Advanced Battery Charging at the Module Level of an Energy Storage System

Abstract

Embodiments are disclosed that provide advanced charging of an array of energy sources for energy storage applications. The embodiments can be used in an energy storage system having a cascaded array of converter modules. The embodiments can include applying a pulse to the energy source of each module of the system. The pulse can be applied for a duration sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction. Feedback-based pulse control embodiments are also disclosed.

Description

Technical Field

[0001] (Cross - Reference to Related Applications) This application claims the benefit and priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 854,861, filed May 30, 2019, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0002] The subject matter described herein generally relates to advanced charging of energy sources within energy storage systems used in both mobile and stationary applications.

Background Art

[0003] Several deficiencies and problems associated with existing charging methods, such as heat loss, degradation, and slow rates of change, have been identified. For example, it is well known that long charging times for electric vehicles are a major factor limiting their widespread adoption. For these and other reasons, there is a need for improved systems, devices, and methods. Through the application of effort, ingenuity, and innovation, many of these identified problems have been solved by developing solutions that are included in embodiments of the present disclosure, many of which are described in detail herein.

Summary of the Invention

Means for Solving the Problems

[0004] Exemplary embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are described herein with respect to advanced charging of energy sources (e.g., batteries, capacitors, fuel cells) within a cascaded modular energy storage system. The cascaded modular system enables improved control over the electrochemical reactions of an electrochemical charge storage device in combination with a high bandwidth charging algorithm. The embodiments described herein can be applied in either an adaptive or non-adaptive manner, regardless of the availability of using a measured response to the application of a stimulating charge signal. The embodiments described herein can involve the application of a charging pulse of sufficient duration to initiate an electrochemical reaction. In some embodiments, the electrochemical reaction is initiated and the pulse is terminated prior to the initiation and / or driving of a detrimental side reaction. Aspects of the embodiments can achieve highly uniform charge transfer across the electrode area, even in non-uniform charge transfer resistance or electrolyte resistance, and thus can avoid current concentration and concentration gradients across the electrode area. Embodiments of the present disclosure enable accelerated charging with less or lower heat loss and degradation compared to known charging methods in the art. Numerous other embodiments of systems, devices, and methods are also disclosed.

[0005] Other systems, devices, methods, features, and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent to or will become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. All such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages are included within this description, are within the scope of the subject matter described herein, and are intended to be protected by the accompanying claims. The features of the exemplary embodiments should not be construed as limiting the appended claims in any way if there is no explicit recitation of those features in the claims. The present invention provides, for example, the following. (Item 1) A modular energy storage system, comprising: A plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharge state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, the plurality of converter modules; A control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, wherein in a charging state, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cell; A system comprising. (Item 2) The system according to item 1, wherein at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge. (Item 3) The system according to item 1, wherein at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge. (Item 4) The system according to item 3, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is 101 to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge. (Item 5) The system according to item 3, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when the charge state of the battery cell is less than 100%. (Item 6) The system according to item 3, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when the charge state of the battery cell is less than 80%. (Item 7) The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% state of charge, the system of item 5. (Item 8) The control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. The system of item 7, configured to control the application of the pulse. (Item 9) The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%, the system of item 1. (Item 10) The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds, the system according to any one of items 1-9. (Item 11) The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds, the system according to any one of items 1-9. (Item 12) The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery, and each pulse has a duration of 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds, the system according to any one of items 1-9. (Item 13) The system according to item 12, wherein the battery is a lithium-ion battery. (Item 14) The system according to any one of items 1-13, wherein each module includes a plurality of batteries, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the plurality of batteries without substantially promoting side reactions in the plurality of batteries. (Item 15) The system according to any one of items 1-13, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without promoting side reactions in the battery. (Item 16) The system according to any one of items 1-13, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without initiating side reactions in the battery. (Item 17) The system according to any one of items 1-13, wherein the battery contains electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit is configured to terminate the application of a pulse substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions starts. (Item 18) The system according to item 17, wherein the battery includes an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit is configured to apply a charging pulse substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material. (Item 19) The system according to any one of items 1-13 or items 15-18, wherein each of the plurality of converter modules includes a monitoring circuit communicatively coupled to the control circuit, and the monitoring circuit is configured to detect the voltage or current response of the battery. (Item 20) The system according to item 19, wherein the control circuit is configured to start and / or end a pulse based on a response detected by the monitoring circuit. (Item 21) The control circuit A plurality of local control devices, wherein the plurality of local control devices are communicatively coupled to the plurality of converter modules such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device, A master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices and the system according to any one of items 1-20. (Item 22) The system according to item 21, wherein the local control device of the converter module is configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse. (Item 23) The system according to item 21, wherein the local control device is configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of the pulse without an instruction from the master control device. (Item 24) Each of the plurality of converter modules has a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module is configured to control a switch circuit of the converter module such that a voltage applied to the power port is used for generating a pulse for application to the battery. (Item 25) The system according to item 21, wherein the master control device is configured to control the plurality of local control devices and adjust the utilization of a charging voltage applied from an external voltage source to the at least one array. (Item 26) Each converter module among the plurality of converter modules comprises a DC-DC converter that is electrically coupled between the switch circuit and the battery cell, the system according to any one of items 1-13 or items 15-25. (Item 27) The plurality of converter modules are coupled together within three or more arrays, each of the three or more arrays being configured to generate an AC voltage waveform having a different phase angle, the system according to any one of items 1-26. (Item 28) The plurality of converter modules comprises at least one interconnect module coupled to at least two of the three or more arrays, the system according to item 27. (Item 29) A modular energy storage system, A plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, in a discharge state, the at least one array being configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, a plurality of converter modules; A control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, in a charging state, the control circuit being configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell, a control circuit Comprising a system. (Item 30) At least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge, the system according to item 29. (Item 31) At least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge, the system according to item 29. (Item 32) The system according to item 31, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is 101 to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery at 100% charge state. (Item 33) The system according to item 31, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when the charge state of the battery is less than 100%. (Item 34) The system according to item 31, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when the charge state of the battery is less than 80%. (Item 35) The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that when the charge state of the battery exceeds the charge state of the battery at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage lower than the first voltage, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% charge state. The system according to item 34. (Item 36) The system according to item 35, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when the charge state of the battery is less than 80%. (Item 37) The system according to any one of items 29 - 36, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery. (Item 38) The system according to any one of items 29 - 36, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery while the charge state of the battery does not exceed 80%. (Item 39) The control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds, for the system according to any one of Items 29 - 36. (Item 40) The control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds, for the system according to any one of Items 29 - 36. (Item 41) The control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses, and each pulse has a duration of 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds, for the system according to any one of Items 29 - 36. (Item 42) The battery is a lithium - ion battery, for the system according to Item 41. (Item 43) The battery contains electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit is configured to terminate the application of pulses substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions starts, for the system according to any one of Items 29 - 42. The battery contains an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit is configured to apply a charging pulse substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material, for the system according to Item 43. (Item 44) The battery contains an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit is configured to apply a charging pulse substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material, for the system according to Item 43. (Item 45) Each of the plurality of converter modules is provided with a monitoring circuit communicably coupled to the control circuit, and the monitoring circuit is configured to detect the voltage or current response of the battery, for the system according to any one of Items 29 - 44. (Item 46) The control circuit is configured to start and / or terminate pulses based on the response detected by the monitoring circuit, for the system according to Item 45. (Item 47) The control circuit is A plurality of local control devices, wherein the plurality of local control devices are communicatively coupled to the plurality of converter modules such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device, and the plurality of local control devices, A master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices, and The system according to any one of items 29 - 46, comprising: (Item 48) The system according to item 47, wherein the local control device of the converter module is configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse. (Item 49) The system according to item 47, wherein the local control device is configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of the pulse without instructions from the master control device. (Item 50) The system according to item 47, wherein each of the plurality of converter modules has a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module is configured to control a switch circuit of the converter module such that a voltage applied to the power port is used for generating a pulse for application to the battery. (Item 51) The system according to item 47, wherein the master control device is configured to control the plurality of local control devices and adjust the utilization of a charging voltage applied from an external voltage source to the at least one array. (Item 52) The system according to any one of items 29 - 51, wherein each of the plurality of converter modules includes a DC - DC converter electrically coupled between the switch circuit and the battery, and the DC - DC converter is controllable by the control circuit to adjust the voltage of a signal from the switch circuit for application to the battery. (Item 53) The system according to any one of items 29 - 52, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together within three or more arrays, and each of the three or more arrays is configured to generate an AC voltage waveform having a different phase angle. (Item 54) The system according to item 53, wherein the plurality of converter modules include at least one interconnect module coupled to at least two of the three or more arrays. (Item 55) The system according to any one of items 29 - 54, wherein each module includes a plurality of battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the plurality of battery cells. (Item 56) A method of charging a modular energy storage system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, the method comprising: applying a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell. (Item 57) The method according to item 56, further comprising applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge. (Item 58) The method according to item 56, further comprising applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge. (Item 59) The method according to item 58, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is 101 - 200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge. (Item 60) The method according to item 58, further comprising applying the at least one pulse when the state of charge of the battery cell is less than 100%. (Item 61) The method according to item 58, further comprising applying the at least one pulse when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. (Item 62) The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the method further comprises applying at least one second pulse at a second voltage less than the first voltage when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, the second voltage exceeding the expected voltage of the battery at 100% state of charge, the method according to item 61. (Item 63) The at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. (Item 64) The pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery, the method according to any one of items 56-63. (Item 65) The pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%, the method according to any one of items 56-63. (Item 66) A plurality of pulses are applied, each of the plurality of pulses having a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds, the method according to any one of items 56-65. (Item 67) A plurality of pulses are applied, each of the plurality of pulses having a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds, the method according to any one of items 56-65. (Item 68) A plurality of pulses are applied, each of the plurality of pulses having a duration of 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds, the method according to any one of items 56-65. (Item 69) The method according to item 68, wherein the battery is a lithium-ion battery. (Item 70) The method according to any one of items 56-69, wherein the battery contains electrochemically active ions, and the application of the pulse ends substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions starts. (Item 71) The method according to item 70, wherein the battery contains an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the application of the pulse ends substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material. (Item 72) The method according to any one of items 56-71, further comprising detecting the voltage or current response of the battery. (Item 73) The method according to item 72, further comprising starting and / or ending the application of the pulse based on the detected response within the battery. (Item 74) The method according to item 56, wherein the system further comprises a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules. (Item 75) A method of charging a modular energy storage system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, the method comprising: measuring parameters of the energy source; generating a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit; applying a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse; measuring the response of the energy source; and. (Item 76) The method according to item 75, further comprising determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is satisfied based on the measured response. (Item 77) The method according to item 76, further comprising ending the application of the controlled response after the pulse cut-off condition is satisfied. (Item 78) The pulse cut-off condition is based on the measured response of First-order derivative and Second-order derivative The method according to item 77. (Item 79) The method according to item 77, further comprising determining whether the energy source is at a charge threshold less than maximum. (Item 80) The method according to item 79, further comprising transitioning to a different charging method when the charge threshold less than maximum is reached. (Item 81) The method according to item 77, further comprising determining whether to adjust the voltage or current of a second controlled pulse. (Item 82) The method according to item 81, further comprising adjusting the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse. (Item 83) A modular energy storage system comprising A plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, and in a discharge state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; a plurality of converter modules A control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit comprising Causing measurement of parameters of the energy source; Causing generation of a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit; Causing the application of a first controlled pulse to the energy source, wherein the first controlled pulse is generated from the first pulse, and causing the measurement of the response of the energy source A control circuit configured to perform A system comprising (Item 84) The system according to item 83, wherein the control circuit is configured to determine whether a pulse cutoff condition is satisfied based on the measured response. (Item 85) The system according to item 84, wherein the control circuit is configured to cause the termination of the application of the controlled response after the pulse cutoff condition is satisfied. (Item 86) The pulse cutoff condition is based on the measured response of First-order derivative and Second-order derivative The system according to item 85. (Item 87) The system according to item 85, wherein the control circuit is configured to determine whether the energy source is at a charge threshold less than maximum. (Item 88) The system according to item 87, wherein the control circuit is configured to transition to a different charging method when the charge threshold less than maximum is reached. (Item 89) The system according to item 85, wherein the control circuit is configured to determine whether to adjust the voltage or current of a second controlled pulse. (Item 90) The system according to item 89, wherein the control circuit is configured to cause the adjustment of the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0006] Regarding both the structure and operation, details of the subject matter described herein may be apparent from consideration of the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals refer to like parts. Components in the figures are not necessarily to scale; instead, emphasis has been placed upon illustrating the principles of the subject matter. Further, all explanatory drawings are intended to convey concepts where relative sizes, shapes, and other detailed attributes may be illustrated diagrammatically, rather than literally or precisely.

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[0027] Before the subject matter is described in detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to the particular embodiments described, and thus may, of course, vary. It is to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting, as the scope of the disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.

[0028] This technology relates to advanced charging of batteries or multiple battery arrays for stationary storage applications such as grid stabilization, microgrids, and bridge energy storage for powering critical infrastructure such as data centers, cloud computers, and security lighting, as well as for mobile applications such as EVs, autonomous vehicles, and carsharing, but not limited to these applications.

[0029] The modular energy topology described includes modules that can be interconnected with a power bus system and a communication bus system. In an embodiment, the communication bus system is combined with the power bus system to reduce wiring. In an embodiment, the communication bus system is wireless. In an embodiment, the energy module includes an energy unit, one or more microcontrollers, a memory system, an inverter circuit, a switch unit, and a voltage regulator with an embedded software algorithm. This embodiment enables fundamentally improved battery management in combination with faults, degradation, and adaptive charging and discharging routines incorporated at the module level.

[0030] Embodiments of the present disclosure may provide new capabilities. For example, the system design establishes adaptive charging and discharging methods based on the modes of failure and degradation of the energy storage unit at the module level.

[0031] Exemplary embodiments of devices, circuits, software, and components within such a system, exemplary embodiments of methods for operating and using such a system, and exemplary embodiments of applications (e.g., devices, machines, grids, locations, structures, environments, etc.) in which such a system may be implemented, incorporated, or utilized together are described herein. Often, these applications can be classified as mobile or stationary applications.

[0032] Examples of applications Mobile applications generally involve a modular-based energy system located on or within an entity that stores and provides electrical energy for conversion to motive power by a motor to move or assist in moving that entity. Examples of mobile entities in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, electrical and / or hybrid entities that move over land, or underground, over or in the sea, or through space without contacting it (e.g., flying or hovering in the air), or through outer space. Examples of mobile entities in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, vehicles, trains, ships, vessels, aircraft, and spacecraft. Examples of mobile vehicles in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, those having only one wheel or track, those having only two wheels or tracks, those having only three wheels or tracks, those having only four wheels or tracks, and those having five or more wheels or tracks. Examples of mobile entities in which the embodiments disclosed herein may be used in combination include, but are not limited to, cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles, scooters, industrial vehicles, mining vehicles, aircraft (e.g., airplanes, helicopters, drones, etc.), ships (e.g., commercial transport ships, boats, yachts, boats, or other watercraft), submarines, locomotives or rail-based vehicles (e.g., trains, etc.), military vehicles, spacecraft, and satellites.

