Stirling engine with near-isothermal working space

Abstract

Single-acting (two pistons) or double-acting (four pistons) Alpha Configuration Stirling Engines increase heat exchange between the hot and cold piston crowns and heads of each piston-cylinder assembly, increasing the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical motion. Heat exchange is effected by presenting corresponding lateral peaks and valleys, which create increased surface area and increased convective fluid flow of the working gas enclosed within the Stirling engine.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 196,463, filed June 3, 2021, entitled "STIRLING ENGINE WITH ISOTHERMAL WORKING SPACES," the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to Stirling cycle engines, and more particularly to alpha configuration Stirling cycle engines. [Background technology]

[0003] A Stirling cycle engine ("Stirling engine") is a heat engine that operates by the cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the working fluid) at different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of thermal energy to mechanical work. More specifically, a Stirling engine is a closed-cycle, regenerative heat engine with a permanent gaseous working fluid. Closed-cycle, in this context, refers to a thermodynamic system in which the working fluid is permanently contained within the system, and regenerative refers to the use of a particular type of internal heat exchanger and heat reservoir known as a regenerator.

[0004] The basic models of Stirling engines are Alpha, Beta, and Gamma. A typical double-acting Stirling engine consists of four cylinders and is known as the Siemens or Rinia Stirling engine. Due to the high mechanical efficiency of the Stirling cycle, double-acting Stirling engines have superior performance compared to single-acting Stirling engines.

[0005] The efficiency of a Stirling engine is significantly affected by the amount of mechanical work required during each compression stage and the amount of mechanical work provided by the expansion stage. During compression, the gas in the compression space increases in pressure. However, due to the behavior of gases according to Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's gas laws, the temperature of the gas also increases. Due to the increased temperature, the pressure increases more than if the temperature had not increased. Therefore, more input mechanical work is required during compression. The pistons and heads in current technology compression space designs provide very little heat transfer capability. Thus, in a metal compression space, although the components are near the low temperatures desired for the compression process, very little heat is absorbed by these components during each compression stage.

[0006] Similarly, during expansion, the pressure of the gas in the expansion space decreases. However, due to the behavior of gases according to Boyle's, Charles', and Gay-Lussac's gas laws, the temperature of the gas also decreases. Due to the decreasing temperature, the pressure decreases more than it would if the temperature did not decrease. Therefore, less mechanical power is utilized during expansion. With the current technology of the expansion space design, the piston and head provide very little heat transfer capability. Thus, although the metallic expansion space components are near the high temperatures desired for the expansion process, very little heat is supplied by these components during each expansion step.

[0007] The operating principles of the Stirling cycle machine or Stirling engine are further detailed in US Pat. No. 6,381,958, issued to Kamen et al. on May 7, 2002, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Summary of the Invention

[0008] In one aspect, the piston cylinder assembly includes a cylinder with an internal bore. The piston cylinder assembly includes a first head that covers a first end of the internal bore and includes one or more through holes. The piston cylinder assembly includes a piston received for longitudinal movement within the internal bore. The piston includes a first piston crown at a first longitudinal end of the piston facing an inner surface of the first head. The piston cylinder assembly includes a working fluid received within the internal bore between the first piston crown and the first head on each longitudinal side of the piston. The working fluid passes between at least one valley and at least one crest that are aligned with each other between the inner surface of the first head and the first piston crown, respectively. The working fluid exits the internal bore through the one or more through holes in the first head. The at least one valley and the at least one crest increase the surface area of ​​the first head and the first piston crown to increase heat exchange with the working fluid.

[0009] In one aspect, the disclosure provides a piston cylinder assembly including a cylinder with an internal bore that contains a working fluid. In another aspect, the piston cylinder assembly includes a hot head capping a first end of the internal bore and exhibiting two or more lateral valleys inwardly, each of which communicates with at least one through hole. Adjacent lateral valleys are separated by a lateral crest. At least one through hole of the hot head is connected to a first Fluid Flow Path The piston-cylinder assembly includes a cold head that caps a second end of the internal bore opposite the first end and that exhibits two or more lateral valleys inwardly communicating with each of the at least one through hole. Adjacent lateral valleys are separated by lateral crests. The at least one through hole of the cold head is in fluid communication with the at least one through hole of the second piston-cylinder assembly via a lateral crest. Fluid Flow Patha third piston cylinder assembly having a hot head and a second piston cylinder assembly having a hot head and a second piston cylinder assembly connected to the hot head and the second piston cylinder assembly through the first piston cylinder assembly. In another aspect, the piston cylinder assembly includes a piston received for longitudinal movement within an internal bore of the cylinder. In another aspect, the piston includes a hot piston crown at one longitudinal end opposite the hot head. The hot piston crown exhibits two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the hot head. Adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown are separated by respective lateral valleys. In another aspect, the piston includes a cold piston crown at another longitudinal end opposite the cold head. In another aspect, the cold piston crown exhibits two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the cold head. Adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown are separated by respective lateral valleys. The increased surface area presented by the peaks and valleys increases heat exchange between the hot piston crown and hot head, and the cold piston crown and cold head, respectively, at the corresponding ends of the piston's longitudinal stroke.

