a second quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged in that cell is possible during the quantum computation. The first quantum interaction may be different from the second quantum interaction. The quantum computation control layout includes data indicative of layout vertices of the mesh, data indicative of a first layout vertex set, each first layout vertex set consisting of layout vertices in a first cell of the mesh, and data indicative of one or more second layout vertex sets, each second layout vertex set consisting of layout vertices in a second cell of the mesh.

[0013] According to a further embodiment, a method of performing a quantum computation on a quantum system is provided. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system. The method includes providing a quantum computation control layout as described herein. The method includes providing components of the quantum system in a spatial arrangement such that there is a component for each layout vertex of the mesh, where for each first set of layout vertices, a first quantum interaction is possible between components corresponding to layout vertices of the first set of layout vertices, and where for each second set of layout vertices, a second quantum interaction is possible between components corresponding to layout vertices of the second set of layout vertices. The first quantum interaction may be different from the second quantum interaction. The method includes, for each layout vertex associated with a non-zero weight, applying a local field to the components corresponding to the layout vertex. The local field may be determined by a problem Hamiltonian. The method includes, for each first set of layout vertices, performing a first quantum interaction between components corresponding to layout vertices of the first set of layout vertices. The first quantum interaction may be determined by a short-range Hamiltonian. The method includes, for each second set of layout vertices, performing a second quantum interaction between components corresponding to layout vertices of the second set of layout vertices. The second quantum interaction may be determined by an exchange Hamiltonian. The method includes measuring some or all of the components of the quantum system.

[0014] Embodiments are also directed to methods for operating the systems described herein, and to the use of the systems for performing methods according to embodiments described herein.

[0015] Further advantages, features, aspects and details which can be combined with the embodiments described herein are evident from the dependent claims, the description and the drawings. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0016] A full and enabling disclosure, to one of ordinary skill in the art, is set forth more particularly in the remainder of the specification, including reference to the accompanying drawings, in which: [Figure 1] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a quantum system, its components, and interactions between the components, that may be used in embodiments described herein. [Diagram 2] 1 shows three functions determining the strengths of three Hamiltonians that may be used in the embodiments described herein. [Diagram 3] 1 shows the energy spectrum of an intermediate Hamiltonian over time that may be used in embodiments described herein. [Figure 4] 1 shows the energy spectrum of an intermediate Hamiltonian over time that may be used in embodiments described herein. [Diagram 5] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a quantum system, its components, and interactions between the components, that may be used in embodiments described herein. [Figure 6] 1 illustrates a graphical representation of an exemplary quantum operation control layout according to embodiments described herein. [Figure 7] 1A-1C illustrate schematic diagrams of an apparatus for quantum computing, a system for determining a quantum operation control layout, and a system for determining a solution to a computational problem with side conditions, according to embodiments described herein. [Figure 8] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a method for determining a quantum operation control layout according to an embodiment described herein. [Figure 9] 1 illustrates a schematic diagram of a method for performing quantum computing according to embodiments described herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0017] Reference will now be made in detail to various exemplary embodiments, one or more examples of which are illustrated in the figures, each example being provided by way of illustration and not by way of limitation. For example, features illustrated or described as part of one embodiment can be used on or in conjunction with other embodiments to yield still further embodiments. The present disclosure is intended to include such modifications and variations.

[0018] In the following description of the drawings, the same reference numbers refer to the same components. Generally, only the differences with respect to individual embodiments are described. The structures shown in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale and may include details that are drawn in an exaggerated manner to allow a better understanding of the embodiments.

[0019] Some embodiments described herein relate to methods of performing quantum computing on a quantum system and apparatus for performing quantum computing on a quantum system.

[0020] Enter method

[0021] Many computational problems of interest, in particular NP-hard optimization problems, but also NP-complete decision problems, can be mapped onto the Ising spin model, which is itself an NP-complete decision form. Specifically, such problems can be mapped onto the problem of finding the ground state energy of the classical Hamiltonian function shown in the upper equation of [Equation 1] below, or of the corresponding quantum Hamiltonian operator shown in the lower equation of [Equation 1] below.

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[0022] Many of the computational problems mentioned above map more naturally, i.e., as the number of spins decreases, to a spin model that includes not only pairing interactions but also k-body interactions, where k is greater than 2. That is, the computational problem at hand can be rephrased (mapped) to the problem of finding the ground-state energy of the spin-model Hamiltonian shown below in [Mathematical Equation 2].

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[0023] The above computational problem may be subject to side conditions. When such a computational problem is mapped to a spin model, the side conditions associated with the computational problem are mapped to side conditions of / associated with the spin model. The spin model Hamiltonian shown in [Equation 2] above may be subject to one or more side conditions of the form shown in [Equation 3] below.

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[0024] Given a list of side conditions for which the spin model Hamiltonian is subject (the list may contain one or more side conditions of the above form), n max Let be the maximum number of summands in any of the subconditions in the list. max This may include reducing as much as possible. max To reduce as much as possible, it may be necessary to perform an algebraic transformation of the linear equations expressing the side conditions. For example, consider the following list of two side conditions for the four spins of the spin model Hamiltonian, shown in Equation 4, where for simplicity the four spins in question are labelled 1 through 4.

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[0025] In this method, the computational problem may be mapped to a spin model Hamiltonian with any k-body interaction. The spin model Hamiltonian may be viewed as an auxiliary computational problem. Subconditions related to the computational problem, i.e., the subconditions on which the computational problem is sensitive, may be mapped to a list of subconditions of the spin model Hamiltonian. The list of subconditions may be in a standard format or may be embedded in a standard format. The standard format may, for example, be a list of n, which is the maximum number of summands in any of the subconditions in the list. max may be a format in which

[0026] Quantum Systems

[0027] A quantum system is a physical system that exhibits quantum effects. That is, quantum systems are real-world objects. A quantum system includes components. The components of a quantum system are physical quantum entities themselves, which can be viewed as smaller d-level quantum systems that jointly form the quantum system. Specifically, the components of a quantum system can be qubits. Qubits should be understood as physical entities that realize a two-level quantum system. The components can be d-level quantum systems ("qudits") with d>2, or only two of the d levels can be used.

[0028] A quantum system can be in different quantum states, such as an initial quantum state (prepared at the beginning of the quantum computation) and a final quantum state (a quantum state that the quantum computation finally ends up in). The final quantum state can be a ground state of the final Hamiltonian of the quantum system. A Hamiltonian operator is an observable (i.e. measurable) quantity of a quantum system whose value represents the energy of the quantum system. Note that in this specification, the term "Hamiltonian" is used as an abbreviation for "Hamiltonian operator". A quantum system can evolve from an initial quantum state to a ground state of the final Hamiltonian of the quantum system. Such an evolution is a real-world process, in particular a controlled technological process (quantum computation) that leads a quantum system from an initial quantum state to an a priori unknown final quantum state that contains information about the solution of a computation problem. Said information can be revealed by measuring the quantum system or a part of it, i.e. at least some of its components. The act of measurement is a physical / technical process. By measuring, a readout of the quantum system can be obtained. A readout of a quantum system is a set of measurements obtained by measuring the components of the quantum system, which involves physical interactions with the components of the quantum system.

[0029] A quantum system can include K qubits, where K can be at least 100, at least 1000, or at least 10000. K can range from 100 to 10000, or from 100 to 100000, although K can be greater than 100000. It should be understood that the quantum systems shown and illustrated in the figures may be much smaller for purposes of illustration and explanation and are not intended to be limiting in any way.

[0030] Problem Hamiltonian

[0031] This method solves the computation problem by solving the Hamiltonian problem H prob The problem Hamiltonian may be a simplicial Hamiltonian. The problem Hamiltonian may have the form shown in Equation 7 below.

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[0032] The step of encoding the computational problem into a component problem Hamiltonian of the quantum system may include mapping the computational problem to a spin model Hamiltonian with any k-body interactions. Then, for each summand P of the problem Hamiltonian, i σ ~ z (i) can be related to one summand of the spin model Hamiltonian, where each P i is equal to one of the coefficients of a vector h, a matrix J, or a tensor R, T, etc., and each σ ~ z (i) is the σ that belongs to that coefficient. z For example, the spin model Hamiltonian H=h1σ z (1) +J 23 σ z (2) σ z (3) +R 123 σz (1) σ z (2) σ z (3) In this case, the problem Hamiltonian is as follows [Equation 9].

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[0033] Exchange Hamiltonian

[0034] The method further comprises the steps of: determining one or more subconditions related to the computational problem by means of an exchange Hamiltonian H of a first part of the components of the quantum system; exchange The step of mapping the subconditions may include mapping each subcondition of a list of subconditions associated with the computational problem to the exchange Hamiltonian. The step of mapping the subconditions of the computational problem to the exchange Hamiltonian may include mapping a subcondition, such as each subcondition of a list of subconditions associated with the computational problem, to a list of subconditions of the spin model Hamiltonian, where the list of subconditions may be organized into any standard format as described herein.

[0035] The r-th side condition of the spin model Hamiltonian of the form [Equation 10] can be mapped to [Equation 11]

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[0036] The summand exchange Hamiltonian contains or consists of first-order hopping terms of the form:

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[0037] The exchange Hamiltonian can be expressed as a sum of nearest-neighbor hopping terms, specifically nearest-neighbor first-order hopping terms. The nearest-neighbor first-order hopping terms may have the form: where i and j are indices that designate the components that are nearest neighbors in the configuration of the quantum system, and σ ~ +is the spin raising operator, and σ ~ - is the spin-down operator.

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[0038] Driving Hamiltonian

[0039] The method uses a driving Hamiltonian H drive The driving Hamiltonian is a Hamiltonian of a second portion of the components of the quantum system. The first portion of the components of the quantum system may be independent of the second portion of the components of the quantum system. In other words, there may be no components of the quantum system that belong to both the first and second portions of the components of the quantum system. The first portion of the components of the quantum system may be complementary to the second portion of the components of the quantum system. In other words, the first and second portions may be disjoint, and the union of the first and second portions of the components is the entire set of the components of the quantum system. The second portion of the components of the quantum system may be a set of components indexed by an index set [UC]. Let [A] be an index set that uniquely indexes all components of the quantum system, such that [SC]∪[UC]=[A] and / or [SC]∩[UC]=0 (empty set).

[0040] The driving Hamiltonian may be a simplex Hamiltonian. The driving Hamiltonian may have the form of the following [Equation 22]. Note that in the right-hand side of [Equation 22], Di For convenience, in this specification, the term multiplied by is denoted as σ ~ x (i) It may be expressed as:

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[0041] In this paper, specific forms of the problem Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian and the driving Hamiltonian are given. The problem Hamiltonian is defined by the Pauli operator σ ~ z and the driving Hamiltonian is the Pauli operator σ ~ x and the spin-up and spin-down operators of the exchange Hamiltonian are specified to take this choice into account. It should be understood that this choice of Pauli operator type does not lose generality in that one is free to choose the corresponding orientations (x,y,z) or to rearrange the types of Pauli operators. The type of Pauli operator used for the driving Hamiltonian is different from the type of Pauli operator used for the problem Hamiltonian.