[0033] Stationary uses are generally uses other than mobile uses. Generally, in stationary uses, a module-based energy system resides in a static location while providing electrical energy for consumption by one or more other entities. Examples of stationary uses that the embodiments disclosed herein may be used or combined with include, but are not limited to, energy systems for use by or within one or more residential structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more industrial structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more commercial structures or locations, energy systems for use by or within one or more government structures or locations (including both military and non-military uses), and systems that convert solar, wind, geothermal energy, fossil fuels, or nuclear reactions to electricity for storage. Examples of stationary uses that the embodiments disclosed herein may be used or combined with include, but are not limited to, energy systems (e.g., charging stations) for charging the mobile uses described above. Other examples of stationary uses that the embodiments disclosed herein may be used or combined with include, but are not limited to, data center storage systems, power grids, or microgrids. Stationary energy systems can be used in either a storage or non-storage role.

[0034] In describing the embodiments herein, specific mobile uses (e.g., electric vehicles (EVs)) or stationary uses (e.g., the grid) may be referenced. Such references are made for ease of explanation and do not mean that a particular embodiment is limited to that particular mobile or stationary use for use. Embodiments of systems that provide power to a motor can be used in both mobile and stationary uses. One configuration may be more suitable for some uses compared to others, but all of the exemplary embodiments disclosed herein are capable of use in both mobile and stationary uses unless otherwise described.

[0035] Exemplary embodiments of module-based energy systems Figure 1A depicts an exemplary embodiment of a module-based energy system 100. Here, system 100 includes a control circuit 102 communicatively coupled to N converter source modules 108-1 through 108-N via communication paths or links 106-1 through 106-N, respectively. In these embodiments, any number two or more of the converter source modules can be used (e.g., N is greater than or equal to two). The converter source modules 108 can be interconnected in various manners as will be described in more detail with respect to FIGS. 12A-12H. For ease of illustration, in FIGS. 1A-1C, the modules 108 are shown connected in series or as a one-dimensional array with the Nth module coupled to a load 101. The load 101 is an electrical load that outputs power when the system 100 is used to provide power. The load 101 can be any type of load including, but not limited to, a motor or a grid. For charging, the modules can be coupled to a charging source (not shown) either in addition to or instead of the load 101. As will be described in more detail herein, the system 100 can be configured to supply a plurality of loads 101 including both primary and auxiliary loads.

[0036] In the embodiment of FIG. 1A, the control circuit 102 is configured to control one or more of the modules 108 based on status information received from the same or one or more different ones of the modules. The control can also be based on one or more other factors such as the requirements of the load 101. In many embodiments, the aspect being controlled is the output power of each module over time, however, other aspects can also be controlled as an alternative to or in addition to the output power.

[0037] In many embodiments, status information for all modules within system 100 is communicated to control circuit 102, from which control circuit 102 will independently control all modules 108-1…108-N. Other variations are also possible. For example, the control of a particular module (or subset of modules) can be based on the status information of a different module, not that particular module (or subset of modules), the status information of all modules other than that particular module (subset of modules), the status information of that particular module (subset of modules) and at least one other module not that particular module (subset of modules), or the status information of all modules within system 100, based on the status information of that particular module (subset of modules).

[0038] As will be described herein, status information can be information about one or more aspects of each module. Status information can be an operating characteristic or other parameter. The types of status information include, but are not limited to, the following aspects of a module or its components, namely, state of charge (SOC) (e.g., the level of charge of an energy source relative to its capacity, such as a fraction or percentage), state of health (SOH) (e.g., a performance index of the condition of an energy source compared to its ideal conditions), capacity, temperature, voltage, current, or the presence or absence of a fault. Each module 108-1…108-N includes one or more sensors or other measurement elements for collecting sensed or measured signals or data that constitute or are convertible to status information. Since more than one type of status information can be sensed or measured using a single sensor or determined algorithmically without otherwise requiring additional sensors, separate sensors are not required for collecting each type of status information.

[0039] Figure 1B depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 100. Here, control circuit 102 is implemented as master control device 112, which is communicatively coupled to N different local control devices 114-1 through 114-N via communication paths or links 115-1 through 115-N, respectively. Each local control device 114-1 through 114-N is communicatively coupled to one converter source module 108-1 through 108-N via communication paths or links 116-1 through 116-N, respectively, such that a 1:1 relationship exists between local control device 114 and converter source module 108.

[0040] Figure 1C depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 100. Here, master control device 112 is communicatively coupled to M different local control devices 114-1 through 114-M via communication paths or links 115-1 through 115-M, respectively. Local control device 114 is coupled to and can control two or more converter source modules 108. In the example shown here, each local control device 114 is communicatively coupled to two converter source modules 108 such that M local control devices 114-1 through 114-M are each coupled to 2M converter source modules 108-1 through 108-2M via communication paths or links 116-1 through 116-2M.

[0041] Communication paths or links 106, 115, and 116 can each be wired or wireless communication paths or links that communicate data or information bi-directionally in parallel or serial fashion. Data can be communicated in standard or custom formats. In automotive applications, communication path or link 115 can be configured to communicate data according to the FlexRay or CAN protocol.

[0042] In the embodiments described with respect to FIGS. 1B and 1C, the local control device 114 receives status information from each module, or determines status information from sensed or measured signals or data received from each module, and communicates that information to the master control device 112. In some embodiments, the local control device 114 communicates the measured or sensed data to the control device 112, which then algorithmically determines status information based on that raw data. The master control device 112 can then use the status information of the module 108 and make control decisions accordingly. The control decisions can take the form of instructions, commands, or other information (such as modulation indices described below) that can be interpreted or utilized by the local control device 114 to either maintain or adjust the operation or contribution of the module.

[0043] For example, the master control device 112 may receive status information indicating that a particular module (or its component) is operating with one or more of the following conditions with respect to one or more other modules within the system 100, namely, with a relatively lower SOC, with a relatively lower SOH, with a relatively lower capacity, with a relatively lower voltage, with a relatively lower current, with a relatively higher temperature, or with a fault. In such an example, the master control device 112 can output control information to reduce (or in some cases, increase depending on the condition) the power output of the particular module. Thus, for example, the power output of a module operating at a higher temperature can be reduced to converge the temperature of that module towards the temperature of one or more other modules.

[0044] In other embodiments, the determination of whether to adjust the operation of a particular module can be made not necessarily by comparing with the status of other modules, but rather by comparing status information with pre-determined thresholds, limits, or conditions. The pre-determined thresholds, limits, or conditions can be static thresholds, limits, or conditions, such as those set by the manufacturer that do not change during use. The pre-determined thresholds, limits, or conditions can be dynamic thresholds, limits, or conditions that are allowed to change or that change during use. For example, the master control device 112 can adjust the operation of a module when the status information regarding that module indicates that it is operating in violation of a pre-determined threshold or limit (e.g., exceeding or falling below it), or outside of a pre-determined range of allowable operating conditions. Similarly, the master control device 112 can adjust the operation of a module when the status information regarding that module indicates the presence of an actual or potential fault (e.g., an alarm or warning), or the absence or removal of an actual or potential fault. Examples of faults include, but are not limited to, an actual failure of a component, a potential failure of a component, a short circuit or other overcurrent condition, an open circuit, an overvoltage condition, inability to receive communication, receipt of corrupted data, and the like.

[0045] The local control device 114 can receive, process, and transmit signals from various sensors of the converter source module (e.g., temperature, voltage, and current sensors), switching to and from the semiconductor switch (e.g., trigger) as well as fault signals, the voltage of the primary battery of the energy storage and buffering element, and other signals. The local control device can perform communication with the master control device 112 and transmit and receive corresponding control signals thereto and therefrom.

[0046] In this way, the master control device 112 can control the modules 108 within the system 100 to achieve or converge towards a desired target. The target can be, for example, the operation of all modules at the same or similar levels relative to each other, or within pre-determined thresholds, limitations, or conditions. This process is also referred to as maintaining or attempting to achieve an equilibrium in the operation or operating characteristics of the modules. As used herein, the term "equilibrium" is used in a broad sense to convey to those skilled in the art that it does not require absolute equality among the modules 108 or their components, but rather can be used to actively reduce differences in operation among modules that would otherwise exist.

[0047] Referring back to FIG. 1A, the control circuit 102 can be configured to operate and execute control using software (instructions stored in memory that are executable by a processing circuit), hardware, or a combination thereof. The control circuit 102 can include a processing circuit and a memory as shown here. Exemplary implementations of the processing circuit and the memory are further described below. The communication path or link 106 can also include wired power to directly supply operating power for the control circuit 102 from one or more converter source modules 108. In certain embodiments, the power for the control circuit 102 is supplied only from one or more converter source modules 108.

[0048] Referring to FIGS. 1B - 1C, the master control device 112 and the local control device 114 can similarly be configured to operate and execute control using software (instructions stored in memory that are executable by a processing circuit), hardware, or a combination thereof, and each can include a processing circuit and a memory as shown herein. Exemplary implementations of the processing circuit 120 and the memory 122 are further described below. The communication path or link 116 can also include wired power to directly supply operating power for the local control device 114 from one or more converter - source modules 108. In certain embodiments, the operating power for each local control device 114 is supplied only by the one or more converter - source modules 108 to which that local control device 114 is connected via path 116. The operating power for the master control device 112 can be supplied indirectly from one or more of the converter - source modules 108 (e.g., through the vehicle's power network, etc.).

[0049] In some embodiments, the control circuit 102 can include a single control device for the entire system 100. In other embodiments, the control circuit can be distributed among the local control devices 114 associated with the modules 108 such that a separate master control device 112 is not required and can be omitted from the system 100.

[0050] In some embodiments, the control of the system 100 can be distributed between a control circuit 102 dedicated to or local to the system 100 and a control circuit shared with other components of the application. For example, in an automotive application, the master control device 112 can be implemented as part of another control device (e.g., an electronic control unit (ECU)) of the vehicle that has responsibility for one or more other automotive functions (e.g., motor control, driver interface control, traction control, etc.).

[0051] The control circuit 102 can have a communication interface for communicating with control devices for different applications. For example, in an automotive application, the control circuit 102 (e.g., the master control device 112) can output data or information about the system 100 to another control device (e.g., an ECU) of the vehicle.

[0052] Exemplary embodiments of modules within a cascaded energy storage system A block diagram of an exemplary embodiment of module 108 is shown in FIG. 2. Module 108 can include any number of one or more energy sources 202. In this example, module 108 includes one energy source 202, which can be of any type described herein or a combination thereof. Module 108 can also include a power electronics converter circuit 206 or 308 (e.g., a controllable switch circuit), a voltage, current, and / or temperature measurement circuit 201, and a local control device (LCD) 114 or other control circuit that can be communicatively coupled to (or include) a memory that can store an adaptive control algorithm or executable software steps. The converter circuits 206, 308 can receive and / or output power via the power connection 110. The local control device can be communicatively coupled to other local control devices 114 and / or the master control device 112 via the communication bus 116.

[0053] The power connection 110 is a connection for transmitting energy or power to, from, and through the module 108. The module 108 can output energy or power from the energy source 202 to the power connection 110, where it can be transmitted to other modules or loads of the system. The module 108 can also receive energy or power from other modules 108 or a charging source (DC charger, single-phase charger, polyphase charger). Signals can also bypass the energy source 202 and pass through the module 108. The routing of energy or power into and out of the module 108 is performed by the power electronics converters 206, 308 under the control of a control circuit such as the LCD 114.

[0054] The module 108, in particular, the LCD 114, can communicate (receive and / or transmit) information via the communication bus 116. The information can be measurements or data about the operating characteristics of the module and its components, which are transmitted by the LCD 114 to other control circuits such as the master control device (MCD) 112. The information can also be control information, for example, a voltage reference signal and / or a modulation index received by the LCD 114 and used to generate one or more control signals for the power electronics converters 206, 308. The communication bus 116 can communicatively connect the LCD 114 to other control circuits of other modules 108, to a master control circuit such as the MCD, or to other devices.

[0055] The measurement circuit 201 is configured to measure one or more voltages, temperatures, and / or currents of one or more components such as the energy source of module 108. In some embodiments, the measurement circuit 201 can measure aspects of the energy source 202 such as state of charge, temperature, current, and voltage. This information is used by the control circuit within the monitoring module 108 and can be transferred to the LCD 114 within module 108 to control the energy output from and / or input to module 108 to one or more other modules of the system. This allows the relative measured aspects of the modules within the system to be balanced against each other.

[0056] Figures 3 - 5 depict an exemplary embodiment of the converter - source module 108 within the system 100 as depicted in Figure 1B with one local control device 114 per module. The embodiments of Figures 2 - 5 and any and all other embodiments described herein can be implemented according to the configuration of Figures 1A - 1C unless otherwise described.

[0057] Module 108 can be implemented as a voltage converter or a current converter. For ease of explanation, the embodiments described herein are done so with reference to a voltage converter, but the embodiments are not limited to such.

[0058] Figure 3 is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108A within the system 100. This embodiment of module 108A can be referred to herein as version 1 (V1) of the exemplary module and is an example of the type of converter - source module 108. Also shown are the local control device 114 (LCD) and the master control device 112 (MCD). Module 108A is communicatively coupled to the LCD 114 and thus communicatively coupled to the MCD 112.

[0059] Module 108A includes an energy source 202, which may include one or more energy storage elements. The energy source 202 can be, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: an ultracapacitor 600 (Figure 7A), at least one battery, or a battery module 601 (Figure 7B) including a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, or a fuel, a fuel cell, or a fuel cell module 602 (Figure 7C).

[0060] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of an energy buffer 204, respectively, and can include elements and topologies based on, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB700 (Figure 8A), a Z-source network 710 (Figure 8B) formed by two inductors LEB1 and LEB2, and two electrolytic and / or film capacitors CEB1 and CEB2, or a quasi-Z-source network 720 (Figure 8C) formed by two inductors LEB1 and LEB2, two electrolytic and / or film capacitors CEB1 and CEB2, and a diode DEB. The specific topology and component choices of the energy buffer 204 depend on the maximum allowable amplitude of the high-frequency voltage pulsations on the output terminals out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204. These pulsations can degrade the performance of the module 108, and thus, they can be efficiently buffered by designing suitable elements and topologies on which it is based.

[0061] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 are respectively connected to the inputs in1 and in2 of the converter 206. A schematic representation of an exemplary embodiment of the converter 206 is shown in FIG. 6A. In many embodiments, the converter 206 can include at least four switches S3, S4, S5, S6 configured as semiconductor switches such as metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors or MOSFETs (as shown in FIGS. 6A - 6B). Another switch example is an insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT. The semiconductor switches are operated at a relatively high switching frequency, thereby enabling the converter 206 to be operated in pulse width modulation mode if desired and to respond to control commands within relatively short time intervals. This can provide high tolerance for output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient mode.

[0062] In this embodiment, the converter 206 generates three different voltage outputs, namely +VDCL, 0, and -VDCL, by connecting the DC line voltage VDCL between its terminals in1 and in2 to its output terminals out1 and out2 through different combinations of the switches S3, S4, S5, S6. To obtain +VDCL, switches S3 and S6 are turned on, while -VDCL can be obtained by turning on switches S4 and S5. By turning on S3 and S5 or S4 and S6, the output voltage is set to zero or the reference voltage.

[0063] The control switching signals for the semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways depending on the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in the LCD and MCD. One approach is to use space vector pulse width modulation SVPWM or sine wave pulse width modulation SPWM, or variants thereof, to generate the output voltage of the converter 206. An example of the output voltage waveform 900 of the converter 206 is shown in FIG. 11A. The modulation method also depends on the version of the system 100 to which it is applied, and a possible solution considered as one of the modulations will be further presented herein as an example.

