Systems and methods for integrating vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (vecsels) with a confinement apparatus

Abstract

A confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof and a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an object-facing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode- housing surface of the first substrate. The electrodes at least partially define a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects. A first mirror and gain material are disposed on the first substrate and a composite optic is coupled to the second substrate. The composite optic includes a second mirror. The first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a vertical external cavity surface emitting laser (VECSEL) having a cavity defined between the first mirror and the second mirror. The composite optic also includes a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location. The composite optic may further include a seed coupling lens configured to couple a seed laser beam into the cavity. The composite optic may be mechanically coupled to the second substrate via one or more flexures.

Description

SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR INTEGRATING VERTICAL EXTERNAL CAVITY SURFACE EMITTING LASERS (VECSELS) WITH A CONFINEMENT APPARATUSCROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Application No. 18 / 937,500, filed November 5, 2024, which claims priority to U.S. Application No. 63 / 605,638, filed December 4, 2023, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] Various embodiments relate to confinement apparatus assemblies, systems, and methods relating to the integrated of vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (VECSELs) into a confinement assembly. For example, various embodiments relate to confinement apparatus assemblies, systems, and methods relating to the coupling of compound optical components to a second substrate and positioning the compound optical components with respect to the confinement apparatus of the confinement assembly. An example embodiment relates to the use of VECSELs for interacting with qubits of a quantum computer.BACKGROUND

[0003] In various instances, laser beams are used to perform quantum operations on qubits confined by a confinement apparatus. To increase the number of qubits available for use by a quantum charge-coupled device (QCCD)-based quantum computer, the confinement apparatus must increase in size. As the confinement apparatus increases in size, the distance a laser beam must travel to reach various portions of the confinement apparatus also increases. As the physical distance a laser beam must travel from its source to its target location, the more optical loss, the beam experiences. Therefore, to provide a given amount of laser power at a target location, a laser beam that travels a further distance must begin with a larger power. However, transmitting higher laser powers through optical fibers and / or waveguides causes the optical fibers and / or waveguides to degrade faster. Additionally, the electrical consumption for generating the higher laser power may be prohibitive. Through applied effort, ingenuity, and innovation many deficiencies of prior systems have been solved by developing solutions that are structured in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention, many examples of which are described in detail herein.BRIEF SUMMARY OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

[0004] Example embodiments provide methods, systems, apparatuses, confinement apparatus assemblies, and / or the like for integrating lasers, such as vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (VECSELs) into a confinement assembly. In various embodiments, the lasers are integrated into a confinement assembly for use in generating manipulation signals used to interact with and / or manipulate the quantum states of one or more quantum objects confined by the confinement apparatus.

[0005] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed thereon. The plurality of electrodes defines, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured for confining one or more quantum objects. A first mirror and gain material are disposed on the first substrate. The confinement assembly further includes a second substrate having a second mirror coupled thereto. The first mirror and the second mirror define a cavity of a VECSEL.

[0006] In various embodiments, an interaction with one or more quantum objects is performed using a first manipulation signal characterized by a carrier frequency and at least one second manipulation signal that is characterized by a respective sideband frequency. The sideband frequency differs from the carrier frequency by a state-pair frequency and, possibly, a detuning. The state-pair frequency is a frequency difference between a selected pair of quantum states of the quantum objects. In an example embodiment, the selected pair of quantum states define a qubit sub-space and each state of the selected pair of quantum states is a respective qubit state. In another example embodiment, the state-pair frequency is a frequency of motion of one or more quantum objects. For example, the pair of states may be hyperfine states of the quantum object and / or motional states of the quantum object and / or an object crystal including the quantum object. For example, the quantum objects may be used as qubits of a quantum charge- coupled device (QCCD)-based quantum computer. In various embodiments, the length of the cavity is configured such that a free spectral range of the cavity enables and / or causes both the carrier frequency and the at least one sideband frequency to resonant with the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that both the carrier frequency and the sideband frequency are simultaneously substantially resonant with the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that the carrier frequency is resonant with the cavity andthe carrier frequency may be modulated within a bandwidth determined, at least in part, by the passband of the cavity.

[0007] In various embodiments, the second mirror is part of a composite optic. In various embodiments, the composite optic includes a fluorescence collection lens. The fluorescence collection lens is configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity toward a collection location. The composite optic also includes the second mirror. In an example embodiment, the second mirror is located at a middle location of a first surface of the composite optic and the fluorescence collection lens is an annular lens disposed about the second mirror. In an example embodiment, the composite optic includes one or more additional lenses for providing additional laser beams to appropriate locations of the confinement assembly.

[0008] In various embodiments, the composite optic is part of an array of composite optics and / or the integrated VECSEL is part of an array of integrated VECSELs.

[0009] In an example embodiment, the composite optic is mechanically coupled to the second surface via one or more flexures. In various embodiments, the flexures are configured to control a position of the composite optic in a direction that is normal to a plane defined by a surface of the first substrate and / or the second substrate. In various embodiments, the flexures comprise fused silica.

[0010] In various embodiments, the second substrate has an object-facing surface which is directed toward the quantum objects confined by the confinement apparatus and the electrodes formed on the first substrate. A distal surface of the second substrate is opposite the object-facing surface. In various embodiments, the distal surface includes a lenslet array comprising a plurality of lenslets. Each lenslet is configured to direct a respective portion of a respective laser beam incident on the distal surface of the second substrate along a respective optical path. Each respective optical path includes at least one element of the composite optic.

[0011] According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a confinement assembly comprising at least one VECSEL having a cavity that is resonant with a carrier frequency and zero or more sideband frequencies is provided. In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrodehousing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects. The confinement assembly further includes a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an object-facing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate. A first mirror and gain material are disposed on one of the first substrate or thesecond substrate. A second mirror is coupled to the other of the first substrate or the second substrate. The first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a vertical external cavity emitting laser (VECSEL) having a cavity defined between the first mirror and the second mirror.

[0012] In an example embodiment, the confinement apparatus is configured to confine one or more quantum objects of the plurality of quantum objects within the cavity.

[0013] In an example embodiment, the frequency difference between the selected pair of states of the quantum object is in a range of 0.1 - 20,000 MHz.

[0014] In an example embodiment, the length of the cavity is in a range of 50 to 200,000 micrometers.

[0015] In an example embodiment, the composite assembly further includes a composite optic, the composite optic comprising the second mirror and a seed coupling lens.

[0016] In an example embodiment, the composite optic further comprises a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location.

[0017] In an example embodiment, the second mirror is in a middle location of a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens and the seed coupling lens is in a middle location of a second surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

[0018] In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly further includes a composite optic, the composite optic comprising a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location with the second mirror disposed on a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

[0019] According to another aspect, a confinement assembly comprising a composite optic is provided. In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects. The confinement assembly further includes a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an object-facing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate. A first mirror and gain material are disposed on one of the first substrate and the second substrate. A composite optic is coupled to the other of the first substrate and the second substrate. The composite optic comprises a second mirror. The first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a vertical external cavity emitting laser (VECSEL) having a cavity defined between the first mirror and the second mirror. The composite optic further includes a fluorescencecollection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location.

[0020] In an example embodiment, the second mirror is in a middle location of a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

[0021] In an example embodiment, the composite optic comprises a seed coupling lens configured to couple a seed beam into the cavity.

[0022] In an example embodiment, the seed lens is in a middle location of a second surface of the composite optic.

[0023] In an example embodiment, the fluorescence collection lens is an annulus lens.

[0024] In an example embodiment, the composite optic further comprises one or more additional lens assemblies configured to provide respective beams to respective object locations defined, at least in part, by the confinement apparatus.

[0025] In an example embodiment, at least one of the respective beams is an optical repump beam.

[0026] In an example embodiment, the one or more additional lens assemblies are disposed on a peripheral portion of the composite optic.

[0027] In an example embodiment, the fluorescence collection lens has a convex first surface with the second mirror being formed by a concavity formed in a middle location of the first surface.

[0028] In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly comprises a plurality of VECSELs having respective first mirrors and respective gain material disposed on the first substrate and forming a VECSEL array and a plurality of composite optics coupled to the second substrate forming a composite optic array.

[0029] In an example embodiment, the composite optics of the composite optic array are coupled to the second substrate via one or more of piezoelectric coupling elements and / or flexures.

[0030] In an example embodiment, the second substrate has a distal surface that is opposite the object-facing surface and that has a lenslet array formed therein, each lenslet of the lenslet array configured to direct a respective portion of a laser beam incident on the distal surface to a respective optical path comprising at least one element of a respective composite optic of the composite optic array.

[0031] In an example embodiment, the lenslet array is lithographically defined.

[0032] In an example embodiment, the fluorescence collection lens is configured to provide an optical pumping beam incident on a second surface of the fluorescence collectionlens toward the gain media of the VECSEL, the second mirror formed in a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens, and the first surface being opposite the second surface with respect to a VECSEL axis defined by the VECSEL.

[0033] In an example embodiment, the VECSEL is electrically pumped via electrical communications facilitated by the first substrate.

[0034] In an example embodiment, the VECSEL is optically pumped.

[0035] According to another aspect, a confinement assembly comprising an optic coupled to a second substrate via flexures is provided. In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode- housing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects. The confinement assembly further includes a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an object- facing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate.The confinement assembly further includes an optic coupled to the second substrate at least in part via one or more flexures.

[0036] In an example embodiment, the confinement assembly further includes a first mirror and gain material formed on the first substrate, wherein the optic is a composite optic comprising a second mirror formed in a first surface thereof and the first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a VECSEL.

[0037] In an example embodiment, the composite optic further comprises at least one of (a) a fluorescence collection lens or (b) a seed coupling lens.

[0038] In an example embodiment, the optic is part of an array of optics that are each coupled to the second substrate at least in part via respective flexures.

[0039] In an example embodiment, the one or more flexures use electrostatic forces in a plane parallel to the object-facing surface of the second substrate to cause movement of the optic in a direction normal to the plane.

[0040] In an example embodiment, the one or more flexures each include an angled arm configured to mechanically couple the optic to a series of flexure fingers, and the electrostatic forces applied to the flexure the series of flexure fingers.

[0041] In an example embodiment, the one or more flexures are formed at least in part of fused silica.

[0042] In an example embodiment, the one or more flexures are formed at least in part by laser writing a block of material and, after performing the laser writing, submerging theblock of material in a solution that preferentially etches laser written portions of the block of material.

[0043] In an example embodiment, each of the one or more flexures comprises a respective S-curve that is mechanically actuated.

[0044] In an example embodiment, the one or more flexures provide a range of motion of the optic in a range of 0.1 to 2 pm.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWING(S)

[0045] Having thus described the invention in general terms, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, and wherein:

[0046] Figure 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an example system including a confinement assembly according to an example embodiment.

[0047] Figure 2 is a partial cross-sectional view of a confinement assembly comprising an integrated VECSEL having a cavity that is defined in part by an element of a composite optic, according to an example embodiment.

[0048] Figure 3 is a partial cross-sectional view of a confinement assembly comprising an array of integrated VECSELs having respective cavities that are each defined in part by an element of respective composite optics that form a composite optic array, according to an example embodiment.

[0049] Figure 4A is a partial energy space diagram of a quantum object having a qubit sub- space defined therein and corresponding to an example quantum logic gate that may be performed using a VECSEL, according to an example embodiment.

[0050] Figure 4B is another partial energy space diagram of a quantum object corresponding to another example quantum logic gate that may be performed using a VECSEL, according to an example embodiment.

[0051] Figure 5A is a top view of an example flexure system configured for coupling a composite optic to the second substrate of a confinement assembly, according to an example embodiment.

[0052] Figure 5B is a cross-sectional view of the example flexure system shown in Figure 5A.

[0053] Figure 6A is a top view of another example flexure system configured for coupling a composite optic to the second substrate of a confinement assembly, according to an example embodiment.

[0054] Figure 6B is a cross-sectional view of the example flexure system shown in Figure 6A.

[0055] Figure 7 provides a schematic diagram of an example controller of a quantum computer configured to perform one or more deterministic reshaping and / or reordering functions, according to various embodiments.

