NGAP connectivity for wireless access and backhaul

Abstract

Methods and systems are described for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, for network nodes, Access and Mobility Management Functions (AMFs) and other components in various RANs. Methods can include receiving a Next Generation Application Protocol (NGAP) removal request from a wireless access and backhaul (WAB) base station. Further steps can include e.g., in response to the NGAP removal request, releasing an NGAP connection; or in response to the NGAP removal request, choosing not to release any NGAP connections.

Description

NGAP CONNECTIVITY FOR WIRELESS ACCESS AND BACKHAUL CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED INFORMATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of United States of America priorityapplication No. 63 / 620370 filed on January 12, 2024, titled “NGAP Connectivity for Wireless Access and Backhaul.” TECHNICAL FIELD

[0002] The present disclosure generally relates to systems and methods foradjusting NGAP operation. BACKGROUND

[0003] Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) includes work related towireless access and backhaul (WAB), such as Rel-19 study item description (SID) for the study on additional topological enhancements for New Radio (NR) in RP-234041. The study consists of two parts: (a) WAB, which refers to a mobile gNB; and (b) fifth generation (5G) femto.

[0004] A justification of the WAB part of the SI is that the legacy building blocksfor 5G radio access network (RAN) topologies should be enhanced to provide a broader range of use cases, such as: (a) 5G access for user equipment (UEs) onboard aircrafts, cruise ships, helicopters, and vehicles in remote areas with limited sky visibility via an onboard gNB; (b) backhauling of next generation (NG) and Xn via terrestrial network (TN) and non-terrestrial network (NTN), including support of NTN <-> TN handover for backhaul; (c) support for onboard / on-site mobile edge computing (MEC) and local services; (d) support for backhauling without RAN-sharing or roaming agreements between access public land mobile networks (PLMNs) and backhaul PLMN(s); and (e) backhauling for local gNB deployed in public safety or disaster recovery scenarios.

[0005] WAB may be aligned with vehicle mounted relay (VMR) use cases. It isexpected that single-hop backhauling is sufficient for WAB and that there is no impact to UEs at this late stage of 5G deployment.

[0006] The objectives from the SID related to the WAB study are as follows: (a)study the architecture and protocol stack of supporting a gNB with mobile termination (MT) function providing protocol data unit (PDU) session backhaul; (b) study impact of WAB mobility within an existing RAN (e.g., inter-gNB neighbour relations); (c) identify necessary inter-gNB- and gNB-to-core network (CN) signalling to address the support of WAB; and (d) study signalling enhancements on resource multiplexing for WAB.

[0007] The WAB study does not preclude any backhaul scenario (e.g., NTN orTN).

[0008] A potential WAB architecture illustrated in Figure 1. A key feature of theWAB architecture is that a WAB node consists of a WAB-gNB and a WAB-MT. The WAB-gNB part of an WAB node serves UEs, while the WAB node uses its WAB-MT part to connect with the rest of the mobile network, i.e., to connect to its serving gNB (the BH-gNB in Figure 1). In this architecture, the PDU sessions established between the WAB-MT and the backhaul (BH) user plane function (UPF) are used to carry the NGAP (NG Application Protocol) and XnAP connections of the WAB-gNB.

[0009] The 5G core network (5GC) serving the WAB-gNB with its connected UEs(i.e., the 5GC, “UE‘s 5GC”, in Figure 1) may be the same as or different from the 5GC serving the WAB-MT (i.e., the black BH 5GC in Figure 1).

[00010] Below is an excerpt from TS 38.413 v18.0.0, which describes the NGAP(i.e., NG-C) interface. >>>>>>>>>>>>>Start of excerpt from TS 38.413 <<<<<<<<<<<<<< 4.3.1.2 NG Control Plane The NG control plane interface (NG-C) is defined between the NG-RAN node and the AMF. The control plane protocol stack of the NG interface is shown on Figure 4.3.1.2-1. The transport network layer is built on IP transport. For the reliable transport of signalling messages, SCTP is added on top of IP. The application layer signalling protocol is referred to as NGAP (NG Application Protocol). The SCTP layer provides guaranteed delivery of application layer messages. In the transport, IP layer point-to-point transmission is used to deliver the signalling PDUs. [Figure 4.3.1.2-1: NG-C Protocol Stack is reproduced herein as Figure 2] NG-C provides the following functions:- NG interface management; - UE context management; - UE mobility management; - Transport of NAS messages; - Paging; - PDU Session Management; - Configuration Transfer; - Warning Message Transmission. Further details of NG-C can be found in TS 38.410

[0016] . >>>>>>>>>>>>>End of excerpt from TS 38.413 <<<<<<<<<<<

[00011] There currently exist certain challenges. For example, a WAB node willlikely consist of a WAB-gNB and a WAB-MT. The WAB-gNB part of an WAB node serves UEs, while the node uses its WAB-MT part to connect with a mobile network (the black BH gNB in Figure 1) and the WAB-MT’s PDU session provides Internet Protocol (IP) connectivity for the WAB-gNB. In this architecture, the PDU sessions established between the WAB-MT and the BH UPF (see Figure 1) are used to provide IP connectivity NGAP and XnAP connections of the WAB- gNB. The WAB-gNB may connect to the same access and mobility management function (AMF) as the WAB-MT, or it may connect to other AMF(s).

[00012] The WAB nodes will be mobile, whereas the formulation from the SID “5Gaccess for UEs onboard aircrafts, cruise ships, helicopters, and vehicles in remote areas with limited sky visibility via an onboard gNB” implies that, in some relevant scenarios, WAB nodes will move across large distances. This, in turn, means that the Radio Resource Control (RRC) connection of the WAB-MT and the Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) association, NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB may need to be migrated, while maintaining the connectivity for the served UEs.

[00013] The mobility of the WAB-MT will likely reuse the mobility framework forregular UEs. Meanwhile, it is unclear how the mobility or the continuity of the NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB should be handled. Apart from mobility, there are additional WAB scenarios where management of the NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB is needed (e.g., when WAB node is not authorized for operation as WAB node).SUMMARY

[00014] One embodiment under the present disclosure comprises a methodperformed by a network node for adjusting NGAP operation. The method comprises receiving a NGAP removal request from a WAB base station.

[00015] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosurecomprises a method performed by a network node for adjusting NGAP operation. The method includes receiving a connection removal request from a RAN node with a wireless backhaul.

[00016] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosurecomprises a method performed by a WAB base station for adjusting NGAP operation. The method includes transmitting a NGAP removal request to a first AMF.

[00017] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosurecomprises a method performed by a WAB base station for adjusting NGAP operation. The method includes transmitting a NGAP suspend indication to a first AMF.

[00018] This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in asimplified form that are further described below in the detailed description. This summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an indication of the scope of the claimed subject matter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[00019] For a more complete understanding of the present disclosure, reference isnow made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:

[00020] Fig. 1 illustrates an example of potential WAB architecture;

[0021] Fig. 2 represents Figure 4.3.1.2-1 NG-C Protocol Stack from TS 38.413;

[0022] Fig. 3 illustrates NGAP connection suspension and resumption;

[0023] Fig. 4 illustrates a possible embodiment where the Target Anchor AMF isthe new AMF discovered by NRF which could setup a new NGAP connection with the WAB- gNB;

[0024] Fig. 5 illustrates a flow-chart of a method embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00025] Fig. 6 illustrates a flow-chart of a method embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00026] Fig. 7 illustrates a flow-chart of a method embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00027] Fig. 8 illustrates a flow-chart of a method embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00028] Fig. 9 shows a schematic of a communication system embodiment underthe present disclosure;

[00029] Fig. 10 shows a schematic of a user equipment embodiment under thepresent disclosure;

[00030] Fig.11 shows a schematic of a network node embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00031] Fig. 12 shows a schematic of a host embodiment under the presentdisclosure;

[00032] Fig. 13 shows a schematic of a virtualization environment embodimentunder the present disclosure; and

[00033] Fig. 14 shows a schematic representation of an embodiment ofcommunication amongst nodes, hosts, and user equipment under the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[00034] Before describing various embodiments of the present disclosure in detail,it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to the parameters of the particularly exemplified systems, methods, apparatus, products, processes, and / or kits, which may, of course, vary. Thus, while certain embodiments of the present disclosure will be described in detail, with reference to specific configurations, parameters, components, elements, etc., the descriptions are illustrative and are not to be construed as limiting the scope of the claimed embodiments. In addition, the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing the embodiments and is not necessarily intended to limit the scope of the claimed embodiments.

[0035] There currently exist certain challenges. A WAB node will likely consist ofa WAB-gNB and a WAB-MT. The WAB-gNB part of an WAB node serves UEs, while the node uses its WAB-MT part to connect with a mobile network and the WAB-MT’s PDU session provides IP connectivity for the WAB-gNB. The WAB nodes will be mobile, whereas the formulation from the SID implies that, in some relevant scenarios, WAB nodes will move across large distances. This, in turn, means that the RRC connection of the WAB-MT and the SCTP association, NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB may need to be migrated, while maintaining the connectivity for the served UEs. The mobility of the WAB-MT will likely reuse the mobility framework for regular UEs. Meanwhile, it is unclear how the mobility or the continuity of the NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB should be handled. Apart from mobility, there are additional WAB scenarios where management of the NGAP connection of the WAB-gNB is needed (e.g., when WAB node is not authorized for operation as WAB node).

[00036] Certain aspects of the disclosure and their embodiments may providesolutions to these or other challenges. For example, particular embodiments include graceful removal or suspension and setup of NGAP connection between the RAN and the AMF or a set of AMFs. Some embodiments include NG (Next Generation) connection setup between the WAB- gNB and the AMF.

[00037] Certain embodiments may provide one or more of the following technicaladvantages. For example, particular embodiments enable an orderly removal of NGAP connection (where both the WAB-gNB and the AMF are aware of it) and thus a moving RAN node (e.g., a WAB-gNB) avoids the need for unnecessarily maintaining one or more NGAP connections towards a distant AMF, and the RAN node can connect to a more appropriate AMF, e.g., an AMF closer to its current location. Some of the benefits of connecting to a closer core network node (i.e., AMF) are faster handling, reduced data delay and better quality of service. Some embodiments enable the AMF to become aware that a gNB is a mobile one.

[00038] Some of the embodiments contemplated herein will now be described morefully with reference to the accompanying drawings. Embodiments are provided by way of example to convey the scope of the subject matter to those skilled in the art.

[00039] A few notes on terminology and various scenarios for certain embodimentuse cases. Particular embodiments described herein apply to both of the following cases: (a) the WAB-gNB and the gNB serving the WAB-MT are served by the same PLMN CN nodes; and (b)the WAB-gNB and the gNB serving the WAB-MT are served by different Core Network (CN) nodes, in the same or different PLMN. The procedures used in particular embodiments may be class-1 or class-2 procedures, they may be new procedures or enhancements of existing procedures. The expressions “X served by Y” or “X is connected to Y” mean that there is a logical interface connection between network nodes X and Y. When X is a UE, this means that node X and the RAN node serving the UE have a logical connection associated to the UE. Unless stated otherwise, the WAB-MT and the WAB-gNB are co-located, i.e., they are a part of the same WAB node.

[00040] Particular embodiments may apply to both single- and dual-connectedWAB nodes. Particular embodiments apply to both the case when all UEs connected to the WAB- gNB are served by the same AMF, and the case where multiple AMFs serve the UEs. The term “different core network” may refer to a core network of another PLMN, or it may apply to different part of a core network of the same PLMN (e.g., a different AMF or set of AMFs). The terms “NGAP connection” and “NG-C interface instance” are used interchangeably. Particular embodiments apply to NR as well as future radio access technologies (RATs) such as beyond 3GPP Rel-18.