[0064] In some embodiments that use pulse width modulation, the LCD (rather than the MCD) generates the switching signal for the switches within the module. In some embodiments, such as those that use hysteresis, the generation of the switching signal can be performed by the MCD. The LCD 114 shown in FIG. 3 can be connected to the module 108A via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines and can perform one or more of the three main functions. The first function is the management of the energy source 202. The second function is the protection of the energy buffer 204 from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature conditions, more specifically, its components. The third function is the control and protection of the converter 206.

[0065] In one exemplary embodiment, the function of the LCD114 for managing the energy source 202 for the module 108A is as follows. The LCD114 receives the measurement signals VES1, TES1, IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of at least one, preferably all, of the basic components of the energy source 202, or, for example, but not limited to, the voltage of battery cells (individually or connected in series and / or parallel), ultracapacitor cells (individually or connected in series and / or parallel), etc. The basic component group; TES1 is the temperature of at least one, preferably all, of the basic components of the energy source 202, or the temperature of the basic component group; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 202. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD114 can perform one or more of the following, namely, calculate or determine the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic component or basic component group, set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and / or calculated data, and / or transmit corresponding signals to the MCD112.

[0066] In one exemplary embodiment, the function of the LCD114 for protecting the energy buffer 204 is as follows. The LCD114 receives the measurement signals VEB, TEB, IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one main component of the energy buffer, for example, but not limited to, the capacitor CEB, or the voltage of the capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see FIGS. 8A - 8C); TEB is the temperature of at least one component of the energy buffer; and / or IEB is the current through at least one component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD114 can perform the following, namely, set warning or alarm signals based on the measured data, and / or transmit corresponding warning or alarm signals to the MCD112.

[0067] In one exemplary embodiment, the functions of the converter 206 for the module 108A by the LCD 114 are as follows. The LCD 114 can receive, for example via the link 115 (which can be FlexRay or CAN), a command signal which, in some embodiments, can be a modulation reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index, and which can be used in combination with pulse width modulation techniques in the LCD 114 to generate control signals for the semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, S6. A current feedback signal IOUT (not shown in FIG. 3) coming from the integrated current sensor of the converter 206, together with one or more signals F coming from the drive circuits of the switches of the converter 206 (not shown in FIG. 3), which can carry information about the fault status (e.g., short circuit or open circuit fault mode) of all the switches within the converter 206, can be used for overcurrent protection. Based on this data, the LCD 114 can determine the combination of switching signals to be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, S6 in order to bypass or disconnect the converter 206 and the entire module 108A from the system 100. (The switching signal for a particular switch can turn that switch on or off.)

[0068] FIG. 4 is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of the module 108B, which can be referred to herein as version 2 and is an example of the type of converter - source module 108. The module 108B is communicatively coupled to the LCD 114, which in turn is communicatively coupled to the MCD 112.

[0069] In this embodiment, module 108B has a dual energy source configuration with a primary energy source 202 and a secondary energy source 304. The energy source 202 can include, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: a high energy density capacitor 600 such as an ultracapacitor or supercapacitor (FIG. 7A), a battery module 601 (FIG. 7B) including at least one battery or a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, and a fuel, a fuel cell, or a fuel cell module 602 (FIG. 7C).

[0070] The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of the energy buffer 204, the variants of which are described above. The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 are connected to the inputs in1 and in3 of the converter 308, respectively.

[0071] The output out2 of the energy buffer 204 can also be connected to the output out2 of the energy source 304. Another output out1 of the energy source 304 is connected to the input in2 of the converter 308. The energy source 304 can include, for example, but not limited to, one of the following: an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 (FIG. 9A), an HED capacitor 810 (FIG. 9B), a battery module 820 (FIG. 9C) including at least one battery or a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 connected in parallel with the HED capacitor 810 (FIG. 9D), an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 connected in parallel with the battery module 820 (FIG. 9E) including at least one battery or a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, an electrolytic and / or film capacitor CEB800 connected in parallel with the battery module 820 (FIG. 9F) including the HED capacitor 810 and at least one battery or a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, etc., and can include storage elements.

[0072] A simplified schematic representation of an exemplary embodiment of the converter 308 is shown in FIG. 6B. Here, the converter 308 includes six switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, which can be configured as semiconductor switches such as MOSFETs (as shown in FIG. 6B) or IGBTs. The semiconductor switches are operated at a high switching frequency, thereby enabling the converter 308 to operate in pulse width modulation mode and respond to control commands within short time intervals when required, and providing high tolerance for output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient mode.

[0073] The left side of the converter 308 includes two switches S1 and S2, and can generate two different voltages, +VDCL and 0, which can be at virtual zero potential, and are referenced to input In3, at node 1. The coupling inductor L C is connected between input In3 and node 1. The output out1 of the energy source 304 is connected to the coupling inductor LC at the input In3 of the converter 308. The current consumed from or generated by the energy source 304 can be controlled by adjusting the voltage across the coupling inductor L C using, for example, pulse width modulation techniques or a hysteresis control method for rectifying switches S1 and S2. Other techniques can also be used.

[0074] On the right side of the converter 308, there are four switches S3, S4, S5, and S6. Different combinations of the switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 can connect the DCL-voltage VDCL between the terminals in1 and in2 to the output terminals out1 and out2, thereby generating three different voltage outputs, namely, +VDCL, 0, and -VDCL. To obtain the +VDCL voltage between out1 and out2, switches S3 and S6 are turned on, while the -VDCL voltage between out1 and out2 can be obtained by turning on switches S4 and S5. By turning on S3 and S5 or S4 and S6, the output voltage is set to zero or the reference potential.

[0075] The control switching signals for the semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways according to the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in the LCD114 and MCD112. One approach is to use pulse width modulation such as space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) or sine wave pulse width modulation (SPWM), including its additional variations, to generate the output voltage of the converter 308. A typical output voltage waveform 900 of the converter 308 is shown in FIG. 11A. The modulation method may vary based on the needs of the application.

[0076] In this exemplary embodiment of the module 108B, the energy source 202 acts as a primary energy source and thus supplies the average power required by the load. The energy source 304 can be a secondary energy source with the function of assisting the energy source 202 by providing additional power at the load power peak or absorbing excess power.

[0077] FIG. 11B shows an output voltage waveform 1000 from an exemplary module-based energy storage system having six exemplary converter-source modules.

[0078] Performed by converter V2, both the primary and secondary functions described above can be performed either separately or simultaneously. If simultaneous, the energy source 304 can include an electrolytic capacitor or ultracapacitor 810 connected in parallel with other energy storage elements, as shown in FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9D-9F.

[0079] The LCD 114 is connected to module 108B via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines and is shown in FIG. 4 and can perform at least one, preferably all, of the four main functions. The first function is the management of the energy source 202. The second function is the management of the energy source 304. The third function is the protection of the energy buffer 204 from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature, more specifically, its components. The fourth function is the control and protection of the converter 308.

[0080] The function of managing the energy source 202 can be as follows. The LCD 114 receives the measurement signals VES1, TES1, IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of all basic components / batteries of the energy source 202, or, for example, but not limited to, the voltage of individual or series and / or parallel-connected battery cells, individual or series and / or parallel-connected ultracapacitor cells, etc., of the basic components / battery bank; TES1 is the temperature of all basic components of the energy source 1, or the temperature of the basic component group; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 202. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD can, hereinafter, calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or basic component group, set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data, and transmit corresponding signals to the MCD 112.

[0081] The functions for managing the energy source 304 for module 108B can be as follows. The LCD 114 can receive the measurement signals VES2, TES2, IES2, where VES2 is the voltage of all basic components or batteries of the energy source 304, or, for example, but not limited to, the voltage of basic components or battery packs connected individually, or in series and / or in parallel, such as battery cells, or ultra-capacitor cells connected individually, or in series and / or in parallel; TES2 is the temperature of all basic components of the energy source 304, or the temperature of a group of basic components; and IES2 is the output current of the energy source 304. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD can, hereinafter, i.e., calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic components or the group of basic components; set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data; and / or communicate corresponding signals to the MCD 112.

[0082] The functions for protecting the energy buffer 204 for module 108B can be as follows. The LCD 114 receives the measurement signals VEB, TEB, IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one main component of the energy buffer 204, for example, but not limited to, the capacitor CEB, or the voltage of capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see FIGS. 8A - 8C); TEB is the temperature of at least one main component of the energy buffer 204; and / or IEB is the current through at least one main component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can perform the following, i.e., set a fault (e.g., warning or alarm) signal based on the measured data and / or transmit the corresponding fault signal to the MCD 112.

[0083] The control and protection functions of the converter 308 for module 108B can be as follows. The LCD 114 receives from the MCD 112 a command signal, which can be a modulation reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index, that can be used in the LCD in a PWM and / or hysteresis function to generate control signals for the semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 according to the power management and / or secondary harmonic reduction techniques described above. Current feedback signals IES2, IOUT (not shown in FIG. 4) from the integrated current sensor of the converter 308, together with a signal F from, for example, the drive circuit (not shown in FIG. 4) of the semiconductor devices of the converter 308, which conveys information about one or more of the semiconductor switches, preferably all fault statuses (e.g., short circuit or open circuit fault modes), can be used for overcurrent protection. Based on this specific data, the LCD 114 can determine the combination of switching signals S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 to be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switches to bypass or disconnect the entire converter 308 and module 108B from the system 100 (e.g., battery pack, etc.).

[0084] FIG. 5 is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108C, referred to as version 3, which is an example of the type of converter - source module 108. In this embodiment, module 108C is communicatively coupled to the LCD 114, which in turn is communicatively coupled to the MCD 114.

[0085] As shown in FIG. 5, module 108C can include an energy source 202 and a converter 308, with additional inputs for connection of an auxiliary load 410 if desired. Module 108C has output ports 1 and 2 for connection to other modules 108 (e.g., V1, V2, and / or V3) within the exemplary system 100. The illustrated output ports 3 and 4 of module 108C can be used for connection of the exemplary module 108C to the same output ports of other modules 108C of the exemplary system 100, if required, and / or for connection to an auxiliary load 408 as shown in FIG. 5, if desired. The illustrated output ports 5 and 6 of module 108C can be used for connection of the exemplary module 108C to the same output ports of other modules 108C of the exemplary system 100, if required, and / or for connection to an auxiliary load 410 as shown in FIG. 5, if desired.

[0086] Similar to modules 108A and 108B, the outputs out1 and out2 of the energy source 202 can be connected to the input terminals in1 and in2 of the energy buffer 204. The outputs out1 and out2 of the energy buffer 204 can be connected to the inputs in1 and in3 of the converter 308, respectively.

[0087] Referring again to FIG. 6B, the coupled inductor L C can be connected between input In3 and node 1. The output of the coupled inductor L C can be connected, as shown in FIG. 5, through input In2 of the converter 308, to port 5 of module 108C, and to an optional auxiliary load 410. Since the auxiliary load 410 has an input capacitor, it is assumed that the converter 308 can adjust and stabilize the required constant voltage on the load and the current through the coupled inductor L C .

[0088] The control switching signals for the semiconductor switches S3, S4, S5, and S6 may be generated in different ways according to the flexibility and requirements of the control techniques employed in the LCD114 and the MCD112.

[0089] When connected, the energy source 202 can supply the corresponding portion of the power required by the load of the system 100, the auxiliary load 408, and / or the auxiliary load 410. The power flow between the energy source 202, the auxiliary load 1, and the auxiliary load 2 can be adjusted as desired. Examples of auxiliary loads can be, for example, the in-vehicle electrical network of an electric vehicle, the HVAC system of an electric vehicle. The load of the system 100 can be, for example, an electric vehicle motor or one of the phases of a power distribution network. This embodiment can enable a complete isolation between the electrical characteristics (terminal voltage and current) of the energy source and the electrical characteristics of the load.

[0090] The LCD114 for the module 180C is shown in FIG. 5. It can be connected to the module 108B via a set of diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines and can implement at least one, preferably all, of the four main functions. The first function can be the management of the energy source 202. The second function can be the management of the auxiliary load 410. The third function can be the protection of the energy buffer 204 from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature, more specifically, its components. The fourth function can be the control and protection of the converter 308.

[0091] In some exemplary embodiments, the function of managing the energy source 202 for the module 108C may be as follows. The LCD 114 receives the measurement signals VES1, TES1, IES1, where VES1 is the voltage of all the basic components / batteries of the energy source 202, or, for example, but not limited to, the voltage of individual, or series and / or parallel-connected battery cells, individual, or series and / or parallel-connected ultracapacitor cells, etc. of the basic component / battery group; TES1 is the temperature of all the basic components of the energy source 1, or the temperature of the basic component group; and IES1 is the output current of the energy source 1. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can, hereinafter, that is, calculate the actual capacity, actual state of charge (SOC), and state of health (SOH) of the basic component or basic component group, set warning or alarm signals based on the measured and calculated data, and transmit corresponding signals to the MCD 112.

[0092] The function of managing the auxiliary load 2410 for the module 108C may be as follows. The LCD 114 receives the measurement signals VAL2, IAL2, where VAL2 is the voltage between ports 5 and 6 of the module 108C, and IAL2 is the current of the auxiliary load 2, the current in the coupling inductor LC of the converter 308. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can perform correction of the reference signal for pulse width modulation in the LCD to stabilize and / or control the voltage on the auxiliary load 410.

[0093] The protection function of the energy buffer 204 for module 108C can be as follows. The LCD 114 can receive the measurement signals VEB, TEB, IEB, where VEB is the voltage of at least one main component of the energy buffer 204, for example, but not limited to, the capacitor CEB, or the capacitors CEB1, CEB2 (see FIGS. 8A - 8C), TEB is the temperature of at least one main component of the energy buffer, and IEB is the current through at least one main component of the energy buffer 204. Based on these measurement signals, the LCD 114 can perform the following, that is, set a fault (e.g., warning or alarm) signal based on the measured data and / or transmit the corresponding fault signal to the MCD 112.

[0094] The control and protection function of the converter 308 for module 108C can be as follows. The LCD 114 can receive from the MCD 112 a command signal, which can be a modulation reference signal and an enable signal, or a reference signal and a modulation index, for use in the PWM and / or hysteresis functions in the LCD to generate control signals for the semiconductor switches S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 according to the power management and / or secondary harmonic reduction techniques described above. The current feedback signals IES2, IOUT (not shown in FIG. 5) from the integrated current sensor of the converter 308, together with one or more signals F from the drive circuit (not shown in FIG. 5) of the semiconductor devices of the converter 308, which carry information about one or more, preferably all, fault statuses (e.g., short - circuit or open - circuit fault modes), can be used for over - current protection. Based on this specific data, the LCD 114 can determine the combination of switching signals S1, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6 to be applied to the corresponding semiconductor switches to bypass or disconnect the converter 308 and the entire module 108C from the system 100 (e.g., battery pack, etc.).

[0095] In other exemplary embodiments, module 108 can be connected to additional power sources such as a photovoltaic panel and / or a wireless charging receiver. In other exemplary embodiments, system 100 can be connected to another system 100 (e.g., another battery pack) that is coupled to other auxiliary loads at different voltage levels, such as, for example, the in-vehicle electrical network system of an EV and an air conditioner.