[0056] Figure 8 provides a schematic diagram of an example computing entity of a quantum computer system that may be used in accordance with an example embodiment.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SOME EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS

[0057] The present invention now will be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some, but not all embodiments of the invention are shown. Indeed, the invention may be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will satisfy applicable legal requirements. The term “or” (also denoted “ / ”) is used herein in both the alternative and conjunctive sense, unless otherwise indicated. The terms “illustrative” and “exemplary” are used to be examples with no indication of quality level. The terms “generally,” “substantially,” and “approximately” refer to within engineering and / or manufacturing tolerances and / or within user measurement capabilities, unless otherwise indicated. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout.

[0058] Example embodiments provide methods, systems, apparatuses, confinement apparatus assemblies, and / or the like for integrating lasers, such as vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (VECSELs) into a confinement assembly. In various embodiments, the lasers are integrated into a confinement assembly for use in generating manipulation signals used to interact with and / or manipulate the quantum states of one or more quantum objects confined by the confinement apparatus.

[0059] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly includes a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof. The plurality of electrodes defines, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured for confining one or more quantum objects. A first mirror and gain material are disposed on the first substrate. The confinement assembly further includes a second substrate having a second mirror coupled thereto. The first mirror and the second mirror define a cavity of a VECSEL.

[0060] In various embodiments, an interaction with one or more quantum objects is performed using a first manipulation signal characterized by a carrier frequency and at leastone second manipulation signal that is characterized by a respective sideband frequency. The sideband frequency differs from the carrier frequency by a frequency that is determined at least in part based on a state-pair frequency and, possibly, a detuning. The state-pair frequency is a frequency difference between a selected pair of quantum states of the quantum objects. In an example embodiment, the selected pair of quantum states define a qubit subspace and each state of the selected pair of quantum states is a respective qubit state. In another example embodiment, the state-pair frequency is a frequency of motion of one or more quantum objects. For example, the quantum objects may be used as qubits of a QCCD- based quantum computer.

[0061] In various embodiments, the length of the cavity is configured such that a free spectral range of the cavity enables and / or causes both the carrier frequency and the at least one sideband frequency to resonant with the cavity. For example. The VECSEL may be configured to interact with one or more quantum objects by positioning the one or more quantum objects within the cavity of the VECSEL.

[0062] In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity is configured such that both the carrier frequency and the at least one sideband frequency are simultaneously substantially resonant within the cavity, enabling simultaneous driving of one or more frequencies and / or modulating the carrier frequency with a bandwidth up to the passband of the cavity.

[0063] In various embodiments, the second mirror is part of a composite optic. In various embodiments, the composite optic includes a fluorescence collection lens. The fluorescence collection lens is configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity toward a collection location. The composite optic also includes the second mirror. In an example embodiment, the second mirror is located at a middle location of a first surface of the composite optic and the fluorescence collection lens is an annular lens disposed about the second mirror.

[0064] In an example embodiment, the composite optic further includes a seed coupling lens. The seed coupling lens is configured to couple a seed laser beam into the cavity. Coupling of the seed laser into the cavity of the VECSEL causes the VECSEL to be seeded by the seed laser beam such that the VECSEL generates light having a frequency and / or phase that corresponds to and / or matches the seed laser beam. For example, seeding the VECSEL with a seed laser beam that is resonant with the cavity of the VECSEL causes the VECSEL to generate laser light at the same frequency as the frequency characterizing the seed laser beam.

[0065] In various embodiments, the composite optic further includes elements configured to provide an optical pumping beam to the gain media of the VECSEL. In various embodiments, the composite optic further includes elements configured to provide a repump beam to one or more object locations defined at least in part by the confinement apparatus.

[0066] In various embodiments, the composite optic is part of an array of composite optics and / or the integrated VECSEL is part of an array of integrated VECSELs.

[0067] In an example embodiment, the composite optic is mechanically coupled to the second surface via one or more flexures. In various embodiments, the flexures are configured to control a position of the composite optic in a direction that is normal to a plane defined by a surface of the first substrate and / or the second substrate. In various embodiments, the flexures comprise fused silica.

[0068] In various embodiments, the second substrate has an object-facing surface which is directed toward the quantum objects confined by the confinement apparatus and the electrodes formed on the first substrate. A distal surface of the second substrate is opposite the object-facing surface. In various embodiments, the distal surface includes a lenslet array comprising a plurality of lenslets. In various embodiments, a lenslet is a small lens that is part of an array of small lenses. In various embodiments, the lenslet array is formed on the distal surface of the second substrate. Each lenslet is configured to direct a respective portion of a respective laser beam incident on the distal surface of the second substrate along a respective optical path. Each respective optical path includes at least one element of the composite optic. For example, the lenslet array includes a subarray of lenslets configured to provide portions of a flood illuminated seed laser beams to respective VECSEL cavities.

[0069] In conventional confinement assemblies, manipulation signals in the form of laser beams are provided from laser sources exterior to the confinement assembly (e.g., exterior to a vacuum and / or cryogenic chamber that encloses the confinement assembly). As the size of conventional confinement assemblies increase (e.g., such that the confinement assembly can confine more quantum objects used as qubits of quantum computer, for example), the distance the manipulation signals travel to reach object locations defined by the confinement apparatus of the confinement assembly increases, leading to larger optical losses. For example, as systems scale, a common method for light delivery is integrated waveguides either within the confinement apparatus chip or in photonic integrated circuit (PIC) chip. The conventional approach for accommodating the larger optical losses is to increase the laser power of the originating laser beams. However, transmitting higher laser powers through optical fibers and / or waveguides causes the optical fibers and / or waveguidesto degrade faster. Additionally, the electrical consumption for generating the higher laser power may be prohibitive. Therefore, technical problems exist regarding providing laser beams to object locations of a confinement apparatus.

[0070] Various embodiments provide technical solutions to these technical problems. For example, various embodiments, provide confinement assemblies having lasers, such as VECSELs integrated with the confinement assembly. Because the lasers are integrated with the confinement assembly, lower levels of laser power can be used, and the required laser power does not scale with the size of the confinement assembly. Various embodiments therefore provide the technical improvement of reduced laser power requirements that are not a function of the size of the confinement assembly. For example, various embodiments, overcome these technical problems by providing interspersed optical amplification.

[0071] Moreover, various embodiments provide integrated VECSELs having cavities configured to be resonant with two or more frequencies (e.g., three frequencies) used to interact with one or more quantum objects. Thus, various embodiments provide the technical advantage that a single VECSEL may be used to provide a multi -toned manipulation signal, in an example embodiment.

[0072] Various embodiments further provide confinement assemblies comprising a composite optic that includes two or more optical elements. For example, the two or more optical elements include a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity of a respective VECSEL toward a collection location. The two or more optical elements also includes a second mirror that, at least in part, defines the VECSEL cavity. In various embodiments, the composite optics includes additional optical elements configured to perform various other optical functions of the system. Therefore, various embodiments provide the technical advantage of the efficient use of space within the confinement assembly to be able to perform the functions of the system while minimizing the number of optical components that need to be aligned.

[0073] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly includes an array of VECSELs and an array of corresponding composite optics. As such, various embodiments provide the technical advantage of being able to perform operations in parallel at multiple object locations defined by the confinement apparatus.

[0074] Furthermore, in various embodiments, the quantum objects are disposed within the optical cavity of a VECSEL. This causes the laser intensity experienced by the quantum object to be increased by the finesse of the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity is on the order of 100 (e.g., 50 to 200), which effectuates the quantum operation on thequantum object and thereby reduces the power required to be externally applied to the target by the finesse (e.g., by a factor of 100). Therefore, various embodiments significantly reduce the power requirements to perform quantum operations on the quantum objects.

[0075] Moreover, while chips, such as the first substrate having the plurality of electrodes formed thereon, are generally conceptualized as flat, various stresses and / or strains may be placed on a chip such that the surface of the chip is warped or curved. For a confinement assembly having integrated VECSELs, the distance between a first mirror of a VECSEL that is disposed on the first substrate and a second mirror coupled to the second substrate must be controlled with sub-micron precision. Otherwise, for example, respective cavities of one or more of the VECSELs may no longer be resonant with one or more desired frequencies, causing the VECSEL to not be functional for its intended purpose. Therefore, there exists technical problems relating to functionally forming an array of VECSELs in a confinement assembly.

[0076] Various embodiments provide technical solutions to these technical problems by coupling the composite optics to the second substrate using flexures that enable movement of the composite optics in a direction that is normal to a plane defined by the object-facing surface of the second substrate. The flexures enable the length of each cavity to be individually adjusted to ensure the proper cavity length of each VECSEL.

[0077] Additionally, various embodiments enable the use of flood illumination to provide laser beams (e.g., seed beams, optical pump beams, repump beams, and / or the like) to multiple object locations and / or multiple VECSELs simultaneously. This provides technical advantages regarding the ability to perform parallel operations at multiple object locations of the confinement assembly.

[0078] Therefore, various embodiments provide various technical improvements and technical advantages in the fields of confinement apparatuses, interaction with trapped quantum objects, quantum computing, and / or the like.Example System Comprising a Confinement Assembly

[0079] In various embodiments, confinement assemblies are incorporated into various atomic and / or quantum systems. For example, a confinement assembly of an example embodiment is configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects and interact with and / or control quantum state evolution of the one or more quantum objects. In various embodiments, the quantum objects are neutral or ionic atoms; neutral, ionic, or multipolar molecules; quantum dots; and / or other quantum particles. In an example embodiment, the quantum objects are ions and the confinement assembly defines a confinement apparatus that is an iontrap (e.g., a surface ion trap and / or a Paul ion trap). In various embodiments, the system is configured to interact with and / or control quantum state evolution of the one or more quantum objects to perform experiments, quantum computations, and / or the like.

[0080] In an example embodiment, the system is QCCD-based quantum computer system. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of an example QCCD-based quantum computing system 100, in accordance with an example embodiment. Various other embodiments relate to quantum computers of various other architectures and / or other trapped particle systems.

[0081] Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of an example quantum computing system 100 comprising a confinement assembly 200, in accordance with an example embodiment. As discussed in more detail with respect to Figures 2 and 3, a confinement assembly comprises a first substrate 210 having a plurality of electrodes formed thereon such that the plurality of electrodes defines, at least in part a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects. The confinement assembly further comprises a second substrate 220. The first substrate 210 and the second substrate 220 are disposed within a cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40.

[0082] In various embodiments, the quantum computing system 100 comprises a computing entity 10 and a quantum computer 110. In various embodiments, the quantum computer 110 comprises a controller 30 and a quantum processor 115. The quantum processor 115 includes a cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40 enclosing a confinement assembly 200, one or more manipulation sources 60, one or more voltage source 50, and / or the like. For example, the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40 may be a pressure-controlled chamber. In an example embodiment, the manipulation signals generated by the manipulation sources 60 are provided to the interior of the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40 (where the quantum object confinement assembly 200 is located) via corresponding optical paths 66 (e.g., 66A, 66B, 66C). In an example embodiment, the optical paths 66 are configured to provide manipulation signals and / or laser beams to a lenslet array formed on and / or in a distal surface of the second substrate 220.

[0083] In an example embodiment, at least one manipulation source 60 is disposed within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40. For example, in an example embodiment, one or more manipulation sources 60 are formed and / or disposed at least in part on and / or in the first substrate 210 of the confinement assembly 200 within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40. For example, in an example embodiment, at least one of the manipulationsources is a VECSEL formed at least in part on the first substrate 210 and / or second substrate 220.

[0084] In an example embodiment, the one or more manipulation sources 60 may comprise one or more coherent optical sources and / or one or more incoherent optical sources. For example, in an example embodiment, the one or more manipulation sources 60 comprise one or more lasers (e.g., optical lasers, microwave sources, VECSELs, VCSELs, and / or the like). In various embodiments, each manipulation source 60 is configured to generate a manipulation signal having a respective characteristic wavelength in, for example, the microwave, infrared, visible, or ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In various embodiments, the one or more manipulation sources 60 are configured to manipulate and / or cause a controlled quantum state evolution of one or more particles confined and / or trapped by the confinement apparatus of the confinement assembly 200. For example, in an example embodiment, wherein the one or more manipulation sources 60 comprise one or more lasers, the lasers may provide one or more laser beams (e.g., as manipulation signals) to quantum objects confined and / or trapped by the confinement apparatus of the confinement assembly 200. For example, the manipulation sources 60 may be configured to generate one or more manipulations signals and / or laser beams that may be used to initialize a quantum object into a state of a qubit sub-space such that the quantum object may be used as a qubit of the quantum computer 110, perform one or more gates on one or more qubits of the quantum computer 110, read and / or determine a state of one or more qubits of the quantum computer 110, and / or the like.

