Particle size impact on energy storage devices

Abstract

The present inventions relate to methods, systems, apparatuses, controllers, software, and composition of matter associated with battery cells having multimodal size distribution particles as part of the active material of its electrode(s).

Description

Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WOPARTICLE SIZE IMPACT ON ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES PRIORITY DOCUMENTS

[0001] This patent application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application Serial No. 63 / 626,290 filed January 29, 2024, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.BACKGROUND

[0002] The present invention relates to methods and structures such as electrode assemblies for use in energy storage devices such as secondary batteries, to energy storage devices employing such structures, and to methods for manufacturing such structures and energy devices.

[0003] Lithium-based batteries are a type of energy storage device having cells in which carrier ions, such as lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium or magnesium ions, travel between a cathode structure and an anode structure through an electrolyte within each cell. The anode structure and cathode structure are separated by a separator structure during assembly of the battery and during battery operation. Anode and cathode current collectors pool electric current from the respective active electrochemical electrodes and enable transfer of the current to the environment outside the battery.

[0004] There may be a number of shortcomings related to (e.g., secondary) batteries and the process of making batteries. For example, for certain applications, batteries need to maintain their performance at lower temperatures.

[0005] One way of addressing the shortcomings (e.g., this issue) may at least in part be by reducing the thickness of the cathode structure in order to compensate for slower diffusion of carrier ions within the cell at lower temperatures. This in turn may help reduce Infrared (IR) loss (e.g., lower internal resistance), but may also reduce the cell energy density.

[0006] At times, increased rate performance is useful for a battery, e.g., a rechargeable battery. One aim in battery innovation may be to achieve higher rate performance, e.g., at a given volume of battery. At a given particle size, an increase in the rate performance would require a thicker anode, which may cause problems such as dimensionality related issues that may entail reducing the number of battery cells per device. The current rate may reduce as the thickness of the electrode (e.g., cathode) increases. For an electrode of a given thickness, an increase in the internal resistance of an electrode (e.g., conductivity slows down, and impedance increases) may occur with increase in its increased thickness, e.g., as compared to a thinner electrode. The electrode may be a cathode or an anode. Such situation may worsen over the number of the charge-discharge cycles that the battery cell undergoes during its lifetime. The electrode includes deposited particles of electronic conductive material. The conduction is facilitated by propagation of charge carriers such as Li+, the propagation occurring from one electrode to its counter electrode of the cell.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WOCompeting considerations of the particles may include higher availability of the charge carriers vs. increased degradation of the electrolytes experienced when using smaller particles. Without wishing to be bound to theory, higher availability of the charge carriers may be due to shorter diffusion time of the charge carriers from core to surface in smaller particle fundamental length scale (“FLS”). Without wishing to be bound to theory, larger surface area of the smaller particles may provide a greater opportunity for side reactions associated with degradation of the electrolyte that facilitates exchange of the charge between the electrode and counter-electrode in the battery cell (also referred to herein as “cell”). One challenge may be how to achieve a higher performance rate with (e.g., substantially) the same cathode thickness. Another challenge may be to diminish performance of the cell at low temperature, which is of interest to overcome. The low temperature may be below ambient temperature external to the battery.

[0007] As compared to a given particle size distribution of active electrode material, a smaller particle size distribution of its active material may be beneficial for high-rate performance batteries (e.g., at low temperature), but may cause a higher resistance.SUMMARY

[0008] In some aspects, the present disclosure resolves one or more of the aforementioned hardships and / or shortcomings. In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides solutions to curtail the aforementioned hardships and / or shortcomings. The solutions include method(s) (e.g., technique), device(s), apparatus(es), system(s), and / or design(s).

[0009] In some embodiments, the present inventions relate to method(s)device(s), apparatus(es), system(s), and design(s), utilized for a battery comprising cell(s). Methods, apparatuses, devices, program instructions, and structures, are disclosed herein for use of at least two size distributions of electrode active material as part of an electrode in an energy storage device.

[0010] As compared to a given single particle size distribution of active electrode material, a smaller particle size distribution in addition to the larger particle size distribution, may allow lower loading, while maintaining a requested rate performance such as at low temperature performance, e.g., maintaining the current rate similar to the one at room temperature. The lower loading may be at least in part due to a resulting smaller thickness of the electrode active material on the electrode’s current collector, when using at least a fraction of the smaller particle size distribution of the electrode active material. A multi modal (e.g., bimodal) cathode particle size distribution, may allow fabrication of a denser packing of the electrode active material of the cell. The denser packing of the electrode active material may improve rate (e.g., and low temperature) performance such as under high loading conditions.

[0011] In some aspects, this disclosure relates to (e.g., techniques disclosed herein for) energy storage devices such as batteries (e.g., secondary batteries). The energy storageAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO devices may be configured to maintain low temperature performance and / or reduced electrode loading and a modified electrode particle size composition such as including a plurality of size distributions of particulate material(s) making up the active electrode material. For example, a lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathode structure having a mixture of (e.g., having a plurality of size distributions of) particle sizes, can allow for good (e.g., requested and / or acceptable) low temperature performance and high-rate performance at an ambient temperature (e.g., room temperature) external to the energy storage device, and (b) enable fast charging. In an example, the mixture of active electrode material particles comprises using smaller particles mixed with respective larger particles.