[0096] Another exemplary embodiment of converter module 108 is shown in FIG. 10A. An exemplary embodiment of module 108 includes a bidirectional power connection 110, a communication bus 116, a first energy source 202 including twelve energy storage units or batteries (e.g., battery cells) 221 to 232 connected in series in this example, a second energy source 304 (e.g., an HED capacitor) with any corresponding power electronics, a measurement circuit 201 configured to measure, for example, the open circuit voltages of energy sources 202 and 304, a temperature sensor 251, a current sensor (shunt) 252, an LCD 114, a measurement bus 242 communicatively coupling measurement circuit 201 to LCD 114, a second energy source connection 244, a memory 256 (e.g., capable of storing control and adaptation algorithms / software), a memory bus 243 communicatively coupling memory 256 to LCD 114, a power converter circuit 206 or 308, and a control bus 245 communicatively coupling LCD 105 to power converter circuits 206, 308. The components described herein can be interconnected in various different configurations to achieve the desired functionality.

[0097] As an example only, the primary energy source 202 of one embodiment can be a lithium-ion battery, for example, of the NMC / graphite type, and can exhibit a nominal voltage of about 43 volts (V) with a low cut-out voltage of 33 V and a high cut-out voltage of 51 V. Similarly, in one embodiment, the measurement circuit 201 can be a high-bandwidth circuit. For example, the circuit 201 can have a measurement sample rate capability of 1 millisecond (ms) or less with respect to voltage and / or current, with a voltage resolution of 1 millivolt (mV) or less. The measurement circuit 104 can have a current resolution of C / 100000 or better, where C is the C-rate of the energy source 202 and / or 306. This also promotes incremental charging. In some embodiments, the LCD 114 can have an exemplary switching capability of 1 kilohertz (kHz) or faster to generate pulses with a pulse length of 2 milliseconds or less for charging purposes.

[0098] FIG. 10B illustrates another exemplary embodiment of module 108 within system 100. Here, module 108 includes a plurality of battery cells (900-912) connected in series, a measurement circuit 201, and an LCD processing circuit and memory 114. The measurement circuit 201 can communicate the measured information (current, voltage, temperature) to the LCD 114. Similarly, the LCD 114 can instruct the measurement circuit 201 when to make measurements and what type of measurements to collect. The embodiment of FIG. 10B also includes a DC / DC converter 930 and a converter (e.g., switching circuit) 206 having switches 941-944 in a half-bridge configuration with switching capabilities within the kHz to 10 kHz (and higher) range. The converter 206 can be mounted on a common substrate 940. The converter 206 can be coupled to a source / sink 950, which can be a load and / or a charging device. The measurement circuit 201 can measure the voltage response and / or current response of each battery before, during, and after the application of a charging pulse to the battery. Measurement wiring 960 couples each battery cell to the measurement circuit 201, for example, to make voltage measurements of each battery. Measurement wiring 961 can carry measurement information (e.g., a current or voltage signal) to the measurement circuit 201, which in turn can communicate the measured information to the LCD 114. For example, as shown here, measurement wiring 961 can carry the measured current response from current shunt 970 to the measurement circuit 201, which can then be communicated to the LCD 114. In some embodiments, multiple shunts 970 can be installed to measure the current response of each battery. The converter 206 can apply the voltage from a power connection 110 (e.g., carrying charging from a DC or AC charging source 950) to the DC-DC converter 930, which can then adjust the voltage or current to the desired level for fast charging of the batteries 900-912. The converter 930 can be configured as a DC-DC converter, an AC-DC converter, or other circuitry to perform a similar function.

[0099] Exemplary Embodiment of a Module Array for a Module - Based System Figures 12A - 12G depict exemplary embodiments of a system 100 arranged according to various architectures or configurations. In these embodiments, the system 100 is referred to as being configured as a pack, such as where components may be physically affixed to each other and located within a common housing. These embodiments are not limited to implementation as a pack. Also, for ease of illustration, the MCD and LCD in each embodiment are not shown. As can be appreciated, the modules can be arranged in a number of ways such that the power contributed by each module can be summed to form one or more of, for example, a single - phase AC output, multiple phases of an AC output, and a DC output.

[0100] FIG. 12A shows an exemplary embodiment of a pack 1500 that includes a one-dimensional array of N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N. Each module in the array may be configured according to any one of the module embodiments described herein. The plurality of modules may include modules configured according to the same module version (V1, V2, V3, or others), or a mixture of modules configured according to two or more module versions (e.g., V1, V2, V3, or others). The first port 1 of the module 108-1 in the first row of the one-dimensional array is connected to the first output terminal out1 of the one-dimensional array of modules. The second port 2 of the first module 108-1 is connected to the first port 1 of the module 108-2 in the second row. In the same order, up to the Nth or last module 108-N in the Nth row, the second port 2 of the second module 108-2 is connected to the first port 1 of the module 108-3 in the third row (not shown), and so on. The second port 2 of the Nth module 108-N is connected to the second output terminal out2 of the one-dimensional array 1500. This one-dimensional array of N interconnected modules can be used as a DC or single-phase AC energy source, such as a battery pack, for steady energy storage applications for DC or AC single-phase loads. A DC or AC single-phase load can be connected between the first and second output terminals out1 and out2.

[0101] The output voltage of the one-dimensional array of N interconnected modules 108 can be generated, for example, but not limited to, by using a phase-shifted carrier technique in combination with space vector modulation or sinusoidal pulse width modulation ("PWM"). The switching signal for each converter of the modules may then be generated using the phase-shifted carrier technique. This technique ensures that the modules are continuously rotated and the power is distributed approximately equally among them.

[0102] Aspects of the phase-shift technique involve generating a multi-level output PWM waveform using incrementally shifted two-level waveforms. Thus, an N-level PWM waveform is generated by the sum of N-1 two-level PWM waveforms. These two-level waveforms are generated by comparing a reference waveform with incrementally shifted triangular carrier waves 1400, 1410 (FIGS. 11C, 11D) by 360° / (N-1). A nine-level embodiment 1400 is shown in FIG. 11C. The carrier waves are incrementally shifted by 360° / (9-1)=45° and compared with the reference waveform. The resulting two-level PWM waveforms 1420 are shown in FIG. 11E. These two-level waveforms may be used as switching signals for the semiconductor switches of the converters within each module 108. As an example, for a one-dimensional array including four interconnected modules each having a converter 206, a 0° signal is used for S3 of the first module, a 180° signal is used for S6, a 45° signal is used for S3 of the second module, a 225° signal is used for S6, etc. Note that in all converters 206, the signal for S3 complements S4 and the signal for S5 complements S6, with a certain dead time to avoid shoot-through in each section. FIG. 11F depicts an exemplary AC waveform 1430 generated by the superposition of the output voltages from the four modules 108.

[0103] The one-dimensional array 1500 embodiment of system 100 shown in FIG. 12A uses low and / or medium voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTs, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the modules to enable obtaining an arbitrary shaped high voltage with very low total harmonic distortion between the first and second terminals out1 and out2.

[0104] Figure 12B shows another exemplary embodiment of a pack including a two-dimensional array 1600 of N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N or two one-dimensional arrays 1500 according to the present disclosure. The configuration and output aspects of DC or AC voltage generation of each of the two one-dimensional arrays 1500 forming the two-dimensional array 1600 are described above with respect to Figure 12A. The second ports 2 of each of the Nth or last row of both one-dimensional arrays, together, are connected to the common output terminal Out3 of the two-dimensional array. The output voltage is provided between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2 and the common output terminal Out3.

[0105] This two-dimensional array of 2N modules 108 can be used as a two-phase AC energy source for steady energy storage applications for a DC or AC single-phase load. The load can be connected between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2, while the common terminal Out3 can be connected to the neutral terminal of the load if required.

[0106] The first and second output terminals out1 and out2 of the exemplary two-dimensional array-based pack are connected together via a coupling inductor and can be connected to the same first terminal of the AC or DC load when the common output terminal out3 is connected to the second terminal of the AC or DC load. In this case, the output power capability of such a two-dimensional array-based pack with N rows is twice higher than that of one of the one-dimensional array-based packs with the same number of N rows.

[0107] The two-dimensional array embodiment of system 100 shown in FIG. 12B enables the acquisition of a high-voltage two-phase system with a 90-degree phase displacement. For example, such a system can be used in an electric furnace. In general, a high voltage of any shape with a very low total harmonic distortion can be obtained between terminals out1, out2 and a common terminal out3 that can serve as a neutral terminal using low and / or medium voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTs, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the module.

[0108] FIG. 12C shows another exemplary embodiment of a pack including a two-dimensional array 1700 of N and N + 1 cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N or two one-dimensional arrays according to the present disclosure. The configuration and output aspects of DC or AC voltage generation for each of the two one-dimensional arrays 1500 with N and N + 1 cascaded modules forming the two-dimensional array are described above with respect to FIG. 12A. The second port 2 of each Nth module in both the Nth or last row of the one-dimensional arrays is connected to the first and second ports 1 and 2 of the additional or (N + 1)th module.

[0109] The two-dimensional array of 2N + 1 cascaded modules can be used as a single-phase AC energy source for steady energy storage applications for a DC or AC single-phase load. The load can be connected between the first and second output terminals Out1 and Out2 of the first module in each first row of the one-dimensional arrays.

[0110] Figure 12D shows another exemplary embodiment of a pack including a plurality of modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N that are cascaded in a three-dimensional array 1800 according to the present disclosure. The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the pack are connected to the first ports of the first modules in the first rows of each of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the three-dimensional array 1800-based pack. The DC or AC voltage generation configuration and output sides of each of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the three-dimensional array 1800-based pack are described above with respect to FIG. 12A. The second ports 2 of the Nth or last modules in each of the Nth rows of the three one-dimensional arrays are all connected together and to a common output terminal out4 of the three-dimensional array. The output voltage is provided between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, out3 and the common output terminal out4.

[0111] This three-dimensional array 1800 of 3N cascaded modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N can be used as a steady energy storage or three-phase AC energy source for electric vehicle applications for a DC or AC single load, three-phase load, three-phase power grid, or three-phase electric motor. A three-phase load can be connected between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, out3, while the common output terminal out4 can be connected to the neutral terminal of the load if required.

[0112] The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the three-dimensional array-based pack are all connected together via a coupling inductor and can be connected to the same first terminal of a DC or single-phase AC load when the common output terminal out4 is connected to the second terminal of the DC or single-phase AC load. In this case, the output power capability of such a three-dimensional array-based pack with N rows is three times higher than that of a one-dimensional array-based pack with the same number of N rows.

[0113] The three-dimensional array 1900 embodiment of the system 100 shown in FIG. 12E uses low and / or medium voltage rated energy source elements and switching components (MOSFETs, JFETs, IGBTs, etc.) with significantly reduced switching and conduction losses within the module to provide a three-phase system of any shape with very low total harmonic distortion between the terminals out1, out2, out3 and a common terminal out3 that can serve as a neutral terminal. Such a system can be connected to a power distribution network and can be used as an active power source or buffer, a reactive power compensator and power factor corrector, an active harmonic filter with very high dynamic response, and a passive filter with a significantly reduced size between the out1, out2, out3 and the phase of the power transmission network. The present system can also be connected to a three-phase load that provides energy from an energy source element such as a battery, an HED capacitor, a fuel cell, etc.

[0114] FIG. 12E shows another exemplary embodiment of a pack including a plurality of modules 108 that are cascade-type in the three-dimensional array 1900 according to the present disclosure. The first port 1 of the module 108-1 in the first row of each of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 is connected to the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of each of the three one-dimensional arrays that form the three-dimensional array-based pack. The configuration and output aspects of DC or AC voltage generation of each of the three one-dimensional arrays with N cascade-type modules 108 forming the present three-dimensional array are described above with respect to FIG. 12A. The second port 2 of the first module 108-1 is connected to the first port 1 of the module 108-2 in the second row of the three one-dimensional arrays. In the same order, up to the M rows of modules where M is 2 or more, the second port 2 of the second module is connected to the first port 1 of the module in the third row (not shown) of the three one-dimensional arrays, and so on.

[0115] The first port 1 of the module on the M+1-th row is connected to the second port 2 of the module on the M-th row (not shown). The second port 2 of the module within the M+1-th row is connected to the first port 1 of the module within the M+2-th row (not shown). Up to the M+N rows of the modules in the same order, the second output port 2 of the co-module within the M+2-th row is connected to the first port 1 of the module within the M+3-th row (not shown), and so on.

[0116] The last row of the first column 1500 of the three-dimensional array or the second port 2 of the module within the M+N-th row is connected to the first port 1 of the module on the M+1-th row of the second column 1500' of the three-dimensional array. The last row of the second column of the three-dimensional array or the second port 2 of the module within the M+N-th row is connected to the first port 1 of the module on the M+1-th row of the third column 1500'' of the three-dimensional array. The last row of the third column of the three-dimensional array or the second port 2 of the module within the M+N-th row is connected to the first port 1 of the module on the M+1-th row of the first column of the three-dimensional array.

[0117] This three-dimensional array of cascade-type modules can be used as a three-phase energy source for steady energy storage or electric vehicle applications for a DC or AC single load, three-phase load, three-phase power grid, or three-phase electric motor.

[0118] In addition to the advantages described with respect to FIG. 12D, this three-phase (three-dimensional array) configured embodiment of the system 100 shown in FIG. 12E, involving a combination of series-connected and delta-connected modules, enables an effective exchange of energy between all the modules of the system (phase balance) and the phase of the power grid or load. The combination of delta- and series-connected modules makes it possible to reduce the total number of modules within the array to obtain the desired output voltage.

[0119] FIG. 12F shows another exemplary embodiment of a pack including a plurality of modules that are cascade-type in a three-dimensional array 2000 according to the present disclosure. The first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3 of the pack are connected to the first port 1 of the module 108-1 in the first row of the three one-dimensional arrays 1500 that form the present three-dimensional array 2000-based pack. The configuration of DC or AC voltage generation and the output side of each of the three one-dimensional arrays with N interconnected modules 108-1, 108-2... 108-N that form the present three-dimensional array are described above with respect to FIG. 12A. The second port 2 of the module in the Nth row of the first column of the three-dimensional array is connected to the first port 1 of the first additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of the module in the Nth row of the second column of the three-dimensional array is connected to the second port 2 of the first additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of the module in the Nth row of the third column of the three-dimensional array is connected to the first port 1 of the second additional module 108C in the N+1th row. The second port 2 of the second additional module is connected to the fourth output terminal Out4 of the pack. The third and fourth ports 3 and 4 of the first and second additional modules in the N+1th row are interconnected as shown in FIG. 12F.

[0120] This three-dimensional array of cascade-type modules can be used as a three-phase energy source for constant energy storage or electric vehicle applications for a DC or AC single load, three-phase load, three-phase power grid, or three-phase electric motor. A three-phase load can be connected between the first, second, and third output terminals out1, out2, and out3, while the fourth output terminal out4 can serve as a charging terminal.

[0121] In addition to the advantages described with respect to FIG. 12D, this three-phase (three-dimensional array) configured embodiment of the system 100 shown in FIG. 12F with two additional interconnected modules 108C enables an effective and fast exchange of energy between all the modules (phase balance) of the system and the phase of the power grid or load.

[0122] FIG. 12G shows another exemplary embodiment 2500 of a pack connected to an arbitrary type of three-phase electric motor 2200. The pack is as presented in FIG. 12F, and the third and fourth output ports 3 and 4 of the two additional modules 108C in the N + 1 row are both connected to, and also to the second auxiliary load 410. The two additional modules in the N + 1 row further include, both, the fifth and sixth output ports 5 and 6 which are connected to, and also to the first auxiliary load 408. The first auxiliary load and the second auxiliary load 410 have different voltages and represent, for example, but not limited to, the in-vehicle network system of an electric vehicle and the air-conditioning power supply system, respectively.