[0085] In various embodiments, the quantum computer 110 comprises an optics collection system configured to collect and / or detect photons generated by qubits (e.g., during reading procedures). The optics collection system may comprise one or more optical elements (e.g., lenses, mirrors, waveguides, fiber optics cables, and / or the like) and one or more photodetectors. For example, the composite optic of an example embodiment includes a fluorescence collection lens that is part of the optics collection system. In various embodiments, the photodetectors may be photodiodes, photomultipliers, charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensors, Micro- Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors, and / or other photodetectors that are sensitive to light at an expected fluorescence wavelength of the qubits of the quantum computer 110. In an example embodiment, the photodetector(s) of the optics collection system are disposed within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40. For example, in an example embodiment, thephotodetector(s) of the optics collection system are disposed on the distal surface of the second substrate 220.

[0086] In various embodiments, the photodetectors may be in electronic communication with the controller 30 via one or more A / D converters 725 (see Figure 7) and / or the like. For example, a quantum object being read and / or having its quantum state determined may emit a stimulated signal and / or fluoresce, at least a portion of which is incident on a fluorescence collection lens of a composite optic. The fluorescence collection lens directs the portion of the stimulated signal and / or fluorescence that was incident thereon toward a collection location. In an example embodiment, the photodetector is disposed at the collection location. In an example embodiment, stimulated signal and / or fluorescence that was incident on the fluorescence collection lens is coupled into a waveguide and / or optical fiber at the collection location such that the stimulated signal and / or fluorescence may be guided to the photodetector thereby.

[0087] In various embodiments, the quantum computer 110 comprises one or more voltage sources 50. For example, the voltage sources 50 may comprise a plurality of voltage drivers and / or voltage sources and / or at least one RF driver and / or voltage source. The voltage sources 50 may be electrically coupled to the corresponding potential generating elements (e.g., electrodes) of the confinement assembly 200, in an example embodiment. In various embodiments, the voltage sources 50 include one or more arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs), digital to analog converters (DACs), analog to digital converts (ADCs), and / or the like.

[0088] In various embodiments, a computing entity 10 is configured to allow a user to provide input to the quantum computer 110 (e.g., via a user interface of the computing entity 10) and receive, view, and / or the like output from the quantum computer 110. The computing entity 10 may be in communication with the controller 30 of the quantum computer 110 via one or more wired or wireless networks 20 and / or via direct wired and / or wireless communications. In an example embodiment, the computing entity 10 may translate, configure, format, and / or the like information / data, quantum computing algorithms and / or circuits, and / or the like into a computing language, executable instructions, command sets, and / or the like that the controller 30 can understand and / or implement.

[0089] In various embodiments, the controller 30 is configured to control the voltage sources 50, cryostat system and / or vacuum system controlling the temperature and pressure within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40, manipulation sources 60, optics collection system, and / or other systems controlling various environmental conditions (e.g., temperature,pressure, and / or the like) within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40 and / or configured to manipulate and / or cause a controlled evolution of quantum states of one or more quantum objects confined by the confinement assembly. For example, the controller 30 may cause a controlled evolution of quantum states of one or more quantum objects confined by the confinement assembly to execute a quantum circuit and / or algorithm. In various embodiments, the quantum objects confined by the confinement assembly are used as qubits of the quantum computer 110.Example Confinement Assembly

[0090] In various embodiments, a confinement assembly 200 includes one or more integrated lasers, such as VECSELs, such as shown in Figure 2. For example, in various embodiments, the confinement assembly 200 includes a first substrate 210. A plurality of electrodes 214 (e.g., 214A, 214B, 214C) are formed on an electrode-housing surface 212 of the first substrate 210. The plurality of electrodes 214 defines, at least in part, a confinement apparatus 216. A first mirror 262 and gain media 264 of a VECSEL 260 are formed and / or disposed on the first substrate 210. The VECSEL 260 also includes a second mirror 266. The first mirror 262 and the second mirror 266 define the cavity 265 of the VECSEL 260. The second mirror 266 is coupled to a second substrate 220 of the confinement assembly 200. The first mirror 262, gain media 264, and second mirror 266 are aligned along a VECSEL axis 268. In various embodiments, the cavity 265 is a Fabry -Perot cavity. In various embodiments, the cavity 265 is a ring cavity.

[0091] In various embodiments, the first substrate 210 comprises SiCL, fused silica, AI2O3, sapphire, and / or the like. In various embodiments, the first substrate 210 includes one or more layers of integrated optical and / or photonic components such as waveguides, grating couplers, metasurfaces, and / or the like. In various embodiments, the first substrate 210 comprises an electrode-housing surface 212 formed of dielectric and / or other insulating material. A plurality of electrodes 214 are formed and / or disposed on the electrode-housing surface 212. In various embodiments, the plurality of electrodes 214 form and / or define, at least in part, a confinement apparatus 216. For example, the plurality of electrodes 214 are configured to have respective voltage signals (e.g., generated by voltage sources 50) applied thereto to generate a trapping potential configured to confine the plurality of quantum objects.

[0092] In various embodiments, the confinement apparatus 216 is a surface ion trap similar to those disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 11,037,776, issued June 15, 2021, U.S.Publication No. 2022-0199391, published June 23, 2022, and / or U.S. Publication No. 2023- 0057368, published February 23, 2023, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. In various embodiments, various confinement apparatuses 216 may be used, as appropriate for the application.

[0093] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly 200 includes one or more integrated lasers. For example, the illustrated embodiment of the confinement assembly 200 includes VECSELs 260. A VECSEL 260 is formed by a first mirror 262 and gain media 264 formed and / or disposed on the first substrate 210 (or the second substrate 220, in an example embodiment) and second mirror 266 coupled to the second substrate 220 (or the first substrate 210, in an example embodiment). The first mirror 262 and the second mirror 266 form and / or define a cavity 265 therebetween.

[0094] In various embodiments, the first mirror 262 is a mirror configured to reflect and / or retroreflect light within a specified wavelength range, light that is resonant with the cavity 265, and / or the like. For example, in various embodiments, the first mirror 262 comprises a semiconductor distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), dielectric reflector stacks, and / or the like. For example, in various embodiments, the first mirror 262 comprises a plurality of layers of dielectric layers such as alternating layers of AlGaAs and GaAs. For example, the first mirror 262 comprises between 15 and 35 pairs of layers of GaAs / Al GaAs, in various embodiments, where the layers are disposed such that the layers alternate between a GaAs layer and an AlGaAs layer. For example, a pair of layers may consist of a GaAs layer and an abutting AlGaAs layer. In an example embodiment, the thickness of each layer is approximately one-fourth X / n, where X is the emission wavelength of the VECSEL (e.g., a wavelength corresponding to a carrier frequency and / or a sideband frequency resonant with VECSEL cavity 265) and n is the refractive index of the semiconductor of that layer.

[0095] In various embodiments, the gain media 264 comprises a multi-quantum well (MQW) layer stack comprising a series of quantum wells disposed between a series of barriers. Various other types of gain media may be used in various embodiments, as appropriate for the application. For example, when the gain media is pumped (e.g., optically and / or electrically), the gain media is configured to generate and / or emit photons characterized by a frequency that is resonant with the cavity 265. For example, in various embodiments, the gain media is configured to, when pumped, emit and / or generate photons characterized by a carrier frequency and / or one or more sideband frequencies, which are described in more detail elsewhere herein.

[0096] In various embodiments, the second mirror 266 is coupled to the second substrate 220. Thus, the cavity 265 is defined in a space between the first substrate 210 and the second substrate 220 where the confinement apparatus 216 is configured to confine quantum objects 5. In various embodiments, an object location 250 defined at least in part by the confinement apparatus 216 is disposed within the cavity 265. For example, the confinement apparatus 216 is configured to confine one or more quantum objects 5 at one or more object locations 250, transport quantum objects 5 between respective object locations, and / or the like.

[0097] When the gain media 264 is pumped (e.g., via optical pumping or electrical pumping), the gain media 264 emits photons into the cavity 265. The resonant effects of the cavity 265 cause a strong optical field within the cavity 265. When one or more quantum objects 5 are disposed at the object location 250 within the cavity 265 when the strong optical field is generated within the cavity 265, the optical field may be used to interact with the one or more quantum objects such as causing a controlled quantum state evolution of the one or more quantum objects, cause quantum state transitions within one or more quantum objects, causing photon scattering among one or more quantum objects, causing laser cooling of one or more quantum objects, causing optical pumping of one or more quantum objects, cause quantum state initialization of one or more quantum objects, causing quantum state measurement of one or more quantum objects, causing phase shifts between states of one or more quantum objects, causing frequency shifts (e.g., Stark shifts) between states of one or more quantum objects, causing trapping (e.g., confinement) of one or more quantum objects, and / or the like.. In various embodiments interaction of the optical field with the one or more quantum objects is configured to perform one or more quantum operations on the one or more quantum objects. As used herein, a quantum operation is a quantum logic gate (e.g., singlequbit quantum logic gate, two-qubit quantum logic gate, or multi -qubit quantum logic gate), quantum state transfer operation (e.g., shelving operation), frequency shift operation, phase shift operation, laser cooling operation, optical pumping operation, repumping operation, initialization operation, measurement operation, or the like.

[0098] One example of such a quantum operation is a Maimer- Sorensen (MS) gate. In various embodiments, an MS gate is a two-quantum object (e.g., two qubit) interaction or quantum logical gate that includes coupling first and second qubits states of the quantum objects. Figure 4A provides a schematic illustration of a portion of an energy space 400 of an example quantum object. The energy space 400 of the example quantum object 5 includes a qubit sub- space 410 that includes a first qubit state 414 and a second qubit state 412. The energy space 400 of the example quantum object 5 also includes an excited state 440. Thefirst qubit state 414 and the second qubit state 412 are separated by a qubit frequency fo. In an example embodiment, the first qubit state 414 and the second qubit state 412 are clock states of the ground state manifold of the quantum object 5. In various embodiments, the excited state 440 is part of an excited manifold of hyperfine states.

[0099] In various embodiments, the carrier frequency fcis a frequency that is different than (i.e., detuned from) the frequency corresponding to the energy difference between the first and / or second qubit states 412, 414 of the qubit sub-space 410 and the excited state 440 and / or excited manifold of hyperfine states. In some embodiments, the carrier frequency fcis less than the energy difference frequency between the first and / or second qubit states 412, 414 of the qubit sub-space 410 and the excited state 440 and / or excited manifold of hyperfine states. In some embodiments, the carrier frequency fcis greater than the energy difference frequency between the first and / or second qubit states 412, 414 of the qubit sub-space 410 and the excited state 440 and / or excited manifold of hyperfine states.

[0100] In various embodiments, the carrier frequency fcis determined and / or selected based on one or more criteria. In an example embodiment, the one or more criteria include a minimum absolute value of detuning from the frequency corresponding to the transition between the first and / or second qubit state 412, 414 and the excited state 440 and / or excited manifold of hyperfine states. In an example embodiment, the minimum absolute value of detuning is determined and / or defined so as to not incur more spontaneous emission than the system can tolerate while still meeting given gate fidelity goals. In an example embodiment, the one or more criteria include a maximum absolute value of detuning from the frequency corresponding to the transition between the first and / or second qubit state 412, 414 and the excited state 440 and / or excited manifold of hyperfine states. In various embodiments, the maximum detuning is determined and / or defined such that the power of the manipulation source generating and / or providing the manipulation signal(s) (e.g., the carrier manipulation signal 432, red detuned manipulation signal 434, and blue detuned manipulation signal 436) is sufficient to drive the gate interaction within a set time frame.

[0101] The red detuned manipulation signal 434 is characterized by a red sideband frequency fr and the blue detuned manipulation signal 436 is characterized by a blue sideband frequency fi>. In various embodiments, the red sideband frequency fris separated from the carrier frequency fcby the frequency difference between the two states of the qubit sub-space fo and a red detuning 5R corresponding to the transition between the first qubit state 414 and the second qubit state 412 via the excited state 440 and the blue sideband frequency fi> isseparated from the carrier frequency fcby the frequency difference between the two states of the qubit sub-space fo and a blue detuning 5B corresponding to the transition between the first qubit state 414 and the second qubit state 412 via the excited state 440. For example, fi> = fc- fo - 5B and fr= fc- fo + 5R. Thus, in various embodiments, the sideband frequencies (e.g., red sideband frequency frand blue sideband frequency fi>) are determined based at least in part on the frequency difference between a selected pair of states of the quantum object 5 (e.g., the frequency difference between the two states of the qubit sub-space fo).

