polymers

Abstract

The present invention relates to a polymeric material exhibiting superparamagnetic / spin glass states. In one embodiment, the present invention relates to a polymeric material exhibiting both highly charged electrical properties and superparamagnetic / spin glass states. Described is a polymer comprising a polymeric backbone and pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said polymer is paramagnetic. In one embodiment, the invention describes a substituted conjugated polymer comprising a conjugated polymer which comprises two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other, and wherein the conjugated polymer is substituted with an organic electron acceptor that is capable of forming a stable zwitterion.

Description

[0001] Polymers Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a polymeric material exhibiting superparamagnetic / spin glass states. In one embodiment, the present invention relates to a polymeric material exhibiting both highly charged electrical properties and superparamagnetic / spin glass states. Background Specialised applications such as medical devices, biomimetic robotics as well as consumer products such as touch screen devices, and generally charged products all face existing challenges in terms of performance, long-term stability, and reliable mass production. This is typically due to the inorganic materials used in their production processes, which are expensive, heavy and difficult to manufacture. In recent years there has been a large interest in the formation of new highly charged electrical materials from non-metallic molecules. So far polymers have failed to make an impact in this area, mainly because of the difficulties posed in the production of highly ordered or even crystalline polymers. Such structural order is required to observe these effects. In particular, there has been little progress in the formation of non-metallic highly electrically charged / superparamagnetic materials. Such materials would have many applications e.g., in actuators and sensors, in the field of robotics and in the development of artificial muscles, electromagnets and transistors. WO 03 / 062305 A1 describes a substituted conjugated polymer which comprises a conjugated polymer which is substituted with an organic electron acceptor. An example of such a polymer is provided as polyaniline. The polymers of WO 03 / 062305 A1 are ferromagnetic. However, they do not show highly charged electrical properties and superparamagnetic / spin glass states. It is an aim to provide a polymeric non-metallic material exhibiting superparamagnetic / spin glass states. In one embodiment, it is an aim to provide a polymeric non-metallic material exhibiting both highly charged electrical properties and superparamagnetic / spin glass states. Summary of the Invention The present invention provides a polymer comprising a polymeric backbone and pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said polymer is paramagnetic. Preferably, the polymer is superparamagnetic. It is further preferred that the polymer has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aromatic groups. Preferably, at least one of said aromatic groups comprises fused rings, wherein nitrogen atoms are present within one or more of said aromatic groups. It is further preferred that the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from polybenzimidazole and polyetherimide. In another embodiment, the repeating unit comprises a benzophenone moiety. Preferably, the polymeric backbone is derived from polyether ether ketone. In another embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aliphatic chains. Preferably, the aliphatic chain is linear. It is further preferred that the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from polyacrylonitrile, polyethylene glycol and polyethylene. In another embodiment, the polymeric backbone is selected from the group consisting of polysiloxane, polyisoprene, polysaccharides, polyols, polypeptides, a DNA fragment, or an RNA fragment. Preferably, the number average molecular weight of the polymer is in the range of 4000-200000 Dalton. Preferably, the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors are present in an amount of 0.2 to 10 per monomer unit. Preferably, the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide. It is further preferred that the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative. In one embodiment, the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I: wherein: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2= R3= R4= H and R1= Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me. In another embodiment, the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V: Preferably, the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). Preferably, the polymer is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ), sulphonated polyether ether ketone tricyanoquinonedimethane (SPEEKCNQ), polyetherimide tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEICNQ), polyacrylonitrile tricyanoquinonedimethane (PANCNQ), polyethylene glycol tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEGCNQ) and polyethylene tricyanoquinonedimethane (PECNQ). It is particularly preferable that the polymer is polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ). Also provided is electroactive material comprising a paramagnetic polymer according to the invention. Preferably, the material is highly charged at room temperature. Also provided is a method for producing a paramagnetic polymer, comprising reacting a precursor polymer with an organic electron acceptor, wherein the method comprises the steps: a) dissolving the precursor polymer in an appropriate solvent, b) adding the organic electron acceptor to the solution and heating the resultant mixture, c) cooling and filtering the solid obtained from step b, d) optionally, evaporating the filtrate obtained from step c) to recover more product, and e) drying the product. Preferably, the precursor polymer is completely soluble in the solvent used in step a) under the conditions of the reaction. Preferably, the solvent is selected from the group consisting of dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), tetrahydrofuran (THF) and toluene. It is preferred that the molar ratio of the precursor polymer and organic electron acceptor in the mixture of step b is around 1:3. Optionally, the molar ratio of the precursor polymer and organic electron acceptor in the mixture of step b is around 1:5, 1:10, 1:15, or 1:20. It is also preferred that the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). Preferably, the precursor polymer is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole (PBI), sulphonated polyether ether ketone (SPEEK), polyetherimide (PEI), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethylene (PE), It is further preferred that the precursor polymer is polybenzimidazole or is a polymer obtained from substituted diaminobenzidine and terephthalic acid monomers. Also provided is a polymer obtainable by the method according to the invention. The present invention also provides graphite, graphene, or a fullerene comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said graphite, graphene, or fullerene is paramagnetic. Preferably, the graphite, graphene, or fullerene is superparamagnetic. It is further preferred that the graphite, graphene, or fullerene has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1. Preferably, the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide. It is further preferred that the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative. In one embodiment, the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I:

[0002] wherein: R1= R2= R3= R4= H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2 = R3 = R4 = H and R1 = Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me. In another embodiment, the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V:

[0003] Preferably, the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). It is also preferred that the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). Also provided is electroactive material comprising graphite, graphene, or a fullerene according to the invention. Preferably, the material is highly charged at room temperature. The present invention also provides a polymer comprising a polymeric backbone and pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors are present in an amount of 0.05 to 10 per monomer unit. Optionally, the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors are present in an amount of 0.05 to 8, or 0.1 to 8, or 0.1 to 6, or 0.2 to 6, or 0.2 to 4, or 0.5 to 4, or 1 to 4, or 1 to 2 per monomer unit. Optionally, the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors are present in an amount of around 1 per monomer unit. Preferably, the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide. It is further preferred that the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative. Further preferably, the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). It is also preferred that the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). In an embodiment, the distance between the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors is approximately 15 Angstroms or less, 10 Angstroms or less, 8 Angstroms or less, 6 Angstroms or less, or 4 Angstroms or less. The present invention also provides octasulfur comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein the octasulfur is paramagnetic. Preferably, the octasulfur is superparamagnetic. It is further preferred that the octasulfur has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1. The organic electron acceptor may be any of the any of the organic electron acceptors discussed in the present disclosure. It is preferred that the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). Also provided is electroactive material comprising octasulfur according to the invention. Preferably, the material is highly charged at room temperature. A particular advantage of the present invention is that it enables the conversion of commodity polymers, graphite, graphene, fullerenes, and / or octasulfur into electroactive materials using a simple, cheap and scalable method. Brief Description of the Figures Figure 1 is a scheme showing the reaction between polybenzimidazole and TCNQ to form the highly charged polymer (PBICNQ), as described in Example 1. Figure 2 shows the UV absorption spectrum of PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 3 shows the Fourier Transform Infra Red (FTIR) spectrum of PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 4 shows the PXRD data for the for the PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 5 shows magnetic relaxation data for the PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 6 shows the magnetization vs temperature for the PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 7 is a photograph showing the electronic / zwitterionic charge behaviour of PBICNQ when a charged rod is inserted into a vial containing the polymer. Figure 8 shows the ESR data for PBICNQ as synthesised in Example 1. Figure 9 is a scheme showing the reaction between SPEEK and TCNQ to form the polymer (SPEEKCNQ), as described in Example 8. Figure 10 is a scheme showing the reaction between polyetherimide and TCNQ to form the polymer (PEICNQ), as described in Example 11. Figure 11 is a scheme showing the reaction between polyacrylonitrile and TCNQ to form the polymer (PANCNQ), as described in Example 14. Figure 12 is a scheme showing the reaction between polyethylene glycol and TCNQ to form the polymer (PEGCNQ), as described in Example 17. Figure 13 is a scheme showing the reaction between polyethylene and TCNQ to form the polymer (PECNQ), as described in Example 19. Figure 14 shows the PXRD data for SPEEKCNQ as synthesised in Example 8. Figure 15 shows the ESR data for SPEEKCNQ as synthesised in Example 8. Figure 16 shows the film forming and conducting behaviour of SPEEKCNQ as synthesised in Example 8. Figure 17 shows the PXRD data for PEICNQ as synthesised in Example 11. Figure 18 shows the ESR data for PEICNQ as synthesised in Example 11. Figure 19 shows the line ESR intensity vs temperature for PEICNQ as synthesised in Example 11. Figure 20 shows the PXRD data for PANCNQ as synthesised in Example 14. Figure 21 shows the ESR data for PANCNQ as synthesised in Example 14. Figure 22 shows the ESR data for PEGCNQ as synthesised in Example 17. Figure 23 shows the ESR data for PECNQ as synthesised in Example 19. Detailed Description of the Invention Definitions The following are definitions of terms used in this specification. The initial definition provided for a group or term herein applies to that group or term throughout the present specification, individually or as part of another group, unless otherwise indicated. As used herein, the term “polymer” refers to a molecule composed of repeating structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds. Polymers are commonly the polymerization product of one or more monomer precursors. Polymers generally comprise a backbone, side chains and termini. The backbone is the linear chain to which all side chains are pendant. The side chains are the groups that are pendant to the backbone or branch off the backbone. The termini are the ends of the backbone. The term polymer includes homopolymers, or polymers consisting essentially of a single repeating monomer subunit The term polymer also includes copolymers which are formed when two or more different types of monomers are linked in the same polymer. Copolymers may comprise two or more monomer subunits, and include random, block, alternating, segmented, grafted, tapered and other copolymers. In relation to polymers, the term “linear” as used herein refers to a long continuous chain of carbon–carbon bonds along the polymer backbone. In relation to polymers, the term “branched” as used herein refers to the regular or irregular attachment of side chains to the polymer backbone. As used herein, the term “monomer unit” refers to the smallest repeating unit within the polymer backbone, which corresponds to a feedstock compound from which the polymer is derived. As used herein, the term “conjugated polymer” refers to a polymer comprising alternating single and double bonds between carbon atoms so that a π electron system is formed along the polymer chain. The structure of the conjugated polymer is not limited, provided that alternating single and double bonds are present along the polymer backbone. The invention is not limited to polymers which are conjugated along their whole length and polymers which are conjugated along at least a section of their backbone are also embraced by the teaching provided herewith. Preferably, the conjugated polymers are conjugated along the entirety of their backbone. The present invention also relates to a non-conjugated polymer. As used herein, the term “non- conjugated polymer” refers to a polymer that does not have conjugation along the polymer chain. The structure of the conjugated polymer is not limited, and a mix of double bonds and single bonds may be present along the polymer backbone. In one embodiment, the polymer backbone of the non-conjugated polymer is made up of single bonds only. As used herein, the term “Mn” as applied to a polymer refers to the number average molecular weight of the polymer. Mn is commonly measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Mn may also in some cases be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance, in cases where a visible characteristic peak of the polymer end-group (i.e. the chain transfer agent) can be identified in the NMR spectrum and compared with the intensity of other distinct peaks in the spectrum which arise from the polymer repeat units The term "substituted" as used herein, means that any one or more hydrogens on the designated atom is replaced with a selection from the indicated group, provided that the normal valency for the designated atom. As used herein, the term “alkyl” refers to a linear or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical having the number of carbon atoms indicated in the prefix. Thus, the term “C1-4alkyl” refers to a linear saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of one to four carbon atoms or a branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of three or four carbon atoms, e.g. methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl and tert-butyl. For the avoidance of doubt, where two or more alkyl groups are present, the alkyl groups may be the same or different. Preferably, an alkyl group is a C1-12alkyl group, more preferably a C1-8alkyl group, further more preferably a C1-6alkyl group and most preferably a C1-4alkyl group. As used herein, the term “alkenyl” refers to a linear or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical having the number of carbon atoms indicated in the prefix and containing at least one double bond. Thus, the term “C2-6alkenyl” refers to a linear saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of two to six carbon atoms having at least one double bond, or a branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of three to six carbon atoms having at least one double bond, e.g. ethenyl, propenyl, 1,3-butadienyl, (CH2)2CH=C(CH3)2, CH2CH=CHCH(CH3)2, and the like. Preferably, an alkenyl group is a C2-12 alkenyl group, more preferably a C2-8 alkenyl group, further more preferably a C2-6 alkenyl group and most preferably a C2-4 alkenyl group. As used herein, the term “alkynyl” refers to a linear or branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical having the number of carbon atoms indicated in the prefix and containing at least one triple bond. Thus, the term “C2-6 alkynyl” refers to a linear saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of two to six carbon atoms having at least one triple bond, or a branched saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of four to six carbon atoms having at least one double bond, e.g. ethynyl, propynyl, and the like. Preferably, an alkynyl group is a C2-12 alkynyl group, more preferably a C2- 8 alkynyl group, yet more preferably a C2-6 alkynyl group and most preferably a C2-4 alkynyl group. As used herein, the term “cycloalkyl” refers to a cyclic saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radical of three to ten carbon atoms eg cyclopropyl cyclobutyl cyclopentyl, or cyclohexyl. As used herein, the term “heterocycloalkyl” refers to a three to ten membered cycloalkyl group in which one or more of the carbon atoms is replaced by O, S or NR, wherein R is H or C1-6alkyl. As used herein, the term “alkoxy” refers to an -OR radical where R is alkyl as defined above, e.g., methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, iso-propoxy, n-butoxy, iso-butoxy, tert-butoxy and the like. Preferably, an alkoxy group is a C1-12alkoxy group, more preferably a C1-8alkoxy group, further more preferably a C1-6alkoxy group and most preferably a C1-4alkoxy group. As used herein, the term “alkylthio” refers to an -SR radical where R is alkyl as defined above. Preferably, an alkylthio group is a C1-12alkylthio group, more preferably a C1-8alkylthio group, further more preferably a C1-6alkylthio group and most preferably a C1-4alkylthio group. As used herein, the term “halo” refers to fluoro, chloro, bromo, or iodo, preferably fluoro, chloro or bromo and more preferably fluoro or chloro. As used herein, the term “alkylamino” refers to an -NHR or -NR2radical wherein R is alkyl as described above. Preferably, an alkylamino group is a C1-12 alkyamino group, more preferably a C1-8 alkylamino group, further more preferably a