[0042] Short-range Hamiltonian

[0043] The short-range Hamiltonian H Scan compensate for the increased number of degrees of freedom of the quantum system compared to the Ising spin model onto which the computational problem to be solved is mapped. The short-distance Hamiltonian can be a sum of constraint Hamiltonians. As described in EP 3113084 and PCT / EP2020 / 069416, the constraint Hamiltonian can ensure consistency with the Ising spin model. The short-distance Hamiltonian can be a d-body Hamiltonian. d is a natural number, d is in the range of 2 to 12, for example, 3, 4 or 6. The number d can be 4 or less. The number d can be 3 or more. The d-body Hamiltonian can include interactions within a group of d or less components of the quantum system. A Hamiltonian that is a sum of constraint Hamiltonians is a d-body Hamiltonian if each constraint Hamiltonian represents a coupling interaction within a group of d or less components, and there is at least one constraint Hamiltonian that represents a coupling interaction within a group of d components. The number d can be independent of the computational problem. Each constraint Hamiltonian has a σ ~ z Each constraint Hamiltonian can include the Cσ ~ z σ ~ z where each constraint Hamiltonian may act on up to d components with constraint strength C.

[0044] The number d may depend on the spatial arrangement of the components of the quantum system: for example, if the components are arranged in a two-dimensional lattice, d may be 4 if the two-dimensional lattice is a square lattice, d may be 6 if the two-dimensional lattice is a hexagonal lattice, etc.

[0045] As described in EP 3113084, a coupling quantum interaction between a group of components is only possible if the components of the group are close to each other (short-range interaction). A short-range Hamiltonian refers to a Hamiltonian that describes the coupling interactions within a group of components, such that no interaction occurs between components that are separated from each other by a distance greater than the interaction cutoff distance. The interaction cutoff distance may be a constant distance. The interaction cutoff distance may be much smaller than the maximum component distance between components in a particular arrangement of the components of a quantum system. For example, the interaction cutoff distance may be 30% or less of the maximum component distance, specifically 20% or less, more specifically 10% or less. When the components are arranged in a lattice with a fundamental distance (lattice constant), the short-range Hamiltonian may ensure that no interaction occurs between components that are separated from each other by a distance greater than r times the fundamental distance (lattice constant) of the lattice. Here, r may be 1 to 5. r may be √2, 2, 3, 4 or 5.

[0046] More generally, meshes can be specified to represent physical properties of quantum systems, in particular the notion of closeness (short-range properties), as described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416. A mesh can be represented by vertices and cells. The vertices of the mesh represent the possible locations of components of the quantum system. Each cell of the mesh is a set of vertices, indicating the possible (coupled) quantum interactions between the components of the quantum system placed in that cell during a quantum computation. A mesh, and in particular its cells, can reflect what is close or short-range in a quantum system. A short-range Hamiltonian can be composed of constraint Hamiltonians, each acting on the components in the cell. The number of vertices (v) of a cell (c) of the mesh is determined by the number of vertices (v c ) is the number of vertices contained in the cell. The maximum number of vertices in a cell of a mesh (v max ) is the maximum number of vertices in a mesh cell (v max =max c v c ) The maximum number of vertices is equal to the number d or d is at least v max The following is the result.

[0047] The short-range Hamiltonian H S is a sum of constraint Hamiltonians, each of which acts on components of the quantum system belonging to a set of vertices in a cell c of the mesh. The short-distance Hamiltonian can have the form:

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[0048] A particular form of the short-range Hamiltonian is provided herein as an example, where the short-range Hamiltonian is defined by the Pauli operator σ ~ z It should again be appreciated that this choice does not lose generality, in that one can freely choose the corresponding orientations (x,y,z) or rearrange the types of Pauli operators. The type of Pauli operators used for the short-range Hamiltonian can be the same as that used for the problem Hamiltonian.

[0049] Initial state and initial Hamiltonian

[0050] The method includes initializing components of the quantum system to an initial state. Although the state of the quantum system is a quantum state, for simplicity, terms such as "initial state", "final state", "intermediate state" are used instead of "initial quantum state", "final quantum state", "intermediate quantum state", etc. In the method, initializing components of the quantum system to an initial state may include preparing the components of the quantum system to an initial state. Preparing the components of the quantum system to an initial state may include acting with a local field on the components of the quantum system, such as a strong magnetic or electric field.

[0051] Here, the initial state may be an eigenstate of the initial Hamiltonian or a quantum state that is an approximation of such an eigenstate. The eigenstate of the initial Hamiltonian may be a ground state of the initial Hamiltonian. Preparing the components of the quantum system to the initial state may include driving the components of the quantum system towards the eigenstate of the initial Hamiltonian, for example by cooling.

[0052] The initial Hamiltonian H init may be a simplicial Hamiltonian that includes or consists of a first sum of first augend Hamiltonians and a second sum of second augend Hamiltonians. The first augend Hamiltonian may act on a first part of the components of the quantum system. Each augend Hamiltonian of the first augend Hamiltonian may be operated on by a simplicial operator, in particular the Pauli σ ~ z can be expressed by coefficients multiplied by Pauli operators such as the operator, and with i∈[SC] we can express i σ ~ z (i) The first summation over the first summand Hamiltonian may have the form:

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[0053] In this specification, a specific form of the initial Hamiltonian is provided as an example, where the initial Hamiltonian is the Pauli operator σ ~ zIt should again be appreciated that this choice does not lose generality, in that one can freely choose the corresponding orientations (x,y,z) or rearrange the types of Pauli operators. The type of Pauli operators used for the initial Hamiltonian can be the same as that used for the problem Hamiltonian.

[0054] The selection of the initial state, in particular the quantum state of the components of the first part of the components of the quantum system, may provide that a subcondition of the computation problem is satisfied first, i.e. at the beginning of the quantum computation. The subcondition of the computation problem may be encoded in the initial state. The method may include mapping a subcondition or subconditions associated with the computation problem to both the initial state and the exchange Hamiltonian.

[0055] Quantum Systems

[0056] A method for performing a quantum computation on a quantum system includes initializing components of the quantum system to an initial state, evolving the quantum system, and measuring and obtaining readouts of at least some of the components of the quantum system. The evolution of the quantum system may continue from the initial state to a final state. Measurements may be performed on at least some of the components when the quantum system is in the final state. An apparatus for performing a quantum computation may include a quantum processing unit (QPU) for initializing the quantum system to the initial state and / or for controlling the evolution of the quantum system. The apparatus may include a measurement unit for performing measurements of the quantum system.

[0057] The evolution of a quantum system may follow a final Hamiltonian, an exchange Hamiltonian and a driving Hamiltonian. The final Hamiltonian is the sum of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian. The quantum system may evolve due to interactions of components of the quantum system. The component interactions may include quantum interactions and / or classical interactions. The component interactions may include quantum interactions between the components. The component interactions may include classical or quantum interactions with the components, e.g., interactions of one or more external fields with the components. The component interactions may include both classical or quantum interactions with the components and quantum interactions between the components, e.g., externally induced or relaxed quantum interactions between the components. The interactions include or consist of interactions determined by the final Hamiltonian, interactions determined by the exchange Hamiltonian, and interactions determined by the driving Hamiltonian. This includes interactions determined by any subset of the Hamiltonians and interactions determined by all of the Hamiltonians.

[0058] The evolution of a quantum system during quantum computation can be controlled by analog driving, in particular adiabatic sweeping (quantum annealing). The background of adiabatic driving (quantum annealing) is described in EP 3113084. Alternatively, the analog driving can be antiadiabatic driving using a Hamiltonian with an additional antiadiabatic part, the background of this technique is described in WO 2020 / 259813. EP 3113084 and WO 2020 / 259813 are incorporated by reference.

[0059] The step of evolving a quantum system by the interaction of components of the quantum system may include going from an initial Hamiltonian of the quantum system through an intermediate Hamiltonian to a final Hamiltonian. The intermediate Hamiltonian may include a linear combination of the initial Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian and the driving Hamiltonian. The evolution may be controlled by analog driving, in particular by quantum annealing or antiadiabatic driving. The coefficients of the linear combination of the Hamiltonians may be time-dependent functions. Each time-dependent function may represent the strength of a respective Hamiltonian. The time-dependent functions may represent the relative strengths of the Hamiltonians over time. The step of evolving a quantum system may include adiabatically evolving the initial Hamiltonian to the final Hamiltonian while temporally fading in and out the driving Hamiltonian and the exchange Hamiltonian. Evolving the initial Hamiltonian to the final Hamiltonian may include fading out the initial Hamiltonian and fading in the final Hamiltonian. Fading out may include adjusting the strength of the corresponding Hamiltonian down, which is represented by a time-dependent function that decreases over time. Conversely, fading in may include adjusting the strength of the corresponding Hamiltonian up, which is represented by a time-dependent function that increases over time. The step of evolving the quantum system may include fading out the initial Hamiltonian quadratically and fading out the final Hamiltonian linearly. Here, fading out (in) quadratically means that the decrease (increase) in the strength of the corresponding Hamiltonian is by a quadratic time-dependent function, and fading in (out) linearly means that the increase (decrease) in the strength of the corresponding Hamiltonian is by a linear time-dependent function.

[0060] The intermediate Hamiltonian is H inter (t)=I(t)H init +D(t)H drive +E(t)H exchange +F(t)H final where Hfinal (t)=p(t)H prob +s(t)H S Let t0=0 be the initial time, that is, the starting point of the quantum computation, and t final Let be the final time, i.e., the end point of the quantum computation. Then, for functions I, D, E, F, p, and s, the following holds: I(0)=1, I(t final )=0, D(0)=E(0)=0, D(t final )=E(t final )=0, F(0)=0, F(t final )=1 and t0=0 <t<t final For all t, the functions I, D, E, F, p, and s are finite (cannot be zero). The functions p and s are constants for t=0 and t=t. final Therefore, H inter (0)=H init and H inter (t final )=H final Furthermore, p and s can be constants. Specifically, p=s=1 can be satisfied. Therefore, H final can be an ordinary summation of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian, rather than a weighted and potentially time-dependent summation of these two Hamiltonians. When we refer to the summation of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian in this specification, this includes ordinary summation, weighted summation and time-dependent weighted summation of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian. The summation of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian can in particular be an ordinary summation of the problem Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian. One can also choose D=E for easier driving. Since this protocol avoids the first-order phase transition present in the linear case, the function I can be reduced quadratically for increased fidelity (e.g., I(t)=(1−t / t final ) 2 ). The function F can be linearly increasing (e.g., F(t)=t / t final An example intermediate Hamiltonian is H inter (t)=(1-t / t final ) 2 H init +Γt / tfinal (1-T / T final )(H drive +H exchange )+t / t final H final where Γ is a parameter that specifies the strength of the driving and exchange Hamiltonians relative to the initial and final Hamiltonians, and the final Hamiltonian is given by final =H prob +H S The intermediate Hamiltonian for the antiadiabatic driving can have an additional antiadiabatic driving term.