[0102] In various embodiments, the blue detuning 5B and the red detuning 5R each are determined at least in part by a respective motional frequency of the quantum objects 5 that is used to mediate the MS gate. In an example embodiment, the blue detuning 5B is equal to the red detuning 5R. In an example embodiment, the blue detuning 5B and / or the red detuning 5R is tuned near to a motional mode of the quantum object (and / or an object crystal including quantum object) and is in a range of 0.1 to 100 MHz.

[0103] In various embodiments, the carrier manipulation signal 432, red detuned manipulation signal 434, and blue detuned manipulation signal 436 are configured such that the quantum objects 5 located at the object location 250 experience a red sideband interaction 422 and a blue sideband interaction 424 simultaneously. For example, when the quantum objects 5 located at the object location 250 experience the carrier manipulation signal 432 and the red detuned manipulation signal 434 simultaneously, the quantum objects 5 experience a red sideband interaction 422. For example, when the quantum objects 5 located at the object location 250 experience the carrier manipulation signal 432 and blue detuned manipulation signal 436 simultaneously, the quantum objects 5 experience a blue sideband interaction 424. The simultaneous experience of the red sideband interaction 422 and the blue sideband interaction 424 causes performance of the MS gate on the quantum objects 5 disposed at the object location 250.

[0104] In various embodiments, the VECSEL 260 is configured to provide and / or generate the carrier manipulation signal 432, red detuned manipulation signal 434, and / or blue detuned manipulation signal 436. For example, the VECSEL 260 may be seeded with one or more seed beams 322 with each of the one or more seed laser beams being characterized by a respective one of the carrier frequency or the blue sideband frequency or red sideband frequency. In another example, the VECSEL 260 is seeded with a multi-tone seed beam 322 that includes laser tones characterized by respective frequencies of the carrier frequency, red sideband frequency, and / or blue sideband frequency. In another example, theVECSEL 260 is seeded with a modulated seed beam. In another example, the VECSEL 260 is seeded with a single frequency seed beam.

[0105] In various embodiments, each of the carrier frequency, red sideband frequency, and / or blue sideband frequency are substantially resonant with the cavity 265 within the cavity pass band. For example, light generated by the gain media 264 in response to a seed beam 322 or tone characterized by the carrier frequency, light generated by the gain media264 in response to a seed laser beam 322 or tone characterized by the red sideband frequency, and light generated by the gain media 264 in response to a seed laser beam 322 or tone characterized by the blue sideband frequency are each resonant with the cavity 265. For example, the cavity 265 amplifies and / or generates coherent light at each of the carrier frequency, red sideband frequency, and / or blue sideband frequency in response to one or more seed beams 322 being incident therein.

[0106] In other words, the respective wavelengths corresponding to each of the carrier frequency, red sideband frequency, and / or blue sideband frequency are within the passbands of the cavity resonances which occur at half-integer or integer multiples of the length L of the cavity 265, in various embodiments. Therefore, the frequency difference between the carrier frequency and the red sideband frequency (e.g., fo - 6R) and the frequency difference between the carrier frequency and blue sideband frequency (e.g., fo + 6B) correspond to respective wavelength differences that are half-integer or integer multiple of the length L of the cavity265 within the passbands of the cavity. For example, the length L is configured such that the frequency difference between the carrier frequency and a respective one of the sideband frequencies is an integer multiple of the free spectral range FSR = c / (2L) within the passband of the cavity, where c is the speed of light, and the passband contains frequencies within + / - FSR / F of the cavity resonance where F is the finesse of the cavity. In an example embodiment, the free spectral range of the cavity 265 is at most the qubit transition frequency fo. In an example embodiment where the qubit transition frequency fo = 10 GHz, the length L of the cavity is 15 mm. In various embodiments, the length L of the cavity 265 is measured along the VECSEL axis 268.

[0107] In various embodiments, the free spectral range FSR and the finesse F of the cavity 265 are configured such that one or more frequencies of the seed laser beam 322 fits within the passbands of the cavity 265. The passbands of the cavity 265 are set by the free spectral range and the finesse of the cavity 265. For example, the passband of the kthmode of the cavity 265 is provided by fk + / - FSR / F, where F is the finesse of the cavity 265, and FSRis the free spectral range, and fk = k*FSR is the resonant frequency of the kthmode of the cavity for positive integer k. For example, the cavity 265 can support modulations of a seed laser beam 322 that are within + / - FSR / F of one or more resonant frequencies of the cavity. In various embodiments, the passbands are configured such that the carrier frequency fcis within the range fn+ / - FSR / F for some positive integer n. In various embodiments, the passbands are configured such that one or more sideband frequencies (e.g., the red sideband frequency and / or the blue sideband frequency) is within the range fm+ / - FSR / F for integer m. In various embodiments, the carrier frequency fcis in the passband of the nthmode simultaneously with one or more sideband frequencies being within the passband of the mthmode for integers n and m. In various embodiments, the integers n and m are equal. In various embodiments, the integers n and m are different.

[0108] Another example of such a quantum operation that may be performed within the cavity 265 of the VECSEL 260 is an optical MS gate. In various embodiments, an optical MS gate is a two-quantum object (e.g., two qubit) interaction or quantum logic gate that includes coupling first and second qubits states of the quantum objects using a carrier frequency that is an optical frequency which is resonant with the cavity 265 and sidebands that are motional sidebands. For example, the side frequencies differ from the carrier frequency by a motional frequency of the motion of the quantum objects. For example, the carrier frequency is an optical frequency that corresponds to a transition between at least one of the first qubit state and the second qubit state. For example, the carrier frequency and / or sidebands may couple the first and second qubit states located in the S manifold to one or more states in the D manifold, in an example embodiment. In various embodiments, the carrier and sideband frequencies can perform an entangling quantum logic gate between two or more quantum objects.

[0109] In various embodiments, the length L of the cavity is in a range of 20 to 5000 pm (e.g., 100 to 1000 pm in some embodiments). In various embodiments, the free spectral range of the cavity 265 is configured such that the carrier frequency corresponding to the frequency difference between one of the qubit states and an excited state (e.g., an S to D transition, and / or the like) is resonant with the cavity 265.

[0110] In an example embodiment, the free spectral range of the cavity 265 is further configured such that at least one of the sideband frequencies is also resonant with the cavity 265. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that both the carrier frequency and at least one sidebandfrequency are simultaneously substantially resonant with the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that the carrier frequency is resonant with the cavity and the carrier frequency may be modulated within a bandwidth determined, at least in part, by the passband of the cavity to, for example, provide the at least one sideband frequency. For example, the finesse of the cavity 265 is configured such that the sideband frequency (e.g., in a range of 0.1 to 100 MHz, in various embodiments) is within the passband (FSR / F) of the same resonance.

[0111] In still another example, a quantum operation that may be performed within the cavity 265 of the VECSEL 260 is a light-shift gate. In various embodiments, a light-shift gate is a two- quantum object (e.g., two qubit) interaction or quantum logic gate. Diagram 450 of Figure 4B illustrates an example embodiment of a light-shift gate that couples the S1 / 2 manifold 460 comprising a two-level qubit sub-space 410 to the D3 / 2 manifold 490 using a manipulation signal comprising a carrier frequency tone 480A and a sideband tone 480B. Together, the carrier frequency tone 480A and the sideband tone 480B provide a spin dependent force (SDF) pulse. The states represented by the solid lines of the S1 / 2 manifold 460 (e.g., the F = 0, m = 0, S1 / 2 state and the F = 1, m = 0, S1 / 2 state) that are coupled to the states represented by the solid lines of the D3 / 2 manifold 490 (e.g., the F = 2, m = -2, 0, 2, D3 / 2 states) by the gate manipulation signal comprising the carrier frequency tone 480A and the sideband tone 480B. The states of the D3 / 2 manifold 490 and S 1 / 2 manifold 460 that are not coupled via the gate manipulation signal are shown as dotted lines. In various embodiments, one state of the qubit space (e.g., the first qubit state 414) couples near-resonantly (and therefore strongly) to at least one state of the D3 / 2 manifold 490 and the other state of the qubit space (e.g., the second qubit state 412) couples far- off-resonantly (and therefore weakly) to the states of the D3 / 2 manifold 490. Therefore, application of the gate manipulation signal generates a state dependent force on quantum objects within the qubit space. For example, quantum objects in the first qubit state 414 of the qubit sub- space 410 will experience a force while ions in the second qubit state 412 of the qubit sub-space 410 will experience almost no force when the gate manipulation signal is incident upon the ions.

[0112] In various embodiments, the carrier frequency tone 480A and the sideband tone 480B are detuned from another by a beat note frequency p = ogate + 5. In various embodiments, the manipulation signal comprising the carrier frequency tone 480A and the sideband tone 480B oscillates at the beat note frequency p, which is a frequency that is detuned from the gate mode frequency ogateby 5, where 5 may be positive or negative. Invarious embodiments, the absolute value of 5 (e.g., | 5 |) is in the range of approximately 0.1% to 10% of the gate mode frequency ogate. In various embodiments, 5 is approximately a few kHz to a few hundred kHz. In an example embodiment, ogate corresponds to the frequency of one normal motional mode of an object crystal (e.g., called the gate mode), which is approximately 0.1 to 100 MHz, in an example embodiment. An object crystal is a group of quantum objects including the quantum object being used as a qubit of the quantum processor and at least one additional quantum object used to sympathetically cool the quantum object being used as a qubit. In various embodiments, the gate mode frequency ogate is in a range of 1 to 10 MHz.

[0113] In various embodiments the carrier frequency that characterizes the carrier frequency tone 480A corresponds to a frequency difference between one of the qubit states (e.g., the first qubit state 414) and a state of the D-manifold. For example, the carrier frequency tone 480A illustrated in Figure 4B is characterized by a frequency that is offset from the frequency difference between the first qubit state 414 and F = 2, m = 0 state of the D-manifold by an offset frequency A. In an example embodiment, the offset frequency is A ~ 12 MHz. In various embodiments, the carrier frequency is near but detuned from an optical transition (e.g., an S to D transition, an S to P transition, a D to P transition, and / or the like) of the quantum object.

[0114] To facilitate performance of the light-shift gate, in various embodiments, the length L of the cavity is in a range of 20 to 5000 pm (e.g., 100 to 1000 pm in some embodiments). In various embodiments, the free spectral range of the cavity 265 is configured such that the carrier frequency corresponding to the frequency difference between one of the qubit states and an excited state (e.g., an S to D transition, an S to P transition, and / or the like) is substantially resonant within the passband of the cavity 265.

[0115] In an example embodiment, the free spectral range of the cavity 265 is further configured such that at least one of the sideband frequencies is also substantially resonant within the passband of the cavity 265. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that both the carrier frequency and at least one sideband frequency are simultaneously substantially resonant with the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity and the free spectral range of the cavity are together configured such that the carrier frequency is resonant with the cavity and the carrier frequency may be modulated within a bandwidth determined, at least in part, by the passband of the cavity to, for example, provide the at least one sideband frequency. Forexample, the finesse of the cavity 265 is configured such that the sideband frequency (e.g., in a range of 1 to 10 MHz, in various embodiments) is within the passband (FSR / F) of the same resonance.

[0116] In various embodiments the carrier frequency is configured to perform quantum state transfer (i.e., shelving) from one of the quantum state object states 412 or 414 to an auxiliary state (e.g., a state within 450). In various embodiments, quantum state transfer assists in reducing error in measurement operations of one or more quantum objects 5, reduces error in initialization of one or more quantum objects, and / or the like.

[0117] In various embodiments the carrier frequency and / or one or more sideband frequencies is configured to perform laser cooling of one or more quantum objects. For example, the carrier frequency and / or one or more sideband frequencies is configured to perform Doppler cooling, sideband cooling, electromagnetically-induced transparency cooling, polarization gradient cooling, Sisyphus cooling, and / or the like on one or more quantum objects.

[0118] In various embodiments the carrier frequency is configured to perform a frequency shift of one of the quantum object levels 412 and / or 414 e.g., an alternating current (AC) Stark shift]. Applying the frequency shift for a specified duration causes a phase-shift gate to be applied to one or more quantum objects 5. Thus, in various embodiments, the carrier frequency is configured to perform a phase-shift gate on one or more quantum objects.