[0010] In another aspect, the disclosure includes a heat engine including first, second, third, and fourth piston cylinder assemblies. In another aspect, each cylinder assembly in the engine is configured with both a hot and cold working space. In another aspect, each piston cylinder assembly includes a cylinder with an internal bore that contains a working fluid. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a hot head that caps a first end of the internal bore and exhibits two or more lateral valleys inwardly, each of which communicates with at least one through hole. Adjacent lateral valleys are separated by lateral crests. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a cold head that caps a second end opposite the first end of the internal bore and exhibits two or more lateral valleys inwardly, each of which communicates with at least one through hole. Adjacent lateral valleys are separated by lateral crests. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a piston received for longitudinal movement within the internal bore of the cylinder. Each piston includes, at one longitudinal end facing the hot head, a hot piston crown exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the hot head. Adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown are separated by respective lateral valleys. Each piston includes, at another longitudinal end facing the cold head, a cold piston crown exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the cold head. Adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown are separated by respective lateral valleys. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a first fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between at least one through-hole of the hot head of the first piston cylinder assembly and at least one through-hole of the cold head of the second piston cylinder assembly. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a second fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between at least one through-hole of the hot head of the second piston cylinder assembly and at least one through-hole of the cold head of the third piston cylinder assembly.Each piston cylinder assembly includes a third fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between at least one through-hole in the hot head of the third piston cylinder assembly and at least one through-hole in the cold head of the fourth piston cylinder assembly. Each piston cylinder assembly includes a fourth fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between at least one through-hole in the hot head of the fourth piston cylinder assembly and at least one through-hole in the cold head of the first piston cylinder assembly. The increased surface areas presented by the peaks and valleys increase heat exchange between the hot piston crown and the hot head, and between the cold piston crown and the cold head, respectively, at corresponding ends of the piston longitudinal stroke.

[0011] It is worth noting that a double acting alpha Stirling cycle engine can be configured with various numbers of double acting cylinders (e.g., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more) having pathways for moving fluid between the working spaces with the desired phase angle relationship to accomplish a thermodynamic process between each set of hot and cold working spaces.

[0012] Additionally, it is worth noting that the two fixed heads (hot and cold) do not have to face in opposite directions. For example, the cold end can be stepped at a larger diameter than the rest of the cylinder. See, for example, FIG. 3 of U.S. Pat. No. 4,169,434, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. Thus, the piston crown is at the stepped portion of the piston and the head is at the stepped portion of the bore. In another aspect, the present disclosure provides for the implementation of a crown and head with this increase in heat transfer surface area in a beta engine.

[0013] Still further embodiments of the present invention relate to one or more embodiments of a heating element for heating an external combustion engine or machine, comprising: a burner element for heating a working fluid of the engine; a blower providing air or other gas for facilitating ignition combustion in the burner; a preheater defining an incoming air passage and an exhaust passage separated by an exhaust manifold wall for heating incoming air from hot exhaust gas discharged from the heating element; a fuel injector for providing fuel for mixing with the incoming air; an igniter for igniting the fuel / air mixture; a prechamber defining an inlet for receiving the fuel / air mixture and facilitating ignition of the mixture; a combustion chamber disposed linearly below the prechamber for helping to maintain a flame generated and ignited in the prechamber; and an electronic control unit for controlling ignition and combustion operation of the burner, the combustion chamber connected to an exhaust passage into which exhaust combustion gases are forced to heat the incoming air which in turn combusts and heats the engine or machine. These aspects of the invention are not intended to be exclusive, and other features, aspects, and advantages of the present invention will become readily apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art when read in conjunction with the appended claims and accompanying drawings.

[0014] A conventional Stirling machine is a closed, reversible thermodynamic cycle that can be implemented as a prime mover or a cooler. For an engine, heat is fed into the cycle to produce mechanical power, while for a cooler, mechanical power is fed and the output is cooling capacity. An ideal Stirling cycle involves three thermodynamic processes acting on a working fluid: 1) Isothermal expansion - the expansion space and associated heat exchangers are maintained at a constant high heat temperature, and the gas undergoes near-isothermal expansion absorbing heat from a heat source; 2) Constant volume (also known as isochoric or isochoric) heat rejection, in which the gas passes through a regenerator where it is cooled and transfers thermal energy to the regenerator for use in the next cycle; 3) Isothermal compression - the compression space and associated heat exchangers are maintained at a constant low heat temperature, and the gas undergoes near-isothermal compression to reject heat to a cold sink. The theoretical thermal efficiency is equal to that of a hypothetical Carnot cycle, i.e., the highest efficiency achievable by any heat engine. A Stirling machine requires a temperature difference to operate. In one or more embodiments, heat is provided by a heater. However, the Stirling machine can be powered by a temperature difference, such as a cold source, e.g., ice, in the compression space cylinder and room temperature in the expansion space cylinder. Stirling engines have been shown to operate with a temperature difference of 1 degree Celsius.

[0015] In general, each Stirling machine, whether a heat engine or a cooler, has two working spaces. The hot side of the engine is maintained at a high temperature by a solar collector, and the cold side of the engine is exposed to the surroundings. The cold side of the cooler is attached to a storage tank, and the hot side of the cooler is exposed to the surroundings. The surroundings are at a lower temperature than the hot side of the engine and higher than the cold side of the cooler. The system has two independent working fluid circuits, one for the engine and one for the cooler. In the engine cycle, the working fluid transitions between a high temperature Th maintained by the solar collector and an intermediate temperature T0 of the surroundings. For the cooler, the working fluid operates between the intermediate temperature T0 of the surroundings and the minimum temperature Tl of the storage tank. The fluid circulating inside the engine cycle may be of a different type or at a different average working pressure than the fluid flowing in the cooler.

[0016] These and other features are more fully described in the exemplary embodiments described below. In general, it should be understood that features of one embodiment may be used in combination with features of another embodiment, and the embodiments are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