[0061] The intermediate Hamiltonian exists at least once during the evolution of the quantum system, e.g., at some time t d (t0=0 <t d <t final ) can have a degenerate ground state at time t d A later time interval (e.g., a time interval of T [t d ,t d +T]), where T is time t finalIt may be such that until the end of the quantum computation at , there are no further times at which the intermediate Hamiltonian has a degenerate ground state, but instead there may be one or more further times at which the intermediate Hamiltonian has a degenerate ground state. Such degeneracy of the ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian constitutes an error in known methods using adiabatic driving of quantum computation, because the adiabatic theorem depends on the presence or absence of a permanent energy gap between the ground state and the excited state of the intermediate Hamiltonian during the adiabatic sweep. However, in the method described herein, such degeneracy does not imply an error and may be a desirable feature. The reason is that the evolution of the quantum system according to the initial Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian and the exchange Hamiltonian, and in particular the dynamics caused by the exchange Hamiltonian, allows the state of the quantum system to be forced to be any of the non-degenerate eigenstates after degeneracy has occurred, without the ambiguity arising from passing through such a degenerate state. When the quantum system is driven to an excited state of the intermediate Hamiltonian, energy level crossings can also occur. Again, the dynamics selects the eigenstate of the intermediate Hamiltonian that the quantum system assumes at the crossing point, as well as the subsequent energy levels and instantaneous eigenstates. At the final time t final In the case of , the intermediate Hamiltonian is identical to the final Hamiltonian, and the state of the quantum system at the final time may be an eigenstate of the final Hamiltonian that is some excited state, rather than the ground state of the final Hamiltonian. Such features (degenerate ground states, non-ground final states) are unknown in general adiabatic quantum computing (quantum annealing).

[0062] Thus, in the method described herein, the initial state, in particular the state of the first part of the components of the quantum system, and the dynamics of the evolution of the quantum system may enforce the satisfaction of one or more sub-conditions related to the computational problem during the quantum computation. The minimum energy of the quantum system may be determined from an eigenstate or an approximate eigenstate of the final Hamiltonian compatible with the dynamics. The step of evolving the quantum system by the interaction of the components of the quantum system may comprise evolving the quantum states of the components of the quantum system from an initial state towards a final state. The final state may be an eigenstate of the final Hamiltonian, which may be an excited state.

[0063] The final state of the quantum system is the state at time t final When the quantum system is in this final state, a measurement can be made on at least some of the components. The measurement can be made by a measurement unit of an apparatus performing the quantum computation. The measurement result can constitute a readout of the quantum system. A solution to the computational problem can be determined from the readout, such as by classical computation. The solution can be determined by one or more classical computation systems.

[0064] The method of quantum computation described herein differs from known methods such as the method described in EP 3113084. In the present method, a distinction is made between components that are affected by the side conditions of the computation problem (a first part of the components) and components that are not affected by the side conditions (a second part of the components). The initial states are prepared to respect the side conditions of the computation problem, i.e. to be compatible with the side conditions, as described herein. Here, the states of the components of the first part of the components are prepared to be compatible with the side conditions. Furthermore, the dynamics undergone by the components preserves the compatibility with the side conditions. The exchange Hamiltonian is such that if the initial states are compatible with the side conditions, the dynamics it introduces will result in a state of the first part of the components that is compatible with the side conditions. When energy is minimized, such as in the process of an adiabatic sweep, the result does not have to be the ground state of the final Hamiltonian. The result will be an eigenstate of minimum energy compatible with the dynamics (or an approximation thereof). This eigenstate can be an excited state of the final Hamiltonian, i.e. an eigenstate different from the ground state. Since the dynamics respects / enforces the side conditions, the quantum computation represents a minimization of energy respecting the side conditions of the underlying computational problem encoded in the problem Hamiltonian. The solution that can be derived from a readout at the end of the quantum computation is the solution of the computational problem under those side conditions.

[0065] An illustrative example will be described with reference to Figs. 1 to 4. In this example, the computation problem is z (1) σ z (2) +σ z (2) σ z (3) +σ z (3) σ z (4) =1, this is mapped to the spin model Hamiltonian of [Equation 30] below.

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[0066] The development of quantum systems 100 is based on the Hamiltonian H inter (t)=(1-t / t final ) 2 H init +Γt / t final (1-T / T final )(Hdrive +H exchange )+t / t final H final According to the above, from the start time t0=0 to the final time t final The temperature is controlled by an adiabatic sweep up to , where H final =H prob +H S and Γ=4 is chosen. Then, Fig. 2 shows the strengths of the three Hamiltonians during the adiabatic sweep as a function of t / t final 3 and 4 show three functions that are determined as a function of H: a function 202 of the strength of the initial Hamiltonian, a function 204 of the strength of the sum of the driving Hamiltonian and the exchange Hamiltonian, and a function 206 of the strength of the final Hamiltonian. inter The energy (energy eigenvalue) of the instantaneous eigenstate of (t) is t / t final The dotted lines in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 show the energies of the quantum states of the quantum system during the adiabatic sweep. In Fig. 3, the J ij or equivalently, the coefficients of the problem Hamiltonian P i , P 12 =-0.8, P 13 = 0.56, P 14 = 0.2, P 23 =-0.6, P 24 =-0.667, P 34 =-0.7. In Fig. 4, the J ij or equivalently, the coefficients of the problem Hamiltonian P i , P 12 =-0.8, P 13 = 0.56, P 14 = 0.2, P 23 =-0.6, P 24 =-0.667, P 34 =0.7.

[0067] In FIG. 3, there is a degeneracy of the ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian at an intermediate time during the adiabatic sweep. The dynamics driven by the quantum computation, specifically the exchange Hamiltonian, preserves compatibility with the side condition of the computation problem implied by the initial state. This property of preserving compatibility with the side condition allows the quantum system to relax within the set of all quantum states compatible with the side condition, but may prevent the quantum system from relaxing to the ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian if its ground state is incompatible with the side condition. As shown in FIG. 3, starting from the intermediate time at which the degeneracy occurs, the quantum state is driven to an excited state compatible with the side condition. Furthermore, that excited state later experiences a level crossing of its eigenenergy with a second excited state, and the quantum system switches to this second excited state at a level crossing driven by the dynamics of the quantum computation. Again later, at another level crossing of the eigenenergies of the second and third excited states, the quantum system switches to the third excited state. Thus, the quantum system is finally in the third excited state of the intermediate Hamiltonian, which occurs at time t=t final is the third excited state of the final Hamiltonian. The solution to the computational problem with the side condition is contained in the final state, here the third excited state of the final Hamiltonian. Thus, the solution to the computational problem with the side condition can be computed from a readout (measurement) of the quantum system in its final state at the final time, but it differs from the solution to the same computational problem without the side condition, because the latter solution is contained in the ground state of the final Hamiltonian.

[0068] In FIG. 4, degeneracy of the ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian does not occur. Therefore, there is always an energy gap, which means that the quantum system always remains in the ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian, and the final state at the final time is the ground state of the final Hamiltonian, by the adiabatic theorem. In this case, the solution of the computational problem with the side condition is the same as the solution of the computational problem without the side condition. This shows that it depends on the particular computational problem whether the side condition forces the solution to deviate from the solution of the same computational problem in the absence of the side condition. The quantum computation method described herein works in all such cases without the need for any modifications.

[0069] The evolution of a quantum system during quantum computation can be controlled by digital drives, in particular gate-based quantum computation. In gate-based quantum computation, the quantum computation is driven by applying a sequence of unitary operators to an initial state of the quantum system. The sequence of unitary operators and its parameters can be optimized in N operations by reading out (measuring) the quantum system in at least one previous round and applying the optimized sequence in a later round using classical feedforward. Background on gate-based quantum computing techniques is described in WO 2020 / 156680, which is incorporated by reference.

[0070] The goal of gate-based quantum computing is to find the energy E min =min<Ψ|H final The goal is to first minimize |Ψ>. Once the minimum (or acceptably small) energy is determined, the components are read out by measurement when they are in the quantum state with the minimum (or acceptably small) energy. The readout contains information about the solution of the computational problem with side conditions. Here, the final Hamiltonian may be Hfinal=Hprob+HS, and |Ψ>=U Hdrive (α1)U Hexchange (β1)U HS (γ1)U Hprob (δ1) U Hdrive (αm )U Hexchange (β m )U HS (γ m )U Hprob (δ m )|init>, where the unitary operators are the propagators of the respective Hamiltonians and |init> is the initial state. That is, U Hdrive (α) = exp(-iαH drive ), U Hexchange (β) = exp(-iβH exchange ), U HS (γ) = exp(-iγH S ) and U Hprob (δ) = exp(-iδH prob ) for all parameters α1 α m , β1···β m , γ1···γ m , δ1 δ m If the first and second parts of the components are relatively prime, then H drive and H exchange are commutative since they operate on disjoint sets of components. The parameters α1···α of these Hamiltonians m and β1···β m Instead of optimizing U Hdrive,Hexchange (α') = exp(-iα'(H drive +H exchange )) the parameter α1'···α of the associative unitary operator m '. Similarly, the parameters γ1...γ m and δ1 δ m Instead of optimizing U HS,Hprob (γ') = exp(-iγ'(H S +H prob ))=U Hfinal The parameter γ1'···γ of the coupled unitary operator of the form (γ') m It is also possible to optimize the parameters α1···α of the propagator of each Hamiltonian. m , β1···β m , γ1···γ m, δ1 δ m Optimizing |init> may result in a better approximation in QAOA, while optimizing the coupling parameters of the coupled propagators may require fewer optimizations. The initial state |init> is prepared to be compatible with one or more side conditions related to the computational problem in the sense described herein. For example, the initial state |init> may be prepared by optimizing the initial Hamiltonian H init can be the ground state of

[0071] With the formalism of the Hamiltonian, and in particular the exchange Hamiltonian, unitary operators applied to the sequence that evolves a quantum system from an initial state to a final state preserve compatibility with the side conditions of the computation problem. If the initial state is compatible with the side conditions, the final state is also compatible. Thus, the energy minimization is not done over all states, but is designed to be minimized over states that are compatible with the side conditions. Thus, if a solution is determined from the readout of the final state, the solution is a solution to the computation problem with the side conditions. If the ground state is compatible with the side conditions, but the final state can approximate, for example, an excited state of the final Hamiltonian, as in the example of Figure 4, the final state can approximate the ground state of the final Hamiltonian. The minimization is done by minimizing α1···α m , β1···β m , γ1···γ m , δ1 δ mThis can be done by a variational method in which parameters such as , , etc. are changed separately in different calculation rounds. By comparing the energies obtained in different calculation rounds, the sequence of unitary operators that resulted in the smaller energy can be selected, and the selected sequence can be used to further change the parameters by small perturbations. In this way, the next round of optimization can rely on the classical information of the previous round that is fed forward, and the energy always drops, or at least does not increase. Details of such a variational method are described in WO 2020 / 156680. Although gate-based quantum computation does not include time as a variable, a variational parameter plays the role of time, and the application of a sequence of unitary operators is referred to herein as "dynamics", and the term "propagator" is also used. It is said that the application of a sequence of unitary operators causes the quantum system to evolve according to the dynamics induced by the Hamiltonian.