[00041] The assumed architecture is the architecture illustrated in Figure 1. System100 of Figure 1 shows one potential WAB architecture. There is an additional assumption in some embodiments that the AMF 120 serving the UEs 110 and the AMF 155 serving the WAB-MT 130 may be different or same. UE(s) 110 can be coupled to e.g.5GC 105 via access PDU session 170, WAB gNB 135 via NR access 190, and / or other components of system 100.5GC 105 can comprise SMF 108, AMF 120 and UPF 115. OAM 140 and BH OAM 145 can in some embodiments comprise the same OAM. WAB-node 125 can comprise WAB-MT 130 and WAB-gNB 135. WAB-gNB can be coupled to 5GC 105 via NG 175. WAB MT 130 can be coupled to BH UPF 150 via BH PDU session 180 and to BH gNB 160 via NR BH 185. IP network 198 can provide communicative coupling between e.g., OAM 140, BH OAM 145, BH AMF 155, BH UPF 150, and 5GC 105, amongst other components of system 100. Other CN functions 165 can be co-located with BH functionalities, or be located elsewhere. Other system embodiments are possible.

[00042] In one use case, the assumption is that a WAB node 125 moves, and is aboutto leave the area of a core network (CN) that it currently connects to (the “old CN”). At this moment, the WAB-gNB 135 is connected to one or more AMFs 120 or AMF sets in the old CN.During the mobility, the WAB-gNB 135 terminates the old connections and re-establishes the connections to a new core network that is more suitable in the new area.

[00043] Another scenario of interest is the one when the authorization status ofWAB node 125 changes from “authorized” to “not authorized” (e.g., when the WAB node 125 has moved to a restricted area, or the UEs 110 served by the WAB-gNB 135 no longer need to be served). In this case, it may be necessary to remove the NGAP connection(s) of the WAB-gNB 135.

[00044] The applicability of particular embodiments is not limited to the abovescenarios.

[00045] Particular embodiments consider different aspects of the RAN-CNconnections including SCTP layer, NGAP application layer, e.g., initiating a newly defined procedure for removal of NGAP connection or by an enhancement of existing procedure(s). NGAP Connection Removal

[00046] A first group of embodiments includes NGAP connection removal. Theseembodiments pertain to the graceful removal of the NGAP connection between the WAB-gNB and the AMF(s) or between the WAB-gNB and one or more set(s) of AMFs.

[00047] The NGAP connection is removed between the WAB-gNB and one or moreAMFs. One of the AMFs may be the AMF serving the WAB-MT. The NGAP connection may also be removed to all the AMF(s) connected to the WAB-gNB. The AMFs connected to the WAB- gNB serve the UEs connected via the WAB-gNB.

[00048] The NGAP removal may be initiated by the WAB-gNB or by the AMF. Insome variants, the WAB-gNB may initiate the removal by sending a newly defined NGAP removal request towards the AMF. In some variants, the WAB-gNB may initiate the NGAP removal towards the AMF after the WAB-gNB has ensured that the WAB-gNB does not serve any more UEs (by handing them over or releasing them), or after the WAB-gNB has ensured that the associations of the served UEs are moved to other AMF(s). In some variants, the AMF sends a newly defined NGAP removal response to the WAB-gNB, while in some variants, there is no response. Before sending the request to the AMF, the WAB-gNB may set up new NGAP connection(s) towards one or more AMFs. New NGAP setup may also be done at any time before or after. This NGAP message may contain information about the AMF(s) that the WAB-gNBhas / will set up a new NGAP connection with. Based on the message, the AMF transfers all UE Contexts of the UEs being served by the WAB-gNB to the AMF indicated in the message received from the WAB-gNB. In some variants, the AMF may initiate the removal by sending a newly defined NGAP removal request towards the WAB-gNB. In some variants, the WAB-gNB sends a newly defined NGAP removal response to the AMF, while in some variants, there is no response. In the response message, the WAB-gNB may include information about the new AMFs to which the WAB-gNB is setting up NGAP connections. Based on the message, the AMF transfers all UE Contexts of the UEs being served by the WAB-gNB to the AMF indicated in the message received from the WAB-gNB. Before sending the response to the AMF, the WAB-gNB may set up new NGAP connection(s) towards one or more AMFs. New NGAP setup may also be done at any time before or after. In some variants, the AMF may initiate the NGAP removal towards the WAB- gNB, upon receiving the indication that the WAB-gNB does not serve any more UEs or upon receiving an indication that the associations of the served UEs are moved to other AMFs e.g., after WAB is informed that the authorization state of the WAB is changed to non-authorized and WAB has moved all the connected UEs away. In some variants, the WAB-gNB / AMF may send a trigger for NGAP removal to the AMF / WAB-gNB, where the node receiving the trigger should initiate the NGAP removal. If the trigger is sent by the AMF to the WAB-gNB, the WAB-gNB may start the NGAP removal procedure, after it has ensured that it does not serve any more UEs or after it has ensured that, e.g., the associations of the served UEs are moved to other AMFs. In the above possible embodiments, the request and the response may constitute a class-1 procedure (where the recipient of the request replies to the initiating node within some predetermined time frame), or each of them may be a class-2 procedure (where the recipient of the request executes certain actions (setup of new NGAP connection) before sending a class-2 message to the initiating node, to confirm the removal).

[00049] In some variants, the request for NGAP removal may be implicit, and insome variants the request may be explicit. In some variants, the message requesting the removal of NGAP interface may contain a cause value, indicating the reason for removal of the NGAP connection. Some non-limiting examples of cause values are: “NGAP Removal due to WAB node being unauthorized”, “NGAP Removal due to WAB mobility”.

[00050] In some variants, the NGAP removal response or the triggering message forinitiating the NGAP removal procedure may contain a pointer, an identifier of, or a reference to,one or more new AMFs to which the WAB-gNB has connected, should connect to, or is about to connect to. The message may be sent by the AMF or by the WAB-gNB.

[00051] In some variants, the WAB-gNB at setup of NGAP connection with a newAMF before removal of the NGAP connection with the old AMF, indicates that the new AMF shall fetch the UE Contexts of all UEs currently served by the WAB-gNB and move the NGAP associations of the UEs to the new NGAP connection.

[00052] The WAB-gNB may be preconfigured with which AMF it should connectdepending upon the geographical area where WAB-gNB is currently at or which cells the WAB- MT is being served by. The configuration of when the AMF should be changed and which new AMF to connect to depending upon the location (geographical location computed by WAB-MT or WAB-MT serving cell, serving tracking area) may be provisioned by operations and management (OAM) node in advance. In certain scenarios, the AMFs may also coordinate about moving the NGAP connection from one to the other AMF, and a graceful transfer (removal of old NGAP and setup of new NGAP) may be performed.

[00053] Some embodiments may use dedicated anchor AMFs to serve the WAB-gNB. An anchor AMF is an AMF with large coverage and the WAB-gNB is connected to it wherever it moves with a wide area. Such anchor AMFs (IP address, SCTP association) are either preconfigured / provisioned via OAM node or a direct signalling between such AMFs and WAB- gNB, e.g., a non-anchor AMF may provide the anchor AMF info (based on local configuration or query NRF) back to the WAB-gNB. NGAP Connection Suspension and Resumption

[00054] A second group of embodiments includes NGAP connection suspensionand resumption. Figure 3 illustrates NGAP connection suspension and resumption, according to particular embodiments. In this case, there’s a removal between AMF1410 and WAB-gNB 450 and a setup / resumption between AMF2430 and WAB-gNB 450. In these embodiments, instead of being removed, an NGAP connection is suspended, and, if and when needed, resumed. The steps from the first group of embodiments may be reused, with some differences. For example, the previous references to NGAP removal can be replaced with references to NGAP suspension. For suspension, all application-level data related to the suspended NGAP connection is kept both at the WAB-gNB and the AMF. The UE contexts related to the suspended connection shall bechanged to RRC_IDLE mode, or need to be moved if there are still any connected UEs linked to the connection. For suspension, the NGAP suspension request message may contain the length of the suspension period, whereas one of the possible values may be “indefinite suspension”, which may, in some cases, be the default value. Other types of assistance information for the suspension are possible, e.g., an indication of the area of suspension, the triggering conditions for resumption, etc. For suspension, the NGAP suspension request message may contain information on whether the WAB-gNB can still serve connected UEs. This may be, for example, in the presence of a local user plane function (UPF). In addition to NGAP suspension procedure described above, some embodiments include a NGAP resumption procedure.

[00055] One NGAP resumption procedure is described as follows. The NGAPresumption procedure is initiated by sending an NGAP resumption request. The resumption procedure may be initiated by the WAB-gNB or by the AMF that previously maintained the suspended connection, regardless of which one of them initiated the suspension. The resumption request may be sent by the WAB-gNB. The request may also contain some or all the information included in the existing NG SETUP REQUEST. The request may be sent by the WAB-gNB upon fulfilling one or more of the triggers as specified in the NGAP suspension request. The resumption request may be sent by the AMF. For example, if the AMF is also the AMF serving the WAB-MT, the AMF may, based on the known / determined position of the WAB-MT, decide to request the resumption of the NGAP connection. The node receiving the request may respond by NGAP resumption response (confirming the resumption), or by sending an NGAP failure message. For successful resumption, the application-level data related to the suspended NGAP connection is reactivated in both involved nodes. In some variants, the connection suspended between the WAB- gNB and an AMF (e.g., AMF1) may be resumed with another AMF (e.g., AMF2). In this case, the resumed interface configuration is transferred between the old and the new serving AMF. NGAP Removal Based on AMF Change Trigger Conditions and with NRF Involvement

[00056] A third group of embodiments include NGAP removal based on AMFchange trigger conditions and with network repository function (NRF) involvement. Some embodiments include the NGAP removal and then subsequent setup primarily for scenario when WAB node is moving and requires change of AMF.

[0057] The NRF registers all the AMF(s) that can serve WAB-gNB nodes, and canset up NGAP connection tunnelled via WAB-MT. These AMFs may also be referred to as Anchor AMFs. The NRF receives a request from a serving Anchor AMF to identify a new target anchor AMF for WAB-gNB.

[00058] The Serving Anchor AMF is the AMF that currently serves the WAB-gNB.This AMF monitors the packet loss, delay, jitter over SCTP connection on a continuous basis. If the packet loss, delay, jitter is over certain threshold, the serving AMF sends a trigger / request to NRF to identify a new AMF for the WAB-gNB. The WAB-gNB may further receive feedback on quality of PDU session from UPF and request to serving Anchor AMF for change of AMF. The WAB-MT may also compute its location continuously and provide this input to WAB-gNB and WAB-gNB provides this information to AMF, which may decide that a new AMF is needed. The input to the NRF provided by the AMF may be the WAB-MT location or cell ID, or tracking area. The input is thus used by NRF to discover the suitable target Anchor AMF.

[00059] The Target Anchor AMF is the new AMF discovered by NRF which wouldsetup a new NGAP connection with the WAB-gNB. An example is illustrated in Figure 4. For example, the serving AMF 650 can monitor an SCTP connection with WAB-gNB 630. NRF 670 can request discovery of a new AMF. NRF 670 can then identify a target AMF 610. Then target AMF 610 can setup a new NGAP with WAB-gNB 630. Handling UEs Served by the WAB Node

[00060] A fourth group of embodiments are related to handling of the UEs servedby the WAB node. In some variants, the WAB-gNB requests or acknowledges the removal of the NGAP connection(s) only after the WAB-gNB has established NGAP connection with one or more new AMFs or AMF sets, and after the contexts (i.e., the non-access stratum (NAS) connections) of all or some of its served UEs have been moved to the new AMF(s). In some variants, the WAB- gNB releases some or all UEs, or hands all or some of them over to other nodes. In some variants, the NAS connections of the served UEs can be moved to the AMF serving the WAB-MT. Indicating WAB Capability to the Network

[0061] Some embodiments include aspects related to indicating the WABcapability to the network. The AMF needs to be aware that a gNB is a WAB-gNB, e.g.., that it is mobile. This can be accomplished in several ways.