[0017] Various exemplary embodiments of the present invention, which will become more apparent as the description proceeds, are described in the following detailed description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0018] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 illustrates a functional diagram of an alpha configuration Stirling engine driving two linear induction generators, respectively, by two free pistons with enhanced convective heat transfer to the working fluid, in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Diagram 2] FIG. 1 illustrates a functional diagram of a double-acting alpha configuration Stirling engine, according to one or more embodiments. [Diagram 3] FIG. 1 illustrates a plot of pressure as a function of total volume based on the shaft angles of each of the two pistons of an alpha configuration Stirling engine in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 4] FIG. 1 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of an example pair of hot and cold piston cylinder assemblies of an example four-cylinder double-acting free-piston Stirling engine according to one or more embodiments. [Diagram 5] FIG. 1 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of a single piston and cylinder assembly of an example four-cylinder double-acting free-piston Stirling engine according to one or more embodiments. [Figure 6] FIG. 5 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of a hot piston crown in intimate thermal engagement with the heated top portion of the single piston cylinder assembly of FIG. 4 in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 7] FIG. 5 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of the cylindrical sidewall enclosure and hot piston crown of the single piston cylinder assembly of FIG. 4 in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 8] 1 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of a hot head according to one or more embodiments. [Figure 9] FIG. 5 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of a cold piston crown in intimate thermal engagement with the cooled top portion of the single piston cylinder assembly of FIG. 4 in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 10] FIG. 5 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of the cylindrical sidewall enclosure and cold piston crown of the single piston cylinder assembly of FIG. 4 in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 11] 11 illustrates a three-dimensional bottom view of the cold piston crown of FIG. 10 in accordance with one or more embodiments. [Figure 12] FIG. 14 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of the fixed head side of a working space having helical fins, according to one or more embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0019] Single-acting (two pistons) or double-acting (four pistons) Alpha Configuration Stirling Engines increase heat exchange between the hot and cold piston crowns and heads of each piston-cylinder assembly, increasing the conversion of thermal energy into mechanical motion. Heat exchange is effected by presenting corresponding lateral peaks and valleys, which create increased surface area and increased convective fluid flow of the working gas enclosed within the Stirling engine.

[0020] FIG. 1 depicts a functional diagram of a heat engine, specifically an alpha configuration Stirling engine 100, having first and second piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102b each driving two linear induction generators 104 by pistons 106 via piston rods 107 with enhanced convective heat transfer to a working fluid 108. Examples of working fluids 108 include air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, xenon, krypton, argon, helium, and / or mixtures thereof. The first and second piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102b are configured as hot and cold piston-cylinder assemblies, respectively, but can be identical components. In one or more embodiments, the pistons 106 are free to move as depicted in FIG. 1. In one or more embodiments, the pistons 106 are mechanically coupled, such as via a crankshaft or wobble plate, to combine mechanical motion and implement delays in relative motion. Each piston-cylinder assembly 102a-102b can have a thermal differential in part by operating a heater 108 that heats an external heat exchanger 110 that is thermally coupled to the hot (upper) portion of the cylindrical enclosure 112 of each piston-cylinder assembly 102a-102b. A cooler 114 is thermally coupled to the cold (lower) portion of the cylindrical enclosure 112 and returns thermal energy to the surrounding environment. As described below, the thermal differential between the upper and lower portions of each piston-cylinder assembly 102a-102b is similarly provided by a fluid coupling between adjacent piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102b. The cylindrical enclosure 112 includes a cylinder 116 having one end that is an upper hot circular opening 118 that is closed by a hot head 120 and the other end that is a lower cold circular opening 122 that is closed by a cold head 124. The cylinders 116 have cylindrical bores 126 that receive the respective pistons 106 for longitudinal movement and separate the working fluid 108 into a compression space 128 in the direction of movement by the pistons 106 and an expansion space 130 vacated by the pistons 106 .

[0021] In one or more embodiments, the cylinder and piston may be machined from any one of the group consisting of aluminum, copper, chromium, iron alloys, cobalt-based superalloys, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride. The iron alloy may be any one of nickel, chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, and tungsten. In another embodiment, the expansion and compression spaces of the cylinder should be a thermally conductive material. Both aluminum and copper are known to have high thermal conductivity. In a non-limiting example, the cylinder and piston are made of copper. In another non-limiting example, the cylinder and piston are made of aluminum.

[0022] In one or more embodiments, the contact surfaces inside the cylinder and the outer surface of the piston are highly polished to reduce drag. In another embodiment, the crankshaft and flywheel are manufactured by forging or casting ductile iron aluminum or aluminum alloy, or tool steel. In one or more embodiments, each piston includes a piston ring. In another non-limiting example, the inner portion of the cylinder includes a large bore in which the piston ring rides. In another non-limiting example, the piston and cylinder are scaled to the size of a Stirling engine. In a non-limiting example, the piston may have a height that is ¼ the cylinder bore length.

[0023] In general, the piston and cylinder that form the working space and the regenerator are the basic mechanical components of a Stirling cycle machine. In one or more embodiments, the Stirling heat engine section and the Stirling cooler section are each sealed to prevent substantial gas escape. In one or more embodiments, the regenerator is constructed of a material that readily conducts heat and has a high surface area. When hot gas is transferred to the cooled cylinder, it is driven first through the regenerator, where some of the heat is stored. When the cooler gas is transferred back, this heat is recovered, and thus the regenerator "pre-heats" and "pre-cools" the working gas, dramatically increasing efficiency.

[0024] In a non-limiting example, helium gas may be the working fluid in the engine and cooler. The working fluid circulating on the engine side may be of a different type or different average working pressure than that flowing on the cooler side. The working fluid may be selected from the group consisting of helium, hydrogen, air, ethanol, nitrogen, a combination of air and ethanol, fluorine compounds exemplified by sulfur hexafluoride, perfluorobutane, perfluoropropane, and octafluorocyclobutane nanofluids, nanofluids, a combination of air, ethanol, and ZnO nanoparticles.

[0025] The through holes 132 in the hot head 120 and cold head 124 communicate between inwardly facing lateral valleys 134 and gas tubes 136 within the bore 126. The lateral valleys 134 are separated by lateral crests 138. Each piston 106 includes a hot piston crown 140 facing a respective hot head 120 and having complementary lateral crests 142 separated by complementary lateral valleys 144 that interdigitate or mesh with the lateral valleys 134 and lateral crests 138 of the hot head 120 to provide increased surface area and proximity for radiative and convective transfer of thermal energy between the working fluid 108, the hot head 120, and the hot piston crown 140. Similarly, each piston 106 faces a respective cold head 124 and includes a cold piston crown 146 having complementary lateral ridges 142 separated by complementary lateral valleys 144 that interdigitate or mesh with the lateral valleys 134 and lateral ridges 138 of the cold head 124 to provide increased surface area and proximity for radiative and convective transfer of thermal energy between the working fluid 108, the cold head 124, and the cold piston crown 146.