[0119] The free spectral range of the cavity 265 is the inverse of the round-trip time of the cavity 265, or the time it takes for a photon to travel from the first mirror 262 to the second mirror 266 and back to the first mirror 262. For example, the free spectral range is equal to c / (2L), where c is the speed of light and L is the length of the cavity 265.Furthermore, the free spectral range determines at least in part the passbands of the cavity in which light is substantially resonant. Thus, in various embodiments, the length of the cavity is configured such that the passbands of the cavity encompass the carrier frequency and / or one or more sideband frequencies necessary to implement quantum operations (e.g., quantum logic gate, Molmer- Sorensen gate, light shift gate, quantum state transfer operation, laser cooling operation, frequency shift of one or more levels, phase-shift gate, etc.) on one or more quantum objects 5.

[0120] In various embodiments, various other interactions and / or controlled quantum state evolutions (e.g., in addition to and / or alternative to MS gates, optical MS gates, and / or light-shift gates, state transfer operations, laser cooling operations, level frequency shifts, phase shift gates) may be performed on one or more quantum objects 5 using a carrierfrequency and / or one or more sidebands thereof where the respective sideband frequency is determined, at least in part, based on the frequency difference between a pair of selected quantum states of the quantum objects [e.g., first qubit state 414 and second qubit state 412 or the first qubit state 414 and an auxiliary state (e.g., one of the states in 490) or the second qubit state 412 and an auxiliary state] and / or a motional mode of the quantum object or an object crystal including the quantum object.

[0121] In various embodiments, the length L of the cavity 265 is in a range of 50 to 200,000 micrometers. In various embodiments, the length L is designed based on a carrier frequency desired to be resonant with the cavity 265, a distance above the electrode-housing surface at which the quantum objects are confined, a quantum object type (e.g., atomic number, isotope, etc.). For example, for a compact confinement apparatus configured to confine quantum objects 20-30 pm from the electrode-housing surface, the cavity length L may be 50 pm. In another example, for a confinement apparatus configured to confine quantum objects approximately 70 pm from the electrode-housing surface, the cavity length may be approximately 400 pm. In another example, when the cavity is configured to support performance of the MS gate on hyperfine states, the length of the cavity may be ~1.2 cm when the quantum object is171Yb+and -12 cm when the quantum object is9Be+.

[0122] As illustrated in Figure 2, the length L is the distance between the first mirror 262 of the VECSEL 260 and the second mirror 266 of the VECSEL 260. The second mirror 266 partially defines the cavity 265 of the VECSEL 260. For example, the cavity 265 extends between the first mirror 262 and the second mirror 266. For example, the second mirror 266 is configured to reflect (e.g., retro-reflect) light incident thereon. In an example embodiment, the second mirror 266 is configured to resonate light incident thereon that is characterized by a frequency within a desired frequency range, wherein the desired frequency range includes the carrier frequency and one or more sideband frequencies. In various embodiments, the second mirror 266 is (mechanically) coupled to a second substrate 220 of the confinement assembly 200.

[0123] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly 200 comprises a second substrate 220. In various embodiments, the second substrate 220 is mounted with respect to and / or in a fixed relationship with the first substrate 210. In various embodiments, the second substrate comprises SiCE, fused silica, and / or the like. In various embodiments, the second substrate may include one or more layers of integrated optical and / or photonic components, such as waveguides, grating couplers, metasurfaces, and / or the like. In an exampleembodiment, the second substrate 220 has one or more electrodes formed on the object-facing surface 222 thereof.

[0124] As illustrated in Figures 2 and 3, the second mirror 266 of VECSEL 260 is coupled to the second substrate 220. In various embodiments, the second mirror 266 is part of a composite optic 230 which is coupled to the second substrate 220 via mechanical couplers 224. In various embodiments, a composite optic 230 is an optical component of the confinement assembly 200 that includes a plurality of optical elements that are monolithically integrated with one another. For example, in an example embodiment, the composite optic is a piece of glass (e.g., fused silica) shaped to define a plurality of optical elements. In various embodiments, the composite optic 230 comprises SiCE, fused silica, and / or the like. In various embodiments, one or more surfaces of the composite optic 230 and / or portions thereof may be coated with various coatings (e.g., reflective coatings, anti -reflective coatings, and / or the like).

[0125] In various embodiments, the composite optic includes a fluorescence collection lens232. The fluorescence collection lens 232 is configured to direct at least some of the light emitted and / or fluoresced by one or more quantum objects 5 disposed at the object location 250 toward a collection location 285. For example, a quantum object 5 disposed at the object location 250 may emit light and / or fluoresce. For example, during a qubit reading operation, a reading manipulation signal (e.g., generated and / or provided by a manipulation source 60) is incident on a quantum object 5 disposed at the object location 250. In response to the reading manipulation signal being incident on the quantum object 5, the quantum object emits light and / or fluorescence when the quantum object 5 is in a particular one of the states of the qubit sub-space 410. For example, in an example embodiment, when the quantum object 5 is in the first qubit state 414, the quantum object 5 fluoresces in response to the reading manipulation signal being incident thereon and when the quantum object 5 is in the second qubit state 412, the quantum object 5 does not fluoresce in response to the reading manipulation signal. The quantum state (e.g., the first qubit state 414 or the second qubit state 412) of the quantum object 5 may then be determined based on whether or not the fluorescence was detected or not in response to the reading manipulation signal being incident thereon.

[0126] When the quantum object 5 fluoresces, photons are emitted in all directions out from the quantum object 5. As shown by the dot-dashed lines in Figure 2, some of the fluoresced light 326 is incident on the fluorescence collection lens 232. The fluorescencecollection lens 232 directs the fluoresced light incident thereon toward the collection location 285. In various embodiments, a photodetector 280 is located at the collection location 285. For example, in an example embodiment, a photodetector 280 is disposed on the distal surface 226 of the second substrate and configured to detect photons arriving at the collection location 285. In various embodiments, the light that arrives at the collection location 285 is coupled into a waveguide or optical fiber configured to guide the light to a photodetector 280.

[0127] In various embodiments, the fluorescence collection lens 232 is an annular lens. In various embodiments, the fluorescence collection lens comprises a first surface 233 and a second surface 237. In various embodiments, the first surface 233 and the second surface 237 are convex surfaces. In other embodiments, the first surface 233 is a convex, concave, or flat surface. In other embodiments, the second surface 237 is a convex, concave, or flat surface. In an example embodiment, the first surface 233 (other than the middle portion and / or location 234) and / or the second surface 237 of the fluorescence collection lens 232 are coated with an anti -refl ection coating.

[0128] In various embodiments, a middle portion and / or location 234 of the first surface 233 comprises a second mirror 266. For example, in various embodiments, the middle portion and / or location 234 of the first surface 233 comprises a concave surface 235 that acts as the second mirror 266. In an example embodiment, the concave surface 235 is coated with a reflective coating. In an example embodiment, the reflective coating is partially reflecting and enables some light to pass through the composite optic 230 and enables injection seeding of the laser .

[0129] In various embodiments, the composite optic further includes a seed coupling lens 236. In various embodiments, the seed coupling lens 236 comprises a convex surface located in at a middle portion and / or location 238 of the second surface 237. In various embodiments, the seed coupling lens 236 is configured to direct a seed beam 322 (e.g., a seed laser beam or portion thereof) into the cavity 265, as shown by the dashed lines in Figure 2. For example, a seed laser beam may be incident on the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220. At least a portion of the seed laser beam is coupled into the second substrate 220 (e.g., via a lenslet 332B, in an example embodiment) and is incident on the seed coupling lens 236. The seed coupling lens 236 directs the seed beam incident thereon to the concave surface 235 such that the seed beam enters the cavity 265 and seeds the VECSEL 260. In various embodiments, the seed beam may include one laser tone or multiple laser tones (e.g., two, three, and / or the like). The seed beam 322 is configured to cause the VECSEL 260 togenerate (coherent) light having a frequency that is the same as and / or phase that is coherent with the seed beam 322.

[0130] In various embodiments, the gain media 264 is electrically pumped or optically pumped. For example, in an example embodiment, the gain media 264 is electrically pumped via a lead, trace, and / or the like of the first substrate 210. For example, in an example embodiment, the gain media 264 is electrically pumped via an electrical contact and / or electrical communication with a voltage source 50 that is facilitated by the first substrate 210. In an example embodiment, the gain media 264 is optically pumped via an optical pumping beam 324.

[0131] For example, an optical pumping beam 324 may be incident on the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220. At least a portion of the optical pumping beam 324 is coupled into the second substrate 220 via a lenslet 332A. The optical pumping beam 324 is incident on the second surface 237 of the composite optic 230. For example, the optical pumping beam 324 may be incident on the second surface 237 of the fluorescence collection lens 232. The composite optic 230 (e.g., the fluorescence collection lens 232) directs the optical pumping beam 324 toward the gain media 264. When the optical pumping beam 324 is incident on the gain media 264, the optical pumping beam 324 provides an energy source that causes the gain media 264 to amplify light that is coherent with (at least a portion of) the seed beam 322.

[0132] Figure 3 illustrates an example embodiment where the composite optic 230 includes an additional beam lens assembly 310 disposed at a peripheral location of the composite optic 230. For example, the additional beam lens assembly 310 is disposed at a peripheral location 239 that is closer to a respective mechanical coupler 224 the then middle portion and / or location 234, 238 of a respective surface of the composite optic 230 (e.g., the first surface 233 or the second surface 237). In the illustrated embodiment, the additional beam lens assembly 310 includes a first additional beam lens 312 and a second additional beam lens 314. The first and second additional beam lenses 312, 314 are configured to, together, provide an additional laser beam and / or manipulation signal to the object location 250 disposed within the cavity 265. While the illustrated additional beam lens assembly 310 includes two lenses, in various embodiments, an additional beam lens assembly 310 may include one or more lenses (e.g., one lens, two lenses, three lenses, and / or the like).

[0133] For example, an additional laser beam 328 may be incident on the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220. At least a portion of the additional laser beam 328 is coupled into the second substrate 220 via lenslet 332C. After travelling through the second substrate220, the additional laser beam 328 is incident on the first additional beam lens 312, which changes the direction of propagation of the additional laser beam 328 and directs the additional laser beam 328 toward the second additional beam lens 314. When the additional laser beam 328 is incident on the second additional beam lens 314, the second additional beam lens 314 changes the propagation direction of the additional laser beam 328 such that the additional laser beam 328 is incident on the object location 250 at a desired incident angle (e.g., measured with respect to a plane that is defined to be parallel with the electrodehousing surface 212 and / or the object- facing surface 222).

[0134] In various embodiments, the additional laser beam 328 is a repumper beam configured to optically pump one or more quantum objects located at the object location 250. In various embodiments, the additional laser beam 328 is a shelving and / or deshelving beam configured to perform one or more shelving and / or deshelving processes / transitions on the one or more quantum objects located at the object location 250. In various embodiments, the additional laser beam 328 is configured to provide one or more laser tones configured to cause a desired interaction and / or controlled quantum state evolution of one or more quantum objects 5 in conjunction with the light generated by the VECSEL 260 and / or in addition to the interaction and / or controlled quantum state evolution peformable using the light generated by the VECSEL 260. In an example embodiment, the additional laser beam 328 is a reading manipulation signal configured for use in performing a qubit reading operation. In various embodiments, the composite optic 230 may include on or more additional beam lens assemblies 310 at various locations around the periphery (e.g., at respective periphery locations 329) of the composite optic 230.

[0135] In the example embodiment illustrated in Figure 3, the additional beam lens assembly 310 is part of composite optic 230B, which includes a second mirror that is part of VECSEL 260B. the additional beam lens assembly 310, however, is configured to provide the additional laser beam 328 to object location 250A, which is within the cavity of VECSEL 260A. In various embodiments, a composite optic 230 is associated with a respective object location (e.g., disposed within the cavity 265 defined in part by the second mirror 266 of the composite optic 230) and the additional beam lens assembly 310 is configured to provide the additional laser beam(s) 328 to one or more adjacent object locations (e.g., object locations not within the cavity defined at least in part by the second mirror 266 of the composite optic 230).