[00062] In some variants, the OAM may provide to the AMF the identifiers of gNBsthat are mobile. In some variants, when setting up an NGAP connection, the WAB-gNB may indicate to the AMF in an NG SETUP REQUEST that it is a WAB-gNB. In some variants, when two AMFs are communicating with respect to the mobility of an NGAP connection of a WAB- gNB, the WAB indication may be sent from the old AMF to the new AMF. Example Implementation

[00063] An example implementation of the first group of embodiments in TS 38.413is shown and below. New parts are shaded. The example of encoding and placement of new IEs is non-limiting. All examples are optional, meaning that different solutions can be constructed from some or all the enhancements proposed below. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>Start of TS 38.413 implementation example<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< 9.2.6.1 NG SETUP REQUEST This message is sent by the NG-RAN node to transfer application layer information for an NG-C interface instance. Direction: NG-RAN node ^ AMF IE / Group Name Presence Range IE type and Semantics Criticality Assigned reference description Criticality Message Type M 9.3.1.1 YES reject Global RAN Node ID M 9.3.1.5 YES reject RAN Node Name O PrintableString YES ignore (SIZE(1..150, …)) Supported TA List 1 Supported TAs in YES reject the NG-RAN node. >Supported TA Item 1..<maxno - ofTACs> >>TAC M 9.3.3.10 Broadcast TAC - >>Broadcast PLMN List 1 ->>>Broadcast PLMN 1..<maxno - Item ofBPLMNs > >>>>PLMN Identity M 9.3.3.5 Broadcast PLMN - >>>>TAI Slice Support M Slice Support Supported S- - List List NSSAIs per TAC, 9.3.1.17 per PLMN or per SNPN.>>>>NPN Support O 9.3.3.44 If the NID IE is YES reject included, it identifies a SNPN together with the PLMN Identity IE. >>>>Extended TAI Slice O Extended Slice Additional YES reject Support List Support List Supported S- 9.3.1.191 NSSAIs per TAC, per PLMN or per SNPN. >>>>TAI NSAG Support O 9.3.1.238 NSAG information YES ignore List associated with the slices per TAC, per PLMN or per SNPN. >>Configured TAC O 9.3.3.50 YES ignore Indication >>RAT Information O 9.3.1.125 RAT information YES reject associated with the TAC of the indicated PLMN(s). Default Paging DRX M Paging DRX YES ignore 9.3.1.90 UE Retention Information O 9.3.1.117 YES ignore NB-IoT Default Paging O 9.3.1.137 YES ignore DRX Extended RAN Node O 9.3.1.193 YES ignore Name WAB Node Indication O ENUMERATED Indication of a YES reject (true, ...) WAB node Range bound ExplanationmaxnoofTACs Maximum no. of TACs. Value is 256. maxnoofBPLMNs Maximum no. of Broadcast PLMNs. Value is 12. 9.2.6.x NG REMOVAL REQUEST This message is sent by the NG-RAN node or by the AMF to request the removal of an NG-C interface instance. Direction: NG-RAN node ^ AMF AMF ^ NG-IE / Group Name Presence Range IE type and Semantics Criticality Assigned reference description Criticality Message Type M 9.3.1.1 YES reject Global RAN Node ID M 9.3.1.5 YES reject RAN Node Name O PrintableString YES ignore (SIZE(1..150, …)) All UEs Moved O ENUMERATED An indication that YES ignore (true, ...) the WAB node has handed over or moved to IDLE state all its served UEs. Cause M 9.3.1.2 YES reject9.2.6.x+1 NG REMOVAL RESPONSE or by the NG-RAN node to the AMF to confirm the removalDirection: AMF ^ NG-RAN node NG-RAN node ^ AMF IE / Group Name Presence Range IE type and Semantics Criticality Assigned reference description Criticality Message Type M 9.3.1.1 YES reject AMF Name M 9.3.3.21 YES reject Cause M 9.3.1.2 YES ignore 9.2.6.x+2 NG REMOVAL FAILURE node, to indicate the failure of removal of an NG-C interfaceDirection: AMF ^ NG-RAN node ^ AMF IE / Group Name Presence Range IE type and Semantics Criticality Assigned reference description Criticality Message Type M 9.3.1.1 YES reject Cause M 9.3.1.2 YES ignore Time to Wait O 9.3.1.56 YES ignore Criticality Diagnostics O 9.3.1.3 YES ignore 9.3.1.2 Cause The purpose of the Cause IE is to indicate the reason for a particular event for the NGAP protocol. IE / Group Name Presence Range IE type and reference Semantics descriptionCHOICE Cause Group M>Radio Network Layer >>Radio Network Layer M ENUMERATED Cause (Unspecified, TXnRELOCOverall expiry, Successful handover, Release due to NG-RAN generated reason, Release due to 5GC generated reason, Handover cancelled, Partial handover, Handover failure in target 5GC / NG- RAN node or target system, Handover target not allowed, TNGRELOCoverall expiry, TNGRELOCprep expiry,Cell not available, Unknown target ID, No radio resources available in target cell, Unknown local UE NGAP ID, Inconsistent remote UE NGAP ID, Handover desirable for radio reasons, Time critical handover, Resource optimisation handover, Reduce load in serving cell, User inactivity, Radio connection with UE lost, Radio resources not available, Invalid QoS combination, Failure in the radio interface procedure, Interaction with other procedure, Unknown PDU Session ID, Unknown QoS Flow ID, Multiple PDU Session ID Instances, Multiple QoS Flow ID Instances, Encryption and / or integrity protection algorithms not supported, NG intra-system handover triggered, NG inter-system handover triggered, Xn handover triggered, Not supported 5QI value, UE context transfer, IMS voice EPS fallback or RAT fallback triggered, UP integrity protection not possible, UP confidentiality protection not possible, Slice(s) not supported, UE in RRC_INACTIVE state not reachable, Redirection, Resources not available for the slice(s), UE maximum integrity protected data rate reason, Release due to CN-detected mobility, …, N26 interface not available, Release due to pre-emption, Multiple Location Reporting Reference ID Instances, RSN not available for the UP, NPN access denied, CAG only access denied, Insufficient UE Capabilities, RedCap UE not supported, Unknown MBS Session ID, Indicated MBS Session Area Information not served by the gNB, Inconsistent slice info for the session, 6Misaligned association for the multicast and unicast sessions or flows) >Transport Layer >>Transport Layer Cause M ENUMERATED (Transport resource unavailable, Unspecified, …) >NAS >>NAS Cause M ENUMERATED (Normal release, Authentication failure, Deregister, Unspecified, …, UE not in PLMN serving area) >Protocol >>Protocol Cause M ENUMERATED (Transfer syntax error, Abstract syntax error (reject), Abstract syntax error (ignore and notify), Message not compatible with receiver state, Semantic error, Abstract syntax error (falsely constructed message), Unspecified, …) >Miscellaneous >>Miscellaneous Cause M ENUMERATED (Control processing overload, Not enough user plane processing resources, Hardware failure, O&M intervention, Unknown PLMN or SNPN, Unspecified, WAB node mobility, WAB node not authorized, …) The meaning of the different cause values is described in the following tables. In general, "not supported" cause values indicate that the related capability is missing. On the other hand, "not available" cause values indicate that the related capability is present, but insufficient resources were available to perform the requested action. Radio Network Layer cause MeaningUnspecified Sent for radio network layer cause when none of the specified cause values applies. TXnRELOCOverall expiry The timer guarding the handover that takes place over Xn has abnormally expired. Successful handover Successful handover. Release due to NG-RAN generated Release is initiated due to NG-RAN generated reason. reason Release due to 5GC generated Release is initiated due to 5GC generated reason. reason Handover cancelled The reason for the action is cancellation of Handover. Partial handover Provides a reason for the handover cancellation. The HANDOVER COMMAND message from AMF contained PDU Session Resource to Release List IE or QoSflow to Release List and the source NG-RAN node estimated service continuityfor the UE would be better by not proceeding with handover towards this particular target NG-RAN node. Handover failure in target 5GC / NG- The handover failed due to a failure in target 5GC / NG-RAN node or target RAN node or target system system. Handover target not allowed Handover to the indicated target cell is not allowed for the UE in question. TNGRELOCoverall expiry The reason for the action is expiry of timer TNGRELOCoverall. TNGRELOCprep expiry Handover Preparation procedure is cancelled when timer TNGRELOCprep expires. Cell not available The concerned cell is not available. Unknown target ID Handover rejected because the target ID is not known to the AMF. No radio resources available in Load on target cell is too high. target cell Unknown local UE NGAP ID The action failed because the receiving node does not recognise the local UE NGAP ID. Inconsistent remote UE NGAP ID The action failed because the receiving node considers that the received remote UE NGAP ID is inconsistent. Handover desirable for radio The reason for requesting handover is radio related. reasons Time critical handover Handover is requested for time critical reason i.e., this cause value is reserved to represent all critical cases where the connection is likely to be dropped if handover is not performed. Resource optimisation handover The reason for requesting handover is to improve the load distribution with the neighbour cells. Reduce load in serving cell Load on serving cell needs to be reduced. When applied to handover preparation, it indicates the handover is triggered due to load balancing. User inactivity The action is requested due to inactivity on all user data radio bearers (i.e., DRBs and, if applicable, MRBs as per section 16.10.5.2 in TS 38.300 [8]), e.g., NG is requested to be released in order to optimise the radio resources. For L2U2N Relay UE, this action is requested due to user inactivity on all PDU sessions of L2 U2N Relay UE and its served remote UE(s). Radio connection with UE lost The action is requested due to losing the radio connection to the UE. Radio resources not available No requested radio resources are available. Invalid QoS combination The action was failed because of invalid QoS combination. Failure in the radio interface Radio interface procedure has failed. procedure Interaction with other procedure The action is due to an ongoing interaction with another procedure. Unknown PDU Session ID The action failed because the PDU Session ID is unknown in the NG-RAN node. Unknown QoS Flow ID The action failed because the QoS Flow ID is unknown in the NG-RAN node. Multiple PDU Session ID instances The action failed because multiple instance of the same PDU Session had been provided to / from the NG-RAN node. Multiple QoS Flow ID instances The action failed because multiple instances of the same QoS flow had been provided to the NG-RAN node. Encryption and / or integrity protection The NG-RAN node is unable to support any of the encryption and / or integrity algorithms not supported protection algorithms supported by the UE. NG intra-system handover triggered The action is due to a NG intra-system handover that has been triggered. NG inter-system handover triggered The action is due to a NG inter-system handover that has been triggered. Xn handover triggered The action is due to an Xn handover that has been triggered. Not supported 5QI value The QoS flow setup failed because the requested 5QI is not supported. UE context transfer The action is due to a UE resumes from the NG-RAN node different from the one which sent the UE into RRC_INACTIVE state. IMS voice EPS fallback or RAT The setup of QoS flow is failed due to EPS fallback or RAT fallback for IMS fallback triggered voice using handover or redirection. UP integrity protection not possible The PDU session cannot be accepted according to the required user plane integrity protection policy. UP confidentiality protection not The PDU session cannot be accepted according to the required user plane possible confidentiality protection policy. Slice(s) not supported Slice(s) not supported. UE in RRC_INACTIVE state not The action is requested due to RAN paging failure. reachableRedirection The release is requested due to inter-system redirection or intra-system redirection. Resources not available for the The requested resources are not available for the slice(s). slice(s) UE maximum integrity protected The request is not accepted in order to comply with the maximum data rate for data rate reason integrity protection supported by the UE. Release due to CN-detected mobility The context release is requested by the AMF because the UE is already served by another CN node (same or different system), or another NG interface of the same CN node. N26 interface not available The action failed due to a temporary failure of the N26 interface. Release due to pre-emption Release is initiated due to pre-emption. Multiple Location Reporting The action failed because multiple areas of interest are set with the same Reference ID Instances Location Reporting Reference ID. RSN not available for the UP The redundant user plane resources indicated by RSN are not available. NPN access denied Access was denied, or release is requested, for NPN reasons. CAG only access denied Access was denied because the cell is a non-CAG cell and UE is only allowed to access CAG cells. Insufficient UE Capabilities The procedure can’t proceed due to insufficient UE capabilities. RedCap UE not supported The action failed because target NG-RAN node does not support RedCap UE. Unknown MBS Session ID The action failed because the MBS Session ID is unknown. Indicated MBS Session Area The action failed because the none of the cells in indicacted MBS Session Area Information not served by the gNB Infomration served by the NG-RAN node. Inconsistent slice info for the session The action failed because the slice info of the multicast session is inconsistent. Misaligned association for the The action failed because the Associated Unicast QoS Flow ID has already been multicast and unicast sessions or used, or the Associated Unicast QoS Flow ID is not defined, or the Associated flows Unicast QoS Flow ID is not released, or multiple MBS QoS flows associated to the same unicast QoS flow, or same multicast session associated to multiple PDU Sessions. Transport Layer cause MeaningTransport resource unavailable The required transport resources are not available. Unspecified Sent when none of the above cause values applies but still the cause is Transport Network Layer related. NAS cause MeaningNormal release The release is normal. Authentication failure The action is due to authentication failure. Deregister The action is due to deregister. Unspecified Sent when none of the above other cause values applies but still the cause is NAS related. UE not in PLMN serving area The release is due to the UE not being within the serving area of its current PLMN (for NTN). WAB not authorized The release is due to the NG-RAN node having completed the operation for a non-authorized WAB node. Protocol cause MeaningTransfer syntax error The received message included a transfer syntax error. Abstract syntax error (reject) The received message included an abstract syntax error and the concerning criticality indicated "reject". Abstract syntax error (ignore and The received message included an abstract syntax error and the concerning notify) criticality indicated "ignore and notify". Message not compatible with The received message was not compatible with the receiver state. receiver state Semantic error The received message included a semantic error. Abstract syntax error (falsely The received message contained IEs or IE groups in wrong order or with too constructed message) many occurrences.Unspecified Sent when none of the above cause values applies but still the cause is Protocol related. Miscellaneous cause MeaningControl processing overload Control processing overload. Not enough user plane processingNot enough resources are available related to user plane processing. resources Hardware failure Action related to hardware failure. O&M intervention The action is due to O&M intervention. Unknown PLMN or SNPN The AMF does not identify any PLMN or SNPN provided by the NG-RAN node. Unspecified failure Sent when none of the above cause values applies and the cause is not related to any of the categories Radio Network Layer, Transport Network Layer, NAS or Protocol. WAB node mobility The NG-C interface instance of an WAB node needs to be removed due to mobility. WAB node not authorized The WAB node is not authorized for operation anymore, and its NG-C interface instance needs to be removed. >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>End of TS 38.413 implementation example<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Additional Embodiments