[0026] In some implementations, lateral valleys and ridges other than those shown (e.g., in FIG. 6) can be used. For example, lateral valleys and ridges having pin, block, spiral, or other shapes can be used instead of straight lateral valleys and ridges.

[0027] To operate as an engine, a Stirling engine must absorb heat, expand gases, reject waste heat, and compress or contract gases. In one or more embodiments, the main component of a Stirling engine is the regenerator, which is located between the hot and cold spaces. The regenerator works by storing some of the heat that would otherwise have to be released to the environment within the regenerator until the flow of the working gas reverses and the heat can be used in the next cycle. The regenerator of a Stirling engine acts as an internal heat exchanger and is located between the hot and cold parts of the engine. The working fluid flows over it in both directions, storing heat from one cycle to use in the next cycle. The regenerator is used to recycle heat within the engine rather than wasting it into the atmosphere. This generally increases the overall efficiency and power output.

[0028] In one or more embodiments, the regenerator transfers heat between the working fluid and the regenerator flow channel walls. The fluid can be helium or another gas with suitable thermodynamic properties and that does not chemically react with the engine components. A typical regenerator is an open, heat-conducting structure that is generally cylindrical in overall shape and includes one or more axial passages that contain a matrix, with numerous passages and a large surface area for transferring heat to and from the working fluid. The regenerator has adiabatic walls that allow heat to be stored in the matrix. During the passage of the hot particles, heat is transferred from the hot fluid and stored in the regenerator matrix. On the return path, this heat is regenerated and transferred to the cold fluid passing through the regenerator.

[0029] There are many types of regenerators available. In one or more embodiments, the regenerators used in the present disclosure have low thermal conductivity laterally (axially) and high thermal conductivity transversely (radially). The matrix of the regenerator can be made of various components including steel wool, steel felt, stack screens, packed balls, metal foil, metal mesh, metal sponge, carbon fiber, perforated pyrolytic graphite stacks, open pore metal foams and parallel plates, and combinations thereof. The matrix material may be any of stainless steel, copper, bronze, aluminum, Monel 400, and combinations thereof. In a non-limiting example, the regenerator used in the present disclosure may be a stainless steel cylinder lined with steel wool. In a further non-limiting example, the regenerator may be constructed of a mesh of closely spaced thin metal plates.

[0030] The first piston cylinder assembly 102a has a first fluid passage 150a that provides fluid communication between the throughbore 132 in the hot head 120 and the throughbore 132 in the cold head 124 of the second piston cylinder assembly 102b. Fluid Flow Path150a includes gas tubes 136 connecting each through-hole 132 to the respective hot and cold sides 152, 153 of the regenerator 154. Thus, the regenerator 154 is disposed in the passage provided by the gas tubes 136 between the two piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102b and, although not strictly necessary, serves to improve the efficiency of the Stirling engine 100. The regenerator 154 is typically a metal or ceramic matrix 155 having a large surface area capable of absorbing and relinquishing heat. The metal may be any metal or metal alloy suitable for use as a heat exchange material in high temperature applications, such as ferrochrome alloy or nickel steel. As the gas circulates from the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a to the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b, a portion of the heat of the working fluid 108 is transferred to the regenerator 154, thereby helping to cool the working fluid 108. Thereafter, as the working fluid 108 circulates from the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b to the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a, some of the heat in the regenerator 154 is transferred to the working fluid 108, thereby helping to warm the working fluid 108. The regenerator 154 reduces both the amount of heat that must be input into the working fluid 108 by the heater 108 and the amount of waste heat that must be removed from the gas by the cooler 114. In this way, the regenerator 154 reduces fuel consumption and improves the efficiency of the overall work cycle. The first Fluid Flow Path The gas transfer passage provided by 150a is essentially dead space and should be kept as short as possible.

[0031] In the case of a Stirling engine used in an environment where the exhaust temperature is 500°C or less, if the gas pipe / tube is made of copper, which has a high thermal conductivity, the heat exchange efficiency can be improved. When the gas pipe is made of copper, the heating head is also made of copper or stainless steel. In the case of a Stirling engine used in an environment where the exhaust temperature is about 500°C to 800°C, the gas pipe is made of stainless steel to ensure strength. When the gas pipe is made of stainless steel, the heating head is made of stainless steel. When the exhaust components in the usage environment contain corrosive components, the copper or stainless steel gas pipe and heating head are surface-coated, for example, with a chromium-based surface coating, ceramic flame spraying (coating), or a surface coating using Ni or carbon coating, thereby improving durability. In the case of a Stirling engine used in an environment where the exhaust temperature is 800°C or more, for example, with a chlorine-based corrosive exhaust or a corrosive exhaust such as nitric acid or hydrofluoric acid, if the gas pipe is made of titanium or nickel-chromium alloy, reliability and durability are improved and the weight of the engine can be significantly reduced. Titanium has a density that is approximately 40-50% lower than stainless steel, and because of its high strength and low density, components can be made thinner than stainless steel, which is advantageous for incinerators and Glass Melting Furnace In particular, the gas pipe is suitable for use in a Stirling engine. When the gas pipe is made of titanium, the heater head is made of stainless steel. In the case of titanium and nickel-chromium alloy, the heater head exhibits excellent weldability by adjusting the welding conditions, and the gas pipe is inserted into the flue constituting the exhaust flow path.