[0072] A unitary operator can be implemented by the application of quantum gates acting locally on the individual components, or on nearest neighbor components. Hdrive and U Hprob is local and can be realized by single qubit rotation and phase rotation. HS , and more specifically the propagator of each constraint Hamiltonian, can be calculated using CNOT gates and single-qubit rotations (R z ) can be realized. For example, FIG. 5 shows a quantum system 100 with the same Hamiltonian as the example of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 shows a quantum system 100 with the unitary operator U HS The dashed line 292 indicates that the unitary operators corresponding to the constraint Hamiltonians acting on components 110, 120, and 140 are the CNOT gate between component 140 and component 110 (shown in dotted lines), the CNOT gate between component 110 and component 120 (shown in dotted lines), and the single-qubit rotation R on qubit 120. z(shown by the dashed rectangle), another CNOT gate following the path in the reverse direction between components 120 and 110, and another CNOT gate between components 110 and 140. Similarly, dash-dotted line 294 indicates that the unitary operator corresponding to the constraint Hamiltonian acting on components 140, 150, and 160 can be realized by four CNOT gates and a single-qubit rotation R z where dashed line 296 indicates that the unitary operators corresponding to the constraint Hamiltonians acting on components 140, 150, 120 and 130 are six CNOT gates and a single qubit rotation R z We show that the realization of the unitary operator UHexchange, and more specifically the propagator of the nearest-neighbor first-order hopping term of the exchange Hamiltonian, can be realized by a SWAP gate. The SWAP gate can be implemented by successively applying three CNOT gates: a first CNOT gate where qubit 1 is the control and qubit 2 is the target, a second CNOT gate where qubit 2 is the control and qubit 1 is the target, and a third CNOT gate where qubit 1 is the control and qubit 2 is the target. Figure 5 shows the realization of the unitary operator UH exchange Solid line 282 shows a unitary operator corresponding to the nearest first-order hopping terms acting on components 140 and 160, and solid line 284 shows a unitary operator corresponding to the nearest first-order hopping terms acting on components 110 and 140. These unitary operators are realized as described above.

[0073] In a method of quantum computing, the step of evolving a quantum system by interaction of its components may comprise determining a sequence of unitary operators. The unitary operators in the sequence may be taken from the following set of unitary operators: a unitary operator that is a function of the problem Hamiltonian, a unitary operator that is a function of the short-distance Hamiltonian, a unitary operator that is a function of the driving Hamiltonian, and a unitary operator that is a function of the exchange Hamiltonian. The function may be an exponential function. The unitary operator may be a propagator of the problem Hamiltonian, the short-distance Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian and the exchange Hamiltonian, or a propagator of the summand Hamiltonian forming said Hamiltonian. The function may include a variational parameter. Each unitary operator in the sequence of unitary operators may be associated with its own variational parameter.

[0074] The step of evolving the quantum system by the interaction of the components of the quantum system may include applying a sequence of unitary operators to the quantum system, in particular to an initial state of the quantum system. The initial state is compatible with one or more side conditions related to the computational problem and may be a ground state of an initial Hamiltonian as described herein. In applying the sequence of unitary operators, parameters of the unitary operators may be in a first configuration. The method may include measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system after applying the sequence of unitary operators to obtain a first readout. The method may include deriving a first energy from the first readout, the first energy being an energy of a final Hamiltonian of the quantum state resulting from applying the sequence of unitary operators to the initial state.

[0075] The method may include applying a second sequence of unitary operators to the quantum system, in particular to an initial state of the quantum system. When applying the second sequence of unitary operators, parameters of the unitary operators may be in a second configuration different from the first configuration. The method may include measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system after applying the second sequence of unitary operators to obtain a second readout. The method may include deriving a second energy from the second readout, which may be an energy of a final Hamiltonian of the quantum state resulting from applying the second sequence of unitary operators to the initial state. The method may include selecting the first or second sequence depending on the first and second readouts, in particular selecting the first sequence if the first energy is lower than the second energy and selecting the second sequence if the second energy is smaller than the first energy.

[0076] The method may include applying a third sequence of unitary operators to the quantum system, specifically to an initial state of the quantum system. In applying the third sequence of unitary operators, parameters of the unitary operators may be in a third configuration, where if the first sequence is selected, the third configuration is a variant of the first configuration, and where if the second sequence is selected, the third configuration is a variant of the second sequence. The method may include N operations, N≧2, where each of the N operations may include applying an i-th sequence of unitary operators with parameters in an i-th configuration, and may include measuring at least a portion of a component of the quantum system to obtain an i-th readout. The method may include deriving an i-th energy from the i-th readout, where the i-th energy may be the energy of a final Hamiltonian of a quantum state resulting from applying the i-th sequence of unitary operators to the initial state. The i-th configuration of parameters may be determined based on one or more readouts (or one or more energies) of a previous operation. The i-th configuration may be determined such that the energy of the quantum state corresponding to the selected configuration decreases (or at least does not increase).

[0077] The method may include applying a final sequence of unitary operators to the quantum system, in particular to the initial state, after the Nth operation, to evolve the quantum system to a final state. The final sequence may be selected such that a configuration of its parameters provides a minimum of the N energies determined in the Nth operation. The method may include measuring the quantum system, or at least a part thereof, when the quantum system is in the final state. The method may include calculating a solution to the computational problem with side conditions from a readout of the measurements.

[0078] Exemplary Implementation

[0079] As described herein, quantum systems and their components (such as qubits) are physical entities. A specific implementation of the quantum systems / components and interactions involved in a method of quantum computing is described below. However, the method may be performed with respect to other specific implementations of the physical entities and their interactions, and the exemplary implementation is not to be considered limiting.

[0080] The component may be a superconducting qubit, such as a transmon or a flux qubit. The superconducting qubit may include a primary and a secondary superconducting loop. A superconducting current propagating clockwise and counterclockwise, respectively, in the primary superconducting loop may form quantum basis states |1> and |0> of the superconducting qubit. Furthermore, a flux bias through the secondary superconducting loop may couple the quantum basis states |0> and |1>.

[0081] A simplex Hamiltonian, such as a problem Hamiltonian or initial Hamiltonian, can be realized by multiple magnetic fluxes interacting with a superconducting qubit. The magnetic fluxes or magnetic flux biases can extend through a primary superconducting loop and a secondary superconducting loop of the superconducting qubit. The parameters of the problem Hamiltonian can be adjusted by adjusting the multiple magnetic fluxes or magnetic flux biases. Alternatively, the simplex Hamiltonian can be realized by multiple charges interacting with multiple superconducting qubits. The parameters of the problem Hamiltonian can be adjusted by adjusting multiple charge bias fields.

[0082] The exchange interaction between transmon superconducting qubits to realize the exchange Hamiltonian can be implemented via coupling with an intermediate capacitance between two Cooper pair box qubits. In transmons, the qubits are encoded in their charge bases, and the effective exchange interaction is induced by the capacitive coupling.

[0083] To realize the driving Hamiltonian, the flux bias through the first superconducting loop of the superconducting qubit can be set so that the ground states |0> and |1> have the same energy, i.e., the energy difference between these ground states is zero. Furthermore, the flux bias through the second superconducting loop can couple the ground states |0> and |1>. As a result, hσ x (k) and hence the summand Hamiltonian of the driving Hamiltonian of the form drive =hΣ k σ x (k) A driving Hamiltonian of the form:

[0084] The constraint Hamiltonian as the summand Hamiltonian of the short-distance Hamiltonian can be realized using multiple ancillary qubits, which can be placed within, for example at the center of, each (first) cell of the mesh ("plaquette"). km σ z (k) σ z (m) The interaction between qubits of the form can be realized by a coupling unit, for example an inductive coupling unit. The coupling unit includes a superconducting quantum interference device. Applying a tunable flux bias to the superconducting quantum interference device results in a factor c km can be adjusted. The constraint Hamiltonian of the short-distance Hamiltonian is C(σ z (1) +σ z (2) +σ z (3) +σ z (4) -2σ z (p) -1) 2 This can be achieved by using the form σ z (k) σ z (m) and simplex σ z (l) Only pairwise interactions of terms are included, where σz (p) represents an ancillary qubit. In this way, it is possible to realize a short-distance Hamiltonian as a sum of constraint Hamiltonians. For embodiments including an ancillary qubit, hΣ p σ z (p) is added to the initial Hamiltonian. Alternatively, the plaquette Hamiltonian can be realised without ancillary qubits, for example by using a three-island superconducting device as a transmon qubit. By integrating two additional superconducting quantum interference devices in the coupling unit and capacitively coupling the four qubits of the (first) cell of the mesh (the "plaquette") to a coplanar resonator, we obtain -Cσ z (1) σ z (2) σ z (3) σ z (4) It is possible to realize a constraint Hamiltonian of the form: The coupling coefficient C can be tuned by a time-dependent flux bias via two additional superconducting quantum interference devices.

[0085] In the case of a superconducting charge qubit or a superconducting flux qubit, the CNOT operation, and therefore also the SWAP operation, can be realized with an additional capacitive element coupled to the two qubits. The strength of the interaction is adjusted by a magnetic or electric flux applied to the additional element. Alternatively, the two qubits are coupled to the two modes of a Josephson ring modulator. The simplicial unitary operator exp(itσ x ) or exp(itσ z ) can be realized using controlled external magnetic or electric flux, which allows realizing unitary operators / propagators of the problem Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian, the short-range Hamiltonian and the (summand Hamiltonian of) the exchange Hamiltonian.

[0086] The qubit states |0> and |1> of a superconducting qubit can be measured with high fidelity using a measurement device that includes multiple superconducting quantum interference devices, in particular N hysteretic DC superconducting quantum interference devices and a latch of N RF superconducting quantum interference devices controlled by bias lines, where the number of bias lines varies as √N.

[0087] Alternatively, a quantum system may be realized using a system of trapped ions as qubits, where the quantum basis states |0> and |1> of the qubits are formed by two levels of a Zeeman or hyperfine manifold, or across a forbidden optical transition of a positively charged ion, such as an alkaline earth or alkaline earth ion, such as Ca40+.

[0088] Individual ions can be addressed by spatial separation or energy separation, where spatial separation includes the use of laser beams transmitted and / or reflected from acousto-optic deflectors, acousto-optic modulators, micromirror devices, etc. Energy separation includes the use of magnetic field gradients to change the internal transition frequency, thereby allowing selection by energy difference, i.e. detuning the applied magnetic field.

[0089] Simplex Hamiltonians, such as the problem Hamiltonian and the drive Hamiltonian, can be realized by laser fields or microwaves resonant or non-resonant with the internal transitions, or by spatial magnetic field differences.

[0090] The exchange interaction between qubits in an ion-based quantum computer to realize the exchange Hamiltonian can be implemented by coupling each qubit, encoded in two different electronic orbitals (e.g., hyperfine states) of the ion, to a common vibrational mode.

[0091] The interaction between the two ions to realize the short-range Hamiltonian can be transferred via a phonon bus. For this purpose, lasers or microwaves detuned with respect to the blue and / or red band transitions of the phonons can be used. The strength of the interaction can be adjusted by the intensity and detuning of the laser. A direct interaction via Rydberg excitation can also be used.

[0092] Ions can be initialized by optical pumping using a laser that deterministically moves the ion into one of two quantum basis states, a process that reduces entropy and can therefore be viewed as cooling the ion's internal state.