[0136] In various embodiments, the confinement apparatus 216 defines a plurality and / or an array of object locations 250 (e.g., 250A, 250B). A plurality of the object locations250 are disposed within respective cavities 265 of respective VECSELs 260 (e.g., 260A, 260B). For example, the confinement assembly 200 comprises a plurality and / or an array of VECSELs 260, in various embodiments, with the respective cavities 265 of at least some of the plurality of VECSELs 260 of the array of VECSELs having object locations 250 defined therein (e.g., by the confinement apparatus 216). For example, in various embodiments, the confinement assembly 200 comprises a plurality and / or an array of composite optics 230 (e.g., 230A, 230B), with each composite optic 230 comprising a second mirror 266 of a respective VECSEL 260 of the plurality and / or array of VECSELs. In various embodiments, the arrays of object locations 250, VECSELs 260, and / or composite optics 230 may be onedimensional arrays, two-dimensional arrays, or three-dimensional arrays.

[0137] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly 200 is configured for performing parallel operations at the array of object locations 250 disposed within respective cavities 265 of an array of VECSELs 260 that include respective second mirrors 266 that are part of respective composite optics 230 of an array of composite optics. For example, seed beams 322, and possibly optical pumping beam 324 and / or additional laser beams 328, may be provided to a plurality of VECSELs 260 (and / or object locations 250 disposed within respective VECSEL cavities 265) simultaneously.

[0138] In various embodiments, the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220 has a lenslet array 330 formed therein. For example, lenslets 332 (e.g., 332A, 332B, 332C) are formed on and / or in the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220 to form a lenslet array 330.

[0139] In various embodiments, each lenslet 332 is configured to direct a respective portion of a respective laser beam incident on the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220 along a respective optical path. Each respective optical path includes at least one element of a respective composite optic 230.

[0140] For example, the lenslet array 330 includes a subarray of lenslets 332 configured to provide portions of a flood illuminated seed laser beams to respective VECSEL cavities 265. For example, the lenslet array 330 includes a plurality of lenslets 332B that are each configured to provide a seed beam 322 to a respective seed coupling lens 236. For example, in various embodiments, the lenslet array 330 comprises a plurality of lenslets 332B that each are configured to provide a respective seed beam 322 to a respective seed coupling lens 236. For example, in various embodiments, the lenslet array 330 includes a plurality of lenslets 332B that are each configured to provide an optical pumping beam 324 to the gain media 264 of a respective VECSEL 260. For example, in various embodiments, the lenslet array 330includes a plurality of lenslets 332C that are each configured to one or more additional laser beams 328 to respective additional beam lens assemblies 310.

[0141] For example, in various embodiments, the distal surface 226 may be flood illuminated via one or more laser beams simultaneously, partially overlapping in time, and / or sequentially to cause performance of one or more interactions and / or controlled quantum state evolutions of respective quantum objects 5 disposed at respective object locations 250 within respective VECSEL cavities 265. For example, in an example embodiment, a plurality of parallel quantum logic gates, such as hyperfine MS gates, optical MS gates, light-shift gates, single qubit gates, initialization operations, measurement operations, laser cooling operations, repumping operations, state transfer (e.g., shelving) operations, or the like, are performed at a plurality of object locations 250 by flood illuminating the distal surface 226 with an optical pumping laser beam and a seed laser beam. The lenslet array 330 causes optical pumping beams 324 to be provided to respective gain media 264 of the array of VECSELs 260 and causes seed beams 322 to be coupled into respective cavities 265 of the array of VECSELs 260. For example, the optical pumping laser beam is incident on the lenslets 332A, which cause the optical pumping beam 324 to be provided to the respective gain media 264 of the array of VECSELs 260. For example, the seed laser beam is incident on the lenslets 332B, which cause the seed beam 322 to be provided to the respective cavities 265 of the array of VECSELs 260. One or more additional laser beams may be provided via flood illumination of the distal surface 226 of the second substrate, the respective lenslets 332C, and the respective additional beam lens assemblies 310.

[0142] In various embodiments, the lenslets 332 are lithographically etched into the distal surface 226 of the second substrate 220. For example, the lenslet array 330 is lithographically defined in various embodiments.

[0143] In various embodiments, the lenslet array 330 includes lenslets 332 each configured to provide a respective beam to respective composite optics 230. For example, in various embodiments, the lenslet array 330 may be flood illuminated by one or more laser beams and the lenslets 332 are configured to provide a corresponding portion of one of the one or more laser beams to the respective composite optic 230. For example, in an example embodiment, each lenslet 332 includes an optical coating configured to only transmit light of a desired frequency and / or within a desired frequency range. For example, each lenslet 332 of the lenslet array 330 may include a respective optical coating configured to emit light characterized by a desired frequency for the optical path corresponding to the lenslet 332 and that does not transmit light characterized frequencies corresponding to frequenciescharacterizing the other laser beams used to flood illuminate the lenslet array 330. For example, the lenslet 332B may include an optical coating configured to transmit light characterized by the frequency corresponding to the seed beam 322 and to not transmit light characterized by the frequency corresponding to the additional laser beam 328.

[0144] In another example embodiment, each lenslet 332 of the lenslet array 330 is associated with an optical path having a well-defined angle of beam direction such that beams coming in at an angle other than a selected angle are not directed to the object location 250. For example, each type of lenslet 332 may have a selected angle where beams incident on the lenslet 332 at the selected angle are provided to the object location 250 and beams incident on the lenslet 332 at an angle other than the selected are not provided to the target location. Different types of lenslets have different selected angle. For example, the selected angle for lenslet 332B is different from the selected angle of lenslet 332C. The flood illumination laser beams are then provided at the selected angle for the corresponding function such that the appropriate laser beams are coupled by the appropriate lenslets 332 into respective optical paths to be provided to the respective target locations.

[0145] In another example embodiment, rather than flood illuminating the lenslet array 330, an array of optical fibers (e.g., a fiber bundle) is arranged such that respective optical fibers are coupled (e.g., butt-coupled) to respective lenslets 332 such that appropriate beams may be provided to respective optical fibers to cause the appropriate beams to be coupled into the appropriate optical paths. In an example embodiment, the beams are provided to the appropriate optical fibers via flood illumination of selected groups of the optical fibers.

[0146] In various embodiments, the second substrate has a distal surface that is opposite the object-facing surface and that has a lenslet array formed therein, each lenslet of the lenslet array configured to direct a respective portion of a laser beam incident on the distal surface to a respective optical path comprising at least one element of a respective composite optic of the composite optic array.

[0147] In various embodiments, the array of composite optics 230 are coupled to the second substrate 220 via a plurality of mechanical couplers 224. In various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 are static mechanical couplers such as pillars of SiCh, fused silica, Si, and / or another appropriate material. For example, in various embodiments, the distance d maintained between the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and the composite optics 230 may be constant with time and / or not changeable. In various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 are adjustable. For example, in variousembodiments the distance d between the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and a respective composite optic 230 may be modified and / or adjusted.

[0148] For example, while chips, such as the first substrate 210 having the plurality of electrodes 214 formed thereon, are generally conceptualized as flat, various stresses and / or strains may be placed on a chip such that the surface of the chip is warped or curved. For a confinement assembly having integrated VECSELs, the distance between a first mirror 262 of a VECSEL 260 that is disposed on the first substrate 210 and a second mirror 266 coupled to the second substrate 220 may be different for different VECSELs 260 due to a warping or curving of the first substrate 210. Thus, in various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 are configured to be able to individually modify the distance d between the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and a respective composite optic 230 such that the length L of each VECSEL 260 of the array of VECSELs may be individually controlled.

[0149] For example, in various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 are configured to modify the distance d between the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and a respective composite optic 230 such that the length L of each VECSEL 260 of the array of VECSELs may be maintained at a desired length L (e.g., a length L that is resonant with the desired frequencies). In various embodiments, the length L is in a range of 200 to 600 pm. In various embodiments, the distance d is in a range of 50 to 50,000 pm. In an example embodiment, the mechanical couplers 224 are configured to provide a range of motion of individual composite optics 230 in a range of 0.1 to 10 pm.

[0150] In various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 are formed of a deformable or actuatable material. For example, in various embodiments, the mechanical couplers are piezoelectric pillars and / or piezoelectric coupling elements formed of piezoelectric material such as lead zirconate titanate (PZT), and / or the like. For example, the piezoelectric material of each mechanical coupler 224 may be individually actuated in order to provide the desired length L of each VECSEL cavity 265.

[0151] In various embodiments, the mechanical couplers 224 comprise one or more flexures. Figures 5A and 5B illustrate an example flexure system 500 that includes S-curve flexures configured to be mechanically actuated, according to example embodiments. Figures 6A and 6B illustrate an example flexure system 600 that uses electrostatic forces in a plane parallel to the object-facing surface 222 and / or electrode-housing surface 212 to control a position of the composite optic 230 in a direction normal to the plane parallel to the objectfacing surface 222 and / or electrode-housing surface 212.

[0152] Figure 5A provides a top view of an example flexure system 500 configured for coupling a composite optic 230 to a second substrate 220. For example, the frame 510 of the flexure system 500 is configured to be mechanically secured to the second substrate 220. In an example embodiment, the frame 510 of the flexure system 500 is integrally formed with the second substrate 220 and / or fused to the second substrate 220. Figure 5B provides a cross sectional view of the flexure system 500.

[0153] In various embodiments, the flexure system 500 is formed of glass, SiCh, fused silica, and / or the like. The flexure system 500 comprises two flexures 515 that are each secured to the frame 510 and to the respective composite optic 230. Each of the flexures 515 comprises an S- curve 520. The flexures 515 further comprise respective shoulders 530. The composite optic 230 is mechanically coupled to the flexures 515 via the shoulders 530.

[0154] In various embodiments, at least a portion of the flexure system 500 (e.g., frame 510, flexures 515 and / or S-curves 520, shoulders 530) are formed of a monolithic piece of material (e.g., a block of glass, SiCh, fused silica, and / or the like). For example, in various embodiments, at least a portion of the flexure system 500 is formed by laser writing portions of the monolithic piece of material and then submerging the monolithic piece of material in an acid that preferentially etches the portions of the material that have been modified via the laser writing.

[0155] In an example embodiment, the composite optic 230 is integrally formed with the flexure system 500. In another example embodiment, the composite optic 230 is formed separately from the flexure system 500 and then secured (e.g., fused) to the shoulders 530 of the flexure system 500.

[0156] In various embodiments, the flexures 515 are configured to control a position of the composite optic 230 in a direction 540 that is normal to a plane that is parallel to the object- facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and / or the electrode-housing surface 212 of the first substrate 210. For example, by applying force and / or pressure to actuation points 525, the position of the composite optic (e.g., the distance d between the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 and the composite optic 230) may be adjusted, modified, and / or controlled. For example, a pressing and / or pulling force may be applied the actuation points 525 to cause the position of the composite optic 230 in the direction 540 to be modified. By independently applying forces at the two actuation points 525, a tilt of the composite optic 230 may be controlled. In an example embodiment, pillars and / or actuators of piezoelectric material are coupled to the flexure system 500 at the actuation points 525. Inan example embodiment, the flexure system 500 provides a range of the position of the composite optic 230 in the direction 540 within a range of 0.1 to 10 pm (e.g., 0.5 to 2 pm). In an example embodiment, the flexure system provides a range of motion of the composite optic 230 in the direction 540 of approximately 1 pm. In an example embodiment, the direction 540 is aligned with and / or parallel to the VECSEL axis 268.

[0157] Figure 6A provides a top view of an example flexure system 600 configured for coupling a composite optic 230 to a second substrate 220. For example, the frame 610 of the flexure system 600 is configured to be mechanically secured to the second substrate 220. In an example embodiment, the frame 610 of the flexure system 600 is integrally formed with the second substrate 220 and / or fused to the second substrate 220. Figure 6B provides a cross sectional view of the flexure system 600.

[0158] In various embodiments, the flexure system 600 is formed of glass, SiCE, fused silica, and / or the like. The flexure system 600 comprises in-plane movement flexures 620 and out-of- plane movement flexures 640. For example, the in-plane movement flexures 620 are configured to control and / or adjust a position of the composite optic 230 in the x- direction, as illustrated in Figure 6A, which is in a plane parallel to the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate220. In various embodiments, the in-plane movement flexures 620 are notch flexures, pin flexures, blade flexures, and / or the like.