[0123] In addition to the advantages described, the present three-phase motor drive embodiment of the system 100 (three-dimensional array) with two additional interconnected modules 108C enables an efficient and fast exchange of energy between all the modules of the system (phase balance) and the phases of the electric motor. The additional output terminals 3, 4, 5, 6 of the interconnected module 108C provide different levels of low voltage that can be used, for example, to provide power for auxiliary loads, which represent, for example, the electric in-vehicle network and the HVAC power line of an electric vehicle. In this case, an extra low-voltage battery is not required, and the energy for the system described above is delivered by the entire array of modules 108.

[0124] FIG. 12H illustrates an exemplary embodiment of the system 100 configured to couple to, supply power to, and also switch, alternatively, with a controllable switch 410, to a charging source 440 (not shown), desirably, a charging connection 430 (e.g., a plug), in combination with a three-phase motor 420. A bus system for module communication is not shown in FIG. 12H.

[0125] The exemplary modular system 100 includes N cascaded modules 108 arranged in three arrays so as to supply three-phase power to a motor 420, which is in turn coupled to a wheel 422 of an electric vehicle by a mechanical connection 421. A switch 410 can enter a first position that electrically connects the module 108 to the motor 420. The switch 410 can enter a second position that electrically disconnects the module 108 from the motor 420 and instead electrically connects the module 108 to a charging source 440 by a connection 430. In this second position, the module 108 can receive energy from the charging source 440, which can be a DC charger, a single-phase AC charger, or a multi-phase AC charger. The configuration shown here, where the switch 410 is interposed between the module 108 and a charging sink (e.g., the motor 420) and the source 440, can be applied to any of the system configurations described herein (e.g., the systems described with respect to FIGS. 12A-12G).

[0126] In embodiments, the exemplary modular energy topology may be coupled to multiple sinks and multiple sources. In embodiments, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple (e.g., two) motors to power a vehicle (e.g., a four-wheeler) and may be connectable to DC and / or AC sources for charging the modules. In yet another embodiment, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple (e.g., four or more) motors to power an aircraft. In yet another embodiment, the exemplary modular energy topology may be connected to multiple (e.g., residential) loads as sinks and sources of solar or wind energy generators. In such embodiments, the system may be used for residential energy storage. In still other embodiments, the connected grid may serve as a sink as well as a source (e.g., for grid stabilization purposes).

[0127] Exemplary embodiments related to layout and housing In many of the embodiments of this specification, module 108 is shown or described as being separate from LCD 114. However, in any and all embodiments described herein, module 108 can be configured such that LCD 114 is a component thereof. For example, FIG. 13A is a block diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a common housing or physical package 4302 that holds LCD 114 for module 108, as well as converters 206, 308, energy buffer 204, and energy source 202 (optionally, energy source 304 if present). Thus, in this embodiment, module 108 is provided or manufactured as an integrated or monolithic device or subsystem.

[0128] FIG. 13B is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a housing or physical package 4303 that holds LCD 114 for module 108, as well as converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204. Energy source 202 (optionally, energy source 304 if present) is provided in a separate housing 4304. Housings 4303 and 4304 can be physically integrated, affixed, or connected together prior to their placement within system 100, or can be separate entities that are electrically connected together. Housings 4303, 4304 can have ports or other access for accommodating electrical connections between the various devices 114, 206, 308, 202, etc.

[0129] FIG. 13C is a block diagram depicting another exemplary embodiment of module 108. In this embodiment, module 108 has a first housing or physical package 4306 that holds an LCD 114 for module 108, and a second housing or physical package 4308 that holds converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204. An energy source 202 (optionally, energy source 304 if present) is provided within a separate housing 4304. Housings 4306, 4308, and 4304 can be physically integrated, affixed, or connected together prior to their placement within system 100, or can be separate entities that are electrically connected together. All of housings 4306, 4308, and 4304 can have ports or other access for accommodating electrical connections between the various devices 114, 206, 308, 202, etc.

[0130] In any of the embodiments described herein, the various circuit components can be one or more integrated substrates so as to reduce the form factor. For example, the LCD can be part of module 108 as described with respect to FIGS. 13A - 13C. FIG. 14A is a schematic diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment in which the LCD 114, converters 206, 308, and energy buffer 204 are each mounted or affixed to a single common substrate 4402 that can be a single printed circuit board (PCB). These components can be electrically coupled to the substrate 4402 and to each other to allow for the exchange of signals or data therebetween. Other passive or active components can similarly be mounted or affixed to the substrate 4402.

[0131] FIG. 14B is a schematic diagram depicting an exemplary embodiment in which converter 206, 308, and energy buffer 204 are each mounted or affixed to a single common substrate 4404, which can be a single printed circuit board (PCB). These components can be electrically coupled to each other and to substrate 4404 to allow for the exchange of signals or data therebetween. LCD 114 is mounted or affixed to a different substrate 4406, which can also be a single PCB. Other passive or active components can likewise be mounted or affixed to substrates 4404 and 4406. Communication between LCD 114 and the components on substrate 4404 can occur via one or more buses, wires, or optical fibers.

[0132] System 100 can operate across a wide range of frequencies, such as may be required for various stationary and mobile applications. For example, the system AC output frequency in a stationary application will often be 60 Hz. In an embodiment where MSOFETs are used for each switch in converters 206, 308 (FIGS. 6A - 6B), the switching frequency (Fsw) of each MOSFET can be in the range of 1 kHz to 2 kHz or higher. In an example where there are 8 modules in each phase array, then the frequency resulting from the pulsations in the AC output voltage will be 2Fsw * N = 16 kHz to 32 kHz or higher. The switching frequency of conventional systems is often less than 5 kHz, such as in an IGBT - based high - power inverter. In mobile applications, the system frequency will generally range from 0 Hz to 2,000 Hz for a sinusoidal output waveform, depending on the requirements of the motor. In an exemplary embodiment where the Fsw of the switches in circuit 207 is 5 kHz, then the switching frequency of an exemplary system 100 with 5 modules in series (equivalent output pulsations) will be 2 * 5 kHz *It would be 5 = 50 kHz. This is compared to a conventional power inverter having a switching frequency of less than 20 kHz. In embodiments where converters 206, 308 include gallium nitride (GaN) switches, then the frequency of operation can be higher than that of MOSFETs or IGBTs. These examples merely illustrate the improved performance of system 100 compared to conventional systems and are not intended to be limiting in any way.

[0133] Exemplary embodiments related to pulse charging In this specification, embodiments related to pulse charging, sometimes referred to as fast charging of system 100, are provided. These embodiments will be described primarily in connection with the charging of an electrochemical battery, having at least one energy source 202 in the form of a battery (having one or more cells). The battery can have any desired electrochemistry (e.g., lithium ion, lead acid, alkaline, nickel metal hydride, and others). However, the embodiments can also benefit high energy density capacitors and fuel cells, as well as combinations of one or more batteries, one or more HED capacitors, and one or more fuel cells. Accordingly, the embodiments described herein can be used in conjunction with all of the aforementioned energy sources.

[0134] The cascade topology of system 100 allows the charging voltage or current from the charging source to be divided between the energy sources 202, 304 of module 108 as needed to implement various levels of charging complexity. For example, the voltage (or current) can be applied in a pulse pattern such that some sources are charged at a given time and others are not, assuming generally that the total voltage applied to the energy sources (and other charging sinks in the system) is equal to the DC or AC voltage supplied to the system by the charging source at that instant. The voltage and duration of the applied pulse (as well as the duration of the quiescent time between pulses) can be varied and timed based on the state of those sources as monitored by the module (e.g., measurement circuit 201 and LCD 114). Thus, the voltage division between modules allows both charging of the module's sources as needed and quiescence of the module's sources as needed.

[0135] The application of charging pulses to each source of the module is accomplished by the switch circuits of converters 206, 308 under the control of control circuit 102. Thus, with respect to energy source 202 in the form of a battery having multiple cells, the charging pulses from converters 206, 308 will, in many embodiments, be applied to all cells.

[0136] FIG. 15A illustrates a current stimulation pulse that can be applied as a high bandwidth stimulation signal. FIG. 15B illustrates the time response of an electrochemical system during the application of the high bandwidth stimulation signal of FIG. 15A. In FIG. 15A, the simulation is a current step function and in FIG. 15B, the voltage signal carries the response of the system using different relaxation regimes. In the reverse case where the stimulation signal is a voltage signal, then the current signal will exhibit the system response.

[0137] Referring to FIG. 15B, different relaxation mechanisms occur on the electrochemically active interface. Typically, the response can be distinguished because it is defined by four different relaxation mechanisms. Electron relaxation occurs on the attosecond to sub-femtosecond scale, typical ion relaxation has a time constant on the millisecond scale, diffusion relaxation of species in the electrolyte occurs on the second to hour scale, and diffusion relaxation of the active material ranges from minutes to hours. The different system responses and stimulus signals shown in FIG. 15B are: 610: Response A (electron relaxation on the attosecond to sub-femtosecond scale), 620: Response B (ion relaxation on the millisecond to sub-second scale), 630: Response C (activation of electrochemical ion migration of electrons and / or ions in the electrode material), 640: Response D (diffusion of solid and / or liquid ion conduction on the second to hour scale), 650: High bandwidth current step stimulus. Table 1 below summarizes the responses referred to in this specification.

Table 1

[0138] FIG. 16 schematically illustrates typical relaxation / diffusion mechanisms that occur at the electrochemical interface during high bandwidth stimulation. Referring to FIG. 16, a schematically illustrated cross-section of an active electrode immersed in an electrolyte containing electrochemically active species is shown. FIG. 16 illustrates an electrochemically active electrode 741 to which an applied high bandwidth stimulus signal is negatively polarized to a second electrode in a full cell arrangement. FIG. 16 further illustrates an electrochemical interface 742 between the electrode 741, in which the electrolyte contains an electrochemically active material, and the electrolyte 743. FIG. 16 further illustrates one electron 751 located within the active material prior to the high bandwidth stimulus signal. Response A (752) illustrates the movement of the electron 751 at a position near the electrode interface surface within the range of the device length due to the high bandwidth stimulus signal. Response A results in a new position 753 for the electron 751 closer to the electrode interface.

[0139] FIG. 16 further illustrates negatively charged ions 761. In this exemplary embodiment, the species are not involved in the active electrochemical reaction prior to the high bandwidth signal stimulation. Response B (762) results in the movement of negatively charged counterions 761 due to the electric field of the high bandwidth stimulation signal. Response D (763) results in the movement of counterions 764 due to the concentration gradient, i.e., diffusion (e.g., 764 illustrates the position of the counterions resulting from the movement of Response B). Also shown in FIG. 16 are positively charged ions 771 prior to the high bandwidth signal simulation, and in this embodiment, the species are electrochemically active. Response D (772) results in the movement of active ions 771 due to the concentration gradient, i.e., diffusion. Response B (773) results in the movement of active ions 771 due to the electric field of the high bandwidth stimulation signal, i.e., migration. Also, as shown in FIG. 16, active ions 774 are positioned near the electrode interface surface. FIG. 16 further illustrates the electrochemical reaction and transport 782 from the electrolyte to the active electrode of the active electrochemically species that require an increased energy level for activation. Response D (792) results in the movement of active ions 783 due to the concentration gradient within the active electrode, i.e., diffusion of the active species within the active electrode material where 793 illustrates the position of the active ions after Response D.

[0140] In an embodiment, the charging algorithm, specifically, the fast charging algorithm described herein, operates autonomously at the module level and can be integrated within each module 108. For example, referring to FIG. 10B, the modules 108 are connected in a single-phase cascade arrangement and can communicate with each other and with the MCD 112 (if present) via a communication bus. The energy of the modules and the source or sink can be exchanged via a two-pole power bus in this embodiment.

[0141] Some or all of the control functions (current, voltage, temperature), as well as the measurement functions (current, voltage, and temperature), can be executed at the module level. The processing can occur directly in each module 108 with an LCD 114 where a charging algorithm can be integrated or stored. Such an arrangement enables high-bandwidth data processing and feedback control loops independent of the size and complexity of the modular energy topology. Each module 108 does not need to transmit the high-bandwidth data of each energy source of the module 108 back to the MCD 112 via a communication bus, nor does the MCD 112 need to return a high-bandwidth control signal to control each energy source within a short time frame such as in the sub-millisecond range (less than 1 millisecond). The communication bus only needs to transmit system information such as low-bandwidth control and synchronization signals for the operating mode of each module (e.g., modulation index, state of operation (e.g., idle, charging, discharging), etc.) that allows the bus bandwidth to remain at a robust low level.

[0142] For example, the embodiments of FIGS. 10A and 10B each have 12 storage units (e.g., battery cells for a battery) for primary storage as described herein. Embodiments can have more or less than 12, which are merely examples. Compared to conventional battery pack technology where all the cells of an entire battery module need to be read and processed by a centralized chip or chipset, only the signals of the 12 storage units need to be read and processed by the LCD 114 of module 108. These conventional battery packs process the signals of each storage unit at the system main controller level. For example, a battery pack with 216 energy storage units has, for example, 18 modules each having 12 storage units and a discrete LCD 114, and has communication and processing requirements that are 12 times more stringent compared to the embodiments of system 100 described herein where the modules can be integrated at the module level. Signal processing and feedback control are sensitive to scaling, and thus it should be understood that they are independent of the size of the entire system of the modular energy topology described in this disclosure.

[0143] The modular array described herein thus enables the operation of each individual storage unit at a high bandwidth signal level and controls the stimulus response at a sub-millisecond level independent of the size of the entire system. For embodiments where an electrochemical system is used, this level of control, in combination with control algorithms for charging as well as discharging, enables the operation of each individual storage unit (e.g., a battery or fuel cell in response B, C, or D regimes) with high precision.

[0144] Therefore, the features of the present embodiment enable the design and manufacture of modules without the knowledge of the size and amount of energy units required at the overall system level. Also, components at the module level are simpler compared to the requirements of components of a conventional system that act on the same level of bandwidth signal control on each energy storage unit due to the reduction in the required processing speed at the module level. These features enable a simpler system design and reduced costs for the overall system compared to conventional packaging architectures.

[0145] In an embodiment, a current or voltage may be applied to the battery such that ions are not only moved but also further intercalated within the material. The shape of the current response or voltage response may be used to determine when Li ions start to move within an active material, e.g., a cathode material or an anode material. Typically, the charge pulse length will be from about sub-milliseconds (e.g., (0.1 millisecond)) to several seconds (more than 1,000 milliseconds). The current and voltage responses will be sampled at 1 kHz or faster to determine when active intercalation of Li ions within the cathode and anode starts. The start of the active intercalation reaction determines the end of the charge pulse, which is followed by a stationary phase. The next pulse is applied after the ion gradient across the electrochemical interface has relaxed due to further intercalation and diffusion within the active material. The stationary time is determined by the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active material.