C1-6 alkylamino group and most preferably a C1-4 alkylamino group. For the avoidance of doubt, when an alkylamino group comprises two alkyl groups, said alkyl groups can be the same of different. As used herein, the term “amino” refers to a group of the formula -NH2. As used herein, the term “hydroxyl” refers to a group of the formula -OH. As used herein, the term “thiol” refers to a group of the formula -SH. The term “aromatic” refers to moieties which are conjugated ring systems. Examples of such moieties include aryl groups and heteroaryl groups. The term “aliphatic” refers to moieties comprising carbon and hydrogen atoms covalently bonded together in straight chains or branched chains As used herein, the term "aryl" is intended to mean an aromatic moiety wherein the ring system contains the specified number of carbon atom. Preferred aryl groups are C6-14aryl groups, more preferably are C6-10aryl groups such as phenyl or naphthyl. Unless otherwise specified, the preferred aryl group is phenyl. As used herein, the term “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic moiety in which the ring system contains 5 to 20 ring atoms wherein one or more, preferably one, two or three, of the ring atoms are heteroatoms selected from N, O, or S and the remaining ring atoms are carbon. Preferred heteroaryl groups are five to fourteen membered heteroaryl groups (i.e containing five to fourteen ring atoms), more preferably five to ten membered heteroaryl groups (i.e. containing five to ten ring atoms). Heteroaryl groups can be monocyclic and can be multicyclic in which two or more rings are fused together. The fused rings can both be heteroaryl groups or can be a combination of one or more heteroaryl groups and one or more aryl groups, for example one heteroaryl group and one aryl group. An example of a monocyclic group is imidazyl and of a multicyclic group is a bicyclic group such as benzimidazyl. As used herein, the term “highly charged” refers to the strong reaction of the polymer of the invention to an externally applied charge. In one embodiment, the polymer has a strong reaction when contacted with a charged rod. In this regard, a strong reaction will involve the polymer adhering to the charged rod and remaining adhered for a time period of 1 hour or more, preferably 2 hours or more, more preferably 4 hours or more and particularly preferably 12 hours or more. Polymer The present invention relates to a polymer comprising a polymeric backbone and pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said polymer is paramagnetic. In one embodiment, the invention relates to a substituted conjugated polymer comprising a conjugated polymer which comprises repeating units which have two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other, and wherein said repeating units are substituted with at least one organic electron acceptor that is capable of forming a stable zwitterion. As used herein, the term “close proximity” refers to the two atoms being separated by four bonds or less. The number of bonds between two atoms is determined on the basis of the minimum number of bonds that need to be traversed from one nitrogen atom to reach another nitrogen atom and includes the bonds connected to the two nitrogen atoms. Thus, the moiety -N-C=C-N- has three bonds between the N-atoms. Similarly, an imidazyl moiety would have two bonds between the two nitrogen atoms, a pyrimidine would have two bonds between the nitrogen atoms and a pyrazine would have three bonds between the nitrogen atoms. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer and the conjugated polymer comprises two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other. When there are two nitrogen atoms, these are separated by four bonds or less. When there are more than two nitrogen atoms, the nitrogen atoms are in close proximity provided that there are four bonds or less between a nitrogen atom and any other nitrogen atom. It is not necessary that every nitrogen atom is separated by four bonds or less from all other nitrogen atoms in that repeating unit of the conjugated polymer. Preferably, the two or more nitrogen atoms are separated by three bonds or less. More preferably, the nitrogen atoms are separated by two or three bonds. Most preferably, the nitrogen atoms are separated by two bonds. As used herein, the repeating unit refers to a structural moiety which appears multiple times in the backbone of the polymer. Such repeating units can be separated from each other by other structural moieties. Preferably, the repeating unit appears at regular intervals along a section of the polymer backbone. More preferably, the repeating unit appears at regular intervals along the whole of the polymer backbone. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymer backbone is made up of just the repeating units. In the present embodiment, the nitrogen atoms can be part of the backbone of the polymer or can be present in a side chain. Preferably, the nitrogen atoms are in the backbone of the polymer. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aromatic groups. The term “aromatic” refers to moieties which are conjugated ring systems. Examples of such moieties include aryl groups such as phenyl tolyl and xylyl groups, and heteroaryl groups such as pyridyl, thiophenyl and furanyl. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer comprising two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other, and the repeating unit which has two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other preferably comprises one or more aromatic groups. In one embodiment, the aromatic groups comprise heteroaryl groups and optionally aryl groups. The repeating unit can comprise one aromatic group, in which case the repeating unit will be a heteroaryl group, or it can comprise more than one aromatic group. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises more than one aromatic group which are linked in such a way as to ensure that the repeating unit is conjugated. Thus, in one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises one or more heteroaryl groups, optionally together with one or more aryl groups, wherein said heteroaryl and optionally aryl groups are linked by single bonds, -NH- moieties or vinyl groups. Preferably, the repeating unit comprises one or more heteroaryl groups in which said heteroaryl groups comprise one or more nitrogen atoms. The heteroaryl groups can comprise two or more nitrogen atoms. When there are two or more nitrogen atoms in a heteroaryl group, said nitrogen atoms can be within the same ring structure or can be in adjacent ring systems. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer which comprises repeating units which have two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other. Preferably, the nitrogen atoms of the polymer according to the present embodiment are present in the aromatic groups. More preferably, the nitrogen atoms of the conjugated polymer are present in the ring systems of the aromatic groups. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises fused ring systems in which 2, 3, 4 or more rings are fused together. For example, the repeating unit may comprise fused bicyclic systems in which a heteroaryl ring is fused to an aryl group or another heteroaryl group. As used herein, a fused bicyclic group is a group comprising two cyclic moieties sharing a common bond between two atoms. Typical examples include benzimidazyl, purinyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl. In one embodiment, the repeating unit is a heteroaryl group. Preferably, such a heteroaryl group is selected from imidazyl, pyrazyl, pyridazinyl, pyrazinyl, pyrimidinyl, triazinyl, tetrazinyl, pentazinyl benzimidazyl purinyl imidazopyridinyl pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl. More preferably, the repeating unit is a fused bicyclic heteroaryl selected from benzimidazyl, purinyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl. Most preferably, the repeating unit is a benzimidazyl moiety. In another embodiment, the repeating unit comprises more than one aromatic group. Preferably, such a repeating group comprises more than one heteroaryl group. Preferably, the more than one heteroaryl groups are joined by single bonds. More preferably, the repeating unit comprises more than one fused bicyclic heteroaryl selected from benzimidazyl, purinyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl. Most preferably, the repeating unit comprises more than one benzimidazyl moiety. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the repeating unit comprises two benzimidazyl moieties linked by a single bond between their phenyl rings. In another embodiment, the repeating unit comprises at least one heteroaryl group and at least one aryl group. Preferably, the at least one heteroaryl groups and the at least one aryl group are joined by single bonds. More preferably, the repeating unit comprises at least one fused bicyclic heteroaryl selected from benzimidazyl, purinyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl and at least one aryl group which is a phenyl group. Most preferably, the repeating unit comprises two benzimidazyl groups and a phenyl group. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the repeating unit comprises two benzimidazyl moieties and a phenyl moiety in which the two benzimidazyl moieties are linked by a single bond between their phenyl rings and there is a single bond between the carbon of one of the imidazyl groups and the phenyl moiety. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer and the conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole, the structure of which is shown below. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises fused ring systems. Typical examples of fused ring systems include phthalimide, indole, isoindole, indolizine, quinoline, isoquinoline, carbazole, benzimidazyl, purinyl, imidazopyridinyl, pyrazolopyridinyl, oxazolopyridinyl, isoxazolopyridinyl, thiazolopyradinyl and isothiazolopyridinyl. In the present embodiment, each fused ring in the repeating unit preferably comprises one nitrogen atom. Typical examples of fused ring systems comprising one nitrogen atom include phthalimide, indole, isoindole, indolizine, quinoline, isoquinoline and carbazole. Preferably, the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from the polyimide class of polymers. More preferably, the repeating unit comprises a phthalimide moiety. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises at least one fused ring together with other moieties, such as one or more aromatic groups. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises at least two fused rings and two or more aromatic groups. In one embodiment, the fused rings and other moieties may be directly bonded or joined by a linker. Typically, the fused rings and other moieties are joined by a linker. Typical examples of linkers are O, S, or an alkyl group. Preferably the linker is O. In one embodiment, the repeating unit comprises at least two phthalimide moieties and at least one diphenyl propane moiety. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymer making up the polymeric backbone is polyetherimide, the structure of which is shown below. As mentioned above, when the repeating unit comprises more than one aromatic moiety, the aromatic moieties can be linked by single bonds, -NH- moieties or vinyl groups. As used herein, a vinyl group refers to a moiety -CR1=CR2-, wherein the groups R1 and R2 can be the same or different and can be selected from hydrogen, halo, amino, hydroxyl, thiol, C1-C12 alkyl, C1-C12 alkenyl, C1-C12 alkynyl, C3-C12 cycloalkyl, C3-C12 heterocyclic, C6-C12 aryl or C6-C12 heteroaryl groups. Preferably, R1 and R2 are the same or different selected from hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, bromo, amino, hydroxyl, thiol, C1-C6 alkyl, C1-C6 alkenyl, C1-C6 alkynyl, C5-C16 cycloalkyl, C5-C6 heterocyclic, C6-C10 aryl or C6-C10 heteroaryl groups. More preferably, R1 and R2 are the same or different selected from hydrogen, fluoro, chloro, bromo, amino, hydroxyl, thiol or C1-C4 alkyl. Most preferably, R1and R2are both hydrogen. Typically, the substituents on the groups R1and R2are not themselves substituted. Typically, the aromatic moieties will be linked by a single vinyl group. However, multiple vinyl groups, for example 2 to 100 or 2 to 10, can be present between the aromatic groups. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises one or more aromatic groups. Preferably, the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from the polyether ketone class of polymers. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises a benzophenone moiety. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises one or more benzophenone moieties together with one or more other moieties, such as aromatic groups. The aromatic group may be substituted or unsubstituted. Preferably, the aromatic group is substituted. Typical substituents include COOH, CHO, halo, alkyl, or SO3H. Preferably, the aromatic group is substituted by at least one SO3H moiety. In one embodiment, the benzophenone moieties and other moieties may be directly bonded or joined by a linker. Typically, the benzophenone moieties and other moieties are joined by a linker. Typical examples of linkers are O, S, or an alkyl group. Preferably the linker is O. More preferably, the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from polyether ketone, polyether ether ketone, and sulphonated polyether ether ketone. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is derived from sulphonated polyether ether ketone, the structure of which is shown below. In the repeating units, the aromatic groups may be substituted or unsubstituted. Typical substituents include C1-C12alkyl, C2-C12alkenyl groups, C2-C12alkynyl groups, C3-C10cycloalkyl groups, three to ten membered heterocyclic group, C1-C12alkoxy, C1-C12alkylthio, C1-C12alkylamino ,halo, hydroxyl, thiol and amino groups. Where possible, these substituents may be further substituted, for example with a C1-C12alkyl, halogen or hydroxyl group. Preferably, the substituents are selected from C1-C6alkyl, C1-C6alkoxy, C1-C6alkenyl groups, C3-C6cycloalkyl groups, three to six membered heterocyclic groups, fluoro, chloro, bromo, hydroxyl, thiol and amino groups. More preferably, the substituents are selected from C1-C6alkyl and amino. In one embodiment, the aromatic groups are substituted at each available position on the ring. In a further embodiment, the aromatic group are substituted at each available position on the ring with a C1-C6alkyl group. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aliphatic chains. Preferably, the polymeric backbone comprises a linear aliphatic chain. In one embodiment, the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from the polyalkyl class of polymers. In the present embodiment, the polyalkyl chains of the polymer backbone may be directly bonded or joined by a linker. Typical examples of linkers according to the present embodiment are O and S. Preferably, the linker is O. In the present embodiment, the alkyl chain of the polymer backbone may be substituted or unsubstituted. Typical substituents include C1-C12alkyl, C2-C12alkenyl groups, C2-C12alkynyl groups, C3-C10cycloalkyl groups, three to ten membered heterocyclic group, C1-C12alkoxy, C1-C12alkylthio, C1-C12alkylamino, halo, hydroxyl, thiol, amino and cyano groups. Preferably, the substituents are selected from C1-C6alkyl, halo and cyano groups. More preferably, the substituent is a cyano group. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is polyacrylonitrile, the structure of which is shown below. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is polyethylene glycol, the structure of which is shown below. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is polyethylene, the structure of which is shown below. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a polysiloxane, the structure of which is shown below. Where R is an organic group such as alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, alkoxy, alkylthio, alkylamino, aryl, heteroaryl. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a polyisoprene. The polyisoprene may be any one of the isomers shown below, or a mixture of any of the isomers in any ratio. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a polysaccharide. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a polyol. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a polypeptide. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is a DNA fragment. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymeric backbone is an RNA fragment. The polymer that is used to derive the polymeric backbone of the polymer of the invention may be obtained by polymerising appropriate monomers using approaches and techniques familiar to one skilled in the art. In one embodiment, the monomers relate to the repeating units of the polymer. In another embodiment, the repeating units are formed by the reaction between two or more monomers such that the repeating unit does not correspond to a specific monomer. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer. Preferably, the conjugated polymer is prepared from substituted monomers of diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride and terephthalic acid, aniline, pyridine, pyrrole, phenylene-vinylene, phenylene, thiophene or fluorene. Preferably, the conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole, a polybenzimidazole derivative, or a polymer obtained from substituted diaminobenzidine and terephthalic acid, benzene diacids, or maleic anhydride monomers. More preferably, the conjugated polymer may be a polymer obtained by polymerising substituted monomers of diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride and terephthalic acid. The polymer preferably has a number average molecular weight in the range of from 4000 to 200,000 Dalton. Preferably, the number average molecular weight is in the range of from 20,000 to 150,000 Dalton, more preferably 50,000 to 100,000 Dalton, most preferably 75,000 to 80,000 Dalton. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer. In the polymer of the invention, the repeating unit comprises an organic electron acceptor that is capable of forming a stable zwitterion. “Capable of forming a stable zwitterion” refers to the reaction between the polymer chain and the electron acceptor molecule, in which charge transfer from a moiety in the polymer chain to the electron acceptor results in the formation of stable zwitterions in which the electron acceptor molecule is a pendant chain attached to the polymer backbone and the charge is stabilised along the chain. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer, and in the conjugated polymer the repeating unit comprises an organic electron acceptor that is capable of forming a stable zwitterion. In the present embodiment, “capable of forming a stable zwitterion” refers to the reaction between the polymer chain and the electron acceptor molecule, in which charge transfer from the two or more nitrogen atoms to the electron acceptor results in the formation of stable zwitterions in which the electron acceptor molecule is a pendant chain attached to the polymer backbone and the charge is stabilised along the chain. In the polymer of the invention, the repeating unit comprises an organic electron acceptor as a pendant chain attached to the polymer backbone. The organic electron acceptor forms a charge transfer complex with the polymer. Preferably the organic electron acceptor readily forms radicals. In one embodiment, the polymer is a conjugated polymer. Preferably, the organic electron acceptor may be chosen from derivatives of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide, and dimethyl sulfoxide. More preferably, the organic electron acceptor may be chosen from derivatives of quinone. Further preferably, the organic electron acceptor may be chosen from: tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetrafluorotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQF4), 2,5-dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), a TCNQ derivative; or other such electron acceptors. These acceptor molecules are known to form stabilised zwitterions in the polymer chain when reacted and can stack, which can generate superior properties in the polymer backbone. This gives rise to exchange interactions between neighbouring chains and hence a three-dimensional highly charged exchange mechanism in an organic system. The family of TCNQ derivatives includes, but is not limited to, the following: wherein: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2= R3= R4= H and R1= Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me. The following structures are also included within TNCQ derivatives: In preferred embodiments of the invention, the organic electron acceptor is preferably tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). This is a stable radical-forming molecule which readily forms charge transfer complexes with electron donors such as nitrogen atoms on a heterocyclic conjugated polymer having nitrogen in its ring structure. The organic electron acceptor will bind to the polymer such that there is a covalent bond between the polymer and the electron acceptor molecule. The electron acceptor molecules provided herewith are identified by their structure before they are bonded to the polymer. In this regard, the electron acceptors are referred to as being derivatives of certain compounds or derived from certain compounds. Thus, where the electron acceptor is referred to as being chosen from: tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ), tetrafluorotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQF4), 2,5-dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2), tetracyanoethylene (TCNE), dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), a TCNQ derivative, the moiety which will be bound to the polymer backbone will be based on such compounds but one of the cyano groups will not be present and there will be a single bond between the polymer backbone and the carbon to which the cyano group was bound. The family of TCNQ derivatives which will appear on the polymer include: wherein: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H, F, Me or Et R1 = R2 = H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8 alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3 and R4 being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2 = R4 = H and R1 = OMe and R3 = OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2 = R4 = H and R1 = OEt and R3 = SMe; or R2 = R4 = H and R3 = Me and R1 = I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2 = OCH2CH2O and R3 = OMe and R4 = H; or R2 = R4 = H and R3 = Br and R1 = OCH2CH2OH; or R2 = R3 = R4 = H and R1 = Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me, the wavy bond indicating the point of attachment to the polymer backbone, the point of attachment preferably being an aromatic group. The following structures are also included within TCNQ derivatives: the wavy bond indicating the point of attachment to the polymer backbone, the point of attachment preferably being an aromatic group. Preferably, the polymer of the invention comprises two or more electron acceptor molecules in each repeating unit. Preferably, the polymer of the invention comprises an electron acceptor molecule for each aromatic group in each repeating unit. In one particular embodiment, the repeating unit comprises three aromatic groups and three electron acceptor molecules. In one embodiment, the polymer is a substituted conjugated polymer. Preferably, the polymer of the invention comprises 0.2 to 10 organic electron acceptor molecules per monomer unit along the polymer chain. More preferably, the polymer comprises 0.5 to 5 organic electron acceptor molecules per monomer unit. Further preferably, the polymer comprises 0.5 to 3 organic electron acceptor molecules per monomer unit. Most preferably, the polymer comprises 1 to 3 organic electron acceptor molecules per monomer unit. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymer of the invention is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ), sulphonated polyether ether ketone tricyanoquinonedimethane (SPEEKCNQ), polyetherimide tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEICNQ), polyacrylonitrile tricyanoquinonedimethane (PANCNQ), polyethylene glycol tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEGCNQ) and polyethylene tricyanoquinonedimethane (PECNQ). In a particularly preferred embodiment, the polymer of the invention is polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ). The polymer of the invention is paramagnetic. In one embodiment, the polymer of the invention is superparamagnetic. It is believed that the mass magnetisation of the polymer of the invention depends on the degree of substitution of the polymer backbone with the organic electron acceptors. Preferably, the degree of substitution is such that the polymer has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1In one embodiment, the polymer of the invention is not ferromagnetic. In one embodiment, the polymer is a substituted conjugated polymer and the substituted conjugated polymer is not ferromagnetic. In one embodiment, the polymer of the invention demonstrates highly charged electrical properties. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer of the invention demonstrates solubility in water. Preferably, the polymer of the invention has a degree of solubility in water of 20 mg / mL or higher at 25°C. In a particularly preferred embodiment, PEGCNQ demonstrates solubility in water. It is further preferred that PEGCNQ has a degree of solubility in water of 20 mg / mL or higher at 25°C. Also provided herewith is an electroactive material comprising the polymer of the invention. Preferably, such a material is highly charged at room temperature. In one embodiment, the electroactive material comprises a polymer according to the invention that is a substituted conjugated polymer. Method for producing a paramagnetic polymer Also provided is a method for producing a paramagnetic polymer which method comprises reacting a precursor polymer with an organic electron acceptor, wherein the method comprises the following steps: (a) dissolving the precursor polymer in an appropriate solvent; (b) adding the organic electron acceptor to the solution and heating the resultant mixture; (c) cooling and filtering the solid obtained from step (b) (d) optionally evaporating the filtrate obtained from step (c) to recover more product; and (e) drying the product. One embodiment according to the invention provides a method for producing a polymer of the invention which method comprises reacting a conjugated polymer with an organic electron acceptor, said conjugated polymer comprising two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other, as hereinbefore described. Preferably, the method according to the present embodiment comprises the following steps: (a) dissolving the conjugated polymer in an appropriate solvent; (b) adding the organic electron acceptor to the solution and heating the resultant mixture; (c) cooling and filtering the solid obtained from step (b) (d) optionally evaporating the filtrate obtained from step (c) to recover more product; and (e) drying the product. In step (a), the precursor polymer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent. In one embodiment, the polymer is conjugated and the conjugated polymer is dissolvent in an appropriate solvent. Examples of typical solvents include dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), tetrahydrofuran (THF) and toluene. Preferably, the solvent is DMF. The polymer and solvent are selected such that the polymer is completely soluble in the solvent used in step a) under the conditions of the reaction. In one embodiment, the polymer has a solubility of 20 mg / mL or higher in the solvent used in step a) at 25°C. In one embodiment, the heating step (b) involves refluxing the resultant mixture. In another embodiment, the heating step (b) involves heating the mixture for at least 2 hours, preferably for at least 4 hours, more preferably for at least 8 hours and particularly preferably for at least 24 hour. Typically, the molar ratio of the precursor polymer and the organic electron acceptor in the mixture is at least 1:2, preferably at least 1:3 and more preferably at least 1:4. The molar ratio of the precursor polymer and the organic electron acceptor in the mixture may be as much as 1:5, 1:10, 1:15, or 1:20. In a particular embodiment, the molar ratio of the precursor polymer and the organic electron acceptor in the mixture is around 1:3. In one embodiment, the precursor polymer is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole (PBI), sulphonated polyether ether ketone (SPEEK), polyetherimide (PEI), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethylene (PE), and the organic electron acceptor is TCNQ. The respective resultant paramagnetic polymers are polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ), sulphonated polyether ether ketone tricyanoquinonedimethane (SPEEKCNQ), polyetherimide tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEICNQ), polyacrylonitrile tricyanoquinonedimethane (PANCNQ), polyethylene glycol tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEGCNQ) and polyethylene tricyanoquinonedimethane (PECNQ). In one embodiment, the precursor polymer is a conjugated polymer. In a particularly preferred embodiment, the conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole (PBI) and the organic electron acceptor is TCNQ. The resultant substituted conjugated polymer is then polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ). The present invention also relates to a polymer obtainable by the method described above. Graphite, graphene, or fullerene The present invention also relates to graphite, graphene, or a fullerene comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said graphite, graphene, or fullerene is paramagnetic. Preferably, the graphite, graphene, or a fullerene comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion is superparamagnetic Graphite is understood to consist of multiple layers of planar carbon atoms. In each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms forming a continuous layer of bonded carbon. A single layer of bonded carbon is understood to be graphene. A fullerene is understood to be an allotrope of carbon whose molecules consist of carbon atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a closed or partially closed structure, with fused rings of five to seven atoms. The molecules may have hollow sphere- and ellipsoid-like forms, tubes, or other shapes. Preferably, the fullerene is conjugated. In an embodiment of the invention, the graphite, graphene, or fullerene is functionalised by the addition of a pendant group. The addition of a pendant group to graphite, graphene, or fullerene can be achieved by using approaches and techniques familiar to one skilled in the art. The pendant group is an organic electron acceptor capable of forming a stable zwitterion, such as TCNQ. The organic electron acceptor may bind to the graphite, graphene, or fullerene such that there is a covalent bond between the graphite, graphene, or fullerene and the electron acceptor molecule. Optionally, the organic electron acceptor may bind to the graphite, graphene, or fullerene via a non-covalent interaction. Octasulfur Octasulfur is understood to be an inorganic substance consisting of sulfur atoms with the chemical formula S8. It may also be known as cyclo-octasulfur or cyclooctasulfane. In an embodiment of the invention, the octasulfur is functionalised by the addition of a pendant group. The addition of a pendant group to octasulfur can be achieved by using approaches and techniques familiar to one skilled in the art. The pendant group is an organic electron acceptor capable of forming a stable zwitterion, such as TCNQ. The organic electron acceptor may bind to the octasulfur such that there is a covalent bond between the octasulfur and the electron acceptor molecule. Uses of the polymer, graphite, graphene, fullerene, or octasulfur of the invention Without wishing to be bound by any theory, and by using the substituted conjugated polymer PBICNQ for example only and without limitation on the scope of the teaching or the invention, it is believed that PBICNQ contains stable radicals and charges which are generated by charge transfer from the TCNQ to the amine sites on the PBI and by protonation of the imine sites on the conjugated polymer. π-stacking of the neighbouring chains may occur and may result in inter-chain spacing of approximately 15 Angstroms or less, 10 Angstroms or less, 8 Angstroms or less, 6 Angstroms or less, or 4 Angstroms or less. This gives rise to exchange interactions between neighbouring chains and hence a three-dimensional exchange highly charged mechanism in an organic system. Further, when the charge is evenly distributed along the polymer chain, it can generate synchronize charges along the backbone of the polymer in a way to enhanced polarizable effects which act like a wave or ripple in the new polymer structure. The substituted conjugated polymers according to an embodiment of the invention are electroactive polymers (EAPs). The experiments involving these polymers have shown that they are able to enable movement and generate force as well as electrically control surface properties. In addition, their electrical activation mechanism can convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. This means that the polymers have the potential for use in specialised applications and consumer products, particularly in relation to their use in actuators. The following are examples that illustrate the present invention. However, these examples are in no way intended to limit the scope of the invention. Examples In the following examples, the polybenzimidazole was obtained from High Performance Products (molecular weight 60,000 D). The organic electron acceptor was obtained from Fluorochem and used without further purification in DMF. Example 1: Polymer preparation Polybenzimidazole was purchased from High Performance Products (molecular weight 60,000 D). 5g of the polymer was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 0.5 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated at 80 °C overnight. The solution was cooled and the DMF was evaporated to give a dark grey / black polymer (PBICNQ). The dark grey / black polymer (PBICNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the substituted polymer is shown in Figure 1. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g polybenzimidazole in 100 to 250 mL DMF. Example 2: Characterisation of the polymer using UV spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1 was analysed using UV spectroscopy. The UV absorption spectrum gave a strong absorbance band at λmax = 495 and λmax = 625 and 665 (see Figure 2). When dissolved in DMF, this polymer gave an intense dark Blue / green solution. The UV absorption spectrum of this blue / green solution indicates that a charge transfer has occurred between the TCNQ and polybenzimidazole thereby forming stable zwitterions. Example 3: Characterisation of the polymer using Fourier Transform Infra Red Spectroscopy (FTIR) A sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1 was analysed using FTIR spectroscopy. As shown in Figure 3, The FTIR spectrum showed the development of a broad absorption at 2980-3200 cm-1(NH), and a sharp strong absorption at 2159 cm-1and 2157 cm-1(CN), which was ascribed to TCNQ having covalently bonded to the polymer. The broad absorption that was observed between 2980-3200 cm-1indicated the presence of amines. Example 4: Characterisation of the polymer using X-ray Spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1 was analysed using X-ray spectroscopy (see Figure 4). X-Ray analysis of the polymer revealed the polymer to be semi crystalline. This can be contrasted to pure polybenzimidazole which was completely amorphous. Example 5: Magnetic relaxation analysis of the polymer A sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1 was analysed using low temperature magnetic relaxation analysis (see Figure 5). The low temperature data obtained showed that the polymer exhibited magnetic relaxation. The results also showed a jump in the magnetic moment with a stabilized heating rate. This is suggestive of superparamagnetism or a spin / cluster glass-like response An investigation into the magnetisation vs temperature (see Figure 6) showed the material to be paramagnetic with a large diamagnetic offset. There was no evidence of a ferromagnetic component. Example 6: Visual observation of the behaviour of the polymer A charged rod was placed into a vial containing a sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1. The powder was observed to be attracted to the rod in an arrangement of a thorny, bristle-like structure (see Figure 7). This indicated that the charges within the polymer backbone were fully counterbalanced. This effect was instantaneous and demonstrated no change in appearance when left overnight. The material was observed to still exhibit such zwitterionic behaviour after almost a year. This clearly demonstrated that the effect was not due to any static effects, but rather was an intrinsic effect deriving from within the molecule. Example 7: Characterisation of the polymer PBICNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PBICNQ) produced in Example 1 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 8). The ESR data indicated the presence of many free electrons or spins in the polymer backbone impacted by the addition of the TCNQ moieties, and a value of 1x1017spins per gram of polymer was calculated. Example 8: Preparation of SPEEKCNQ 5g of sulfonated polyether ether ketone was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 1 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated to 80 °C overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the solid polymer was washed two times with cold DMF (25ml per wash). The polymer (SPEEKCNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the polymer is shown in Figure 9. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g sulfonated polyether ether ketone in 100 to 250 mL DMF. The polymer (SPEEKCNQ) was found to be film forming and gave orange / gold coloured films. These films were found to respond to an externally charged rod, which suggests that the material could be used as a responsive layer material This phenomenon is similar to that seen in artificial muscle, in that the membrane responds to electrical charges, with a response to external applied stimuli. The polymer (SPEEKCNQ) also demonstrated electrical conductivity (see Figure 16). The FTIR spectrum displayed peaks at around 2200-2159 cm-1, indicating the presence of CN groups. The UV spectrum displayed absorbance bands which indicated the presence of both the quinoid and zwitterionic forms of the polymer. Example 9: Characterisation of the polymer (SPEEKCNQ) using X-ray Spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (SPEEKCNQ) produced in Example 8 was analysed using X-ray spectroscopy (see Figure 14). X-Ray analysis of the polymer revealed the presence of crystallinity in the polymer backbone. This can be contrasted to the starting polymer SPEEK which was completely amorphous. In Figure 14 there appears to be a shift of 2.5ofrom 18.5oto 21.5oand around 45ofrom the starting material. Example 10: Characterisation of the polymer SPEEKCNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (SPEEKCNQ) produced in Example 8 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 15). The ESR data showed that SPEEKCNQ exhibited high spin or paramagnetic character, and a value of 1x1018spins per gram of polymer was calculated. Example 11: Preparation of PEICNQ 5 g polyetherimide was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 1 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated to 80 °C overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the solid polymer was washed two times with cold DMF (25ml per wash). The polymer (PEICNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the polymer is shown in Figure 10. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g polyetherimide in 100 to 250 mL DMF. The PEICNQ was dark in colour. When dissolved in DMF this gave a yellow solution, and when said solution was heated with a hot air gun it turned purple. Upon cooling, the colour of the solution reverted to yellow This indicates the conversion of the polymer from its quinoid form to the zwitterionic form and back to the quinoid form. This interconversion upon a change in temperature suggests that the material could be used in sensor applications. FTIR analysis showed two absorption peaks at 2159 cm-1and 2157 cm-1, confirming the presence of TCNQ moieties attached to PEI chains. UV analysis also confirmed the presence of both the quinoid and zwitterionic forms. Example 12: Characterisation of the polymer (PEICNQ) using X-ray Spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PEICNQ) produced in Example 11 was analysed using X-ray spectroscopy (see Figure 17). X-Ray analysis of the polymer showed a pronounced peak at 45ofor the starting polymer prior to reaction with TCNQ. However, there seems to be a significant change at about 25oafter the reaction. This suggests that the presence of TCNQ moieties has imparted some crystallinity in the polymer backbone, compared to the starting material PEI. Example 13: Characterisation of the polymer PEICNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PEICNQ) produced in Example 11 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 18). The ESR data indicated the presence of many free electrons or spins in the polymer backbone impacted by the addition of the TCNQ moieties, and a value of 1x1018spins per gram of polymer was calculated. Figure 19 shows the ESR intensity vs temperature. The drop in intensity at 185K may indicate a phase transition, possibly a structural change. The low temperature rise could indicate paramagnetic spins. Example 14: Preparation of PANCNQ 5g polyacrylonitrile was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 1 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated to 80 °C overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the solid polymer was washed two times with cold DMF (25ml per wash). The polymer (PANCNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the polymer is shown in Figure 11. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g polyacrylonitrile in 100 to 250 mL DMF. The polymer PANCNQ was highly responsive to applied charges and responded to an external field, which indicates that it could potentially be used in conducting fabrics. FTIR analysis showed two absorption peaks at 2159 cm-1and 2157 cm-1, confirming the presence of TCNQ moieties attached to PAN chains. UV analysis also confirmed the presence of both the quinoid and zwitterionic forms. Example 15: Characterisation of the polymer (PANCNQ) using X-ray Spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PANCNQ) produced in Example 14 was analysed using X-ray spectroscopy (see Figure 20). X-Ray analysis of the polymer showed a shift of 17oto 18oand a broad peak at 29o. This suggests that the presence of TCNQ moieties has imparted some crystallinity in the polymer backbone, compared to the starting material PAN. Example 16: Characterisation of the polymer PANCNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PANCNQ) produced in Example 14 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 21). The ESR data indicated the presence of many free electrons or spins in the polymer backbone impacted by the addition of the TCNQ moieties, and a value of 1x1018spins per gram of polymer was calculated. Example 17: Preparation of PEGCNQ 5g of polyethylene glycol was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 1 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated to 80 °C overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the solid polymer was washed two times with cold DMF (25ml per wash). The polymer (PEGCNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the polymer is shown in Figure 12. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g polyethylene glycol in 100 to 250 mL DMF. The resulting polymer PEGCNQ was a dark coloured, water soluble material. The polymer PEGCNQ was highly responsive to applied charges and responded to an external field, which indicates that it could potentially be used in the fields of drug delivery and medicine. FTIR analysis showed two absorption peaks at 2200 cm-1, confirming the presence of TCNQ moieties attached to PEG chains. UV analysis also confirmed the presence of both the quinoid and zwitterionic forms. X-ray analysis indicated that the presence of TCNQ moieties has imparted some crystallinity in the polymer backbone, compared to the starting material PEG. Example 18: Characterisation of the polymer PEGCNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PEGCNQ) produced in Example 17 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 22). The ESR data indicated the presence of many free electrons or spins in the polymer backbone impacted by the addition of the TCNQ moieties, and a value of 1x1018spins per gram of polymer was calculated. Example 19: Preparation of PECNQ 5g of polyethylene was dissolved in 100 ml of DMF. To the resultant solution was added 1 g of TCNQ (Fluorochem) and the mixture was heated to 80 °C overnight. The DMF was removed in vacuo and the solid polymer was washed two times with cold DMF (25ml per wash). The polymer (PECNQ) was dried under vacuum. The reaction scheme for the formation of the polymer is shown in Figure 13. The method of the above Example may also be carried out using 0.5 to 1g polyethylene in 100 to 250 mL DMF. The resulting polymer PECNQ was a dark coloured material. The polymer PECNQ was highly responsive to applied charges and responded to an external field, and could potentially be used in industrial applications. FTIR analysis showed two absorption peaks at 2220 cm-1, confirming the presence of TCNQ moieties attached to PE chains. UV analysis also confirmed the presence of both the quinoid and zwitterionic forms. X-ray analysis indicated that the presence of TCNQ moieties has imparted some crystallinity in the polymer backbone, compared to the starting material PE. Example 20: Characterisation of the polymer PECNQ using electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy A sample of the polymer (PECNQ) produced in Example 19 was analysed using ESR spectroscopy (see Figure 23). The ESR data indicated the presence of many free electrons or spins in the polymer backbone impacted by the addition of the TCNQ moieties, and a value of 1x1018spins per gram of polymer was calculated.