[0093] The CNOT, and therefore also the SWAP, operation between trapped ions can be realized via a phonon bath, and the strength of the interaction can be tuned by frequency modulation of the phonon modes. x ) or exp(itσ z ) can be realized by controlled magnetic dipole transitions or controlled Raman transitions. In this way, unitary operators / propagators of the problem Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian (summand Hamiltonians of the) can be realized.

[0094] Measurements of ion-based quantum systems can be performed by fluorescence spectroscopy, where ions undergo a short-lived transition when they are in one of two spin states. As a result, ions in the driven state emit many photons, while other ions remain dark. The emitted photons can be recorded by a commercially available CCD camera. Measurements in any direction on the Bloch sphere are performed by appropriate single-qubit pulses prior to fluorescence spectroscopy.

[0095] As yet another alternative, the quantum system may be realized using ultracold atoms, for example ultracold neutral alkali atoms, trapped in an optical lattice or large spacing lattice from a laser field. The atoms can be evolved towards a ground state using laser cooling. The quantum ground state of the qubit can be formed by the ground state and higher Rydberg states of the atoms. The qubit can be addressed by laser light.

[0096] The simplex Hamiltonians, such as the problem Hamiltonian and the drive Hamiltonian, are realized by varying the detuning of the electronic transition frequency with respect to the laser frequency.

[0097] The exchange interaction between qubits realized with neutral atoms is implemented by coupling them to a common collective state. The exchange interaction between atoms can be induced when the atoms are excited to a Rydberg state, resulting in a dipole-dipole interaction between two such Rydberg atoms. The hopping term, and thus the exchange Hamiltonian, can be implemented in this way.

[0098] The interactions between the qubits to realize the constraint Hamiltonian can be controlled by detuning the lasers pumping the d atoms. In this case, the Hamiltonian is a d-body Hamiltonian. The constraint Hamiltonian, or short-range Hamiltonian, can be implemented from d-body interactions or from ancillary qubits with two-body interactions.

[0099] The initial state can be prepared by exciting an atom in its ground state to a Rydberg state with a large detuning.

[0100] CNOT operations, and therefore SWAP operations, between Rydberg atoms can be performed by driving the atomic transitions with a laser with detuning to highly excited states. x ) or exp(itσ z) can be implemented with detuned laser driving of the Rydberg transition. Therefore, it is possible to implement unitary operators / propagators of the problem Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian and the short-distance Hamiltonian (the summand Hamiltonian of the Hamiltonian).

[0101] The qubit can be measured by performing selective sweeps of the ground state atoms and fluorescence imaging with single-site resolution.

[0102] As yet another alternative, the quantum system may be realized using quantum dots. Quantum dot qubits may be fabricated from GaAs / AlGaAs heterostructures. The qubits are encoded with spin states, which may be prepared by adiabatically tuning the potential from a single well to a double well potential.

[0103] The simplex Hamiltonians, such as the problem Hamiltonian and the driving Hamiltonian, can be realized using electric fields. Initially, each qubit is prepared in either the |0> or |1> state. This is done by adiabatically switching from a single well to a double well using a strong additional magnetic field.

[0104] The exchange interaction is mediated through spin-orbit coupling, which is tuned by an additional magnetic field.

[0105] The interaction between the two qubits can be controlled by electric field gradients and magnetic fields. The constraint Hamiltonian can be realized by using additional ancillary qubits and interactions realized with magnetic fields and pulse sequences acting on all pairs of the (first) cells of the mesh ("plaquette") containing the ancillary qubits. In this way, the short-range Hamiltonian as a sum of constraint Hamiltonians can be implemented.

[0106] The CNOT operation between quantum dots, and therefore the SWAP operation, can be realized by the electric or magnetic field gradient. x ) or exp(itσz ) can be realized using electric pulse sequences and magnetic fields. Hence, unitary operators / propagators of the problem Hamiltonian, the drive Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian and the short-range Hamiltonian (summand Hamiltonians of the) can be implemented.

[0107] The quantum dot qubits can be read out from a pulse sequence by rapid adiabatic passage.

[0108] As yet another alternative, quantum systems may be realized using impurities in solid crystals, such as NV centers, which are point defects in diamond crystals. Other impurities, such as color centers associated with chromium impurities, rare earth ions in solid crystals, or defect centers in silicon carbide, may be used. The NV center has two unpaired electrons and provides a ground state of spin 1. This allows the identification of two sharp defect levels with long lifetimes that could possibly be used in combination with the surrounding nuclear spins to realize a qubit.

[0109] Using magnetic resonance via the application of microwave pulses, qubit states can be coherently manipulated on nanosecond timescales. Selective single-qubit manipulation can also be achieved conditional on the state of nearby nuclear spins.

[0110] The exchange interaction between qubits realized in crystal defects (i.e., NV centers and silicon quantum computers) can be mediated through the dipole-dipole interaction of the defects. Qubits are encoded into the spin of free electrons by doping defects into the crystal. The exchange interaction between qubits to realize the exchange Hamiltonian can be induced by controlling the dipole-dipole interaction formed by the electrons and the crystal.

[0111] The interaction between NV centres to realise the short-range Hamiltonian can be transferred by coupling the NV centres to a light field.

[0112] In the case of quantum systems realized with NV centers, the NV centers can be addressed individually by using standard optical confocal microscopy techniques. Initialization and measurements can be performed by non-resonant or resonant optical excitation.

[0113] Single qubit operations are implemented by coupling nuclear spin to electron spin and microwave driving the electron spin. The exchange interaction is mediated by magnetic dipole-dipole interactions of the spin electrons. Qubits can be encoded in the nuclear spin of the NV center. The exchange interaction is implemented by coupling the nuclear spin state to the electron spin state via hyperfine coupling. The electron spins interact via dipole-dipole interactions. After interaction between the electronic states, the spins couple with the nuclear spins. This implements an effective interaction between long-lived nuclear spins. SWAP operations are implemented by applying a time-specific exchange Hamiltonian. CNOT gates are implemented by coupling two nuclear spins to two electron spins and microwave driving the electron spins.

[0114] Quantum Computation Control Layout

[0115] Herein, a method for performing quantum computations capable of providing a solution to a computational problem subject to one or more side conditions is described. It is known that such a computational problem can be mapped to a spin model using the spin model Hamiltonian shown above in Equation (2). The side conditions of the computational problem may be mapped to the side conditions of the spin model under the same mapping (and may be in some standard form). Then, there may be r side conditions (r=1,2,3,4,...) having the form shown above in Equation (10). The method may encode the spin model (or the computational problem directly) into a simplex problem Hamiltonian acting on the components of the quantum system. Here, each simplex summand Hamiltonian of the problem Hamiltonian may correspond to one of the summands (interaction terms) in the spin model. The r side conditions of the spin model may be mapped to the r side conditions of the quantum system by the same mapping. The summand Hamiltonian of the constraint Hamiltonian, i.e., the short-range Hamiltonian, ensures consistency with the spin model by reducing the degrees of freedom of the quantum system that the quantum system has beyond those of the spin model.

[0116] The components of the quantum system may be divided into a first portion and a second portion in the methods described herein. The first portion of components includes components that are affected by the r side conditions of the quantum system, and the second portion of components includes components that are not affected by the r side conditions of the quantum system. The Hamiltonian dynamics is governed by a Hamiltonian that includes a problem Hamiltonian that acts on all components participating in the quantum computation, whether in the form of real-time analog quantum computation (such as adiabatic quantum computing) or in the form of digital quantum computing through the application of quantum gates, and a short-range Hamiltonian that acts on the components of both the first and second portions. At least one constraint Hamiltonian may act on the components of both the first and second portions as an augend Hamiltonian of the short-range Hamiltonian. In contrast, the driving Hamiltonian acts only on the components of the second portion, and the exchange Hamiltonian acts only on the components of the first portion. As described herein, solutions to computational problems with side conditions are computable by quantum computation using this design of Hamiltonians acting on components of the first part, the second part, or both the first and second parts, where the dynamics induced by these Hamiltonians remain compatible with the r side conditions (i.e., when a quantum system starts with an initial state compatible with the r side conditions, it remains in a quantum state compatible with the r side conditions), where the constraint Hamiltonians of the short-range Hamiltonian are nonlocal (i.e., they act on multiple components) and the hopping terms of the exchange Hamiltonian are nonlocal.

[0117] PCT / EP2020 / 069416 describes a quantum operation control layout, as well as methods and systems for determining and using same. The quantum operation control layout can be loaded into a quantum processing unit to control the quantum operations of a quantum computation. The quantum operation control layout can be viewed as a control program for a quantum computation in a method of performing a quantum computation. The quantum operation control layout can indicate layout vertices that components of a quantum system occupy during a quantum computation. The quantum operation control layout further indicates a set of layout vertices that indicate interactions (non-local interactions) that are performed between layout vertices of each set of layout vertices during a quantum computation. In particular, each set of layout vertices can cause a quantum processing unit to apply a constraint Hamiltonian to components that correspond to the layout vertices of that set of layout vertices. Since local interactions occur at individual components, they are automatically indicated by the layout vertices, especially since PCT / EP2020 / 069416 only considers one simplex Hamiltonian, i.e., the problem Hamiltonian.

[0118] The quantum arithmetic control layout can be determined by a mesh mapping, where the spins of the spin model to which the computation problem is mapped may be abstracted to nodes of a hypergraph, and the interactions within the spin model may be abstracted to hyperedges of that hypergraph. The mesh mapping is constructed to ensure consistency between the degrees of freedom of the spin model and the degrees of freedom of the quantum system whose components are placed along the layout vertices of the quantum arithmetic control layout. For this purpose, a constraint subset of a set of generalized cycles of the hypergraph (or the expanded hypergraph) is determined. The generalized cycles of the constraint subset are mapped to a set of layout vertices. The layout vertices of each set of layout vertices are within one cell of the mesh. This mapping provides said consistency between the degrees of freedom of the spin model and the degrees of freedom of the quantum system. Furthermore, as already described herein, the cells of the mesh describe the closeness relations between the vertices of the mesh. In this way, each constraint Hamiltonian acting on a component corresponding to a layout vertex of the set of layout vertices is realizable by a (short-range) interaction possible during quantum computation. The concepts of mesh, vertex, cell, number of vertices in a cell, maximum number of vertices, node, hyperedge, hypergraph, extended hypergraph, generalized cycle (both regular and irregular), constrained subset of generalized cycle, layout vertex, and layout vertex set shall be understood in the same way as in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, unless modified herein.

[0119] Extensions of quantum arithmetic control layouts and methods for determining quantum arithmetic control layouts are provided to handle different Hamiltonians and dynamics described herein. The hopping terms of the exchange Hamiltonian imply non-local interactions, as do the constraint Hamiltonians whose form does not change. To allow the exchange Hamiltonian to be realized during quantum computation, some closeness relationship can be specified between the components on which the exchange Hamiltonian or its summand Hamiltonians act, and this closeness relationship may deviate from the closeness relationship specified in relation to the constraint Hamiltonian.