[0146] Figure 17A depicts the current and voltage signals of an exemplary embodiment of a high-speed charging algorithm that utilizes a certain response regime described herein for advanced accelerated charging. Figure 17A illustrates an important regime for advanced accelerated charging as compared to a conventional constant current charging strategy. The important operating regimes occur during the transition from response B to response C, during response C, and during the transition from response C to response D. However, the preferred operation may be at response C when the storage-related electrochemical reactions are activated as shown in Figure 17A. In this embodiment, the current is controlled and the voltage response of each cell is used as a control feedback signal. The voltage may also be controlled and the current can be used as a control feedback signal to maintain an operating endpoint at response C during the stimulus. The components and details of Figure 17A are current stimulus (10010), voltage stimulus (10020), current on (10011), current off (10012), voltage response A (10030), 10040, voltage response B (10040), voltage response C (10050) with switch-off conditions dE2 / dt2 < 0 and dE / dt < a certain threshold a, voltage response A (10031), ion gradient and voltage relaxation (10041) due to charge exchange on the electrochemical interface with switch-on conditions E < Emax, dE / dt < a certain threshold b.

[0147] Figures 18A and 18B respectively illustrate the current and voltage signals of an exemplary comparison between a constant current and a high-bandwidth stimulus-driven electrochemical reaction. Figure 18C schematically illustrates a cross-sectional view of an electrochemical electrode with active electrochemically species at different time series according to the constant current and high-bandwidth simulation signals.

[0148] Figure 18A shows a constant current stimulus - current signal (11010), a constant current stimulus - voltage signal (11015), and Figure 18B shows a high-bandwidth charging - current signal (11020) and a high-bandwidth charging - voltage signal (11025).

[0149] FIG. 18C shows an electrolyte (11030), an electrochemically active ion (11031), an electrochemical interface (11040), an electrochemically active electrode material (e.g., an intercalation material) (11050), unspecified electrons within the active electrode material (11051), an electrochemical charge transfer reaction of the electrochemically active ion (11041), and an electrochemically active ion intercalated within the active material with one associated electron located at a transition metal site (11052).

[0150] Conventional charging is based on a constant current phase until the maximum voltage of the battery reaches the constant voltage phase. During the constant voltage phase, the battery voltage is held at the maximum voltage of the battery until the current reaches a lower threshold. There are also other charging strategies described in the literature where a step current function or a pulsed current pattern is used. However, the known strategies commonly have the need to directly promote electrochemical reactions on the interface by the applied voltage and current from an external source. The time of the applied current or voltage is longer than responses A, B, and C, and in the scenario where the active electrode material is an intercalation material (as shown in FIG. 18C), it leads to non-uniformity in the distribution of active species within the electrolyte and at the electrode surface within the active material. The material reacting with the intercalation material or the active ion species is typically used in a battery. The non-uniform distribution of active ion species within the electrolyte and the active electrode material is mainly caused by the non-uniformity of the local resistance and local charge transfer resistivity of the electrolyte on the electrode surface. These resistive non-uniformities are not avoidable due to battery design and construction. This can lead to local overheating due to hot spots, which can lead to concentration gradients that can cause Li deposition on the anode or other parts of the battery and phase transformation on the cathode. Local overheating can lead to an increase in electrolyte side reactions on the electrode surface. All these effects lead to an acceleration of battery degradation, limiting the charging current, and thus the charging rate and speed.

[0151] In the case of high - bandwidth charging according to the present disclosure, the electrochemical reaction is not directly promoted by an externally applied voltage or current. Rather, the electrochemical reaction is only activated by the applied voltage and current (as opposed to being promoted by them). After activation of the electrochemical reaction, the external source is disconnected, and the reaction is further promoted by the concentration gradients that build up between Response A, Response B, and Response C. The concentration gradients build up very uniformly across the area of the electrochemical interface, being substantially independent of local resistance variations in the charge - transfer resistance. This reduces the accumulation of hot spots, as schematically shown in FIG. 18C for high - bandwidth charging applications.

[0152] The foregoing embodiments lead to an improved concentration uniformity of the active species within the electrolyte and, more importantly, within the active material, which reduces local overheating. This is directly related to lower degradation and less damage to the battery during charging, as well as the ability to charge the battery at higher current densities to accelerate charging.

[0153] FIGS. 19A and 19B are flow diagrams depicting exemplary embodiments of methods 1900 and 1950 for charging one or more batteries based on current - controlled and voltage - controlled high - bandwidth stimulation, respectively. These methods can be executed by a module circuit under the control of a control circuit 102, preferably a control circuit 102 (e.g., LCD 114) that is local to the module. The threshold will vary for each battery chemistry and type. The methods can utilize a self - learning algorithm to optimize and adapt to the threshold over time, and the use of the battery can be integrated into an advanced charging algorithm implemented on the control circuit 102 (e.g., LCD 114). Methods 1900 and 1950 will be described as being executed by individual modules 108 of system 100, but the features of the methods can also be applied at the system - wide level.

[0154] Referring first to FIG. 19A, at step 1902, one or more parameters of the battery 202 of module 108 can be measured. The one or more parameters can be measured with respect to the battery as a whole or for each cell of the battery individually. These parameters can include, for example, the state of charge of the battery or battery cells, and optionally, the temperature of the battery or battery cells. Step 1902 may be performed during normal discharge operation of system 100 and thus need not be performed after system 100 is placed in a charged state (e.g., connection and switching of system 100 to a charging source). Step 1902 can be repeated as needed throughout method 1900 to obtain current parameter values.

[0155] If the state of charge of the battery is low enough (e.g., below a threshold such as 60 - 80% of capacity) to enable the application of a fast charging technique, a high current pulse can be applied to charge the battery cells in a relatively fast manner. At step 1904, the split voltage from the power connection can be converted into a controlled current pulse. For example, the switch circuits of converters 206, 308 can supply a voltage pulse to a controllable DC - DC converter (e.g., converter 930 of FIG. 10B) or other circuit that can be controlled to generate a pulse of a desired current level from power connection 110. At 1906, the current - controlled pulse can be applied to the battery (e.g., when connected in series, to all cells together, or when connected in parallel, the same pulse is split and applied individually to each cell). In some embodiments, the current is adjusted to ensure that the voltage applied to the battery does not exceed a maximum threshold (e.g., the rated maximum value with respect to the source), such as the expected voltage of the battery when the state of charge is 100% SOC. In other embodiments, a voltage exceeding this maximum value can be applied for a short time such that it does not initiate or promote side reactions in the battery cells, as further described herein (see, e.g., FIG. 17B).

[0156] In 1907, the voltage response on each battery within module 108 is measured (e.g., using measurement circuit 201). In 1908, the measured response can be used to determine whether the cutoff condition is met. In some embodiments, the cutoff condition can be satisfied when it is determined that the Second-order derivative of the voltage response is negative and the First-order derivative of the voltage response is lower than a threshold. The battery or batteries of the module that determine the cutoff condition can be the first such battery or batteries that satisfy the cutoff condition, or can be based on a weighted algorithm. After the cutoff condition is satisfied for all but at least one battery, then the current pulse can be terminated by a switching circuit (e.g., converters 206, 308).

[0157] In step 1910, the battery can be rested with no pulses applied over a rest period. In 1911, a determination can be made as to whether a SOC threshold less than maximum (e.g., 60 - 80% or another level) is reached, which can involve performing another SOC measurement. The selected threshold can depend on the battery chemistry. If the threshold is reached, in step 1912, the system transitions to another charging technique using a relatively slower method such as using a longer duration of a certain lower current and can reach the full SOC level (e.g., 100%) as determined by the needs of the system. If the method continues, in step 1914, a determination is made as to whether to adjust the current of the next pulse. This determination can be made based on the voltage measured during the pulse - on phase, for example, by assessing the difference between a pre - determined maximum voltage of the battery and the voltage peak of the battery measured while applying the pulse. As the difference decreases, the current applied between each successive pulse can be reduced to help ensure that the battery does not exceed the pre - determined maximum voltage. If no adjustment is made, the method can return to step 1902 or 1904 and repeat. If the current is adjusted, this can occur at 1916 prior to returning. The application of the next pulse can be conditioned on meeting a restart condition and / or after the elapse of a minimum or pre - determined time period. An example of meeting the restart condition is that the Second-order derivative of the voltage response is positive and after the determination that the First-order derivative of the voltage response is greater than a threshold which can be the same or a different threshold.

[0158] FIG. 19B depicts a method 1950 that is similar to method 1900 but is implemented using voltage-controlled pulses as opposed to current-controlled pulses. At step 1952, one or more parameters of battery 202 of module 108 can be measured. The one or more parameters can be measured with respect to the battery, either as a whole or individually for each cell of the battery. These parameters can include, for example, the state of charge of the battery or battery cells, and optionally, the temperature of the battery or battery cells. Step 1952 may be performed during normal discharge operation of system 100 and thus need not be performed after system 100 is placed in a charged state (e.g., connection and switching of system 100 to a charging source). Step 1952 can be repeated as needed throughout method 1950 to obtain current parameter values.

[0159] When the state of charge of the battery is low enough (e.g., below a threshold such as 60 - 80% of the capacity) to enable the application of fast charging techniques, a high - voltage pulse can be applied to charge the battery cells in a relatively fast manner. At step 1954, the divided voltage from the power connection can be converted into a controlled voltage pulse. For example, the switch circuits of converters 206, 308 can supply the voltage pulse to a controllable DC - DC converter (e.g., converter 930 of FIG. 10B) or other circuits that can be controlled to generate a pulse of a desired voltage level from the power connection 110. At 1956, the voltage - controlled pulse can be applied to the battery as a whole (e.g., when connected in series, to all the cells together, or when connected in parallel, the same pulse is applied to each cell individually). In some embodiments, the current is adjusted to ensure that the voltage applied to the battery does not exceed a maximum threshold such as the expected voltage of the battery when it is at 100% SOC (e.g., the rated maximum value with respect to the source). In other embodiments, a voltage exceeding this maximum value can be applied for a short time such that it does not initiate or promote side reactions in the battery cells, as further described herein (see, e.g., FIG. 17B).

[0160] At 1957, the current response on each cell within module 108 is measured (e.g., using measurement circuit 201). At 1958, the measured response can be used to determine whether the cutoff condition is met. In some embodiments, the cutoff condition can be met when the Second-order derivative of the current response is negative and it is determined that the First-order derivative of the current response is lower than a threshold. The battery or cells of the module that determines the cutoff condition can be the first such battery or cells that meet the cutoff condition or can be based on a weighted algorithm. After the cutoff condition is met for all but at least one cell, then the voltage pulse can be terminated by a switching circuit (e.g., converters 206, 308).

[0161] In step 1960, the battery can be stationary with no pulses applied over a stationary period. In 1911, a determination can be made as to whether a SOC threshold less than the maximum is reached (e.g., 60 - 80% or another level), which can involve performing another SOC measurement. The selected threshold can depend on the battery chemistry. If the threshold is reached, in step 1962, the system transitions to another charging technique using a relatively slower method such as using a longer duration at a certain lower voltage (less than the expected voltage at full charge), and can reach the full SOC level (e.g., 100%) as determined by the needs of the system. If the method continues, in step 1964, a determination is made as to whether to adjust the voltage of the next pulse. This determination can be made by assessing the difference between the pre - determined maximum voltage of the battery and the voltage peak of the battery measured while applying the pulse. As the difference decreases, the voltage applied between each successive pulse can be reduced to help ensure that the battery does not exceed the pre - determined maximum voltage. No adjustment is made In that case, the method can return to step 1952 or 1954 and repeat. If the current is adjusted, this can occur in 1966 prior to returning. The application of the next pulse can be conditioned on meeting a restart condition and / or after the elapse of a minimum or pre - determined time period. An example of meeting a restart condition is that the Second-order derivative of the current response is positive, and after the determination that the First-order derivative of the current response is greater than a threshold, which can be the same or a different threshold.

[0162] In electrochemical storage devices, primary and side reactions can occur. The electrochemical reaction is the primary process for energy storage and can also be referred to as one or more storage reactions. With respect to lithium-ion battery chemistry, this is the reaction of Li ions with the active material. Examples of such reactions on the cathode of a Li-ion battery are intercalation reactions with graphite, alloy reactions with silicon, substitution reactions with oxides, or even plating reactions of Li metal. On the anode of a Li-ion battery, typical examples of primary storage reactions are intercalation reactions with oxide or phosphate-type materials, substitution reactions with oxides or fluorides, or even formation reactions with oxygen as utilized in lithium-air batteries. Typically, these reactions are fairly simple, single-electron electrochemical reactions where only one electron is transferred. With respect to other battery chemistries, it is also typical for the electrochemical reaction to be based on an electrochemical process where a few (e.g., two or less) electrons are transferred. For example, only two electrons are transferred in the case of lead-acid and alkaline chemistries, and only one electron is transferred with respect to nickel-metal hydride chemistry.

[0163] Side reactions are undesirable reactions that either do not contribute to energy storage or do not improve the energy storage capacity of the source. Side reactions can be harmful or degenerative to the source, such as by limiting the cut-off voltage during the charge or discharge process and / or shortening the operating life of the energy source. The embodiments provided herein include techniques where a pulse is applied to initiate an electrochemical reaction without initiating and / or promoting at least one side reaction, preferably all side reactions, in the source.

[0164] A non-exhaustive list of examples of such reactions includes the oxidation reaction of the electrolyte on the positive electrode, the reduction reaction on the negative electrode, the decomposition reaction of the active material (e.g., reduction or phase change reaction), the dissolution reaction of the metal compound of the active material, the reaction that results in the formation of dendrites (e.g., lithium dendrite plating for a lithium-ion battery), the reaction that results in the dissolution or unwanted growth of the SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) on the anode, and the reaction that results in the dissolution or oxidation of the current collector on any electrode.

[0165] These side reactions are typically more complex than the electrochemical reaction and are often associated with slow chemical, transport, or rearrangement processes involving multiple electron transfers. For example, ethylene carbonate, a typical component of the electrolyte of a Li-ion battery, decomposes via multiple reaction pathways. These decomposition reaction pathways are based on five electron transfers and result in the formation of ethylene, polycarbonates associated with a series of nucleophilic reactions, lithium ethylene dialkoxide, carbon dioxide, and lithium ethylene decarboxylate.

[0166] Reactions involving single or a few electron transfers are typically kinetically much faster with much shorter reaction time constants compared to multi-electron transfer reactions. This behavior can be explained and understood using Marcus theory in combination with first-principles considerations of the electron tunneling process.

[0167] Results for electrochemical storage devices such as batteries, fuel cells, and HED capacitors are that the onset of the desired primary storage reaction is much faster than the onset of unwanted side reactions. This behavior enables new charging or discharging strategies that can suppress or even completely avoid side reactions, as described and proposed herein. Embodiments are provided herein where each module 108 is configured to charge the energy source 202 such that a pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction at the source without initiating, promoting, or substantially promoting a side reaction at the source.

[0168] A pulse application pattern where each pulse has a duration longer than the reaction time constant of the primary electrochemical reaction but shorter than the time constant of side reactions allows for the application of one or more pulses at an elevated voltage level during the charging process, which can lead to faster charging compared to conventional constant current and constant voltage charging methodologies. Further, effective suppression of side reactions will slow down aging and degradation and thus extend the life of the energy source.