[0004] References 1) Muravir Bashir and Parvathy Rajendran, J of Intelligent Material System and Structure, September,12,2018. 2) Trishang Wang et-al, RSFS, Royalsociety Publishing.Org; interface 1026. 3) Electroactive Polymers for Robotic applications, Kwang J. Kim and Satoshi Tadokoro, Springer London, ISBN 978-1-84996-590-3, 2007. 4) Yoseph Bar-Cohen, J of Spacecraft and Rokets, vol 39, 6, Nov-Dec 2002. 5) Chengyun Ning, Zhengnan Zhou, Guoxin Tan, Ye Zhu and Chuanbin Mao, Progress in Polymer Science, 81, 144-162, 2018. 6) Viness Pillay and Tong-Sheng Tsai et-al, J of Biomedical Material Research A, 102A (6),2039- 2054, 2014. 7) Zaidi et-al Polymer, 45, 5683-5689, 2004. 8) Zaidi et-al Tet. Let, 41, 4645-4649, 2000.

[0005] [EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION] Embodiments of the invention are set out below. These embodiments define preferable combinations of features. The applicant reserves the right to pursue protection for these combinations of features, and / or any other subject-matter contained in the application as filed, either in the present application or in a divisional application. The following numbered embodiments are not the claims of the current application which are contained in a separate section headed “claims”. [1] A substituted conjugated polymer comprising a conjugated polymer which comprises repeating units which have two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other, and wherein said repeating units are substituted with at least one organic electron acceptor that is capable of forming a stable zwitterion. [2] A substituted conjugated polymer according to [1] wherein the nitrogen atoms are separated by four bonds or less. [3] A substituted conjugated polymer according to [1] or [2] wherein the nitrogen atoms are separated by three bonds or less. [4] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to [3] wherein the repeating unit is present at regular intervals in the conjugated polymer. [5] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to [4] wherein the repeating unit comprises one or more aromatic groups. [6] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to [5] wherein the repeating unit comprises one or more aromatic groups and at least one of said aromatic groups comprises fused rings. [7] A substituted conjugated polymer according to [5] or [6] wherein nitrogen atoms are present within one or more of said aromatic groups. [8] A substituted conjugated polymer according to [6] or [7] wherein nitrogen atoms are present in the same ring of the fused aromatic moiety. [9] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to [8] wherein the repeating unit comprises an imidazyl moiety.