[0032] Engine performance, both in terms of power and efficiency, is highest when the temperature of the working gas in the engine's expansion volume is as high as possible. However, the maximum temperature of the working gas is typically limited by the nature of the heater head. For external combustion engines with tube heater heads, the maximum temperature is limited by the metallurgical nature of the heater tubes. If the heater tubes get too hot, they may soften and break, resulting in engine shutdown. On the other hand, at temperatures that are too high, the tubes may oxidize excessively and fail. Thus, controlling the temperature of the heater tubes is important to engine performance. A temperature sensing device, for example a thermocouple, may be used to measure the temperature of the heater tube. The mounting scheme for the temperature sensor may thermally bond the sensor to the heater tube and isolate the sensor from the hotter combustion gases. The mounting scheme should be sufficiently robust to withstand the high temperature oxidizing environment of the combustion gases and impinging flame occurring near the heater tube for the life of the heater head. One set of mounting solutions includes brazing or welding a thermocouple directly to the heater tube. The thermocouple is attached to the portion of the heater tube that is most exposed to the hottest combustion gases. Other possible attachment schemes allow for replacement of the temperature sensor. In one embodiment, the temperature sensor is in a thermowell that is thermally bonded to the heater tube. In another embodiment, the attachment scheme is a mount, e.g., a sleeve, that mechanically holds the temperature sensor to the heater tube.

[0033] The through hole 132 of the cold head 124 of the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a is in fluid communication with the hot head 120 of the adjacent piston-cylinder assembly through another regenerator. The through hole 132 of the hot head 120 of the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b is in fluid communication with the cold head 124 of the adjacent piston-cylinder assembly through another regenerator. In the single-acting Stirling engine 100, a second flow passage 150b is provided between blocks A and B, 156a and 156b, which include regenerators.

[0034] Each linear induction generator 104 includes a generator enclosure 160 that receives a piston rod 107 distally connected to an armature 162 for reciprocating longitudinal movement. A bending spring 164 is positioned across an opening 166 in the generator enclosure 160 to resiliently center the piston rod 107. A stator coil 168 is positioned about an internal bore 170 of the generator enclosure 160 and induces an induced current with movement of the armature 162.

[0035] In operation as a single-acting alpha configuration, the Stirling engine 100 works by cyclic compression and expansion of air or other gas (the working fluid 108) at different temperatures, resulting in a net conversion of thermal energy to mechanical work. More specifically, the Stirling engine 100 operates as a closed-cycle rotor with a permanent gaseous working fluid 108. reproduction Closed-cycle, in this context, refers to a thermodynamic system in which the working fluid 108 is permanently contained within the system, while regenerative refers to the use of a particular type of internal heat exchanger and heat reservoir known as a regenerator 154. A volume of air or other working fluid 108 is trapped within first and second piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102b, which are hot and cold piston-cylinder assemblies, respectively, and reciprocates back and forth between the two. The air is heated and expanded in the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a, and cooled in the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b, where it is Working Fluid 108 is mechanical action Input is compressed by

[0036] In the first part of the cycle, the working fluid 108 (gas) is heated and expands, forcing the piston 106 in the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a to the bottom of the cylinder 116 and actuating the piston rod 107 to accomplish work. The expansion continues and is directed through the first fluid flow path 150a to the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b. Working FluidThe piston 106 of the second piston and cylinder assembly 102b is forced downward approximately 90 degrees (a quarter turn) later in the cycle than the piston 106 of the first piston and cylinder assembly 102a, extracting more work from the hot working fluid 108. In the second part of the cycle, Working Fluid 108 reaches a maximum volume and stores momentum in a system such as a flywheel or crankshaft. In one or more embodiments, an eccentric disk, sometimes called a cam, can be used instead of a flywheel to increase the compression ratio of the engine. In one or more embodiments, the shape of the cam can be adjusted to maximize the ratio between the maximum volume of the working gas and the minimum volume of the working gas, thereby increasing the compression ratio. In one or more embodiments, a higher compression ratio results in greater engine efficiency.

[0037] Referring to the double-acting alpha configuration Stirling engine 200 (FIG. 2), four piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102d, each with 90 degrees in front of and behind each of the adjacent piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102d, can maintain the production of work achieved continuously throughout each of the four phases. Here, the momentum in the Stirling engine 100 or the assistance from a different piston-cylinder assembly pushes the piston 106 of the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a in the opposite direction, forcing most of the working fluid 108 in the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b into the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a. Working Fluid 108 expands, cooling the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b. In the third part of the cycle, as the piston 106 of the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a reaches the top of its stroke, nearly all of the gas is transferred to the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b, where it continues to cool and the working fluid 108 contracts, further reducing its pressure. The reduced pressure allows the piston 106 to rise. The momentum within the Stirling engine 100 or from the adjacent piston-cylinder assembly Working Fluid108 compresses the working fluid 108 in the second piston cylinder assembly 102b, forcing the working fluid 108 back towards the first piston cylinder assembly 102a. In the fourth portion of the cycle, the working fluid 108 reaches a minimum volume and is forced into the first piston cylinder assembly 102a where it begins to push the piston 106 in the first piston cylinder assembly 102a downward. The working fluid 108 is heated again in the first piston cylinder assembly 102a where the pressure increases and the working fluid 108 expands, forcing the piston 106 of the first piston cylinder assembly 102a downward on its power stroke, and the cycle begins again.

[0038] 2 depicts a functional diagram of a double-acting alpha configuration Stirling engine 100a, including first, second, third and fourth piston-cylinder assemblies 102a-102d in fluid communication with each other by first, second, third and fourth fluid flow paths 150a-150d, respectively, each having a regenerator 154. The first fluid flow path 150a provides fluid communication between the through hole 132 of the hot head 120 of the first piston-cylinder assembly 102a and the cold head 124 of the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b. The second fluid flow path 150b provides fluid communication between the through hole 132 of the hot head 120 of the second piston-cylinder assembly 102b and the cold head 124 of the third piston-cylinder assembly 102c. The third fluid flow passage 150c provides fluid communication between the through hole 132 of the hot head 120 of the third piston cylinder assembly 102c and the cold head 124 of the fourth piston cylinder assembly 102d. The fourth fluid flow passage 150d provides fluid communication between the through hole 132 of the hot head 120 of the fourth piston cylinder assembly 102d and the cold head 124 of the first piston cylinder assembly 102a.