[00064] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosure is shownin Figure 5. Method 800 comprises a method performed by a network node for adjusting NGAP operation. The method comprises, at step 810, receiving a NGAP removal request from a WAB base station. Method 800 can comprise multiple variations and embodiments and / or additional and / or alternative steps. For example, the method can further comprise, in response to the NGAP removal request, releasing an NGAP connection. Certain embodiments can comprise, in response to the NGAP removal request, choosing not to release any NGAP connections. In certain embodiments the network node comprises at least one of: an AMF; a CN node. In certain embodiments the NGAP removal request comprises a cause IE. Certain embodiments can further comprise transmitting at least one of: a cause IE; a request to the WAB base station to perform a NGAP removal procedure; a confirmation to the WAB base station regarding the NGAP removal procedure; an NGAP failure message. In certain embodiments, the IE pertains to at least one of: removal response; removal failure; successful handover; a release due to NG-RAN, generated reason; a release due to 5GC generated reason; handover cancelled; partial handover; handover failure in target 5GC / NG-RAN node or target system; handover target not allowed; cell not available; unknown target ID; no radio resources available in target cell; unknown local UE NGAP identifier; inconsistent remote UE NGAP identifier; handover desirable for radio reasons; time critical handover; resource optimization handover; reduce load in serving cell; user inactivity;radio connection with UE lost; radio resources not available; invalid QoS combination; failure in the radio interface procedure; interaction with other procedure; unknown PDU session identifier; unknown QoS Flow identifier; multiple PDU Session identifier instances; multiple QoS Flow identifier instances; encryption and / or integrity protection algorithms not supported; NG intra- system handover triggered; NG inter-system handover triggered; Xn interface handover triggered; not supported 5G QoS identifier value; UE context transfer; fallback triggered; user plane, UP, integrity protection not possible; UP confidentiality protection not possible; slice(s) not supported; UE in RRC_INACTIVE state not reachable; redirection; resources not available for the slice(s); UE maximum integrity protected data rate reason; release due to core network-detected mobility; N26 interface not available; release due to pre-emption; Multiple Location Reporting Reference identifier Instances; Non-Public Network access denied; CAG only access denied; insufficient UE Capabilities; RedCap UE not supported; unknown MBS Session identifier; indicated MBS Session Area Information not served by the gNB; inconsistent slice info for the session; misaligned association for the multicast and unicast sessions or flows. In certain embodiments the NGAP removal request includes an indication of a second AMF, and the method further comprises transmitting one or more NGAP connection information to the second AMF.

[00065] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosure is shownin Figure 6. Method 1000 comprises a method performed by a network node for adjusting NGAP operation. Step 1010 is receiving a connection removal request from a RAN node with a wireless backhaul. Method 1000 can comprise multiple variations and embodiments and / or additional and / or alternative steps. For example, certain variations can further comprise, in response to the connection removal request, releasing an NGAP connection. Certain embodiments can further comprise in response to the connection removal request, choosing not to release any NGAP connections. In certain embodiments the core network node comprises at least one of: an AMF; a gNB; a base station. In certain embodiments the connection removal request comprises a cause IE. Some embodiments can further comprise transmitting at least one of: a cause IE; a request to the RAN node to perform a NGAP removal procedure; a confirmation to the RAN node regarding the NGAP removal procedure; an NGAP failure message.

[00066] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosure is shownin Figure 7. Method 1200 comprises a method performed by a WAB base station for adjusting NGAP operation. Step 1210 is transmitting a NGAP removal request to a first AMF. Method 1200can comprise multiple variations and embodiments and / or additional and / or alternative steps. For example, certain embodiments can further comprise establishing a NGAP connection to a second AMF. In some embodiments, establishing the NGAP connection occurs at least one of: prior to; after; or contemporaneous; to the NGAP removal request. In certain variations, the NGAP removal request is triggered based at least in part on at least one of: a mobility procedure; an authorization status change of a network node; a packet loss measurement is over a certain threshold; a delay jitter is over a predetermined threshold; receiving a request from the first AMF for the WAB base station to send the NGAP removal request. In certain embodiments the NGAP removal request includes an indication of the second AMF. In certain embodiments the method can further comprise receiving a confirmation response from the first AMF.

[00067] Another possible method embodiment under the present disclosure is shownin Figure 8. Method 1400 comprises a method performed by a WAB base station for adjusting NGAP operation. Step 1410 is transmitting a NGAP suspend indication to a first AMF. Method 1400 can comprise multiple variations and embodiments and / or additional and / or alternative steps. For example, certain embodiments can comprise transmitting a NGAP resume indication to a second AMF. In certain embodiments the first AMF and the second AMF comprise the same AMF. In some embodiments the transmitting the NGAP suspend indication to the first AMF is based on receiving a request from the first AMF for the WAB base station to suspend a NGAP connection. In certain variations, the NGAP suspend indication includes an indication of a duration to suspend an NGAP connection. Certain embodiments can further comprise receiving a confirmation response from the first AMF.

[00068] Figure 9 shows an example of a communication system 2100 in accordancewith some embodiments. In the example, the communication system 2100 includes a telecommunication network 2102 that includes an access network 2104, such as a RAN, and a core network 2106, which includes one or more core network nodes 2108. The access network 2104 includes one or more access network nodes, such as network nodes 2110a and 2110b (one or more of which may be generally referred to as network nodes 2110), or any other similar 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) access node or non-3GPP access point. The network nodes 2110 facilitate direct or indirect connection of UE, such as by connecting UEs 2112a, 2112b, 2112c, and 2112d (one or more of which may be generally referred to as UEs 2112) to the core network 2106 over one or more wireless connections.

[0069] Example wireless communications over a wireless connection includetransmitting and / or receiving wireless signals using electromagnetic waves, radio waves, infrared waves, and / or other types of signals suitable for conveying information without the use of wires, cables, or other material conductors. Moreover, in different embodiments, the communication system 1100 may include any number of wired or wireless networks, network nodes, UEs, and / or any other components or systems that may facilitate or participate in the communication of data and / or signals whether via wired or wireless connections. The communication system 2100 may include and / or interface with any type of communication, telecommunication, data, cellular, radio network, and / or other similar type of system.

[00070] The UEs 2112 may be any of a wide variety of communication devices,including wireless devices arranged, configured, and / or operable to communicate wirelessly with the network nodes 2110 and other communication devices. Similarly, the network nodes 2110 are arranged, capable, configured, and / or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with the UEs 2112 and / or with other network nodes or equipment in the telecommunication network 2102 to enable and / or provide network access, such as wireless network access, and / or to perform other functions, such as administration in the telecommunication network 2102.

[00071] In the depicted example, the core network 2106 connects the network nodes2110 to one or more hosts, such as host 2116. These connections may be direct or indirect via one or more intermediary networks or devices. In other examples, network nodes may be directly coupled to hosts. The core network 2106 includes one more core network nodes (e.g., core network node 2108) that are structured with hardware and software components. Features of these components may be substantially similar to those described with respect to the UEs, network nodes, and / or hosts, such that the descriptions thereof are generally applicable to the corresponding components of the core network node 2108. Example core network nodes include functions of one or more of a Mobile Switching Center (MSC), Mobility Management Entity (MME), Home Subscriber Server (HSS), Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF), Session Management Function (SMF), Authentication Server Function (AUSF), Subscription Identifier De-concealing function (SIDF), Unified Data Management (UDM), Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP), Network Exposure Function (NEF), and / or a User Plane Function (UPF).

[00072] The host 2116 may be under the ownership or control of a service providerother than an operator or provider of the access network 2104 and / or the telecommunicationnetwork 2102, and may be operated by the service provider or on behalf of the service provider. The host 2116 may host a variety of applications to provide one or more service. Examples of such applications include live and pre-recorded audio / video content, data collection services such as retrieving and compiling data on various ambient conditions detected by a plurality of UEs, analytics functionality, social media, functions for controlling or otherwise interacting with remote devices, functions for an alarm and surveillance center, or any other such function performed by a server.

[00073] As a whole, the communication system 2100 of Figure 9 enablesconnectivity between the UEs, network nodes, and hosts. In that sense, the communication system may be configured to operate according to predefined rules or procedures, such as specific standards that include, but are not limited to: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM); Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS); Long Term Evolution (LTE), and / or other suitable 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G standards, or any applicable future generation standard (e.g., 6G); wireless local area network (WLAN) standards, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standards (WiFi); and / or any other appropriate wireless communication standard, such as the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMax), Bluetooth, Z- Wave, Near Field Communication (NFC) ZigBee, LiFi, and / or any low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) standards such as LoRa and Sigfox.

[00074] In some examples, the telecommunication network 2102 is a cellularnetwork that implements 3GPP standardized features. Accordingly, the telecommunications network 2102 may support network slicing to provide different logical networks to different devices that are connected to the telecommunication network 2102. For example, the telecommunications network 2102 may provide Ultra Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLC) services to some UEs, while providing Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB) services to other UEs, and / or Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC) / Massive IoT services to yet further UEs.

[00075] In some examples, the UEs 2112 are configured to transmit and / or receiveinformation without direct human interaction. For instance, a UE may be designed to transmit information to the access network 2104 on a predetermined schedule, when triggered by an internal or external event, or in response to requests from the access network 2104. Additionally, a UE may be configured for operating in single- or multi-RAT or multi-standard mode. For example, a UEmay operate with any one or combination of Wi-Fi, NR (New Radio) and LTE, i.e. being configured for multi-radio dual connectivity (MR-DC), such as E-UTRAN (Evolved-UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network) New Radio – Dual Connectivity (EN-DC).