[0159] The out-of-plane movement flexures 640 are configured to control and / or adjust a position of the composite optic 230 in the z-direction, as illustrated in Figure 6B, which is normal to a plane parallel to the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220. In various embodiments, each of the in-plane movement flexures 620 is coupled to a respective out-of- plane movement flexure 640. Each in-plane movement flexure 620 and out-of-plane movement flexure 640 pair is mechanically coupled to the frame 610 and a shoulder 630. The shoulders 630 of the flexure system 600 are configured to engage and / or be coupled to a composite optic 230.

[0160] In the illustrated embodiment, a first portion of an in-plane movement flexure 620 is coupled to the frame 610 and a second portion of the in-plane movement flexure 620 is coupled to the out-of-plane movement flexure 640. The out-of-plane movement flexure 640 is coupled to the shoulder 630 via angled arm or member 635.

[0161] In various embodiments, the out-of-plane movement flexure 640 comprises one or more flexure fingers 642 (e.g., 642A, 642B, 642C). The flexure fingers 642 are interlaid withframe fingers 612 (e.g., 612A, 612B). At least some of the flexure fingers 642 have flexure electrodes 644 affixed to an edge surface 646 thereof. At least some of the frame fingers 612 have frame electrodes 614 affixed to an edge surface 616 thereof.

[0162] In various embodiments, charge can be applied to the flexure electrodes 644 and / or frame electrodes 614 to cause electrostatic forces therebetween. For example, charge can be applied to the flexure electrodes 644 and / or frame electrodes 614 to cause attractive or repulsive electrostatic forces between the flexure fingers 642 and the frame fingers 612. The attractive or repulsive electrostatic forces between the flexure fingers 642 and the frame fingers 612 controls and / or adjusts the distance between an edge surface 646 of a flexure finger 642 and an adjacent edge surface 616 of a frame finger 612.

[0163] Changes in the distances between edge surfaces 646 of the flexure fingers 642 and respective adjacent edge surfaces 616 of the frame fingers 612 cause the length of out-of- plane movement flexure 640 in a direction within a plane parallel to the object-facing surface 222 of the second substrate 220 (e.g., in the x-direction) to change. This change in length (in the x- direction) of the out-of-plane movement flexure 640 is transferred to the composite optic 230 via the angled arm or member 635. Thus, when the length (in the x-direction) of the out-of-plane movement flexure 640 increases the angled arm or member 635 position of the composite optic 230 in a direction that is normal to a plane that is parallel to the object-facing surface 222 (e.g., the z-direction) changes such that the composite optic 230 is closer to the first substrate 210. When the length (in the x-direction) of the out-of-plane movement flexure 640 decreases the angled arm or member 635 position of the composite optic 230 in a direction that is normal to a plane that is parallel to the object-facing surface 222 (e.g., the z- direction) changes such that the composite optic 230 is further from the first substrate 210. In an example embodiment, the flexure system 600 provides a range of the position of the composite optic 230 in the direction 650 (e.g., the z-direction) within a range of 0.1 to 10 pm (e.g., 0.5 to 2 pm). In an example embodiment, the flexure system 600 provides a range of motion of the composite optic 230 in the direction 650 of approximately 1 pm. In an example embodiment, the direction 650 is aligned with and / or parallel to the VECSEL axis 268.

[0164] In various embodiments, at least a portion of the flexure system 600 (e.g., frame 610, in-plane movement flexures 620, out-of-plane movement flexures 640, and / or shoulders 630) are formed of a monolithic piece of material (e.g., a block of glass, SiCh, fused silica, and / or the like). For example, in various embodiments, at least a portion of the flexure system 600 is formed by laser writing portions of the monolithic piece of material and then31submerging the monolithic piece of material in a dissolving solution that preferentially etches the portions of the material that have been modified via the laser writing.

[0165] In an example embodiment, the composite optic 230 is integrally formed with the flexure system 600. In another example embodiment, the composite optic 230 is formed separately from the flexure system 600 and then secured (e.g., fused) to the shoulders 630 of the flexure system 600.Technical Advantages

[0166] In conventional confinement assemblies, manipulation signals in the form of laser beams are provided from laser sources exterior to the confinement assembly (e.g., exterior to a vacuum and / or cryogenic chamber that encloses the confinement assembly). As the size of conventional confinement assemblies increase (e.g., such that the confinement assembly can confine more quantum objects used as qubits of quantum computer, for example), the distance the manipulation signals travel to reach object locations defined by the confinement apparatus of the confinement assembly increases, leading to larger optical losses. For example, as systems scale, a common method for light delivery is integrated waveguides either within the confinement apparatus chip or in photonic integrated circuit (PIC) chip. The conventional approach for accommodating the larger optical losses is to increase the laser power of the originating laser beams. However, transmitting higher laser powers through optical fibers and / or waveguides causes the optical fibers and / or waveguides to degrade faster and / or fail completely. Additionally, the electrical consumption for generating the higher laser power may be prohibitive. Therefore, technical problems exist regarding providing laser beams to object locations of a confinement apparatus.

[0167] Various embodiments provide technical solutions to these technical problems. For example, various embodiments, provide confinement assemblies having lasers, such as VECSELs integrated with the confinement assembly. Because the lasers are integrated with the confinement assembly, lower levels of laser power sourced external to the confinement assembly can be used, and the required laser power does not scale with the size of the confinement assembly. Various embodiments therefore provide the technical improvement of reduced laser power requirements that are not a function of the size of the confinement assembly. For example, various embodiments, overcome these technical problems by providing interspersed optical amplification.

[0168] Moreover, various embodiments provide integrated VECSELs having cavities configured to be resonant with one or more frequencies (e.g., one, two, or three frequencies)used to interact with one or more quantum objects. Thus, various embodiments provide the technical advantage that a single VECSEL may be used to provide a multi -toned manipulation signal, in an example embodiment.

[0169] Various embodiments further provide confinement assemblies comprising a composite optic that includes two or more optical elements. For example, the two or more optical elements include a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity of a respective VECSEL toward a collection location. The two or more optical elements also includes a second mirror that, at least in part, defines the VECSEL cavity. In various embodiments, the composite optics includes additional optical elements configured to perform various other optical functions of the system. Therefore, various embodiments provide the technical advantage of the efficient use of space within the confinement assembly to be able to perform the functions of the system while minimizing the number of optical components that need to be aligned.

[0170] In various embodiments, the confinement assembly includes an array of VECSELs and an array of corresponding composite optics. As such, various embodiments provide the technical advantage of being able to perform operations in parallel at multiple object locations defined by the confinement apparatus.

[0171] Furthermore, in various embodiments, the quantum objects are disposed within the optical cavity of a VECSEL. This causes the laser intensity experienced by the quantum object to be increased by the finesse of the cavity. In various embodiments, the finesse of the cavity is on the order of 100 (e.g., 50 to 200), which effectuates the quantum operation on the quantum object and thereby reduces the power required to be externally applied to the target by the finesse (e.g., by a factor of 100). Therefore, various embodiments significantly reduce the power requirements to perform quantum operations on the quantum objects.

[0172] Moreover, while chips, such as the first substrate having the plurality of electrodes formed thereon, are generally conceptualized as flat, various stresses and / or strains may be placed on a chip such that the surface of the chip is warped or curved. For a confinement assembly having an integrated VECSELs, the distance between a first mirror of a VECSEL that is disposed on the first substrate and a second mirror coupled to the second substrate must be controlled with sub-micron precision. Otherwise, for example, respective cavities of one or more of the VECSELs may no longer be resonant with one or more desired frequencies, causing the VECSEL to not be functional for its intended purpose. Therefore, there exists technical problems relating to functionally forming an array of VECSELs in a confinement assembly.

[0173] Various embodiments provide technical solutions to these technical problems by coupling the composite optics to the second substrate using flexures that enable movement of the composite optics in a direction that is normal to a plane defined by the object-facing surface of the second substrate. The flexures enable the length of each cavity to be individually adjusted to ensure the proper cavity length of each VECSEL.

[0174] Additionally, various embodiments enable the use of flood illumination to provide laser beams (e.g., seed beams, optical pump beams, repump beams, and / or the like) to multiple object locations and / or multiple VECSELs simultaneously. This provides technical advantages regarding the ability to perform parallel operations at multiple object locations of the confinement assembly.

[0175] Therefore, various embodiments provide various technical improvements and technical advantages in the fields of confinement apparatuses, interaction with trapped quantum objects, quantum computing, and / or the like.Example Controller

[0176] In various embodiments, a confinement assembly 200 is incorporated into a system (e.g., a quantum computer 110 or other trapped particle system) comprising a controller 30. In various embodiments, the controller 30 is configured to control various elements of the system (e.g., quantum computer 110 or other trapped particle system). For example, the controller 30 may be configured to control operation of one or more lasers integrated with the confinement assembly 200. For example, the controller 30 may be configured to control the voltage sources 50, a cryostat system and / or vacuum system controlling the temperature and pressure within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40, manipulation sources 60, cooling system, and / or other systems controlling the environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, pressure, and / or the like) within the cryostat and / or vacuum chamber 40 and / or configured to interact with, manipulate, and / or cause a controlled evolution of quantum states of one or more quantum objects confined by the confinement assembly 200. In various embodiments, the controller 30 may be configured to receive signals from one or more photodetectors 280 of an optics collection system.

[0177] As shown in Figure 7, in various embodiments, the controller 30 may comprise various controller elements including processing device 705, memory 710, driver controller elements 715, a communication interface 720, analog-digital converter elements 725, and / or the like. For example, the processing device 705 may comprise one or more processing elements such as programmable logic devices (CPLDs), microprocessors,coprocessing entities, application-specific instruction-set processors (ASIPs), integrated circuits, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable logic arrays (PLAs), hardware accelerators, other processing devices and / or circuitry, and / or the like, and / or controllers. The term circuitry may refer to an entirely hardware embodiment or a combination of hardware and computer program products. In an example embodiment, the processing device 705 of the controller 30 comprises a clock and / or is in communication with a clock.

[0178] For example, the memory 710 may comprise non-transitory memory such as volatile and / or non-volatile memory storage such as one or more of as hard disks, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, MMCs, SD memory cards, Memory Sticks, CBRAM, PRAM, FeRAM, RRAM, SONOS, racetrack memory, RAM, DRAM, SRAM, FPM DRAM, EDO DRAM, SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, RDRAM, RIMM,DIMM, SIMM, VRAM, cache memory, register memory, and / or the like. In various embodiments, the memory 710 may store a queue of commands to be executed to cause a quantum algorithm and / or circuit to be executed (e.g., an executable queue), qubit records corresponding the qubits of quantum computer (e.g., in a qubit record data store, qubit record database, qubit record table, and / or the like), a calibration table, computer program code (e.g., in a one or more computer languages, specialized controller language(s), and / or the like), and / or the like. In an example embodiment, execution of at least a portion of the computer program code stored in the memory 710 (e.g., by a processing device 705) causes the controller 30 to perform one or more steps, operations, processes, procedures and / or the like described herein for providing manipulation signals to quantum object positions and / or collecting, detecting, capturing, and / or measuring indications of stimulated signals and / or fluorescence emitted / fluoresced by quantum objects located at corresponding object locations of the confinement assembly 200.

[0179] In various embodiments, the driver controller elements 715 may include one or more drivers and / or controller elements each configured to control one or more drivers. In various embodiments, the driver controller elements 715 may comprise drivers and / or driver controllers. For example, the driver controllers may be configured to cause one or more corresponding drivers to be operated in accordance with executable instructions, commands, and / or the like scheduled and executed by the controller 30 (e.g., by the processing device 705). In various embodiments, the driver controller elements 715 may enable the controller 30 to operate a voltage sources 50, manipulation sources 60, cooling system, and / or the like.In various embodiments, the drivers may be laser drivers configured to operate one or manipulation sources 60 to generate manipulation signals; vacuum component drivers; drivers for controlling the flow of current and / or voltage applied to electrodes used for maintaining and / or controlling the trapping potential of the confinement assembly 200 (and / or other drivers for providing driver action sequences to potential generating elements (e.g., electrodes) of the confinement assembly); cryostat and / or vacuum system component drivers; cooling system drivers, and / or the like. In various embodiments, the driver controller elements 715 include elements configured to control actuation of and / or forces applied to one or more flexure systems. For example, the controller 30 may control the location and / or position of one or more second mirrors and / or composite optics of the confinement assembly 200.