[0120] A mesh that abstractly describes where components may be located during a quantum computation and cells that indicate what quantum interactions are possible between the components during the quantum computation includes a first cell and a second cell. The first cell corresponds to the aforementioned cell and indicates that a first quantum interaction is possible during the quantum computation, in particular a quantum interaction according to a constraint Hamiltonian of the short-range Hamiltonian. The second cell indicates that a second quantum interaction is possible during the quantum computation, in particular a quantum interaction according to a hopping term of the exchange Hamiltonian. The first cell may be of a first type. The second cell may be of a second type. The first type of cell may be different from the second type of cell. In this way, potentially different closeness relations for realizing different non-local interactions can be described. The type of the first and second cells, the shape and / or size of the first cell, and the shape and / or size of the second cell may depend on the concrete quantum system on which the quantum computation is performed. Thus, the mesh may include information about the physical properties of the quantum system. The characteristics relating to the cells of the mesh in PCT / EP2020 / 069416 are transferred to the characteristics of the first cell of the mesh.

[0121] As described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, the spins and interaction terms of the spin model onto which a computational problem can be mapped are identifiable as nodes and hyperedges of a hypergraph, respectively. The r subconditions of the spin model can be expressed as r fixed hypergraph relations. A hypergraph relation should be understood as a set of hypergraphs. Each fixed hypergraph relation contains hyperedges representing the interaction terms of the spin model that are affected by the subcondition, with the term "fixed" referring to the connection with the subcondition. For example, the subcondition σ z (1) σ z (2) +σ z (2) σ z (3) +σ z (3) σ z (4)Consider again the basic example of a spin model with θ = 1:

number

[0122] The hyperedges of the fixed hypergraph relations are mapped to the vertices of the mesh, and each hyperedge of the fixed hypergraph relations is mapped to one of the second cells of the mesh. The hyperedges of the hypergraph (or the expanded hypergraph described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416) are mapped to the vertices of the mesh. Each generalized cycle of the constraint subset of the set of generalized cycles is composed of a hyperedge that is mapped to one of the first cells of the mesh. Thus, the mesh mapping respects both the fixed hyperedge relations imposed by the side conditions and the generalized cycles of the constraint subset that make the quantum system consistent with the spin model. The vertices to which the hyperedges are mapped become layout vertices of the quantum arithmetic control layout. The first layout vertex set and the second layout vertex set can be included in a quantum arithmetic control layout represented by some formatted data. Each first layout vertex set is composed of layout vertices in one of the first cells of the mesh, and these layout vertices correspond to the generalized cycles of the constraint subset of the generalized cycles. Each second set of layout vertices is made up of layout vertices in one of the second cells of the mesh, which layout vertices correspond to fixed hyperedge relations of the set of one or more fixed hyperedge relations.

[0123] 6 shows a graphical representation of an exemplary quantum arithmetic control layout continuing the basic example described herein. The quantum arithmetic control layout 300 includes a set of layout vertices {12,13,14,23,24,34}, denoted by reference numbers 310, 320, 330, 340, 350, and 360. The quantum arithmetic control layout includes a first set of layout vertices {12,13,23}, {13,14,23,24}, {23,24,34}, which correspond to a generalized cycle of the constraint subset (here a regular generalized cycle such as {{1,2},{1,3},{2,3}}, where each node 1, 2, 3 included as an element in a hyperedge appears an even number of times as an element in all three connected hyperedges). The first set of layout vertices is shown in solid lines and given reference numbers 392, 394, and 396. The layout vertices of each first layout vertex set are contained within a first cell of the mesh (e.g., a rectangular first cell, not shown). The quantum computation control layout includes a second layout vertex set {12, 23, 34} that corresponds to a fixed hyperedge relationship associated with a sub-condition of the spin model / computation problem. The second layout vertex set is indicated by a dashed line and given the reference number 380. The layout vertices of the second layout vertex set are contained within one of the second cells of the mesh (not shown). In this example, the second cell is of a different type than the first cell.

[0124] The quantum operation control layout 300 shown in FIG. 6, when loaded into a quantum processing unit of a quantum computing device, can cause the quantum processing unit to perform an analog quantum computation as shown in FIG. 1. For example, for analog quantum computation, the quantum operation control layout 300 can cause the quantum processing unit to determine which layout vertices are included therein from the second layout vertex set 380, in this case layout vertices 310, 340, and 360. The components 110, 140, and 160 located on the layout vertices 310, 340, and 360 of the second layout vertex set can form a first portion of the components and can be prepared in a quantum state such that the initial state is compatible with the side condition. The exchange Hamiltonian can act on these components, such as the first order hopping terms 182 and 184 of the exchange Hamiltonian. The quantum processing unit can derive the layout vertex set of layout vertices 320, 330, and 330 by determining all the layout vertices and subtracting the layout vertices included in the second layout vertex set 380. Components 120, 130, and 150 located at layout vertices 320, 330, and 350 may form a second portion of components, and the driving Hamiltonian may act on these components. Additionally, constraint Hamiltonians 192, 194, and 196 corresponding to a first set of layout vertices 392, 394, and 396 may be applied by the quantum processing unit as an action of the short-range Hamiltonian. The quantum processing unit may apply the summand Hamiltonian of the problem Hamiltonian to all components 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, and 160 located at layout vertices 310, 320, 330, 340, 350, and 360 of the quantum arithmetic control layout 300. Similarly, the quantum arithmetic control layout may enable the quantum processing unit to perform digital quantum computations, as shown in FIG. 5.

[0125] FIG. 7 illustrates a system 400 for solving a computational problem 412 with side conditions using quantum computation performed by a quantum computing system 500. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7, the computational problem 412 is stored in a first classical computing system 410. A classical computing system may refer to a computing system that operates on bits or other classical units of information. A classical computing system may include a central processing unit (CPU) for processing information represented by bits and / or a memory for storing information represented by bits. A classical computing system may include one or more conventional computers, such as personal computers (PCs), and / or a network of conventional computers. The first classical computing system 410 transmits 401 the computational problem 412 to a second classical computing system 420. It should be understood that transmitting, receiving, encoding, decoding, storing, loading, and other conventional tasks are performed on or with data representing the computational problem, hypergraph, quantum computation control layout, etc., or on or with data from which these entities are derived. For simplicity, the description omits reference to such data and speaks of "submitting a computation problem," "encoding a hypergraph," "storing quantum computation control layouts," etc.

[0126] The second classical computing system 420 encodes (422) the computation problem 412 into a hypergraph and associated fixed hyperedge relations. The hypergraph is associated with a corresponding spin model, and the fixed hyperedge relations are associated with the subconditions of the spin model, so that a solution that finds a minimum energy state compatible with the subconditions of the spin model can be returned to the solution of the computation problem. In FIG. 7, the hypergraph 203 is exemplarily shown as the hypergraph generated by the second classical computing system 420, and one fixed hyperedge relation is shown diagrammatically in bold. The second computing system 420 transmits (402) the hypergraph to a system 650 for determining a quantum operation control layout for quantum computing on a quantum system. The system 650 can be a third classical computing system, such as a conventional computer or a network of conventional computers, a computer cluster or a network of computer clusters, or a cloud computing environment. The system 650 can be configured to perform the method of determining a quantum operation control layout for quantum computing described herein. In FIG. 7, a system 650 performs the computer-implemented method 600 , and in the illustrated example, the system 650 is used to determine a quantum operation control layout 300 from a hypergraph 203 .

[0127] The computer-implemented method 600 is shown generally in FIG. 8 and includes a step 610 of providing hyperedges of a hypergraph and at least one fixed hypergraph relation, such as the hypergraph 203 with one fixed hypergraph relation. This may include receiving the hypergraph and the fixed hypergraph relation via a network component and / or loading the hypergraph and the fixed hypergraph relation from a memory. The method 600 includes a step 620 of determining, by a processor of the system 650, a set of generalized cycles from the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph, taking into account the characteristics of the mesh, in particular the maximum number of vertices of the first cell of the mesh, as described herein. The method 600 includes a step 630 of determining, by a processor of the system 650, a mesh mapping that maps the hyperedges of the hypergraph (or the expanded hypergraph) to the vertices of the mesh. The mesh mapping is done as described herein such that each generalized cycle of the constrained subset of the set of generalized cycles is composed of a hyperedge mapped to one of the first cells of the mesh (632), and each fixed hyperedge relationship of the set of one or more fixed hyperedge relationships is composed of a hyperedge mapped to one of the second cells of the mesh (634). The determination of the generalized cycles 620 may precede the determination of the mesh mapping 630, but the determination of the generalized cycles 620 and the determination of the mesh mapping 630 are shown side-by-side in FIG. 8 because they may be intertwined, particularly with respect to the mapping of the generalized cycles 632. The method 600 includes generating 640 a quantum arithmetic control layout, such as the quantum arithmetic control layout 300, which is performed by a processor of the system 650.The quantum arithmetic control layout includes layout vertices 310, 320, 330, 340, 350, 360 of the mesh and first layout vertex sets 392, 394, 396, each of which is comprised of layout vertices in one of the first cells of the mesh that correspond to a generalized cycle of the constrained subset of the generalized cycle determined by decision 620. The quantum arithmetic control layout includes a second layout vertex set, here one second layout vertex set 380 that corresponds to a fixed hyperedge relationship of the hypergraph 203. In this specification, a "quantum arithmetic control layout including layout vertices" or the like should be understood as a quantum arithmetic control layout including data representing the layout vertices or the like, although for simplicity, references to the data and suitable data structures are omitted.

[0128] The quantum operation control layout determined by system 650 may be stored in a memory of system 650. A quantum operation control layout, such as quantum operation control layout 300 shown in Figures 6 and 7, is transmitted (403) to second classical computing system 420. Second classical computing system 420 transmits (404) the quantum operation control layout to quantum computing system 500. Thus, in Figure 7, the quantum computing system is shown receiving quantum operation control layout 300.

[0129] The quantum operation control layout 300 can control quantum computations on the quantum computing system 500. A quantum processing unit (QPU) 520 loads (501) the quantum operation control layout 300 from an input 510 and controls (502) local operations on the qubits of the quantum system 530 and interactions between the qubits specified by the quantum operation control layout 300. Qubits are physical two-level quantum systems, which may be realized in certain forms described herein. In FIG. 7, the qubits are arranged in a lattice, here a square lattice. Qubits such as qubit 532 belonging to a first portion of the components (qubits) of the quantum system 530 are shown as black dots surrounded by black circles. Qubits such as qubit 534 belonging to a second portion of the components (qubits) of the quantum system 530 are shown as black dots. Other parts of the lattice, such as part 536, are shown as circles, and these other parts may be empty or occupied by qubits that do not participate in the quantum computation. As QPU 520 evolves quantum system 530 from an initial state to a final state under the control of quantum computing control layout 300, the qubits of quantum system 530, or a portion thereof, are measured (503) by measurement unit 540. Such measurements are also referred to as readout.