[00076] In the example, the hub 2114 communicates with the access network 2104to facilitate indirect communication between one or more UEs (e.g., UE 2112c and / or 2112d) and network nodes (e.g., network node 2110b). In some examples, the hub 2114 may be a controller, router, content source and analytics, or any of the other communication devices described herein regarding UEs. For example, the hub 2114 may be a broadband router enabling access to the core network 2106 for the UEs. As another example, the hub 2114 may be a controller that sends commands or instructions to one or more actuators in the UEs. Commands or instructions may be received from the UEs, network nodes 2110, or by executable code, script, process, or other instructions in the hub 2114. As another example, the hub 2114 may be a data collector that acts as temporary storage for UE data and, in some embodiments, may perform analysis or other processing of the data. As another example, the hub 2114 may be a content source. For example, for a UE that is a VR headset, display, loudspeaker or other media delivery device, the hub 2114 may retrieve VR assets, video, audio, or other media or data related to sensory information via a network node, which the hub 2114 then provides to the UE either directly, after performing local processing, and / or after adding additional local content. In still another example, the hub 2114 acts as a proxy server or orchestrator for the UEs, in particular in if one or more of the UEs are low energy IoT devices.

[00077] The hub 2114 may have a constant / persistent or intermittent connection tothe network node 2110b. The hub 2114 may also allow for a different communication scheme and / or schedule between the hub 2114 and UEs (e.g., UE 2112c and / or 2112d), and between the hub 2114 and the core network 2106. In other examples, the hub 2114 is connected to the core network 2106 and / or one or more UEs via a wired connection. Moreover, the hub 2114 may be configured to connect to an M2M service provider over the access network 1104 and / or to another UE over a direct connection. In some scenarios, UEs may establish a wireless connection with the network nodes 2110 while still connected via the hub 2114 via a wired or wireless connection. In some embodiments, the hub 2114 may be a dedicated hub – that is, a hub whose primary function is to route communications to / from the UEs from / to the network node 2110b. In other embodiments, the hub 2114 may be a non-dedicated hub – that is, a device which is capable ofoperating to route communications between the UEs and network node 2110b, but which is additionally capable of operating as a communication start and / or end point for certain data channels.

[00078] Figure 10 shows a UE 2200 in accordance with some embodiments. As usedherein, a UE refers to a device capable, configured, arranged and / or operable to communicate wirelessly with network nodes and / or other UEs. Examples of a UE include, but are not limited to, a smart phone, mobile phone, cell phone, voice over IP (VoIP) phone, wireless local loop phone, desktop computer, personal digital assistant (PDA), wireless cameras, gaming console or device, music storage device, playback appliance, wearable terminal device, wireless endpoint, mobile station, tablet, laptop, laptop-embedded equipment (LEE), laptop-mounted equipment (LME), smart device, wireless customer-premise equipment (CPE), vehicle-mounted or vehicle embedded / integrated wireless device, etc. Other examples include any UE identified by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), including a narrow band internet of things (NB-IoT) UE, a machine type communication (MTC) UE, and / or an enhanced MTC (eMTC) UE.

[00079] A UE may support device-to-device (D2D) communication, for example byimplementing a 3GPP standard for sidelink communication, Dedicated Short-Range Communication (DSRC), vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), or vehicle-to- everything (V2X). In other examples, a UE may not necessarily have a user in the sense of a human user who owns and / or operates the relevant device. Instead, a UE may represent a device that is intended for sale to, or operation by, a human user but which may not, or which may not initially, be associated with a specific human user (e.g., a smart sprinkler controller). Alternatively, a UE may represent a device that is not intended for sale to, or operation by, an end user but which may be associated with or operated for the benefit of a user (e.g., a smart power meter).

[00080] The UE 2200 includes processing circuitry 2202 that is operatively coupledvia a bus 2204 to an input / output interface 2206, a power source 2208, a memory 2210, a communication interface 2212, and / or any other component, or any combination thereof. Certain UEs may utilize all or a subset of the components shown in Figure 10. The level of integration between the components may vary from one UE to another UE. Further, certain UEs may contain multiple instances of a component, such as multiple processors, memories, transceivers, transmitters, receivers, etc.

[0081] The processing circuitry 2202 is configured to process instructions and dataand may be configured to implement any sequential state machine operative to execute instructions stored as machine-readable computer programs in the memory 2210. The processing circuitry 2202 may be implemented as one or more hardware-implemented state machines (e.g., in discrete logic, field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), etc.); programmable logic together with appropriate firmware; one or more stored computer programs, general-purpose processors, such as a microprocessor or digital signal processor (DSP), together with appropriate software; or any combination of the above. For example, the processing circuitry 2202 may include multiple central processing units (CPUs).

[00082] In the example, the input / output interface 2206 may be configured toprovide an interface or interfaces to an input device, output device, or one or more input and / or output devices. Examples of an output device include a speaker, a sound card, a video card, a display, a monitor, a printer, an actuator, an emitter, a smartcard, another output device, or any combination thereof. An input device may allow a user to capture information into the UE 2200. Examples of an input device include a touch-sensitive or presence-sensitive display, a camera (e.g., a digital camera, a digital video camera, a web camera, etc.), a microphone, a sensor, a mouse, a trackball, a directional pad, a trackpad, a scroll wheel, a smartcard, and the like. The presence- sensitive display may include a capacitive or resistive touch sensor to sense input from a user. A sensor may be, for instance, an accelerometer, a gyroscope, a tilt sensor, a force sensor, a magnetometer, an optical sensor, a proximity sensor, a biometric sensor, etc., or any combination thereof. An output device may use the same type of interface port as an input device. For example, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) port may be used to provide an input device and an output device.

[00083] In some embodiments, the power source 2208 is structured as a battery orbattery pack. Other types of power sources, such as an external power source (e.g., an electricity outlet), photovoltaic device, or power cell, may be used. The power source 2208 may further include power circuitry for delivering power from the power source 2208 itself, and / or an external power source, to the various parts of the UE 2200 via input circuitry or an interface such as an electrical power cable. Delivering power may be, for example, for charging of the power source 2208. Power circuitry may perform any formatting, converting, or other modification to the power from the power source 2208 to make the power suitable for the respective components of the UE 2200 to which power is supplied.

[0084] The memory 2210 may be or be configured to include memory such asrandom access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), programmable read-only memory (PROM), erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), magnetic disks, optical disks, hard disks, removable cartridges, flash drives, and so forth. In one example, the memory 2210 includes one or more application programs 2214, such as an operating system, web browser application, a widget, gadget engine, or other application, and corresponding data 2216. The memory 2210 may store, for use by the UE 2200, any of a variety of various operating systems or combinations of operating systems.

[00085] The memory 2210 may be configured to include a number of physical driveunits, such as redundant array of independent disks (RAID), flash memory, USB flash drive, external hard disk drive, thumb drive, pen drive, key drive, high-density digital versatile disc (HD- DVD) optical disc drive, internal hard disk drive, Blu-Ray optical disc drive, holographic digital data storage (HDDS) optical disc drive, external mini-dual in-line memory module (DIMM), synchronous dynamic random access memory (SDRAM), external micro-DIMM SDRAM, smartcard memory such as tamper resistant module in the form of a universal integrated circuit card (UICC) including one or more subscriber identity modules (SIMs), such as a USIM and / or ISIM, other memory, or any combination thereof. The UICC may for example be an embedded UICC (eUICC), integrated UICC (iUICC) or a removable UICC commonly known as ‘SIM card.’ The memory 2210 may allow the UE 2200 to access instructions, application programs and the like, stored on transitory or non-transitory memory media, to off-load data, or to upload data. An article of manufacture, such as one utilizing a communication system may be tangibly embodied as or in the memory 2210, which may be or comprise a device-readable storage medium.

[00086] The processing circuitry 2202 may be configured to communicate with anaccess network or other network using the communication interface 2212. The communication interface 2212 may comprise one or more communication subsystems and may include or be communicatively coupled to an antenna 2222. The communication interface 2212 may include one or more transceivers used to communicate, such as by communicating with one or more remote transceivers of another device capable of wireless communication (e.g., another UE or a network node in an access network). Each transceiver may include a transmitter 2218 and / or a receiver 2220 appropriate to provide network communications (e.g., optical, electrical, frequencyallocations, and so forth). Moreover, the transmitter 2218 and receiver 2220 may be coupled to one or more antennas (e.g., antenna 2222) and may share circuit components, software or firmware, or alternatively be implemented separately.

[00087] In the illustrated embodiment, communication functions of thecommunication interface 2212 may include cellular communication, Wi-Fi communication, LPWAN communication, data communication, voice communication, multimedia communication, short-range communications such as Bluetooth, near-field communication, location-based communication such as the use of the global positioning system (GPS) to determine a location, another like communication function, or any combination thereof. Communications may be implemented in according to one or more communication protocols and / or standards, such as IEEE 802.11, Code Division Multiplexing Access (CDMA), Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), GSM, LTE, New Radio (NR), UMTS, WiMax, Ethernet, transmission control protocol / internet protocol (TCP / IP), synchronous optical networking (SONET), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), QUIC, Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and so forth.

[00088] Regardless of the type of sensor, a UE may provide an output of datacaptured by its sensors, through its communication interface 2212, via a wireless connection to a network node. Data captured by sensors of a UE can be communicated through a wireless connection to a network node via another UE. The output may be periodic (e.g., once every 15 minutes if it reports the sensed temperature), random (e.g., to even out the load from reporting from several sensors), in response to a triggering event (e.g., when moisture is detected an alert is sent), in response to a request (e.g., a user initiated request), or a continuous stream (e.g., a live video feed of a patient).

[00089] As another example, a UE comprises an actuator, a motor, or a switch,related to a communication interface configured to receive wireless input from a network node via a wireless connection. In response to the received wireless input the states of the actuator, the motor, or the switch may change. For example, the UE may comprise a motor that adjusts the control surfaces or rotors of a drone in flight according to the received input or to a robotic arm performing a medical procedure according to the received input.

[00090] A UE, when in the form of an Internet of Things (IoT) device, may be adevice for use in one or more application domains, these domains comprising, but not limited to, city wearable technology, extended industrial application and healthcare. Non-limiting examplesof such an IoT device are a device which is or which is embedded in: a connected refrigerator or freezer, a TV, a connected lighting device, an electricity meter, a robot vacuum cleaner, a voice controlled smart speaker, a home security camera, a motion detector, a thermostat, a smoke detector, a door / window sensor, a flood / moisture sensor, an electrical door lock, a connected doorbell, an air conditioning system like a heat pump, an autonomous vehicle, a surveillance system, a weather monitoring device, a vehicle parking monitoring device, an electric vehicle charging station, a smart watch, a fitness tracker, a head-mounted display for Augmented Reality (AR) or Virtual Reality (VR), a wearable for tactile augmentation or sensory enhancement, a water sprinkler, an animal- or item-tracking device, a sensor for monitoring a plant or animal, an industrial robot, an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), and any kind of medical device, like a heart rate monitor or a remote controlled surgical robot. A UE in the form of an IoT device comprises circuitry and / or software in dependence of the intended application of the IoT device in addition to other components as described in relation to the UE 2200 shown in Figure 10.

[00091] As yet another specific example, in an IoT scenario, a UE may represent amachine or other device that performs monitoring and / or measurements, and transmits the results of such monitoring and / or measurements to another UE and / or a network node. The UE may in this case be an M2M device, which may in a 3GPP context be referred to as an MTC device. As one particular example, the UE may implement the 3GPP NB-IoT standard. In other scenarios, a UE may represent a vehicle, such as a car, a bus, a truck, a ship and an airplane, or other equipment that is capable of monitoring and / or reporting on its operational status or other functions associated with its operation.

[00092] In practice, any number of UEs may be used together with respect to a singleuse case. For example, a first UE might be or be integrated in a drone and provide the drone’s speed information (obtained through a speed sensor) to a second UE that is a remote controller operating the drone. When the user makes changes from the remote controller, the first UE may adjust the throttle on the drone (e.g. by controlling an actuator) to increase or decrease the drone’s speed. The first and / or the second UE can also include more than one of the functionalities described above. For example, a UE might comprise the sensor and the actuator, and handle communication of data for both the speed sensor and the actuators.