[0169] The reaction time constant of an electrochemical reaction can be directly related to the exchange current density of the reaction or the charge transfer resistance. Depending on the complexity of the reaction, the charge transfer resistance and exchange current can span several orders of magnitude. The reduction of a transition metal such as an ion or cobalt (typically utilized in the primary storage reaction of lithium-ion chemistry) corresponds to a very low exchange resistivity with a reaction time constant of sub-milliseconds (e.g., 0.1 millisecond), with a high exchange current density of up to 1 A / cm 2 (ampere per square centimeter). On the other hand, the water decomposition reaction, which is a major side reaction in batteries with aqueous electrolytes, exhibits a very low exchange current density in the range of 10 -6 ~10 -10 A / cm 2 and has a high charge transfer resistance and a reaction time constant of up to 1 second or more. In such an embodiment, the control circuit of the module (e.g., LCD114) can control the application of pulses to the source using a pattern of pulses where the length or duration of each pulse is longer than the sub-millisecond duration to initiate (optionally, prompt) the primary electrochemical reaction but shorter than 1 second or several seconds to avoid the initiation of the water decomposition side reaction.

[0170] It depends on the chemistry of the source. In some embodiments, the pulse length can range from 0.1 milliseconds (mS) to 5 seconds, more preferably from 1 mS to 100 mS, and even more preferably from 5 mS to 25 mS (e.g., using lithium-ion chemistry, etc.). These ranges correspond to different exemplary embodiments, and the implementation can vary and will vary depending on the structure, chemistry, and / or composition of the source. Thus, it is emphasized that the subject matter disclosed herein is not limited to any of these ranges.

[0171] These and other pulse patterns that avoid the onset of side reactions allow for the application of pulses using a voltage that can be higher than the expected source voltage at full charge conditions (e.g., 100% SOC). An example of this expected voltage is the rated maximum voltage of the source (such as provided by the manufacturer). In some embodiments, this increased voltage level is 101 - 200% of the expected voltage at 100% SOC. In some embodiments, the range can be narrower, such as 101 - 180% or 105% - 150%, etc. Table 2 provides a list of exemplary expected voltages at 100% SOC (maximum voltage) for batteries of common chemistry. These are merely examples, and the maximum voltage will vary based on battery chemistry, composition, size, and structure.

Table 2-1

Table 2-2

[0172] For example, using NMC / graphite lithium-ion chemistry, the battery can be limited to the application of a voltage of about 4.2V (the expected voltage at 100% SOC), and the voltage value is not exceeded between any operating points using standard charge and discharge protocols. With respect to the pulse pattern that avoids side reactions as described herein, the applied voltage can be higher than 4.2V within a voltage range of 0% to 80% of the expected voltage at full charge. The pulses can be applied at these elevated voltage levels when the source is at a charge level that is less than full SOC (e.g., 60 - 80%). The pulse voltage level can be greater when the source is at a low SOC level than when the source is at a high SOC level. For example, the voltage of the applied pulse is at a first level when the source is at a first SOC that is less than full SOC, the source is at a second SOC that is greater than the first SOC, and subsequently, after charging, when the applied pulse is at a second level that is less than the first voltage level. For example, the elevated level can be 50% higher at low state of charge compared to the elevated level when at a higher state of charge. Thus, the elevated voltage level can decrease as the source SOC increases, and the application of the pulse at the elevated level preferably stops when the source reaches a target SOC level (e.g., 60 - 80%) that is less than full SOC (e.g., 100%). The target level can be selected based on the source chemistry.

[0173] Figure 17B depicts the current and voltage signals of another exemplary embodiment of a fast charging algorithm that utilizes a pulse scheme to generate elevated voltage levels for advanced accelerated charging. In this embodiment, the current is controlled to produce an elevated voltage response as described. The features of Figure 17B are the current stimulus (17010), voltage stimulus (17020), current on (17011), current off (17012), voltage response A (10030), voltage response B (10040), voltage response C (10050) with switch-off conditions dE2 / dt2 < 0 and dE / dt < a certain threshold a, and relaxation of the ion gradient and voltage (10041) due to charge exchange on the electrochemical interface with switch-on conditions E < Emax, dE / dt < a certain threshold b. E at 100% SOC corresponds to the expected voltage at full charge. Here, the first two pulses are generally applied at the same voltage exceeding E, the third pulse is applied using a regulated and reduced voltage, and the fourth pulse is applied using a voltage less than E. In practice, as many pulses as necessary can be continuously applied at a voltage exceeding E. The rest time between pulses can vary and need not be constant, nor does the duration of the pulses themselves need to be constant.

[0174] The embodiments provided herein further include techniques where a pulse is applied to initiate an electrochemical reaction without initiating and / or promoting harmful or degenerative side reactions (such as those listed above and those that can dissolve SEI, etc.), but which result in a modification of the battery's structure to upgrade performance (e.g., lifespan), allowing those beneficial side reactions such as non - harmful or non - degenerative side reactions. For example, in some embodiments, the formation of SEI (solid electrolyte interphase) in the first cycle or the first few cycles of a battery promotes the formation of a stable protective coating that can improve the functional lifespan of the battery. The side reactions used to form SEI can thus have a beneficial effect on the battery. In such embodiments, the pulse duration can be controlled so that these side reactions occur. After the formation of the SEI coating, the pulse duration can be modified (shortened) so that the electrochemical reaction is initiated without initiating and / or promoting this and other side reactions. The embodiments described herein can also be utilized and adjusted so that other side reactions that prove to be useful are tolerated over the lifespan of the source.

[0175] All of the foregoing embodiments regarding pulse charging can be implemented in accordance with the pulse width modulation scheme as described with respect to FIGS. 11C - 11F, with additional constraints on the pulse length implemented when applicable, such that they do not violate the pulse duration conditions of certain embodiments described herein, such as those regarding the initiation of an electrochemical reaction without the initiation of side reactions.

[0176] The exemplary embodiments discussed above can be applied at the system level to enable electrification of mass transportation vehicles and systems such as, for example, locomotives and rail vehicles, buses, trucks, ferries, aircraft, and the like. In a mass transportation system that utilizes locomotives and rail vehicles, buses, trucks, ferries, aircraft, or other vehicles, the exemplary embodiments can be applied to a first environment having three or more waypoints that include battery charging or battery swapping equipment at all waypoints, or to a second environment having three or more waypoints that include battery charging or battery swapping equipment at less than all waypoints. Waypoints include, but are not limited to, parking lots, stations, docks, ports, locations where non-steady charging is possible, and other locations where a vehicle can stop and / or receive an energy source whether electrical or otherwise.

[0177] Vehicles operating within the first environment may be equipped with a smaller battery pack (and / or other energy storage unit) than vehicles operating within the second environment. Further, the power required at each charging station may be smaller in relation to the first environment than the second environment due to the shorter distances during charging. In another case, an implementation of the first environment in which the vehicle makes short stops along its route may require higher charging power than the same vehicle operating in relation to the second environment, where the implementation of the second environment allows for longer stops for charging (e.g., at the end of the route).

[0178] Any one or more of the advanced battery charging methods, modular energy topologies, battery systems, and / or converter-battery units described herein may be applied in connection with such embodiments to improve the energy management and other aspects of mass transit systems. Other exemplary systems may also be contemplated that include any number of waypoints having unique attributes including, but not limited to, vehicle stop times, charging equipment and its available charging power, battery or energy storage unit replacement equipment, and / or distance from adjacent parking lots along a given route.

[0179] In such systems, the energy consumption or requirements are typically too high to deploy an energy storage unit to support the operation of the vehicle over a full operating shift. For example, the operating shifts for rail vehicles, buses, aircraft, and the like can be 12 - 19 hours. In the case of high-speed rail embodiments, the energy consumption over a 19-hour operating shift is higher than 25 MWh. Batteries with a sufficient amount of energy would be too heavy and too expensive. As a result, charging during shift operation, if not required, is preferred.

[0180] A first exemplary scenario in which the present embodiment may be applied includes fast charging at terminal stations and substations / parking lots. The embodiments provided herein enable high-bandwidth pulse charging and accelerate charging without battery damage (e.g., 20 minutes instead of 40 minutes to 70 - 80% state of charge). In such scenarios, no special chargers are required at stations, substations, or parking lots. The embodiments provided herein enable charging from any AC or DC power system and are bi-directional such that the embodiment can power the motor and can also be used to charge the battery. The embodiments also enable advanced energy peak shaving and minimize the power rating of the grid infrastructure.

[0181] A second exemplary scenario to which the present embodiment may be applied includes the use of replaceable energy sources at a terminal station or / and a sub-station or a parking lot or the like. These embodiments can include a modular system in which a battery module or pack is removed and the removed module or pack can be exchanged with another battery module or pack without the need for the module or pack to match other modules or packs already in place. Thus, the embodiments can allow for the replacement of only two modules or packs, or, if desired, partial replacement of the entire converter-battery system, as required. The battery capacity can be adjusted by adding modules during operation depending on the desired energy and power requirements, and fewer battery modules can be used when the load is lower.

[0182] A third exemplary scenario to which the present embodiment may be applied includes fast charging of a battery on a rail where an energy source is provided, such as a third rail or a certain charging catenary infrastructure on a corridor or a part of a route. The above embodiments enable high-bandwidth pulse charging, accelerating charging without battery damage (e.g., 20 minutes instead of 40 minutes to 70% state of charge) without using special chargers, and allowing charging from any AC or DC power system. The embodiments enable advanced temperature control and a higher charging C-rate at the system level compared to conventional systems.

[0183] The vehicle battery pack configuration can be adapted during the operating life as required. When there is a need to use the vehicle for different routes that require different power or energy, the battery pack modules can be exchanged and adapted as required. The battery modules can have different battery chemistries, different C-rate capabilities, and different capacities, and the system will adapt accordingly.

[0184] In addition, the vehicle module can be partially updated depending on the status of the module's soundness. Further, the vehicle battery pack need not be sized large over its desired life because the improved energy utilization of the aged battery by applying the embodiments discussed herein can avoid substantial over-sizing over the desired life compared to the prior art, such that this can lead to fewer battery modules or packs and reduced costs.

[0185] Due to the high cycle life of mass transport applications, the life of the battery can be substantially limited. As discussed in two high-speed rail examples with high-energy batteries of 250 Wh / kg and 4,000 cycle life (70 - 80% of their initial capacity / energy), the batteries need to be replaced every one or two years. The embodiments described herein enable the use of the modules directly without any modification for any stationary storage application. This enables cost savings due to the high residual value of the modules after mass transport applications. This will avoid additional costs or fees for recycling.

[0186] In all of the embodiments described in this specification, the primary energy source of each module of a particular system can have the same voltage (either a standard operating voltage or a nominal voltage). Such a configuration simplifies the management and construction of the system. The primary and second energy sources can also have the same voltage (standard or nominal). Other configurations are also possible, such as those in which the primary energy sources of different modules of the same system have different voltages (standard or nominal), and those in which the primary and secondary energy sources of a module have different voltages (standard or nominal). Still other configurations are possible, such as those in which the primary energy source of a module of the system has primary energy source batteries of different chemistries, or those in which a module of the system has a primary energy source battery of a first chemistry and a secondary energy source battery of a second chemistry. Different modules from each other can be based on their installation within the system (e.g., modules within a phased array are different from IC modules).

[0187] The various components of the figures (e.g., elements, components, devices, systems, and / or functional blocks) are depicted as being coupled or connected to one or more other components (e.g., elements, components, devices, systems, and / or functional blocks). These components are often shown as being coupled or connected without the presence of intervening entities such as in a direct coupling or connection. One of ordinary skill in the art, in light of this description, will readily recognize that these couplings and connections can be direct (without one or more intervening components) or indirect (with one or more intervening components not shown). Thus, this paragraph serves as a precedent support for all couplings or connections that are direct couplings or connections or indirect couplings or connections.

[0188] A detailed discussion of systems (such as an ACi battery pack), devices, and methods that can be used in conjunction with the systems, devices, and methods described herein is provided in International Publication No. WO2019 / 183553, filed Mar. 22, 2019, entitled "Systems And Methods For Power Management And Control", International Application No. PCT / US20 / 25202, filed Mar. 27, 2020, entitled "Module-based Energy Storage Systems Having Converter-Source Modules and Methods Related Thereto", and International Application No. PCT / US20 / 25366, filed Mar. 27, 2020, entitled "Module-based Energy Storage Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto" (each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes as if fully set forth).

[0189] Embodiments described herein, for example, when used as a battery pack in the automotive industry, allow for the elimination of conventional battery management systems as a subsystem associated with each battery module. Typically, the functionality implemented by a battery management system is incorporated or replaced by functionality that is, in many respects, superior to that of the system embodiments described herein.

[0190] One of ordinary skill in the art will understand that, as used herein, the term "module" refers to a device, assembly, or subsystem within system 100, and that system 100 need not be configured such that each individual module is physically removable and replaceable with respect to other modules. For example, system 100 may be packaged within a common housing that does not permit removal and replacement of any one module without disassembling the system as a whole. However, every embodiment herein may be configured such that each module is removable in a convenient manner without disassembling the system, etc., and replaceable with respect to other modules.

[0191] The term "master control device" is used herein in a broad sense and does not require implementation of any specific protocol such as a master and slave relationship with any other device such as a local control device.

[0192] The term "output" is used herein in a broad sense and does not exclude functioning in a bidirectional manner as both output and input. Similarly, the term "input" is used herein in a broad sense and does not exclude functioning in a bidirectional manner as both input and output.

[0193] The terms "terminal" and "port" are used herein in a broad sense and can be either unidirectional or bidirectional, can be input or output, and do not require a specific physical or mechanical structure such as a female or male configuration.

[0194] The exemplary embodiments described herein can be used in combination with one or more cooling systems to dissipate heat from any and all components of a system (e.g., switch circuits, energy sources, energy buffers, control circuits, etc.). The cooling system can utilize a cooling medium such as a gas, liquid, or solid. The cooling system can utilize one or more piezoelectric cooling elements.

[0195] Various aspects of the present subject matter are described below by examining and / or supplementing the embodiments described so far, where the interrelationship and compatibility of the following embodiments are emphasized. In other words, the fact that each feature of an embodiment can be combined with any other feature is emphasized, unless explicitly stated otherwise or logically unrealistic.

[0196] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided that includes a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, and in a discharge state, at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform having a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit being configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cell in a charging state.

[0197] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

[0198] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% charge. The first voltage can be a voltage that is 101 to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery at 100% charge. The control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one pulse is applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 100%. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one pulse is applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. At least one pulse can be at least one first pulse, and the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse such that when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery at the time of application of at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage that is less than the first voltage, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% charge. The control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one first pulse and at least one second pulse are applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%.

[0199] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%.

[0200] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds.

[0201] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cell, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds.

[0202] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cell, and each pulse has a duration of 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds. The battery cell can be a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0203] In some embodiments, each module includes a plurality of battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the plurality of battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions within the plurality of battery cells.

[0204] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without promoting side reactions within the battery cell.

[0205] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without initiating side reactions within the battery cell.

[0206] In some embodiments, the battery cell contains electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit can be configured to terminate the application of the pulse substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions begins. The battery cell can include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit can be configured to apply a charging pulse substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0207] In some embodiments, each of the plurality of converter modules comprises a monitoring circuit communicatively coupled to a control circuit, the monitoring circuit being configured to detect a voltage or current response of the battery.

[0208] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to start and / or end a pulse based on the response detected by the monitoring circuit.

[0209] In some embodiments, the control circuit includes a plurality of local control devices communicatively coupled to the plurality of converter modules such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device, and a master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices. The local control device of the converter module can be configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse. The local control device can be configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse without an instruction from the master control device. Each of the plurality of converter modules can have a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module can be configured to control the switch circuit of the converter module such that the voltage applied to the power port is used for generating a pulse for application to the battery. The master control device can be configured to control the plurality of local control devices and adjust the utilization of the charging voltage applied from an external voltage source to at least one array.