[0130] Quantum computing system 500 may perform a method 700 of performing a quantum computation on quantum system 530, as shown generally in FIG. 9. The quantum computation is performed on the qubits of quantum system 530. Method 700 includes a step 710 of providing a quantum computation control layout, which may include loading the quantum computation control layout for execution of control instructions contained therein by QPU 520. Method 700 includes a step 720 of providing the qubits of the quantum system in a spatial arrangement, e.g., a two-dimensional lattice, such that there is a qubit for every layout vertex of the mesh, and for each first set of layout vertices from a first set of layout vertices, a first quantum interaction (interaction determined by a short-range Hamiltonian) is possible between components corresponding to the layout vertices of that first set of layout vertices, and for each second set of layout vertices from a second set of layout vertices, a second quantum interaction (interaction determined by an exchange Hamiltonian) is possible between components corresponding to the layout vertices of that second set of layout vertices. Providing qubits in a spatial arrangement 720 may include or consist of addressing appropriate qubits of a set of qubits fixedly arranged at spatial locations of, for example, a two-dimensional lattice. Method 700 includes, for each layout vertex associated with a nonzero weight, applying a local field (a local operation determined by a problem Hamiltonian) to the qubits corresponding to that layout vertex. Method 700 may include, for each layout vertex not included in a second set of layout vertices, applying a local field (a local operation determined by a driving Hamiltonian) to the qubits corresponding to that layout vertex 735. The qubits to which the local field is applied form a first portion of the components (qubits) of the quantum system. Method 700 includes, for each first set of layout vertices, performing a first quantum interaction (a non-local operation determined by a short-range Hamiltonian) between qubits corresponding to layout vertices of the first set of layout vertices.Method 700 includes, for each second set of layout vertices, performing 745 second quantum interactions (nonlocal operations determined by the exchange Hamiltonian) between qubits corresponding to the layout vertices of the second set of layout vertices. Applying 730, 735 local fields and performing 740, 745 quantum interactions may be performed by QPU 520 in a particular manner and order depending on the type of steps (e.g., adiabatic driving, antiadiabatic driving, gate-based quantum interactions, etc.) that drive the quantum system from an initial state to a final state. Method 700 includes measuring 750 some or all of the qubits of the quantum system using measurement unit 540. The result of measurement 750 is the result of a quantum computation.

[0131] The measurement result of the quantum computation is sent to the second classical computation system 420 (405). The second classical computation system 420 includes a verification unit 424 that receives the measurement result and checks whether the measurement result includes a solution to a problem of finding a minimum energy state of the spin model compatible with the side condition associated with the hypergraph 203 (spin model problem) (406). If yes, the verification unit 424 calculates a solution to the computation problem with side conditions 412 from the solution of the spin model problem and sends the solution to the computation problem with side conditions 412 to the first classical computation system 410 (408). The first classical computation system receives the solution to the computation problem with side conditions. The solution to the computation problem with side conditions is indicated by reference numeral 414 in FIG. 7. If the measurement result does not include a solution to the spin model problem, the second classical computation system 420 instructs the quantum processing system 500 to repeat the quantum computation (407). The quantum computation may be repeated until a solution to the spin model problem, and thus ultimately to the computational problem 412 with side conditions, is found, or may be repeated a predetermined finite number of times, and if no solution is found within the predetermined finite number of iterations, the best approximate solution is sent to the first classical computation system.

[0132] The embodiment shown in FIG. 7 includes an embodiment of a system 400 for determining a solution to a computation problem, an embodiment of a system 650 for determining a quantum operation control layout for quantum computation on a quantum system, and an embodiment of a quantum computing system 500 for performing quantum computation on a quantum system. In particular, functions and services are shown to be distributed in a particular manner under the control of a quantum operation control layout. This is merely an example, and any of the functions of the classical computing systems 410, 420 and / or the system 650 for determining a quantum operation control layout may be integrated into one of the other systems, respectively, or may be integrated into the quantum computing system 500. The functions of the classical computing systems 410, 420, the system 650, and possibly also the input unit 510 may be considered as functions of an encoder. The encoder may be configured to encode the computation problem into a problem Hamiltonian of a component of the quantum system. The encoder may be configured to map one or more side conditions related to the computation problem into an exchange Hamiltonian of a first portion of the components of the quantum system. The encoder may be configured to perform any of the other functions of classical computation systems 410, 420, system 650, and some or all of the input section 510, where system 650 and the quantum computation control layout are optional. The encoder may use the quantum computation control layout or may directly code the computation problem and sub-conditions to determine the appropriate arrangement of components, including forming the first and second portions of components.

[0133] According to some embodiments, a method for determining a quantum operation control layout for a quantum computation on a quantum system is provided. The method may be a computer-implemented method and may be implemented on a classical computer, a computer network, or a cloud-based computing system. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system arranged along a mesh having vertices, a first cell, and a second cell. The vertices of the mesh represent possible locations of the components of the quantum system. Each cell of the first cell indicates that a first quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within that cell is possible during the quantum computation. Each cell of the second cell indicates that a second quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within that cell is possible during the quantum computation. The first quantum interaction may correspond to the action of a constraint Hamiltonian, as described herein. The second quantum interaction may correspond to the action of an augend Hamiltonian (such as a first order hopping term or a summation thereof) of an exchange Hamiltonian, as described herein.

[0134] The method includes providing a dataset including data representing hyperedges of a hypergraph and data representing a set of one or more fixed hyperedge relations. The fixed hyperedge relations include the set of hyperedges of the hypergraph. The fixed hyperedge relations may include at least two sets of hyperedges of the hypergraph. The method includes determining a set of generalized cycles, the generalized cycles including hyperedges of the hypergraph or including hyperedges of an expanded hypergraph, the expanded hypergraph including at least the hyperedges of the hypergraph and additional hyperedges, where a maximum length of the generalized cycles of the set of generalized cycles does not exceed a maximum number of vertices of a first cell of the mesh. The method includes determining a mesh mapping that maps the data representing the hypergraph or the hyperedges of the expanded hypergraph to vertices of the mesh, where each generalized cycle of a constrained subset of the set of generalized cycles consists of a hyperedge mapped to a cell of a first cell of the mesh, and each fixed hyperedge relation of the set of one or more fixed hyperedge relations consists of a hyperedge mapped to a cell of a second cell of the mesh.

[0135] The method includes generating a quantum arithmetic control layout, the quantum arithmetic control layout including data indicative of layout vertices of a mesh, each layout vertex corresponding to a hyperedge mapped according to a mesh mapping, and including data indicative of a first set of layout vertices, each first set of layout vertices consisting of layout vertices in cells of a first cell of the mesh corresponding to a generalized cycle of a constraint subset of the generalized cycle, and each layout vertex including data indicative of one or more second sets of layout vertices, each second set of layout vertices consisting of layout vertices in cells of a second cell of the mesh corresponding to a fixed hyperedge relationship of a set of one or more fixed hyperedge relationships, wherein determining the mesh mapping may include considering each fixed hyperedge relationship in preference to the generalized cycle when mapping data representing hyperedges of the hypergraph or expanded hypergraph to vertices of the mesh.

[0136] The mesh may be two-dimensional. A length of a generalized cycle of the set of generalized cycles may range from 2 (or 3) to or equal to the maximum number of vertices of a cell of the mesh. The number of nodes of the hypergraph may be N, the number of hyperedges of the hypergraph may be K, and the cardinality of the constraint subset may be at least KN. The number of hyperedges of the hypergraph, K, may be less than N(N-1) / 2. The hyperedges of the hypergraph may be associated with weights. The quantum arithmetic control layout may include data associating layout vertices with weights of hyperedges of the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph that are mapped to the layout vertices by the mesh mapping. Additional hyperedges of the expanded hypergraph that are not included in the hypergraph may be assigned a weight of zero. The quantum arithmetic control layout may be a transparent quantum arithmetic control layout. A union of the generalized cycles of the constraint subsets of the generalized cycles may include all hyperedges of the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph. A generalized cycle of the constraint subsets of the generalized cycles may connect all hyperedges of the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph. The cardinality of at least one hyperedge of the hypergraph may be odd. The cardinality of at least one hyperedge of the hypergraph may be at least three. The constraint subset may include at least one of regular and irregular generalized cycles. The mesh mapping may be constructed by mapping a hyperedge of a first fixed hyperedge relationship to one vertex of a second cell of the mesh. The construction may include mapping a hyperedge of a second fixed hyperedge relationship to another vertex of the second cell of the mesh. The construction may include doing the same for the third, fourth, etc. fixed hyperedge relationships, up to the r-th fixed hyperedge relationship. The mesh mapping may further be constructed by mapping a hyperedge of a first generalized cycle of the set of generalized cycles to vertices of cells of the mesh.The construction may include mapping hyperedges of a second generalized cycle of the set of generalized cycles to vertices of adjacent cells of the mesh. The first generalized cycle and the second generalized cycle may have at least one hyperedge in common. The at least one hyperedge is mapped onto at least one corresponding vertex of the mesh. This process of mapping hyperedges of generalized cycles of the set of generalized cycles may be repeated until the mapped generalized cycles form a constraint subset. The method may include any of the features described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, particularly in referenced paragraphs

[0101] to

[0128] , possibly with modifications as described herein.

[0137] According to a further embodiment, a quantum computing control layout is provided for controlling a quantum computation on a quantum system. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system arranged along a mesh. The mesh has vertices, a first cell and a second cell. The vertices of the mesh represent possible locations of the components of the quantum system. Each cell of the first cell of the mesh indicates that a first quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within that cell is possible during the quantum computation. Each cell of the second cell of the mesh indicates that a second quantum interaction between the components of the quantum system arranged within that cell is possible during the quantum computation. The first quantum interaction may be different from the second quantum interaction. The first quantum interaction may correspond to an action of a constraint Hamiltonian, as described herein. The second quantum interaction may correspond to an action of an augend Hamiltonian of an exchange Hamiltonian, such as a first order hopping term or a summation thereof, as described herein. The quantum computation control layout includes data indicative of layout vertices of a mesh, data indicative of a first layout vertex set, each first layout vertex set consisting of layout vertices in a first cell of the mesh, and data indicative of one or more second layout vertex sets, each second layout vertex set consisting of layout vertices in a second cell of the mesh.

[0138] The quantum arithmetic control layout may include data representing weights associated with the layout vertices. The quantum arithmetic control layout may include, for each second layout vertex set, data representing coefficients associated with that second layout vertex set. The layout vertices may correspond to hyperedges of a hypergraph or an expanded hypergraph mapped to the layout vertices according to a mesh mapping, in which the layout vertices of each first layout vertex set correspond to hyperedges that form a generalized cycle of the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph, and the layout vertices of each second layout vertex set may correspond to fixed hyperedge relationships. The fixed hyperedge relationships may include a set of hyperedges of the hypergraph. The weights associated with the layout vertices may correspond to weights of the hypergraph or the expanded hypergraph mapped to the layout vertices by the mesh mapping. For each second layout vertex set, the coefficients associated with the second layout vertex set may correspond to coefficients of the fixed hyperedge relationships of a set of one or more hyperedge relationships. The quantum arithmetic control layout may include any feature imparted by the method of determining a quantum arithmetic control layout described herein. The quantum computing control layout may also include any of the features described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, particularly those described in referenced paragraphs

[0129] to

[0131] , possibly with the modifications as described herein.