[00093] Figure 11 shows a network node 3300 in accordance with someembodiments. As used herein, network node refers to equipment capable, configured, arrangedand / or operable to communicate directly or indirectly with a UE and / or with other network nodes or equipment, in a telecommunication network. Examples of network nodes include, but are not limited to, access points (APs) (e.g., radio access points), base stations (BSs) (e.g., radio base stations, Node Bs, evolved Node Bs (eNBs) and NR NodeBs (gNBs)).

[00094] Base stations may be categorized based on the amount of coverage theyprovide (or, stated differently, their transmit power level) and so, depending on the provided amount of coverage, may be referred to as femto base stations, pico base stations, micro base stations, or macro base stations. A base station may be a relay node or a relay donor node controlling a relay. A network node may also include one or more (or all) parts of a distributed radio base station such as centralized digital units and / or remote radio units (RRUs), sometimes referred to as Remote Radio Heads (RRHs). Such remote radio units may or may not be integrated with an antenna as an antenna integrated radio. Parts of a distributed radio base station may also be referred to as nodes in a distributed antenna system (DAS).

[00095] Other examples of network nodes include multiple transmission point(multi-TRP) 5G access nodes, multi-standard radio (MSR) equipment such as MSR BSs, network controllers such as radio network controllers (RNCs) or base station controllers (BSCs), base transceiver stations (BTSs), transmission points, transmission nodes, multi-cell / multicast coordination entities (MCEs), Operation and Maintenance (O&M) nodes, Operations Support System (OSS) nodes, Self-Organizing Network (SON) nodes, positioning nodes (e.g., Evolved Serving Mobile Location Centers (E-SMLCs)), and / or Minimization of Drive Tests (MDTs).

[00096] The network node 3300 includes a processing circuitry 3302, a memory3304, a communication interface 3306, and a power source 3308. The network node 3300 may be composed of multiple physically separate components (e.g., a NodeB component and a RNC component, or a BTS component and a BSC component, etc.), which may each have their own respective components. In certain scenarios in which the network node 3300 comprises multiple separate components (e.g., BTS and BSC components), one or more of the separate components may be shared among several network nodes. For example, a single RNC may control multiple NodeBs. In such a scenario, each unique NodeB and RNC pair, may in some instances be considered a single separate network node. In some embodiments, the network node 1300 may be configured to support multiple radio access technologies (RATs). In such embodiments, some components may be duplicated (e.g., separate memory 3304 for different RATs) and somecomponents may be reused (e.g., a same antenna 3310 may be shared by different RATs). The network node 3300 may also include multiple sets of the various illustrated components for different wireless technologies integrated into network node 1300, for example GSM, WCDMA, LTE, NR, WiFi, Zigbee, Z-wave, LoRaWAN, Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) or Bluetooth wireless technologies. These wireless technologies may be integrated into the same or different chip or set of chips and other components within network node 1300.

[00097] The processing circuitry 3302 may comprise a combination of one or moreof a microprocessor, controller, microcontroller, central processing unit, digital signal processor, application-specific integrated circuit, field programmable gate array, or any other suitable computing device, resource, or combination of hardware, software and / or encoded logic operable to provide, either alone or in conjunction with other network node 3300 components, such as the memory 3304, to provide network node 3300 functionality.

[00098] In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 3302 includes a system on achip (SOC). In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 3302 includes one or more of radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry 3312 and baseband processing circuitry 3314. In some embodiments, the radio frequency (RF) transceiver circuitry 3312 and the baseband processing circuitry 3314 may be on separate chips (or sets of chips), boards, or units, such as radio units and digital units. In alternative embodiments, part or all of RF transceiver circuitry 3312 and baseband processing circuitry 3314 may be on the same chip or set of chips, boards, or units.