[0039] FIG. 3 depicts a graphical plot 300 of pressure as a function of total volume based on the shaft angles of each of the two pistons of an alpha configuration Stirling engine. Stirling engines are designed to generate mechanical work output by (generally) utilizing the following phases: (1) near-isothermal (constant temperature) compression (mechanical work is input to the cycle), (2) near-constant volume heating (thermal energy is input to the cycle), (3) near-isothermal expansion (mechanical work is output from the cycle), and (4) near-constant volume cooling (thermal energy is removed and largely stored for reuse). Heat engines approximating the Stirling cycle have been implemented in many different configurations for over 200 years since its invention by Reverend Robert Stirling in 1816. Here, in these depicted embodiments, the Stirling engine is presented in a configuration referred to in the literature as the "double acting alpha" configuration. The present embodiment uses this arrangement in a four cylinder free piston configuration. In this configuration, the compression space of each cylinder is connected to a heat exchange path (consisting of a cooler, a regenerator, and a heater) through which the working gas flows between the compression space of the adjacent cylinder and the expansion space of the adjacent cylinder. The above processes 1 to 4 are carried out by moving these two pistons in an approximately sinusoidal motion, and the heat generated between the two pistons is approximately 90 degrees This is achieved by moving the gyro with a phase of

[0040] Phase 1) Starts with an angle of 0 degrees. The compression space piston starts this phase close to the maximum compression space volume and decreases in volume as the expansion space approaches half volume and decreases to its minimum volume. This phase results in compression of the working gas primarily within the compression space and ends with a maximum angle of 90 degrees.

[0041] Phase 2) Starting at an angle of 90 degrees, the compression space is at almost half its volume and the expansion space is at its minimum volume, resulting in a decrease in volume, but by the end of this phase at an angle of 180 degrees, the volume increases to almost half. This results in the transfer of the working gas from the compression space through the heat exchange path to the expansion space. The working gas is heated during this transfer through the heat exchange path.

[0042] Phase 3) Starting at an angle of 180 degrees, the expansion space volume increases rapidly as the compressed volume starts to increase from its minimum volume. This phase results in most of the working gas expanding in the expansion space and ends at an angle of 270 degrees.

[0043] Phase 4) Starting at an angle of 270 degrees, the expansion space is at its maximum volume, but as the compression space approaches half volume, it starts to decrease in volume, and by the end of this phase at an angle of 360 degrees, it increases in volume to near its maximum volume. This results in the transfer of working gas from the expansion space through the heat exchange path to the compression space. The working gas is cooled during this transfer through the heat exchange path.

[0044] FIG. 4 shows an example of a four-cylinder double-acting free-piston Stirling engine 100b. is , hot and cold piston cylinder assemblies 102a-102b Here is an example of a pair: Each piston-cylinder assembly 102a-102b includes an external heat exchanger 110 and a cooler 114. Each piston-cylinder assembly 102a-102b drives a respective linear induction generator 104.

[0045] 5 depicts a three-dimensional top view of a single piston-cylinder assembly 102a of an example four-cylinder double-acting free-piston Stirling engine 100b. A coolant manifold is cooled by coolant flow 172 through coolant passages 174. 171 The cooling system includes a cross frame 176 in thermal contact with the cooler 114 and in thermally conductive contact with the cold head 124 .

[0046] 6 depicts a three-dimensional plan view of a hot piston crown 140 in intimate thermal engagement with the hot head 120 on top of a single piston-cylinder assembly 102a that is heated by an external heat exchanger 110. The hot head 120 includes through holes that communicate with the lateral valleys 134 between the lateral peaks 138. The hot piston crown 140 has complementary lateral peaks 142 that flank complementary lateral valleys 144 that increase the cross-sectional area for heat transfer with the hot head 120.

[0047] FIG. 7 depicts a three-dimensional top view of the cylinder 116 that receives the hot piston crown 140 of a single piston cylinder assembly 102a.

[0048] 8 depicts a three-dimensional top view of the hot head 120. The lateral valleys 134 and lateral peaks 138 on each side of the hot head 120 make the flow path more tortuous and increase the flow path length to more closely approximate the central lateral valley 134.

[0049] FIG. 9 depicts a three-dimensional bottom view of the cold piston crown in intimate thermal engagement with the cooled lower portion of the single piston cylinder assembly of FIG.

[0050] FIG. 10 illustrates a three-dimensional top view of the cylinder 116 that receives the cold head 124 of a single piston-cylinder assembly 102a.

[0051] FIG. 11 depicts a three-dimensional top view of the cold piston crown 146. On each side The lateral valleys 134 and lateral peaks 138 have a more tortuous path to increase the flow path to more closely approximate the flow path length over the central lateral valley 134. The central hole 180 in the coldhead 124 is for the piston rod 107 (FIG. 1).

[0052] 12 depicts a three-dimensional top view of an alternate side of the working space (either the compression space or the expansion space) of the fixed head 220. The fixed head 220 has a lateral valley 234 and a lateral peak 238 on each side.In one or more embodiments, the fixed head 220 has holes (not shown) in the lateral valleys 234. In one or more embodiments, the holes are spaced approximately equidistant from each other to ensure a more even flow from each flow region. In one or more embodiments, the lateral peaks 238 (fins) of this head have gaps (not shown) placed therein in some places (where the fins are not present and are again some distance further down the helix) to allow the working gas to flow in / out of the valleys of the pistons reciprocating over the fins of the fixed head 220. In one or more embodiments, in these gaps where the fins are not present in the helix, holes (not shown) are present to allow the flow of the working gas in / out of the valleys of the pistons reciprocating over the fins of the fixed head 220. In one or more embodiments, the fixed head 220 has a central cold head hole (not shown) for the piston rod 107 (not shown).