[0180] In various embodiments, the controller 30 comprises means for communicating and / or receiving signals from one or more optical receiver components (e.g., photodetectors 280 of the optics collection system). For example, the controller 30 may comprise one or more analog-digital converter elements 725 configured to receive signals from one or more optical receiver components (e.g., a photodetector 280 of the optics collection system), calibration sensors, and / or the like.

[0181] In various embodiments, the controller 30 may comprise a communication interface 720 for interfacing and / or communicating with a computing entity 10. For example, the controller 30 may comprise a communication interface 720 for receiving executable instructions, command sets, and / or the like from the computing entity 10 and providing output received from the quantum computer 110 (e.g., from an optics collection system 70) and / or the result of a processing the output to the computing entity 10. In various embodiments, the computing entity 10 and the controller 30 may communicate via a direct wired and / or wireless connection and / or via one or more wired and / or wireless networks 20.Example Computing Entity

[0182] Figure 8 provides an illustrative schematic representative of an example computing entity 10 that can be used in conjunction with embodiments of the present invention. In various embodiments, a computing entity 10 is configured to allow a user to provide input to the quantum computer 110 (e.g., via a user interface of the computing entity 10) and receive, display, analyze, and / or the like output from the quantum computer 110.

[0183] As shown in Figure 8, a computing entity 10 can include an antenna 812, a transmitter 804 (e.g., radio), a receiver 806 (e.g., radio), and a processing device 808 thatprovides signals to and receives signals from the transmitter 804 and receiver 806, respectively. The signals provided to and received from the transmitter 804 and the receiver 806, respectively, may include signaling information / data in accordance with an air interface standard of applicable wireless systems to communicate with various entities, such as a controller 30, other computing entities 10, and / or the like. In this regard, the computing entity 10 may be capable of operating with one or more air interface standards, communication protocols, modulation types, and access types. For example, the computing entity 10 may be configured to receive and / or provide communications using a wired data transmission protocol, such as fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), digital subscriber line (DSL), Ethernet, asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), frame relay, data over cable service interface specification (DOCSIS), or any other wired transmission protocol. Similarly, the computing entity 10 may be configured to communicate via wireless external communication networks using any of a variety of protocols, such as general packet radio service (GPRS), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Code Division Multiple Access 2000 (CDMA2000), CDMA2000 IX (IxRTT), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access (TD- SCDMA), Long Term Evolution (LTE), Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN), Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO), High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), Wi-Fi Direct, 802.16 (WiMAX), ultra-wideband (UWB), infrared (IR) protocols, near field communication (NFC) protocols, Wibree, Bluetooth protocols, wireless universal serial bus (USB) protocols, and / or any other wireless protocol. The computing entity 10 may use such protocols and standards to communicate using Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Domain Name System (DNS), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), HTTP over TLS / SSL / S ecure, Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Network Time Protocol (NTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Telnet, Transport Layer Security (TLS), Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), Internet Protocol (IP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), HyperText Markup Language (HTML), and / or the like.

[0184] Via these communication standards and protocols, the computing entity 10 can communicate with various other entities using concepts such as Unstructured Supplementary Service information / data (USSD), Short Message Service (SMS), MultimediaMessaging Service (MMS), Dual-Tone Multi -Frequency Signaling (DTMF), and / or Subscriber Identity Module Dialer (SIM dialer). The computing entity 10 can also download changes, add-ons, and updates, for instance, to its firmware, software (e.g., including executable instructions, applications, program modules), and operating system.

[0185] For example, the processing device 808 may comprise one or more processing elements such as programmable logic devices (CPLDs), microprocessors, coprocessing entities, application-specific instruction-set processors (ASIPs), integrated circuits, application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), programmable logic arrays (PLAs), hardware accelerators, other processing devices and / or circuitry, and / or the like, and / or controllers. The term circuitry may refer to an entirely hardware embodiment or a combination of hardware and computer program products.

[0186] In various embodiments, the computing entity 10 may comprise a network interface 820 for interfacing and / or communicating with the controller 30, for example. For example, the computing entity 10 may comprise a network interface 820 for providing executable instructions, command sets, and / or the like for receipt by the controller 30 and / or receiving output and / or the result of a processing the output provided by the quantum computer 110. In various embodiments, the computing entity 10 and the controller 30 may communicate via a direct wired and / or wireless connection and / or via one or more wired and / or wireless networks 20.

[0187] The computing entity 10 may also comprise a user interface device comprising one or more user input / output interfaces (e.g., a display 816 and / or speaker / speaker driver coupled to a processing device 808 and a touch screen, keyboard, mouse, and / or microphone coupled to a processing device 808). For instance, the user output interface may be configured to provide an application, browser, user interface, interface, dashboard, screen, webpage, page, and / or similar words used herein interchangeably executing on and / or accessible via the computing entity 10 to cause display or audible presentation of information / data and for interaction therewith via one or more user input interfaces. The user input interface can comprise any of a number of devices allowing the computing entity 10 to receive data, such as a keypad 818 (hard or soft), a touch display, voice / speech or motion interfaces, scanners, readers, or other input device. In embodiments including a keypad 818, the keypad 818 can include (or cause display of) the conventional numeric (0-9) and related keys (#, *), and other keys used for operating the computing entity 10 and may include a full set of alphabetic keys or set of keys that may be activated to provide a full set of alphanumeric keys. In addition to providing input, the user inputinterface can be used, for example, to activate or deactivate certain functions, such as screen savers and / or sleep modes. Through such inputs the computing entity 10 can collect information / data, user interaction / input, and / or the like.

[0188] The computing entity 10 can also include volatile storage or memory 822 and / or non-volatile storage or memory 824, which can be embedded and / or may be removable. For instance, the non-volatile memory may be ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, MMCs, SD memory cards, Memory Sticks, CBRAM, PRAM, FeRAM, RRAM, SONOS, racetrack memory, and / or the like. The volatile memory may be RAM, DRAM, SRAM, FPM DRAM, EDO DRAM, SDRAM, DDR SDRAM, DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, RDRAM,RIMM, DIMM, SIMM, VRAM, cache memory, register memory, and / or the like. The volatile and non-volatile storage or memory can store databases, database instances, database management system entities, data, applications, programs, program modules, scripts, source code, object code, byte code, compiled code, interpreted code, machine code, executable instructions, and / or the like to implement the functions of the computing entity 10.Conclusion

[0189] Many modifications and other embodiments of the invention set forth herein will come to mind to one skilled in the art to which the invention pertains having the benefit of the teachings presented in the foregoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is to be understood that the invention is not to be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed and that modifications and other embodiments are intended to be included within the scope of the appended claims. Although specific terms are employed herein, they are used in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation.

Claims

CLAIMS:

1. A confinement assembly, the confinement assembly comprising: a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine one or more quantum objects; a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an objectfacing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate; a first mirror and gain material disposed on one of the first substrate or the second substrate; and a second mirror coupled to the other of the first substrate or the second substrate, wherein the first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a vertical external cavity surface emitting laser (VECSEL) having a cavity defined between the first mirror and the second mirror.

2. The confinement assembly of claim 1, wherein a free spectral range of the cavity is configured to cause a carrier frequency to resonate within the cavity, the carrier frequency is determined at least in part by a quantum operation to be performed on one or more quantum objects of the plurality of quantum objects by coherent light amplified by the cavity.

3. The confinement assembly of claim 2, a finesse of the cavity is configured to cause one or more sideband frequency(ies) of the quantum operation to be within a passband of the cavity such that the sideband frequency is substantially resonant with the cavity in a same resonance as the carrier frequency.

4. The confinement assembly of claim 1, wherein a finesse of the cavity is configured to enable modulation of a carrier frequency within a specified bandwidth determined based at least in part on a state-pair frequency of the one or more quantum objects.

5. The confinement assembly of claim 1, wherein the confinement apparatus is configured to confine one or more quantum objects within the cavity.

6. The confinement assembly of claim 1, further comprising a composite optic, the composite optic comprising the second mirror and a seed coupling lens.

7. The confinement assembly of claim 6, wherein the composite optic further comprises a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location.

8. The confinement assembly of claim 7, wherein the second mirror is in a middle location of a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens and the seed coupling lens is in a middle location of a second surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

9. The confinement assembly of claim 1, further comprising a composite optic, the composite optic comprising a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by a quantum object confined within the cavity to a collection location with the second mirror disposed on a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

10. A confinement assembly, the confinement assembly comprising: a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine one or more quantum objects; a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an objectfacing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate; a first mirror and gain material disposed on one of the first substrate and the second substrate; and a composite optic coupled to the other of the first substrate and the second substrate, the composite optic comprising (a) a second mirror, wherein the first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a vertical external cavity emitting laser (VECSEL) having a cavity defined between the first mirror and the second mirror and (b) a fluorescence collection lens configured to direct light fluoresced by one or more quantum object(s) confined within the cavity to a collection location.

11. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the second mirror is in a middle location of a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens.

12. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the composite optic comprises a seed coupling lens configured to couple a seed beam into the cavity.

13. The confinement assembly of claim 12, wherein the seed lens is in a middle location of a second surface of the composite optic.

14. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the fluorescence collection lens is an annulus lens.

15. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the composite optic further comprises one or more additional lens assemblies configured to provide respective beams to respective object locations defined, at least in part, by the confinement apparatus.

16. The confinement assembly of claim 15, wherein the one or more additional lens assemblies are disposed on a peripheral portion of the composite optic.

17. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the fluorescence collection lens has a first surface with the second mirror being formed by a concavity formed in a middle location of the first surface.

18. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the confinement assembly comprises a plurality of VECSELs having respective first mirrors and respective gain material disposed on the first substrate and forming a VECSEL array and a plurality of composite optics coupled to the second substrate forming a composite optic array.

19. The confinement assembly of claim 18, wherein the composite optics of the composite optic array are coupled to the second substrate via one or more of piezoelectric coupling elements and / or flexures.

20. The confinement assembly of claim 18, wherein the second substrate has a distal surface that is opposite the object-facing surface and that has a lenslet array formed therein,each lenslet of the lenslet array configured to direct a respective portion of a laser beam incident on the distal surface to a respective optical path comprising at least one element of a respective composite optic of the composite optic array.

21. The confinement assembly of claim 20, wherein the lenslet array is lithographically defined.

22. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the fluorescence collection lens is configured to provide an optical pumping beam incident on a second surface of the fluorescence collection lens toward the gain media of the VECSEL, the second mirror formed in a first surface of the fluorescence collection lens, and the first surface being opposite the second surface with respect to a VECSEL axis defined by the VECSEL.

23. The confinement assembly of claim 10, wherein the VECSEL is electrically pumped via electrical communications facilitated by the first or second substrate.

24. A confinement assembly, the confinement assembly comprising: a first substrate having a plurality of electrodes disposed on an electrode-housing surface thereof, the plurality of electrodes defining, at least in part, a confinement apparatus configured to confine a plurality of quantum objects; a second substrate mounted with respect to the first substrate such that an object-facing surface of the second substrate faces the electrode-housing surface of the first substrate; an optic coupled to the second substrate at least in part via one or more flexures.

25. The confinement assembly of claim 24, further comprising a first mirror and gain material formed on the first substrate, wherein the optic is a composite optic comprising a second mirror formed in a first surface thereof and the first mirror and gain material and the second mirror define a VECSEL.

26. The confinement assembly of claim 25, wherein the composite optic further comprises at least one of (a) a fluorescence collection lens or (b) a seed coupling lens.

27. The confinement assembly of claim 24, wherein the optic is part of an array of optics that are each coupled to the second substrate at least in part via respective flexures.

28. The confinement assembly of claim 24, wherein the one or more flexures use electrostatic forces in a plane parallel to the object-facing surface of the second substrate to cause movement of the optic in a direction normal to the plane.

29. The confinement assembly of claim 28, wherein the one or more flexures each include an angled arm configured to mechanically couple the optic to a series of flexure fingers, and the electrostatic forces applied to the flexure the series of flexure fingers.

30. The confinement assembly of claim 24, wherein the one or more flexures are formed at least in part of fused silica.

31. The confinement assembly of claim 30, wherein the one or more flexures are formed at least in part by laser writing a block of material and, after performing the laser writing, submerging the block of material in a solution that preferentially etches laser written portions of the block of material.

32. The confinement assembly of claim 24, wherein each of the one or more flexures comprises a respective S-curve that is mechanically actuated.

33. The confinement assembly of claim 24, wherein the one or more flexures provide a range of motion of the optic in a range of 0.1 to 2 pm.

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