[0010] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to [9] wherein the repeating unit comprises a benzimidazyl moiety.

[0011] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0010] wherein the conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole.

[0012] A substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0011] wherein said conjugated polymer is obtainable from diaminobenzidine and terephthalic acid monomers.

[0013] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0012] wherein number average molecular weight of the conjugated polymer is in the range of 4000-200000 Dalton.

[0014] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0013] wherein the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N- oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide.

[0015] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0014] wherein the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative.

[0016] The substituted conjugated polymer according to

[0015] wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I: wherein: R1= R2= R3= R4= H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2= R3= R4= H and R1= Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me.

[0017] The substituted conjugated polymer according to

[0015] wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V:

[0006]

[0018] The substituted conjugated polymer according to

[0021] wherein the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ).

[0019] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0018] wherein each repeating units which has two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other is substituted with two or more organic electron acceptors that are capable of forming a stable zwitterion.

[0020] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0019] wherein each repeating units which has two or more nitrogen atoms in close proximity to each other is substituted with three organic electron acceptors that are capable of forming stable zwitterions.

[0021] The substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0020] wherein the substituted conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ).

[0022] An electroactive material comprising a substituted conjugated polymer according to any one of [1] to

[0021] .

[0023] The electroactive material according to

[0022] , wherein the material is highly charged at room temperature.

[0024] A method for producing the substituted conjugated polymer of any of [1] to

[0021] which method comprises reacting a conjugated polymer with an organic electron acceptor.

[0025] The method according to

[0024] , wherein the method comprises the steps: a) dissolving the conjugated polymer in an appropriate solvent, b) adding the organic electron acceptor to the solution and heating the resultant mixture, c) cooling and filtering the solid obtained from step b, d) optionally, evaporating the filtrate obtained from step c) to recover more product, and e) drying the product.

[0026] The method according to

[0025] wherein the molar ratio of the conjugated polymer and organic electron acceptor in the mixture of step b is around 1:3.

[0027] The method according to any one of

[0024] to

[0026] wherein the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ).

[0028] The method according to any one of

[0024] to

[0027] , wherein the conjugated polymer is polybenzimidazole or is a polymer obtained from substituted diaminobenzidine and terephthalic acid monomers.

Claims

CLAIMS 1. A polymer comprising a polymeric backbone and pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said polymer is paramagnetic.

2. The polymer according to claim 1, wherein the polymer is superparamagnetic.

3. The polymer according to claim 1 or 2 wherein the polymer has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1.

4. The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aromatic groups.

5. The polymer according to claim 4 wherein at least one of said aromatic groups comprises fused rings, wherein nitrogen atoms are present within one or more of said aromatic groups.

6. The polymer according to claim 4 or 5 wherein the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from polybenzimidazole and polyetherimide.

7. The polymer according to claim 4 wherein the repeating unit comprises a benzophenone moiety.

8. The paramagnetic polymer according to claim 7 wherein the polymeric backbone is derived from polyether ether ketone.

9. The polymer according to any one of claims 1 to 3 wherein the polymeric backbone comprises repeating units comprising one or more aliphatic chains.

10. The polymer according to claim 9 wherein the aliphatic chain is linear.

11. The polymer according to claim 9 or 10 wherein the polymeric backbone is derived from a polymer selected from polyacrylonitrile polyethylene glycol and polyethylene.

12. The polymer according to any one of claims 1 to 3 wherein the polymeric backbone is selected from the group consisting of polysiloxane, polyisoprene, polysaccharides, polyols, polypeptides, a DNA fragment, or an RNA fragment.

13. The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the number average molecular weight of the polymer is in the range of 4000-200000 Dalton.

14. The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors are present in an amount of 0.2 to 10 per monomer unit.

15. The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide.

16. The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative.

17. The polymer according to claim 16 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I:wherein:R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2= R3= R4= H and R1= Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me. The paramagnetic polymer according to claim 16 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V:. The paramagnetic polymer according to claim 16 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ). . The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the polymer is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ), sulphonated polyether ether ketone tricyanoquinonedimethane (SPEEKCNQ), polyetherimide tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEICNQ), polyacrylonitrile tricyanoquinonedimethane (PANCNQ), polyethylene glycol tricyanoquinonedimethane (PEGCNQ) and polyethylene tricyanoquinonedimethane (PECNQ). . The polymer according to any one of the preceding claims wherein the polymer is polybenzimidazole tricyanoquinonedimethane (PBICNQ). . An electroactive material comprising a paramagnetic polymer according to any one of the preceding claims. . The electroactive material according to claim 22, wherein the material is highly charged at room temperature. . A method for producing a paramagnetic polymer, comprising reacting a precursor polymer with an organic electron acceptor, wherein the method comprises the steps: a) dissolving the precursor polymer in an appropriate solvent,b) adding the organic electron acceptor to the solution and heating the resultant mixture, c) cooling and filtering the solid obtained from step b, d) optionally, evaporating the filtrate obtained from step c) to recover more product, and e) drying the product.

25. The method according to claim 24 wherein the precursor polymer is completely soluble in the solvent used in step a) under the conditions of the reaction.

26. The method according to claim 24 or 25 wherein the solvent is selected from the group consisting of dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and tetrahydrofuran (THF).

27. The method according to any one of claims 24 to 26 wherein the molar ratio of the precursor polymer and organic electron acceptor in the mixture of step b is around 1:

3.

28. The method according to any one of claims 24 to 27 wherein the electron acceptor is tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ).

29. The method according to any one of claims 24 to 28 wherein the precursor polymer is selected from the group consisting of polybenzimidazole (PBI), sulphonated polyether ether ketone (SPEEK), polyetherimide (PEI), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethylene (PE), 30. The method according to any one of claims 24 to 29, wherein the precursor polymer is polybenzimidazole or is a polymer obtained from substituted diaminobenzidine and terephthalic acid monomers.

31. A polymer obtainable by the method of any one of claims 24 to 30.

32. Graphite, graphene, or a fullerene comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said graphite, graphene, or fullerene is paramagnetic.

33. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene of claim 32, wherein the graphite, graphene, or fullerene is superparamagnetic.

34. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to claim 32 or 33 wherein the graphite, graphene, or fullerene has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1.

35. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to any one of claims 32 to 34 wherein the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N- oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide.

36. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to any one of claims 32 to 35 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from: Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative.

37. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to claim 36 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I:wherein:R1= R2= R3= R4= H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2= R4= H and R1= OMe and R3= OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2= R4= H and R1= OEt and R3= SMe; or R2= R4= H and R3= Me and R1= I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2= OCH2CH2O and R3= OMe and R4= H; or R2= R4= H and R3= Br and R1= OCH2CH2OH; or R2 = R3 = R4 = H and R1 = Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me.

38. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to claim 36 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V:

39. The graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to claim 36 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ).

40. An electroactive material comprising a graphite, graphene, or fullerene according to any one of claims 32 to 39.

41. The electroactive material according to claim 40, wherein the material is highly charged at room temperature.

42. Octasulfur comprising pendant groups that are organic electron acceptors capable of forming a stable zwitterion, wherein said octasulfur is paramagnetic.

43. The octasulfur of claim 42, wherein the octasulfur is superparamagnetic.

44. The octasulfur according to claim 42 or 43 wherein the octasulfur has a mass magnetisation at room temperature of less than 0.003 JT-1Kg-1.

45. The octasulfur according to any one of claims 42 to 44 wherein the electron acceptor is selected from a derivative of quinone, fumarate, trimethylamine N-oxide and dimethyl sulfoxide.

46. The octasulfur according to any one of claims 42 to 45 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from:Tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) Tetafluorotetracyanoquinodimethan (TCNQF4) 2,5-Dibromotetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQBr2) Tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) Dichlorodicyanobenzoquinone (DDQ), or a TCNQ derivative.

47. The octasulfur according to claim 46 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula I:wherein: R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = H, F, Me or Et R1= R2= H, Br, I, Me or Et, OMe, CN, PhCH2, a C1-C8alkyl group (preferably hexyl, Me, Et or iPr) with R3and R4being selected from H, F, Me or Et; R2 = R4 = H and R1 = OMe and R3 = OEt, OiPr, OiBu; or R2 = R4 = H and R1 = OEt and R3 = SMe; or R2 = R4 = H and R3 = Me and R1 = I, Br or Cl; or R1 = R2 = OCH2CH2O and R3 = OMe and R4 = H; or R2 = R4 = H and R3 = Br and R1 = OCH2CH2OH; or R2 = R3 = R4 = H and R1 = Me, Et, OMe, CO2Me.

48. The octasulfur according to claim 46 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from a TCNQ derivative having Formula II, Formula III, Formula IV or Formula V:

49. The octasulfur according to claim 46 wherein the electron acceptor is derived from tetracyanoquinonedimethane (TCNQ).

50. An electroactive material comprising octasulfur according to any one of claims 42 to 49.

51. The electroactive material according to claim 50, wherein the material is highly charged at room temperature.

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