[0053] The main advantage of helical fins is that when designed using a helical layout, the various flow regions are much straighter (there are fewer sharp turns that the working gas flow must take) and exhibit more similar flow and heat transfer characteristics (when comparing one flow region to another).

[0054] In one or more embodiments, fins or pins may alternatively be used to increase the interfacial area between the hot fluid combustion products and the solid heater head for heat transfer. Additional embodiments of hot and cold heads are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Patent Nos. 6,381,958 and 6,966,182, which are incorporated by reference in their entireties. Depending on the size of the head, hundreds or thousands of internal conducting pins may be used. heat Fins and / or pins and external heat transfer fins and / or pins may be desirable. One method for manufacturing a head with heat transfer fins / pins includes casting the head and fins / pins (or other protrusions) as an integral unit. Casting methods for manufacturing the head and pins as an integral unit include, for example, investment casting, sand casting, and die casting.

[0055] In one or more embodiments, the casting is made by making a negative mold of the desired part. All forms of production casting (sand, investment, injection) involve forming the extensions and details by injecting material into a mold and then removing the mold from the material leaving behind the desired negative or positive. Removing the mold from the material requires all extensions to be at least parallel. In fact, good design practice requires these extensions to have a slight draft angle to allow for clean demolding. Forming radial pins on the outside or inside of a cylinder is necessary to accommodate tens to hundreds of parts that are pulled apart in different directions in the mold. In one or more embodiments, production sand, investment, or metal injection casting methods may be used to cast pins or fins on the inside or outside surface of the Stirling heat exchanger. In one or more embodiments, the cylinder may be molded using a sand, investment, or metal injection casting process. wall Casting of the head with internal and externally extending projections, e.g., pins, of the part may be accomplished by sand casting, die casting, or other casting processes, in addition to investment or lost wax casting, according to various embodiments. The internal or external projections, or both, may be cast integrally as part of the head.

[0056] To keep the size of the Stirling cycle engine small, it is important to maximize the heat flux from the combustion gases passing through the heater head. Prior art approaches to this have employed loops of tubes through which heat transfer to the working fluid is accomplished, but loops create lower reliability (as the loops are mechanically weak) and higher costs due to the more complex loop geometry and extra material. The limiting constraint on the heat flux is the thermo-mechanical properties of the heater head material, which must be able to withstand the high temperatures of the combustion chamber while at the same time maintaining the structural integrity of the pressurized head. The maximum design temperature is determined by the hottest point of the heater head, which is typically the top of the wall. Ideally, the entire hot section of the heater wall would be at this maximum temperature, which can be controlled, for example, by controlling the flow of fuel.

[0057] In some embodiments of the Stirling cycle machine, a lubricating fluid is used. Seals are used to prevent the lubricating fluid from leaking out of the crankcase. In some embodiments, the lubricating fluid is oil. The lubricating fluid is used to lubricate engine parts (not shown) in the crankcase, such as hydrodynamically pumped lubricated bearings. Lubricating the moving parts of the engine helps to further reduce friction between the engine parts and further improve engine efficiency and engine life. In some embodiments, the lubricating fluid may be placed at the bottom of the engine, also known as an oil sump, and distributed throughout the crankcase. The lubricating fluid may be distributed to different parts of the engine by a lubricating fluid pump, which may collect the lubricating fluid from the sump via a filtered inlet. In the exemplary embodiment, the lubricating fluid is oil, and therefore the lubricating fluid pump is referred to herein as an oil pump. However, the term "oil pump" is used only to describe the exemplary embodiment and other embodiments in which oil is used as the lubricating fluid, and the term is not to be construed as limiting the lubricating fluid or the lubricating fluid pump.

[0058] In one or more embodiments, the apparatus of the present invention may include a lubricating fluid pump in the crankcase. In some embodiments, the lubricating fluid pump is a mechanical lubricating fluid pump driven by a pump drive assembly, the pump drive assembly being connected to and driven by the crankshaft. In some embodiments, the lubricating fluid pump is an electric lubricating fluid pump. The machine may further include a motor connected to the crankshaft. The machine may further include a generator connected to the crankshaft.

[0059] In some embodiments, the compression ratio described above can be increased by, for example, adjusting the geometry of the piston or cylinder, or both. For example, the volume of the cylinder can be changed. Increasing the compression ratio increases the adiabatic heating and cooling, thus reducing the temperature difference across the regenerator, leading to increased efficiency.

[0060] As explained above, one feature of some Stirling engines is the energy loss across the regenerator. A bypass tube or one-way valve can be configured to allow the regenerator to be eliminated. Some energy is lost when the working gas passes through the regenerator, so elimination of the regenerator can reduce the energy loss. Elimination of the regenerator also eliminates the dead volume associated with the regenerator. In this way, the compression ratio can be adjusted so that the adiabatic heating temperature of the working gas is the same as or higher than the adiabatic cooling temperature of the working gas, thereby eliminating the regenerator.

[0061] Thermal energy can be provided from a variety of sources, such as solar radiation or combustion gases. For example, a burner as described above can be used to generate hot combustion gases that are used to heat the working fluid. The Stirling engine of the present invention can be utilized as a power generating and power plant that takes full advantage of heat sources such as waste heat and biomass. In another aspect, a solar thermal power system for generating electrical energy from thermal energy is provided that includes a Stirling engine assembly as described herein.

[0062] In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method of using a Stirling engine, the engine comprising at least one cylinder with at least one regenerator connecting the expansion chamber with a heat exchanger and the compression chamber with a heat sink, a power and displacement piston moving inside the at least one cylinder and moving the working medium through the at least one regenerator between the expansion chamber and the compression chamber, the at least one heat exchanger heating the working medium in the expansion chamber and the at least one heat sink cooling the working medium in the compression chamber, characterized in that the engine is connected to a flywheel. In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method of using at least two Stirling engines, the at least two engines being coupled to drive at least one engine acting as a heat prime mover and the second one working in the opposite way as a cooling engine or heat pump. In another embodiment, the reversibly operating Stirling is driven by external energy.