[00099] The memory 3304 may comprise any form of volatile or non-volatilecomputer-readable memory including, without limitation, persistent storage, solid-state memory, remotely mounted memory, magnetic media, optical media, random access memory (RAM), read- only memory (ROM), mass storage media (for example, a hard disk), removable storage media (for example, a flash drive, a Compact Disk (CD) or a Digital Video Disk (DVD)), and / or any other volatile or non-volatile, non-transitory device-readable and / or computer-executable memory devices that store information, data, and / or instructions that may be used by the processing circuitry 3302. The memory 3304 may store any suitable instructions, data, or information, including a computer program, software, an application including one or more of logic, rules, code, tables, and / or other instructions capable of being executed by the processing circuitry 3302 and utilized by the network node 3300. The memory 3304 may be used to store any calculations madeby the processing circuitry 3302 and / or any data received via the communication interface 3306. In some embodiments, the processing circuitry 3302 and memory 3304 is integrated. [000100] The communication interface 3306 is used in wired or wirelesscommunication of signaling and / or data between a network node, access network, and / or UE. As illustrated, the communication interface 3306 comprises port(s) / terminal(s) 3316 to send and receive data, for example to and from a network over a wired connection. The communication interface 3306 also includes radio front-end circuitry 3318 that may be coupled to, or in certain embodiments a part of, the antenna 3310. Radio front-end circuitry 3318 comprises filters 3320 and amplifiers 3322. The radio front-end circuitry 3318 may be connected to an antenna 3310 and processing circuitry 3302. The radio front-end circuitry may be configured to condition signals communicated between antenna 3310 and processing circuitry 3302. The radio front-end circuitry 3318 may receive digital data that is to be sent out to other network nodes or UEs via a wireless connection. The radio front-end circuitry 3318 may convert the digital data into a radio signal having the appropriate channel and bandwidth parameters using a combination of filters 3320 and / or amplifiers 3322. The radio signal may then be transmitted via the antenna 3310. Similarly, when receiving data, the antenna 3310 may collect radio signals which are then converted into digital data by the radio front-end circuitry 3318. The digital data may be passed to the processing circuitry 3302. In other embodiments, the communication interface may comprise different components and / or different combinations of components. [000101] In certain alternative embodiments, the network node 3300 does not includeseparate radio front-end circuitry 3318, instead, the processing circuitry 3302 includes radio front- end circuitry and is connected to the antenna 3310. Similarly, in some embodiments, all or some of the RF transceiver circuitry 3312 is part of the communication interface 3306. In still other embodiments, the communication interface 3306 includes one or more ports or terminals 3316, the radio front-end circuitry 3318, and the RF transceiver circuitry 3312, as part of a radio unit (not shown), and the communication interface 3306 communicates with the baseband processing circuitry 3314, which is part of a digital unit (not shown). [000102] The antenna 3310 may include one or more antennas, or antenna arrays,configured to send and / or receive wireless signals. The antenna 3310 may be coupled to the radio front-end circuitry 3318 and may be any type of antenna capable of transmitting and receiving dataand / or signals wirelessly. In certain embodiments, the antenna 3310 is separate from the network node 3300 and connectable to the network node 3300 through an interface or port. [000103] The antenna 3310, communication interface 3306, and / or the processingcircuitry 3302 may be configured to perform any receiving operations and / or certain obtaining operations described herein as being performed by the network node. Any information, data and / or signals may be received from a UE, another network node and / or any other network equipment. Similarly, the antenna 3310, the communication interface 3306, and / or the processing circuitry 3302 may be configured to perform any transmitting operations described herein as being performed by the network node. Any information, data and / or signals may be transmitted to a UE, another network node and / or any other network equipment. [000104] The power source 3308 provides power to the various components ofnetwork node 3300 in a form suitable for the respective components (e.g., at a voltage and current level needed for each respective component). The power source 3308 may further comprise, or be coupled to, power management circuitry to supply the components of the network node 3300 with power for performing the functionality described herein. For example, the network node 3300 may be connectable to an external power source (e.g., the power grid, an electricity outlet) via an input circuitry or interface such as an electrical cable, whereby the external power source supplies power to power circuitry of the power source 3308. As a further example, the power source 3308 may comprise a source of power in the form of a battery or battery pack which is connected to, or integrated in, power circuitry. The battery may provide backup power should the external power source fail. [000105] Embodiments of the network node 3300 may include additionalcomponents beyond those shown in Figure 11 for providing certain aspects of the network node’s functionality, including any of the functionality described herein and / or any functionality necessary to support the subject matter described herein. For example, the network node 3300 may include user interface equipment to allow input of information into the network node 3300 and to allow output of information from the network node 3300. This may allow a user to perform diagnostic, maintenance, repair, and other administrative functions for the network node 3300. [000106] Figure 12 is a block diagram of a host 4400, which may be an embodimentof the host 2116 of Figure 9, in accordance with various aspects described herein. As used herein, the host 4400 may be or comprise various combinations hardware and / or software, including astandalone server, a blade server, a cloud-implemented server, a distributed server, a virtual machine, container, or processing resources in a server farm. The host 4400 may provide one or more services to one or more UEs. [000107] The host 4400 includes processing circuitry 4402 that is operatively coupledvia a bus 4404 to an input / output interface 4406, a network interface 4408, a power source 4410, and a memory 4412. Other components may be included in other embodiments. Features of these components may be substantially similar to those described with respect to the devices of previous figures, such as Figures 10 and 11, such that the descriptions thereof are generally applicable to the corresponding components of host 4400. [000108] The memory 4412 may include one or more computer programs includingone or more host application programs 4414 and data 4416, which may include user data, e.g., data generated by a UE for the host 4400 or data generated by the host 4400 for a UE. Embodiments of the host 4400 may utilize only a subset or all of the components shown. The host application programs 4414 may be implemented in a container-based architecture and may provide support for video codecs (e.g., Versatile Video Coding (VVC), High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC), Advanced Video Coding (AVC), MPEG, VP9) and audio codecs (e.g., FLAC, Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), MPEG, G.711), including transcoding for multiple different classes, types, or implementations of UEs (e.g., handsets, desktop computers, wearable display systems, heads-up display systems). The host application programs 4414 may also provide for user authentication and licensing checks and may periodically report health, routes, and content availability to a central node, such as a device in or on the edge of a core network. Accordingly, the host 4400 may select and / or indicate a different host for over-the-top services for a UE. The host application programs 4414 may support various protocols, such as the HTTP Live Streaming (HLS) protocol, Real-Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP), Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP (MPEG-DASH), etc. [000109] Figure 13 is a block diagram illustrating a virtualization environment 5500in which functions implemented by some embodiments may be virtualized. In the present context, virtualizing means creating virtual versions of apparatuses or devices which may include virtualizing hardware platforms, storage devices and networking resources. As used herein, virtualization can be applied to any device described herein, or components thereof, and relates to an implementation in which at least a portion of the functionality is implemented as one or morevirtual components. Some or all of the functions described herein may be implemented as virtual components executed by one or more virtual machines (VMs) implemented in one or more virtual environments 5500 hosted by one or more of hardware nodes, such as a hardware computing device that operates as a network node, UE, core network node, or host. Further, in embodiments in which the virtual node does not require radio connectivity (e.g., a core network node or host), then the node may be entirely virtualized. [000110] Applications 5502 (which may alternatively be called software instances,virtual appliances, network functions, virtual nodes, virtual network functions, etc.) are run in the virtualization environment 5500 to implement some of the features, functions, and / or benefits of some of the embodiments disclosed herein. [000111] Hardware 5504 includes processing circuitry, memory that stores softwareand / or instructions executable by hardware processing circuitry, and / or other hardware devices as described herein, such as a network interface, input / output interface, and so forth. Software may be executed by the processing circuitry to instantiate one or more virtualization layers 5506 (also referred to as hypervisors or virtual machine monitors (VMMs)), provide VMs 5508a and 5508b (one or more of which may be generally referred to as VMs 5508), and / or perform any of the functions, features and / or benefits described in relation with some embodiments described herein. The virtualization layer 5506 may present a virtual operating platform that appears like networking hardware to the VMs 5508. [000112] The VMs 5508 comprise virtual processing, virtual memory, virtualnetworking or interface and virtual storage, and may be run by a corresponding virtualization layer 5506. Different embodiments of the instance of a virtual appliance 5502 may be implemented on one or more of VMs 5508, and the implementations may be made in different ways. Virtualization of the hardware is in some contexts referred to as network function virtualization (NFV). NFV may be used to consolidate many network equipment types onto industry standard high volume server hardware, physical switches, and physical storage, which can be located in data centers, and customer premise equipment. [000113] In the context of NFV, a VM 5508 may be a software implementation of aphysical machine that runs programs as if they were executing on a physical, non-virtualized machine. Each of the VMs 5508, and that part of hardware 5504 that executes that VM, be it hardware dedicated to that VM and / or hardware shared by that VM with others of the VMs, formsseparate virtual network elements. Still in the context of NFV, a virtual network function is responsible for handling specific network functions that run in one or more VMs 5508 on top of the hardware 5504 and corresponds to the application 5502. [000114] Hardware 5504 may be implemented in a standalone network node withgeneric or specific components. Hardware 5504 may implement some functions via virtualization. Alternatively, hardware 5504 may be part of a larger cluster of hardware (e.g., such as in a data center or CPE) where many hardware nodes work together and are managed via management and orchestration 5510, which, among others, oversees lifecycle management of applications 5502. In some embodiments, hardware 5504 is coupled to one or more radio units that each include one or more transmitters and one or more receivers that may be coupled to one or more antennas. Radio units may communicate directly with other hardware nodes via one or more appropriate network interfaces and may be used in combination with the virtual components to provide a virtual node with radio capabilities, such as a radio access node or a base station. In some embodiments, some signaling can be provided with the use of a control system 5512 which may alternatively be used for communication between hardware nodes and radio units. [000115] Figure 14 shows a communication diagram of a host 6602 communicatingvia a network node 6604 with a UE 6606 over a partially wireless connection in accordance with some embodiments. Example implementations, in accordance with various embodiments, of the UE (such as a UE 2112a of Figure 9 and / or UE 2200 of Figure 10), network node (such as network node 2110a of Figure 9 and / or network node 3300 of Figure 11), and host (such as host 2116 of Figure 9 and / or host 4400 of Figure 12) discussed in the preceding paragraphs will now be described with reference to Figure 14. [000116] Like host 4400, embodiments of host 6602 include hardware, such as acommunication interface, processing circuitry, and memory. The host 6602 also includes software, which is stored in or accessible by the host 6602 and executable by the processing circuitry. The software includes a host application that may be operable to provide a service to a remote user, such as the UE 6606 connecting via an over-the-top (OTT) connection 6650 extending between the UE 6606 and host 6602. In providing the service to the remote user, a host application may provide user data which is transmitted using the OTT connection 6650. [000117] The network node 6604 includes hardware enabling it to communicate withthe host 6602 and UE 6606. The connection 6660 may be direct or pass through a core network(like core network 2106 of Figure 9) and / or one or more other intermediate networks, such as one or more public, private, or hosted networks. For example, an intermediate network may be a backbone network or the Internet. [000118] The UE 6606 includes hardware and software, which is stored in oraccessible by UE 6606 and executable by the UE’s processing circuitry. The software includes a client application, such as a web browser or operator-specific “app” that may be operable to provide a service to a human or non-human user via UE 6606 with the support of the host 6602. In the host 6602, an executing host application may communicate with the executing client application via the OTT connection 6650 terminating at the UE 6606 and host 6602. In providing the service to the user, the UE's client application may receive request data from the host's host application and provide user data in response to the request data. The OTT connection 6650 may transfer both the request data and the user data. The UE's client application may interact with the user to generate the user data that it provides to the host application through the OTT connection 6650. [000119] The OTT connection 6650 may extend via a connection 6660 between thehost 6602 and the network node 6604 and via a wireless connection 6670 between the network node 6604 and the UE 6606 to provide the connection between the host 6602 and the UE 6606. The connection 6660 and wireless connection 6670, over which the OTT connection 6650 may be provided, have been drawn abstractly to illustrate the communication between the host 6602 and the UE 1606 via the network node 6604, without explicit reference to any intermediary devices and the precise routing of messages via these devices. [000120] As an example of transmitting data via the OTT connection 6650, in step6608, the host 6602 provides user data, which may be performed by executing a host application. In some embodiments, the user data is associated with a particular human user interacting with the UE 6606. In other embodiments, the user data is associated with a UE 6606 that shares data with the host 6602 without explicit human interaction. In step 6610, the host 6602 initiates a transmission carrying the user data towards the UE 6606. The host 6602 may initiate the transmission responsive to a request transmitted by the UE 6606. The request may be caused by human interaction with the UE 6606 or by operation of the client application executing on the UE 6606. The transmission may pass via the network node 6604, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. Accordingly, in step 6612, the networknode 6604 transmits to the UE 6606 the user data that was carried in the transmission that the host 6602 initiated, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure. In step 6614, the UE 6606 receives the user data carried in the transmission, which may be performed by a client application executed on the UE 6606 associated with the host application executed by the host 6602. [000121] In some examples, the UE 6606 executes a client application whichprovides user data to the host 6602. The user data may be provided in reaction or response to the data received from the host 6602. Accordingly, in step 6616, the UE 6606 may provide user data, which may be performed by executing the client application. In providing the user data, the client application may further consider user input received from the user via an input / output interface of the UE 6606. Regardless of the specific manner in which the user data was provided, the UE 6606 initiates, in step 6618, transmission of the user data towards the host 6602 via the network node 6604. In step 6620, in accordance with the teachings of the embodiments described throughout this disclosure, the network node 6604 receives user data from the UE 6606 and initiates transmission of the received user data towards the host 6602. In step 6622, the host 6602 receives the user data carried in the transmission initiated by the UE 6606. [000122] One or more of the various embodiments improve the performance of OTTservices provided to the UE 6606 using the OTT connection 6650, in which the wireless connection 6670 forms the last segment. More precisely, the teachings of these embodiments may improve the data rate, latency, and / or power consumption and thereby provide benefits such as reduced user waiting time, relaxed restriction on file size, improved content resolution, better responsiveness, and / or extended battery lifetime. [000123] In an example scenario, factory status information may be collected andanalyzed by the host 6602. As another example, the host 6602 may process audio and video data which may have been retrieved from a UE for use in creating maps. As another example, the host 6602 may collect and analyze real-time data to assist in controlling vehicle congestion (e.g., controlling traffic lights). As another example, the host 6602 may store surveillance video uploaded by a UE. As another example, the host 6602 may store or control access to media content such as video, audio, VR or AR which it can broadcast, multicast or unicast to UEs. As other examples, the host 6602 may be used for energy pricing, remote control of non-time critical electrical load to balance power generation needs, location services, presentation services (such ascompiling diagrams etc. from data collected from remote devices), or any other function of collecting, retrieving, storing, analyzing and / or transmitting data. [000124] In some examples, a measurement procedure may be provided for thepurpose of monitoring data rate, latency and other factors on which the one or more embodiments improve. There may further be an optional network functionality for reconfiguring the OTT connection 6650 between the host 6602 and UE 6606, in response to variations in the measurement results. The measurement procedure and / or the network functionality for reconfiguring the OTT connection may be implemented in software and hardware of the host 6602 and / or UE 6606. In some embodiments, sensors (not shown) may be deployed in or in association with other devices through which the OTT connection 6650 passes; the sensors may participate in the measurement procedure by supplying values of the monitored quantities exemplified above, or supplying values of other physical quantities from which software may compute or estimate the monitored quantities. The reconfiguring of the OTT connection 6650 may include message format, retransmission settings, preferred routing etc.; the reconfiguring need not directly alter the operation of the network node 6604. Such procedures and functionalities may be known and practiced in the art. In certain embodiments, measurements may involve proprietary UE signaling that facilitates measurements of throughput, propagation times, latency and the like, by the host 6602. The measurements may be implemented in that software causes messages to be transmitted, in particular empty or ‘dummy’ messages, using the OTT connection 6650 while monitoring propagation times, errors, etc. [000125] Although the computing devices described herein (e.g., UEs, networknodes, hosts) may include the illustrated combination of hardware components, other embodiments may comprise computing devices with different combinations of components. It is to be understood that these computing devices may comprise any suitable combination of hardware and / or software needed to perform the tasks, features, functions and methods disclosed herein. Determining, calculating, obtaining or similar operations described herein may be performed by processing circuitry, which may process information by, for example, converting the obtained information into other information, comparing the obtained information or converted information to information stored in the network node, and / or performing one or more operations based on the obtained information or converted information, and as a result of said processing making a determination. Moreover, while components are depicted as single boxes located within a largerbox, or nested within multiple boxes, in practice, computing devices may comprise multiple different physical components that make up a single illustrated component, and functionality may be partitioned between separate components. For example, a communication interface may be configured to include any of the components described herein, and / or the functionality of the components may be partitioned between the processing circuitry and the communication interface. In another example, non-computationally intensive functions of any of such components may be implemented in software or firmware and computationally intensive functions may be implemented in hardware. [000126] In certain embodiments, some or all of the functionality described hereinmay be provided by processing circuitry executing instructions stored on in memory, which in certain embodiments may be a computer program product in the form of a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium. In alternative embodiments, some or all of the functionality may be provided by the processing circuitry without executing instructions stored on a separate or discrete device-readable storage medium, such as in a hard-wired manner. In any of those particular embodiments, whether executing instructions stored on a non-transitory computer- readable storage medium or not, the processing circuitry can be configured to perform the described functionality. The benefits provided by such functionality are not limited to the processing circuitry alone or to other components of the computing device, but are enjoyed by the computing device as a whole, and / or by end users and a wireless network generally. [000127] It will be appreciated that computer systems are increasingly taking a widevariety of forms. In this description and in the claims, the terms “controller,” “computer system,” or “computing system” are defined broadly as including any device or system—or combination thereof—that includes at least one physical and tangible processor and a physical and tangible memory capable of having thereon computer-executable instructions that may be executed by a processor. By way of example, not limitation, the term “computer system” or “computing system,” as used herein is intended to include personal computers, desktop computers, laptop computers, tablets, hand-held devices (e.g., mobile telephones, PDAs, pagers), microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, minicomputers, mainframe computers, multi-processor systems, network PCs, distributed computing systems, datacenters, message processors, routers, switches, and even devices that conventionally have not been considered a computing system, such as wearables (e.g., glasses).[000128] The computing system also has thereon multiple structures often referred toas an “executable component.” For instance, the memory of a computing system can include an executable component. The term “executable component” is the name for a structure that is well understood to one of ordinary skill in the art in the field of computing as being a structure that can be software, hardware, or a combination thereof. For instance, when implemented in software, one of ordinary skill in the art would understand that the structure of an executable component may include software objects, routines, methods, and so forth, that may be executed by one or more processors on the computing system, whether such an executable component exists in the heap of a computing system, or whether the executable component exists on computer-readable storage media. The structure of the executable component exists on a computer-readable medium in such a form that it is operable, when executed by one or more processors of the computing system, to cause the computing system to perform one or more functions, such as the functions and methods described herein. Such a structure may be computer-readable directly by a processor—as is the case if the executable component were binary. Alternatively, the structure may be structured to be interpretable and / or compiled—whether in a single stage or in multiple stages—so as to generate such binary that is directly interpretable by a processor. [000129] The terms “component,” “service,” “engine,” “module,” “control,”“generator,” or the like may also be used in this description. As used in this description and in this case, these terms—whether expressed with or without a modifying clause—are also intended to be synonymous with the term “executable component” and thus also have a structure that is well understood by those of ordinary skill in the art of computing. [000130] In terms of computer implementation, a computer is generally understoodto comprise one or more processors or one or more controllers, and the terms computer, processor, and controller may be employed interchangeably. When provided by a computer, processor, or controller, the functions may be provided by a single dedicated computer or processor or controller, by a single shared computer or processor or controller, or by a plurality of individual computers or processors or controllers, some of which may be shared or distributed. Moreover, the term “processor” or “controller” also refers to other hardware capable of performing such functions and / or executing software, such as the example hardware recited above. [000131] In general, the various exemplary embodiments may be implemented inhardware or special purpose chips, circuits, software, logic, or any combination thereof. Forexample, some aspects may be implemented in hardware, while other aspects may be implemented in firmware or software which may be executed by a controller, microprocessor, or other computing device, although the disclosure is not limited thereto. While various aspects of the exemplary embodiments of this disclosure may be illustrated and described as block diagrams, flow charts, or using some other pictorial representation, it is well understood that these blocks, apparatus, systems, techniques, or methods described herein may be implemented in, as non- limiting examples, hardware, software, firmware, special purpose circuits or logic, general purpose hardware or controller or other computing devices, or some combination thereof. [000132] While not all computing systems require a user interface, in someembodiments a computing system includes a user interface for use in communicating information from / to a user. The user interface may include output mechanisms as well as input mechanisms. The principles described herein are not limited to the precise output mechanisms or input mechanisms as such will depend on the nature of the device. However, output mechanisms might include, for instance, speakers, displays, tactile output, projections, holograms, and so forth. Examples of input mechanisms might include, for instance, microphones, touchscreens, projections, holograms, cameras, keyboards, stylus, mouse, or other pointer input, sensors of any type, and so forth. Abbreviations and Defined Terms [000133] To assist in understanding the scope and content of this written descriptionand the appended claims, a select few terms are defined directly below. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the present disclosure pertains. [000134] The terms “approximately,” “about,” and “substantially,” as used herein,represent an amount or condition close to the specific stated amount or condition that still performs a desired function or achieves a desired result. For example, the terms “approximately,” “about,” and “substantially” may refer to an amount or condition that deviates by less than 10%, or by less than 5%, or by less than 1%, or by less than 0.1%, or by less than 0.01% from a specifically stated amount or condition. [000135] Various aspects of the present disclosure, including devices, systems, andmethods may be illustrated with reference to one or more embodiments or implementations, whichare exemplary in nature. As used herein, the term “exemplary” means “serving as an example, instance, or illustration,” and should not necessarily be construed as preferred or advantageous over other embodiments disclosed herein. In addition, reference to an “implementation” of the present disclosure or embodiments includes a specific reference to one or more embodiments thereof, and vice versa, and is intended to provide illustrative examples without limiting the scope of the present disclosure, which is indicated by the appended claims rather than by the present description. [000136] As used in the specification, a word appearing in the singular encompassesits plural counterpart, and a word appearing in the plural encompasses its singular counterpart, unless implicitly or explicitly understood or stated otherwise. Thus, it will be noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, reference to a singular referent (e.g., “a widget”) includes one, two, or more referents unless implicitly or explicitly understood or stated otherwise. Similarly, reference to a plurality of referents should be interpreted as comprising a single referent and / or a plurality of referents unless the content and / or context clearly dictate otherwise. For example, reference to referents in the plural form (e.g., “widgets”) does not necessarily require a plurality of such referents. Instead, it will be appreciated that independent of the inferred number of referents, one or more referents are contemplated herein unless stated otherwise. [000137] References in the specification to "one embodiment," "an embodiment," "anexample embodiment," and the like indicate that the embodiment described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, but it is not necessary that every embodiment includes the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic is described in connection with an embodiment, it is submitted that it is within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to affect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described. [000138] It shall be understood that although the terms "first" and "second" etc. maybe used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first element could be termed a second element, and similarly, a second element could be termed a first element,without departing from the scope of example embodiments. As used herein, the term "and / or" includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed terms. [000139] It will be further understood that the terms "comprises", "comprising","has", "having", "includes" and / or "including", when used herein, specify the presence of stated features, elements, and / or components etc., but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, elements, components and / or combinations thereof. Conclusion [000140] The present disclosure includes any novel feature or combination of featuresdisclosed herein either explicitly or any generalization thereof. Various modifications and adaptations to the foregoing exemplary embodiments of this disclosure may become apparent to those skilled in the relevant arts in view of the foregoing description, when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. However, any and all modifications will still fall within the scope of the non-limiting and exemplary embodiments of this disclosure. [000141] It is understood that for any given component or embodiment describedherein, any of the possible candidates or alternatives listed for that component may generally be used individually or in combination with one another, unless implicitly or explicitly understood or stated otherwise. Additionally, it will be understood that any list of such candidates or alternatives is merely illustrative, not limiting, unless implicitly or explicitly understood or stated otherwise. [000142] In addition, unless otherwise indicated, numbers expressing quantities,constituents, distances, or other measurements used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified by the term “about,” as that term is defined herein. Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the subject matter presented herein. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scope of the subject matter presented herein are approximations, the numerical values set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely as possible. Any numericalvalues, however, inherently contain certain errors necessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in their respective testing measurements. [000143] Any headings and subheadings used herein are for organizational purposesonly and are not meant to be used to limit the scope of the description or the claims. The terms and expressions which have been employed herein are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intention in the use of such terms and expressions of excluding any equivalents of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the present disclosure. Thus, it should be understood that although the present disclosure has been specifically disclosed in part by certain embodiments, and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this present description. [000144] It will also be appreciated that systems, devices, products, kits, methods,and / or processes, according to certain embodiments of the present disclosure may include, incorporate, or otherwise comprise properties or features (e.g., components, members, elements, parts, and / or portions) described in other embodiments disclosed and / or described herein. Accordingly, the various features of certain embodiments can be compatible with, combined with, included in, and / or incorporated into other embodiments of the present disclosure. Thus, disclosure of certain features relative to a specific embodiment of the present disclosure should not be construed as limiting application or inclusion of said features to the specific embodiment. Rather, it will be appreciated that other embodiments can also include said features, members, elements, parts, and / or portions without necessarily departing from the scope of the present disclosure. [000145] Moreover, unless a feature is described as requiring another feature incombination therewith, any feature herein may be combined with any other feature of a same or different embodiment disclosed herein. Furthermore, various well-known aspects of illustrative systems, methods, apparatus, and the like are not described herein in particular detail in order to avoid obscuring aspects of the example embodiments. Such aspects are, however, also contemplated herein. [000146] It will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that methods, devices,device elements, materials, procedures, and techniques other than those specifically described herein can be applied to the practice of the described embodiments as broadly disclosed hereinwithout resort to undue experimentation. All art-known functional equivalents of methods, devices, device elements, materials, procedures, and techniques specifically described herein are intended to be encompassed by this present disclosure. [000147] When a group of materials, compositions, components, or compounds isdisclosed herein, it is understood that all individual members of those groups and all subgroups thereof are disclosed separately. When a Markush group or other grouping is used herein, all individual members of the group and all combinations and sub-combinations possible of the group are intended to be individually included in the disclosure. [000148] The above-described embodiments are examples only. Alterations,modifications, and variations may be effected to the particular embodiments by those of skill in the art without departing from the scope of the description, which is defined solely by the appended claims.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. A method performed by a network node for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, the method comprising: receiving an NGAP removal request from a wireless access and backhaul, WAB, base station.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising, in response to the NGAP removal request, releasing an NGAP connection.