[0210] In some embodiments, each of the plurality of converter modules includes a DC-DC converter electrically coupled between a switch circuit and the battery.

[0211] In some embodiments, a plurality of converter modules are coupled together within three or more arrays, and each of the three or more arrays is configured to generate an AC voltage waveform having a different phase angle.

[0212] In some embodiments, the plurality of converter modules includes at least one interconnect module coupled to at least two of the three or more arrays.

[0213] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided, the system including a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module including a battery cell and a switch circuit, and in a discharge state, at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform having a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell in a charging state.

[0214] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

[0215] In some embodiments, at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

[0216] In some embodiments, the first voltage is a voltage that is 101% to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

[0217] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses such that at least one pulse is applied when the charge state of the battery cell is less than 100%.

[0218] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one pulse is applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. The at least one pulse can be at least one first pulse, and the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% state of charge. The control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse such that at least one first pulse and at least one second pulse are applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%.

[0219] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery.

[0220] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%.

[0221] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds.

[0222] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of the pulse, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds.

[0223] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to control the application of pulses, each pulse having a duration of 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds. The battery can be a lithium-ion battery.

[0224] In some embodiments, the battery contains electrochemically active ions, and the control circuit can be configured to terminate the application of a pulse substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions begins. The battery can include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the control circuit can be configured to apply a charging pulse substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0225] In some embodiments, each of the plurality of converter modules includes a monitoring circuit communicatively coupled to the control circuit, and the monitoring circuit is configured to detect the voltage or current response of the battery.

[0226] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to start and / or terminate a pulse based on the response detected by the monitoring circuit.

[0227] In some embodiments, the control circuit includes a plurality of local control devices communicatively coupled to a plurality of converter modules such that at least one converter module is associated with each local control device, and a master control device communicatively coupled to the plurality of local control devices. The local control device of the converter module is configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse. The local control device can be configured to determine whether to cause the start and / or end of a pulse without an instruction from the master control device. Each of the plurality of converter modules can have a power port for outputting and receiving energy, and the local control device associated with each converter module can be configured to control the switch circuit of the converter module such that the voltage applied to the power port is used for generating a pulse for application to the battery cell. The master control device can be configured to control the plurality of local control devices and adjust the utilization of the charging voltage applied from an external voltage source to at least one array.

[0228] In some embodiments, each of the plurality of converter modules can include a DC-DC converter electrically coupled between a switch circuit and a battery cell, and the DC-DC converter is controllable by the control circuit to regulate the voltage of a signal from the switch circuit for application to the battery cell.

[0229] In some embodiments, the plurality of converter modules can be coupled together within three or more arrays, and each of the three or more arrays is configured to generate an AC voltage waveform having a different phase angle. The plurality of converter modules can include at least one interconnect module coupled to at least two of the three or more arrays.

[0230] In some embodiments, each module includes a plurality of battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the plurality of battery cells.

[0231] In many embodiments, a method of charging a modular energy storage system is provided, the system including a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module including a battery cell and a switch circuit, the method including applying a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell.

[0232] In some embodiments, the method further includes applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that is greater than the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

[0233] In some embodiments, the method further includes applying at least one pulse at a first voltage that is greater than the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

[0234] In some embodiments, the first voltage is a voltage that is 101% to 200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

[0235] In some embodiments, the method further includes applying at least one pulse when the state of charge of the battery cell is less than 100%.

[0236] In some embodiments, the method further includes applying at least one pulse when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%. The at least one pulse can be at least one first pulse, and the method can further include applying at least one second pulse at a second voltage less than a first voltage when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery when the at least one first pulse is applied, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% state of charge. The at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse can be applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%.

[0237] In some embodiments, the pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery.

[0238] In some embodiments, the pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%.

[0239] In some embodiments, a plurality of pulses, each having a duration of from 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds, are applied.

[0240] In some embodiments, a plurality of pulses, each having a duration of from 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds, are applied.

[0241] In some embodiments, a plurality of pulses, each having a duration of from 5 milliseconds to 25 milliseconds, are applied. The battery can be a lithium-ion battery.

[0242] In some embodiments, the battery cell contains electrochemically active ions, and the application of the pulse ends substantially at the time when the active intercalation of the electrochemically active ions begins. The battery cell can include an electrolyte and an active electrode material, and the application of the pulse ends substantially in response to the relaxation of the voltage at the interface between the electrolyte and the active electrode material.

[0243] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of detecting the voltage or current response of the battery cell. The method can further include the step of starting and / or ending the application of the pulse based on the detected response within the battery cell.

[0244] In some embodiments, the system further includes a control circuit associated with a plurality of converter modules.

[0245] In many embodiments, a method of charging a modular energy storage system is provided that includes a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, the method including the steps of measuring a parameter of the energy source, generating a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit, applying a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse, and measuring a response of the energy source.

[0246] In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response. The method can further include the step of ending the application of the controlled response after the pulse cut-off condition is met. The pulse cut-off condition is of the measured response First-order derivative and Second-order derivativeIt can be based on this. The method can further include determining whether the energy source is at a charge threshold less than the maximum. The method can further include transitioning to a different charging method if a charge threshold less than the maximum is reached.

[0247] In some embodiments, the method can further include determining whether to adjust the voltage or current of a second controlled pulse. The method can further include adjusting the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse.

[0248] In many embodiments, a modular energy storage system is provided, the system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, in a discharge state, at least one array being configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from a plurality of converter modules, a plurality of converter modules, and a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit being configured to cause measurement of parameters of the energy source, cause generation of a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit, cause application of a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse and configured to cause measurement of a response of the energy source.

[0249] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to determine whether a pulse cut-off condition is satisfied based on the measured response. The control circuit can be configured to cause termination of the application of the controlled response after the pulse cut-off condition is satisfied. The pulse cut-off condition is based on the measured response of First-order derivative and Second-order derivative thereof.

[0250] In some embodiments, the control circuit is configured to determine whether the energy source is at a charge threshold less than maximum. The control circuit can be configured to transition to a different charging method if the charge threshold less than maximum is reached.

[0251] In some embodiments, the control circuit can be configured to determine whether to adjust the voltage or current of a second controlled pulse. The control circuit can be configured to cause adjustment of the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current is less than that of the first controlled pulse.

[0252] The processing circuit can include one or more processors, microprocessors, controllers, and / or microcontrollers, each of which can be a discrete chip or can be distributed among several different chips (and portions thereof). The processing circuit can include a digital signal processor, which can be implemented in hardware and / or software. The processing circuit can execute software instructions stored in memory that cause the processing circuit to host different actions and control other components.

[0253] The processing circuit can also be adapted to execute an operating system and any software applications and perform other functions not related to the processing of communications transmitted and received.

[0254] The memory can be shared by one or more of the various functional units present or can be distributed among two or more of them (e.g., as separate memories present in different chips). The memory can also be its own separate chip. The memory is non-transitory and can be volatile (e.g., RAM, etc.) and / or non-volatile memory (e.g., ROM, flash memory, F-RAM (registered trademark), etc.).

[0255] Computer program instructions for performing operations in accordance with the described subject matter may be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including object-oriented programming languages such as Java®, JavaScript®, Smalltalk, C++, C#, Transact-SQL, XML, PHP, or the like, and conventional procedural programming languages such as the "C" programming language or similar programming languages. The program instructions may be executed entirely on the user's computing device (e.g., a reader), or partially on the user's computing device. The program instructions may be resident partially on the user's computing device and partially on a remote computing device, or, for example, uploaded to a remote location for processing at an identified frequency, e.g., may be resident entirely on a remote computing device or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computing device may be connected to the user's computing device through any type of network, or the connection may be made to an external computer.

[0256] Note that all features, elements, components, functions, and steps described with respect to any embodiment provided herein are intended to be freely combinable and substitutable with those from any other embodiment. If a feature, element, component, function, or step is described with respect to only one embodiment, it is to be understood that that feature, element, component, function, or step may be used in combination with all other embodiments described herein, unless explicitly stated otherwise. This paragraph thus serves as a basis for precedence and written support for the introduction of claims that combine or substitute features, elements, components, functions, and steps from different embodiments at any time, even if the following description does not explicitly describe in a particular case that such combination or substitution is possible. In particular, it is explicitly recognized that an explicit listing of all possible combinations and substitutions would be unduly burdensome, assuming that the permissibility of all such combinations and substitutions would be readily recognized by those skilled in the art.

[0257] To the extent that embodiments disclosed herein include or operate in relation to a memory, a storage device, and / or a computer-readable medium, then that memory, storage device, and / or computer-readable medium is non-transitory. Thus, to the extent that the memory, storage device, and / or computer-readable medium is covered by one or more claims, then the memory, storage device, and / or computer-readable medium is only non-transitory. As used herein, the terms “non-transitory” and “tangible” are intended to describe a memory, storage device, and / or computer-readable medium that excludes propagating electromagnetic signals, but are not intended to limit the type of memory, storage device, and / or computer-readable medium in terms of its durability or otherwise. For example, “non-transitory” and / or “tangible” memory, storage devices, and / or computer-readable media include random access media (e.g., RAM, SRAM, DRAM, FRAM®, etc.), read-only media (e.g., ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash, etc.), and combinations thereof (e.g., hybrid RAM and ROM, NVRAM, etc.) as well as variants developed thereafter and the like, both volatile and non-volatile media.

[0258] As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0259] Embodiments may be subject to various modifications and alternative forms, and specific examples thereof are shown in the drawings and described in detail herein. However, these embodiments are not intended to be limited to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, these embodiments are intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit of the present disclosure. Further, negative limitations that define the scope of an embodiment by any feature, function, step, or element thereof, as well as features, functions, steps, or elements not within the scope of the invention of the claims, may be recited or added to the claims.

Claims

1. A modular energy storage system comprising: a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharge state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, wherein in a charge state, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions within the battery cell; wherein the control circuit is configured to: cause measurement of parameters of the battery cell; cause generation of at least one pulse in the switch circuit; cause application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell; cause measurement of a response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse; determine whether a pulse cut-off condition is satisfied based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and cause termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is satisfied, wherein the pulse cut-off condition is based on first and second order differentials of the measured response; A system configured to perform the above.

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that exceeds an expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

4. The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that when the state of charge of the battery cell exceeds the state of charge of the battery cell at the time of application of the at least one first pulse, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% state of charge, the system of claim 3.

5. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when the state of charge of the battery cell is less than 80%, and the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately, the system of claim 4.

6. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell while the state of charge of the battery cell does not exceed 80%, the system of claim 1.

7. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds, the system of claim 3.

8. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds, the system of claim 3.

9. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell, and each pulse has a sub-millisecond duration, the system of claim 3.

10. The system according to claim 2, wherein each module includes a plurality of battery cells, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the plurality of battery cells without substantially promoting side reactions in the plurality of battery cells.

11. A modular energy storage system, comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, wherein in a discharge state, the at least one array is configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules; a plurality of converter modules, a control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, wherein in a charging state, the control circuit is configured to control the application of pulses in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell; a control circuit comprising, the control circuit causing measurement of parameters of the battery cell, causing generation of at least one pulse in the switch circuit, causing application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell, causing measurement of the response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse, determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and causing termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is met, wherein the pulse cut-off condition is based on the first and second derivatives of the measured response. A system configured to perform the above.

12. The system according to claim 11, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is higher than the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

13. The system according to claim 11, wherein the at least one pulse is applied at a first voltage that is higher than the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

14. The system according to claim 13, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is 101-200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

15. The system according to claim 13, wherein the control circuit is configured to control the application of the at least one pulse such that the at least one pulse is applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 100%.

16. The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that when the state of charge of the battery exceeds the state of charge of the battery when the at least one first pulse is applied, at least one second pulse is applied at a second voltage less than the first voltage, and the second voltage exceeds the expected voltage of the battery at 100% state of charge. The system according to claim 13.

17. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse such that the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when the state of charge of the battery is less than 80%, and the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately. The system according to claim 16.

18. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery. The system according to claim 13.

19. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery while the state of charge of the battery does not exceed 80%. The system according to claim 13.

20. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse, and each pulse has a duration of 0.1 milliseconds to 5 seconds. The system according to claim 13.

21. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse, and each pulse has a duration of 1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds. The system according to claim 13.

22. The control circuit is configured to control the application of the pulse, and each pulse has a sub-millisecond duration. The system according to claim 13. A method of charging a modular energy storage system for execution by a control circuit, the modular energy storage system comprising a plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising a battery cell and a switch circuit, the method comprising: applying a pulse in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction within the battery cell, the control circuit: causing measurement of parameters of the battery cell; causing generation of at least one pulse in the switch circuit; causing application of the at least one pulse to the battery cell; causing measurement of the response of the battery cell during the application of the at least one pulse; determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is met based on the measured response during the application of the at least one pulse, and causing termination of the application of the at least one pulse after the pulse cut-off condition is met, the pulse cut-off condition being based on the first and second derivatives of the measured response; A method configured to perform.

24. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery cell at full charge.

25. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse at a first voltage that is above the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the first voltage is a voltage that is 101-200% of the expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% charge.

27. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying the at least one pulse with a sub-millisecond duration.

28. The method of claim 25, further comprising applying the at least one pulse when the state of charge of the battery cell is less than 80%.

29. The at least one pulse is at least one first pulse, and the method further includes applying at least one second pulse at a second voltage less than the first voltage when a state of charge of the battery cell exceeds a state of charge of the battery cell when the at least one first pulse is applied, the second voltage exceeding an expected voltage of the battery cell at 100% state of charge, the method of claim 28.

30. The at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied when a state of charge of the battery cell is less than 80%, and the at least one first pulse and the at least one second pulse are applied separately, the method of claim 29.

31. The pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell, the method of claim 25.

32. The pulse is applied in a manner sufficient to initiate an electrochemical reaction in the battery cell without substantially promoting side reactions in the battery cell while a state of charge of the battery cell does not exceed 80%, the method of claim 25.

33. A modular energy storage system, A plurality of converter modules coupled together within at least one array, each converter module comprising an energy source and a switch circuit coupled to a power connection, in a discharge state, the at least one array being configured to generate at least one AC voltage waveform comprising a superposition of output voltages from the plurality of converter modules, the plurality of converter modules; A control circuit associated with the plurality of converter modules, the control circuit Causing measurement of parameters of the energy source; Causing generation of a first pulse from the power connection to the switch circuit; Causing application of a first controlled pulse to the energy source, the first controlled pulse being generated from the first pulse; Causing measurement of a response of the energy source during the application of the first controlled pulse; Based on the measured response during the application of the first controlled pulse, determining whether a pulse cut-off condition is satisfied, and after the pulse cut-off condition is satisfied, causing the end of the application of the first controlled pulse, wherein the pulse cut-off condition is based on the first and second derivatives of the measured response, and a control circuit configured to perform; a system comprising.

34. The control circuit is configured to determine whether the energy source is at a charge threshold less than a maximum, and when the charge threshold less than the maximum is reached, apply a second controlled pulse having a voltage or current less than the voltage or current of the first controlled pulse. The system according to claim 33.

35. The control circuit is configured to determine whether to adjust the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse. The system according to claim 33.

36. The control circuit is configured to cause adjustment of the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse such that the voltage or current of the second controlled pulse is less than the voltage or current of the first controlled pulse. The system according to claim 35.

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