[0063] It should be understood that the various heater head embodiments and methods for their manufacture described herein can be adapted to function with multiple heater head configurations.

[0064] It must be noted that as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural references unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to a "coloring agent" includes two or more such agents.

[0065] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although many methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention, the preferred materials and methods are described herein.

[0066] As will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, the methods and compositions of the present invention substantially reduce or eliminate the disadvantages and drawbacks associated with the methods and compositions of the prior art.

[0067] It should be noted that, as used in this disclosure, the terms "comprises," "comprising," and other derivatives from the root word "comprise" are intended to be open-ended terms specifying the presence of any stated features, elements, integers, steps, or components, and are not intended to exclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, elements, integers, steps, components, or groups thereof.

[0068] Where necessary, detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein. However, it should be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the present invention, which may be embodied in various forms. Therefore, the specific structural and functional details disclosed herein should not be interpreted as limitations, but merely as a basis for the claims, and as a representative basis for teaching those skilled in the art to use the present invention in various ways in virtually any suitable detailed structure.

[0069] While it is apparent that the illustrative embodiments of the invention disclosed herein accomplish the objectives set forth above, it will be understood that numerous modifications and other embodiments may be devised by those skilled in the art, and it will be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and embodiments that are within the spirit and scope of the invention.

Claims

1. First and second piston cylinder assemblies, each piston cylinder assembly comprising: a cylinder having an internal bore for containing a hydraulic fluid; a hot head closing a first end of the internal bore and exhibiting two or more lateral valleys inwardly extending therefrom, each lateral valleys communicating with at least one of the through holes, adjacent lateral valleys being separated by lateral crests; a cold head closing a second end of the internal bore opposite the first end and exhibiting two or more lateral valleys inwardly extending therethrough, each lateral valleys communicating with at least one of the through holes, adjacent lateral valleys being separated by lateral crests; a piston received for longitudinal movement within the internal bore of the cylinder, the hot piston crown comprising: (i) a hot piston crown, at one longitudinal end facing the hot head, exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the hot head, adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown being separated by a respective lateral valley; and (ii) a cold piston crown, at another longitudinal end facing the cold head, exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the cold head, adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown being separated by a respective lateral valley; a first fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of a first piston-cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of a second piston-cylinder assembly; a second fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of a cold piston cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of a hot piston cylinder assembly; wherein the increased surface area presented by the peaks and valleys increases heat exchange between the hot piston crown and the hot head, and between the cold piston crown and the cold head, respectively, at corresponding ends of the piston's longitudinal stroke.

2. 2. The heat engine of claim 1, wherein the first and second fluid flow paths comprise first and second regenerators, respectively, and the heat engine comprises a single acting alpha configuration Stirling engine.

3. 2. The heat engine of claim 1, wherein a first pair of hot and cold piston cylinder assemblies each include a piston shaft connected to said piston and extending longitudinally through said cold head.

4. 4. The heat engine of claim 3, further comprising first and second linear induction generators coupled to the piston shafts of the hot and cold piston cylinder assemblies, respectively.

5. a heater thermally coupled to the hot head of the hot piston cylinder assembly; The heat engine of claim 1 , further comprising a cooler thermally coupled to the cold head of the cold piston cylinder assembly.

6. first, second, third and fourth piston cylinder assemblies, each piston cylinder assembly comprising: a cylinder having an internal bore for containing a hydraulic fluid; a hot head closing a first end of the internal bore and exhibiting two or more lateral valleys inwardly extending therefrom, each lateral valleys communicating with at least one of the through holes, adjacent lateral valleys being separated by lateral crests; a cold head closing a second end of the internal bore opposite the first end and exhibiting two or more lateral valleys inwardly extending therethrough, each lateral valleys communicating with at least one of the through holes, adjacent lateral valleys being separated by lateral crests; a piston received for longitudinal movement within the internal bore of the cylinder, the hot piston crown comprising: (i) a hot piston crown, at one longitudinal end facing the hot head, exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the hot head, adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown being separated by a respective lateral valley; and (ii) a cold piston crown, at another longitudinal end facing the cold head, exhibiting two or more lateral crests aligned to correspond to the two or more lateral valleys of the cold head, adjacent ones of the two or more lateral crests of the hot piston crown being separated by a respective lateral valley; a first fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of the first piston-cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of the second piston-cylinder assembly; a second fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of the second piston cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of the third piston cylinder assembly; a third fluid flow passage fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of the third piston-cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of the fourth piston-cylinder assembly; a fourth fluid flow path fluidly coupled between the at least one through-hole in the hot head of the fourth piston cylinder assembly and the at least one through-hole in the cold head of the first piston cylinder assembly; wherein the increased surface area presented by the peaks and valleys increases heat exchange between the hot piston crown and the hot head, and between the cold piston crown and the cold head, respectively, at corresponding ends of the piston's longitudinal stroke.

7. 7. The heat engine of claim 6, wherein the first, second, third and fourth fluid flow paths each include a regenerator, and the heat engine comprises a double acting alpha configuration Stirling engine.

8. 7. The heat engine of claim 6, wherein the first, second, third and fourth piston and cylinder assemblies each include a piston shaft connected to the piston and extending longitudinally through the cold head.

9. 9. The heat engine of claim 8, further comprising first, second, third and fourth linear induction generators coupled to the piston shafts of the first, second, third and fourth piston-cylinder assemblies, respectively.

10. a heater thermally coupled to the hot head of the hot piston cylinder assembly; 7. The heat engine of claim 6, further comprising a cooler thermally coupled to the cold head of the cold piston cylinder assembly.

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