[0139] According to a further embodiment, a method is provided for performing a quantum computation on a quantum system. The quantum computation is performed on components of the quantum system. The method includes providing a quantum computation control layout as described herein. The method includes providing the components of the quantum system in a spatial arrangement such that there is a component for each layout vertex of the mesh, where for each first set of layout vertices, a first quantum interaction is possible between components corresponding to layout vertices of the first set of layout vertices, and where for each second set of layout vertices, a second quantum interaction is possible between components corresponding to layout vertices of the second set of layout vertices. The first quantum interaction may be different from the second quantum interaction. The method includes, for each layout vertex associated with a non-zero weight, applying a local field to the components corresponding to the layout vertex. The type of local field may be determined by a problem Hamiltonian, and the strength of the local field may be determined by the non-zero weight. The method includes, for each first set of layout vertices, performing a first quantum interaction between components corresponding to layout vertices of the first set of layout vertices. The method includes, for each second set of layout vertices, performing a second quantum interaction between components corresponding to layout vertices of the second set of layout vertices. The first quantum interaction may correspond to the action of a constraint Hamiltonian, as described herein. The second quantum interaction may correspond to the action of an augend Hamiltonian of the exchange Hamiltonian (such as a first order hopping term or a sum thereof), as described herein. The method includes measuring some or all of the components of the quantum system. The method may include, with respect to the quantum operation control layout, any of the features imparted by the method for determining a quantum operation control layout described herein. Also, with respect to analog or digital quantum computing (Hamiltonians and other features), the method may include any of the features described herein in relation to performing quantum computing. The method may further include any of the features described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, possibly with the modifications as described herein.

[0140] According to a further embodiment, a method for solving a computational problem is provided. The computational problem may be a classical computational problem, e.g., an NP-hard problem or an NP-complete computational problem. The method may include encoding the computational problem into a hypergraph. The method may include encoding one or more sub-conditions related to the computational problem into one or more fixed hypergraph relations as described herein. The hypergraph may be related to the spin model in that the nodes of the hypergraph correspond to the spins of the spin model and the hyperedges correspond to the interactions between the spins of the spin model. The fixed hypergraph relations may correspond to one or more sub-conditions on the interactions between the spins of the spin model. Finding a minimum energy state of the spin model compatible with the one or more sub-conditions may be equivalent to finding a solution to the computational problem. The method may further include obtaining or determining / generating a quantum arithmetic control layout based on the hypergraph as described herein. The method of solving the computational problem may include a method of determining a quantum arithmetic control layout as described herein. The method may include a step of performing a quantum computation controlled by the quantum arithmetic control layout. The method of solving the computational problem may include a method of performing a quantum computation as described herein. The method for solving a computational problem may include obtaining a quantum computation measurement (readout) as a trial solution and determining whether the trial solution is a solution to the computational problem. If the trial solution is not a solution to the computational problem, the method may include repeating the execution of the quantum computation until a solution is found, or repeating the execution of the quantum computation a finite number of times and selecting the best trial solution as an approximate solution to the computational problem. The method for solving a computational problem may be performed by a classical computing system and a quantum computing system described herein, or a classical computing system and a quantum computing system described in PCT / EP2020 / 069416, specifically incorporated by reference in paragraphs

[0087] to

[0098] and Figures 20 and 21.

[0141] According to further embodiments, a system for determining a quantum operation control layout is provided. The system may be a classical computing system and may include a processing unit / processor and a memory. The system for determining a quantum operation control layout may be configured to perform a method for determining a quantum operation control layout according to embodiments described herein. The components of the system may be configured to perform individual features of the method as described herein. Furthermore, a system for performing quantum computing is provided. The system for performing quantum computing may be a quantum processing system and may include a quantum processing unit, a measurement unit, and any other components described herein. The system and its components may be configured to perform a method for performing quantum computing according to embodiments described herein or individual features of the method. The system for performing quantum computing may be configured to perform a quantum computation under the control of the quantum operation control layout described herein when the quantum operation control layout is loaded into the memory of the system and / or processed by the quantum processing unit. One embodiment is directed to a quantum operation control layout according to embodiments described herein, which, when executed as a control program by a system for performing quantum computing, causes the system to perform a method for performing quantum computing described herein. Furthermore, a system for solving a computation problem is provided. The system may include at least one classical computing system for encoding a computational problem into a hypergraph, determining a quantum operation control layout, and determining whether a quantum computation measurement result includes a solution to the computational problem. The system may also include a quantum computing system for performing a quantum computation on a quantum system controlled by the quantum operation control layout. The system for solving a computational problem and its components may be configured to perform methods and individual features of methods for solving a computational problem as described herein.Further embodiments are directed to the use of a system for determining a quantum operation control layout to perform a method for determining a quantum operation control layout according to embodiments described herein, the use of a system for performing quantum computing on a quantum system to perform a method for performing quantum computing described herein, and the use of a system for solving a computational problem to perform a method for solving a computational problem described herein.

[0142] According to a further embodiment, there is provided a method of performing quantum computation. The method may be a method of performing adiabatic quantum computation (quantum annealing). The method comprises evolving a quantum system from an initial state at an initial time to a final state at a final time. The evolution is according to an intermediate Hamiltonian. The intermediate Hamiltonian may be interpolated between the initial Hamiltonian at the initial time and the final Hamiltonian at the final time and is different from the initial Hamiltonian and the final Hamiltonian. The intermediate Hamiltonian has a degenerate ground state at a first time between the initial time and the final time. The intermediate Hamiltonian may have a non-degenerate ground state at the final time. The intermediate Hamiltonian may have a non-degenerate ground state at the initial time. The intermediate Hamiltonian may have a non-degenerate ground state at some or all times other than the first time, in particular at time intervals before and after the first time (time intervals [t first -ε,t firstThe quantum state of the quantum system at the first time is a degenerate ground state of the intermediate Hamiltonian or an approximation thereof. The quantum state at times after the first time is either a ground state or an excited state of the intermediate Hamiltonian, or an approximation of either one or the other. The dynamics of the evolution of the quantum system caused by the intermediate Hamiltonian determines whether the quantum system is in a ground state or an excited state, or an approximation of either one or the other, at the later time. The final state can be an excited state of the intermediate Hamiltonian at the final time (an excited state of the final Hamiltonian). The evolution of the quantum system can be due to the interaction of the components of the quantum system caused by the intermediate Hamiltonian. Here, the intermediate Hamiltonian can be a time-dependent weighted sum of the initial Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian, and the driving Hamiltonian, as described herein. Here, the final Hamiltonian may be the sum of a problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian as described herein. The method may include features of methods for performing quantum computing according to other embodiments described herein.

[0143] While the above relates to embodiments, other and further embodiments may be devised without departing from the scope, which is determined by the claims.

Claims

1. A method of performing quantum computing on a quantum system (100), comprising: encoding the computational problem into a problem Hamiltonian for the components (110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160) of the quantum system; Mapping one or more side conditions associated with the computational problem onto an exchange Hamiltonian of a first portion (110, 140, 160) of the components of the quantum system; initializing the components of the quantum system to an initial state; evolving the quantum system by interactions of the components of the quantum system, the interactions including interactions determined by a final Hamiltonian (192, 194, 196, 292, 294, 296), interactions determined by the exchange Hamiltonian (182, 184, 282, 284), and interactions determined by a driving Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian being the sum of the problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian, the driving Hamiltonian being the Hamiltonian of a second portion (120, 130, 150) of the components of the quantum system; measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system to obtain a readout; A method for performing quantum computing comprising:

2. and initializing the components of the quantum system to the initial state includes preparing the components of the quantum system in a quantum state that is an eigenstate of an initial Hamiltonian or an approximation of the eigenstate.

2. The method of claim 1 .

3. The eigenstate of the initial Hamiltonian is a ground state of the initial Hamiltonian.

3. The method of claim 2 .

4. the initial Hamiltonian is a simplex Hamiltonian including a first summation of first augend Hamiltonians and a second summation of second augend Hamiltonians, the first augend Hamiltonian acting on the first portion of the component of the quantum system and the second augend Hamiltonian acting on the second portion of the component of the quantum system; 4. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 2 or 3.

5. Each of the first summand Hamiltonian and the second summand Hamiltonian is expressed by multiplying a Pauli operator shown in the following [Equation 37] by a coefficient, and the coefficient of the first summand Hamiltonian is compatible with the one or more side conditions related to the computational problem.

5. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 4. [Equation 37]

6. The exchange Hamiltonian is expressed by a sum of nearest-neighbor first-order hopping terms:

6. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 1.

7. evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system includes transitioning from an initial Hamiltonian of the quantum system to the final Hamiltonian via an intermediate Hamiltonian that includes a linear combination of the initial Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian, the exchange Hamiltonian, and the driving Hamiltonian.

7. A method for performing quantum computing according to any one of claims 1 to 6.

8. Quantum annealing is used to transition from the initial Hamiltonian of the quantum system, via the intermediate Hamiltonian, to the final Hamiltonian.

8. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 7.

9. The step of evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system includes adiabatically evolving the initial Hamiltonian to the final Hamiltonian while temporarily fading in and out the driving Hamiltonian and the exchange Hamiltonian.

9. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 8.

10. evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system comprises evolving quantum states of the components of the quantum system from the initial states towards eigenstates of the final Hamiltonian, the eigenstates of the final Hamiltonian being excited states.

10. A method for performing quantum computing according to any one of claims 1 to 9.

11. evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system comprises determining a sequence of unitary operators, the unitary operators in the sequence being taken from a set of unitary operators, one unitary operator being a function of the problem Hamiltonian, one unitary operator being a function of the short-range Hamiltonian, one unitary operator being a function of the driving Hamiltonian, and one unitary operator being a function of the exchange Hamiltonian; and evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system comprises applying the sequence of unitary operators to the quantum system.

7. A method for performing quantum computing according to any one of claims 1 to 6.

12. evolving the quantum system through interactions of the components of the quantum system and measuring at least some of the components of the quantum system to obtain a readout constitute one operation, and there are N (N≧2) operations.

12. A method for performing quantum computing according to claim 11.

13. the initial state and dynamics of the evolution of the quantum system enforce the realization of one or more side conditions related to the computational problem during the quantum computation; 13. A method for performing quantum computing according to any one of claims 1 to 12.

14. An apparatus (400, 500) for performing quantum computation on a quantum system (100, 530), comprising: said quantum system including components (110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 532, 534) of said quantum system forming a first portion (110, 140, 160) and a second portion (120, 130, 150); an encoder configured to perform the steps of encoding a computational problem into a problem Hamiltonian of the component of the quantum system and configured to perform the steps of mapping one or more side conditions associated with the computational problem into an exchange Hamiltonian of the first portion of the component of the quantum system; a quantum processing unit (520) configured to perform the steps of: initializing the components of the quantum system to an initial state; and evolving the quantum system by interactions of the components of the quantum system, the interactions including interactions determined by a final Hamiltonian, an exchange Hamiltonian, and a driving Hamiltonian, the final Hamiltonian being the sum of the problem Hamiltonian and a short-range Hamiltonian, and the driving Hamiltonian being a Hamiltonian of the second portion of the components of the quantum system; a measurement unit (540) configured to perform the step of measuring at least a portion of the component of the quantum system to obtain a readout; A quantum computing execution device comprising:

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