3. The method of claim 1, further comprising, in response to the NGAP removal request, choosing not to release any NGAP connections.

4. The method of any of claims 1 to 3 wherein the network node comprises at least one of: an access and mobility management function, AMF; a core network, CN, node.

5. The method of any of claims 1 to 4, wherein the NGAP removal request comprises a cause information element, IE.

6. The method of any of claims 1 to 5, further comprising transmitting at least one of: a cause IE; a request to the WAB base station to perform a NGAP removal procedure; a confirmation to the WAB base station regarding the NGAP removal procedure; an NGAP failure message.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein, the cause IE pertains to at least one of: removal response; removal failure; successful handover; a release due to Next Generation Radio Access Network, NG-RAN, generated reason; a release due to 5thGeneration Core, 5GC, generated reason; handover cancelled; partial handover; handover failure in target 5GC / NG-RAN node or target system; handover target not allowed; cell not available; unknown target ID; no radio resources available in target cell; unknown local user equipment, UE, NGAP identifier; inconsistent remote UE NGAP identifier; handover desirable for radio reasons; time critical handover; resourceoptimization handover; reduce load in serving cell; user inactivity; radio connection with UE lost; radio resources not available; invalid quality of service, QoS, combination; failure in the radio interface procedure; interaction with other procedure; unknown packet data unit, PDU, session identifier; unknown QoS Flow identifier; multiple PDU Session identifier instances; multiple QoS Flow identifier instances; encryption and / or integrity protection algorithms not supported; NG intra-system handover triggered; NG inter-system handover triggered; Xn interface handover triggered; not supported 5G QoS identifier value; UE context transfer; fallback triggered; user plane, UP, integrity protection not possible; UP confidentiality protection not possible; slice(s) not supported; UE in RRC_INACTIVE state not reachable; redirection; resources not available for the slice(s); UE maximum integrity protected data rate reason; release due to core network-detected mobility; N26 interface not available; release due to pre-emption; Multiple Location Reporting Reference identifier Instances; Non-Public Network access denied; Closed Access Group, CAG, only access denied; insufficient UE Capabilities; RedCap UE not supported; unknown MultiCast Broadcast Services, MBS, Session identifier; indicated MBS Session Area Information not served by the gNB; inconsistent slice info for the session; misaligned association for the multicast and unicast sessions or flows.

8. The method of any of embodiments 1 to 7, wherein the NGAP removal request includes an indication of a second AMF, and the method further comprises transmitting one or more NGAP connection information to the second AMF.

9. A method performed by a core network node for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, the method comprising: receiving a connection removal request from a radio access network, RAN, node with a wireless backhaul.

10. The method of claim 9, further comprising, in response to the connection removal request, releasing an NGAP connection.

11. The method of claim 9, further comprising, in response to the connection removal request, choosing not to release any NGAP connections.

12. The method of any of claims 9 to 11, wherein the core network node comprises at least one of: an access and mobility management function, AMF; a gNB; a base station.

13. The method of any of claims 9 to 12, wherein the connection removal request comprises a cause information element, IE.

14. The method of any of claims 9 to 13, further comprising transmitting at least one of: a cause information element; a request to the RAN node to perform a Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, removal procedure; a confirmation to the RAN node regarding the NGAP removal procedure; an NGAP failure message.

15. A method performed by a wireless access and backhaul, WAB, base station, for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, the method comprising: transmitting a Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, removal request to a first access and mobility management function, AMF.

16. The method of claim 15, further comprising establishing a NGAP connection to a second AMF.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein establishing the NGAP connection occurs at least one of: prior to; after; or contemporaneous; to the NGAP removal request, 18. The method of any of claims 15 to 17, wherein the NGAP removal request is triggered based at least in part on at least one of: a mobility procedure; an authorization status change of a network node; a packet loss measurement is over a certain threshold; a delay jitter is over a predetermined threshold; receiving a request from the first AMF for the WAB base station to send the NGAP removal request.

19. The method of claim 16, wherein the NGAP removal request includes an indication of the second AMF.

20. The method of any of claims 15 to 19, further comprising receiving a confirmation response from the first AMF.

21. A method performed by a wireless access and backhaul, WAB, base station for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation,, the method comprising: transmitting a NGAP suspend indication to a first Access and Mobility Management Function, AMF.

22. The method of claim 21, further comprising transmitting a NGAP resume indication to a second AMF.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein the first AMF and the second AMF comprise the same AMF.

24. The method of any of claims 21 to 23, wherein transmitting the NGAP suspend indication to the first AMF is based on receiving a request from the first AMF for the WAB base station to suspend a NGAP connection.

25. The method of any of claims 21 to 24, wherein the NGAP suspend indication includes an indication of a duration to suspend an NGAP connection.

26. The method of any of claims 21 to 25, further comprising receiving a confirmation response from the first AMF.

27. A mobile terminal for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, comprising: processing circuitry configured to perform any of the steps of any of claims 1 to 26; and power supply circuitry configured to supply power to the wireless device.

28. A network node for adjusting Next Generation Application Protocol, NGAP, operation, comprising: processing circuitry configured to perform any of the steps of any of claims 1 to 26; power supply circuitry configured to supply power to the wireless device.

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