[0012] In another aspect, an electrode assembly comprising: a plurality of unit cells stacked in a stacking direction, each of the unit cells comprising an anode structure, a separator structure, and a cathode structure, wherein the cathode structure of each unit cell comprises a cathode material blend, wherein the cathode material blend comprises: a first cathode material comprising a first plurality of fine particles and a second plurality of large particles; and a second cathode material comprising a third plurality of fine particles, wherein the first plurality of fine particles and the third plurality of fine particles have a first size less than 5 pm and the second plurality of large particles have a second size greater than 20 pm. In some embodiments, the cathode material blend comprises between at least 75% and at least 25% of the first cathode material by weight. In some embodiments, the cathode material blend comprises between at least 25% and at least 75% of the second cathode material by weight. In some embodiments, at least 90% of the cathode material blend comprises particles having a size less than 5 pm.

[0013] In another aspect, a battery comprising a battery enclosure, and an electrode assembly and an electrolyte within the battery enclosure, wherein: the electrode assembly comprises a plurality of unit cells stacked in a stacking direction, each of the unit cells comprising an anode structure, a separator structure, and a cathode structure, wherein the cathode structure of each unit cell comprises a cathode material blend, wherein the cathode material blend comprises: a first cathode material comprising a first plurality of fine particles and a second plurality of large particles; and a second cathode material comprising a third plurality of fine particles, wherein the first plurality of fine particles and the third plurality of fine particles have a first size less than 5 pm and the second plurality of large particles have a second size greater than 20 pm. In some embodiments, the cathode material blend comprises between at least 75% and at least 25% of the first cathode material by weight. In some embodiments, the cathode material blend comprises between at least 25% and at least 75% of the second cathode material by weight. In some embodiments, at least 90% of the cathode material blend comprises particles having a size less than 5 pm.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO

[0014] In some embodiments, an electrolyte it utilized in the cell. The electrolyte may compromise a salt of the charge carrier, a carbonate, an ether, a propionate, an acetate, a plurality thereof and / or a combination thereof. The salt may include a phosphate salt, a borate salt, an imide, a halogen, an imide, a plurality thereof and / or a combination thereof. The sale may be a lithium salt. The electrolyte may include lithium hexaphosphate (LiPFe), lithium tetrafluoroborate (UBF4), lithium diflurophosphate (LiF2PO2), lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (LiFSI), lithium difluoro(oxaloato)borate (LiDFPB), lithium bis(oxalate)borate (LiBOB), lithium bis(trifluoromethyanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI), dimethyl carbonate (DMC), 2, 2, difluoroethylacetate (DFEA), lithium nitrate (LiNO3), ethylene glycol bis(propionitrile) ether (DENE), ethyl propionate (EP), methyl 2,2,2-trifluoroethyl carbonate (FEMC), adiponitrile (AN), succinonitrile (SN), vinylethylene carbonate (VEC), propane sultone (PS), prop-1-ene-1 ,3-sultone (PRS), 1 ,3,6-Hexanetricarbonitrile (HTCN), ethylene carbonate (EC), propyl carbonate (PC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), propyl propionate (PP), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), vinylene carbonate (VC), any plurality thereof, and / or any combination thereof.

[0015] In another aspect, a device for energy storage (e.g., a battery) comprises: a cathode current collector coupled with a cathode material layer, the cathode material layer comprising a multimodal (e.g., bimodal) size distribution, the multimodal size distribution being measurably discernable; and an anode comprising an anode electrode current collector coupled with a counter electrode material layer, the anode being separated from the cathode by a gap, a battery cell of the device comprising the cathode, and the anode. In some embodiments, (a) the device is configured to operate at a low temperature below room temperature (R.T.) with a performance similar to that at an ambient temperature, the low temperature being colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C); (b) the anode comprises silicon; (c) the anode is devoid of graphite; (d) the multimodal size distribution comprises modes, each of the modes comprising at least one material type in common, (e) the device comprises a constraint configured to anisotropically constraint the battery cell during traversal of charge carriers between the anode and the cathode; (f) the device is configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of an ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 20 PSI, (g) the device is configured for initial buffering of the charge carriers into the battery cell; (h) a thickness of the anode is at most about 70 micrometers (pm), the thickness being normal to a lateral (e.g., and long) axis of the anode; (i) the cathode material layer has a density of at least about 3.5 grams per centimeters cubed (g / cm3); (j) the device is a secondary battery; (k) the device comprises a stacked array of cells, with cells of the stacked array of cells being similar to the battery cell, the device being prismatic, the device having (A) a top surface opposing a bottom surface, (B) a first side surface opposing a second side surface, and (C) a third side surface opposing aAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO fourth side surface, the device having a thickness, a length, and a width, the thickness spanning a thickness distance from the top surface to the opposing bottom surface, the length spanning a length distance from the first side surface to the second side surface, the width spanning a distance from the third side surface to the fourth side surface, the stacked array of cells being stacked along the top surface and (aa) along the length or (bb) along the width; (I) the battery is configured to withstand pressure fluctuations of at least about 20 PS; or (m) any combination of (a) to (I). In some embodiments, the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 20 PSI. In some embodiments, the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 100 PSI. In some embodiments, the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 140 PSI. In some embodiments, the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 1000 PSI, or 10000 PSI. In some embodiments, the device is configured to operate at the low temperature below an ambient temperature with the performance similar to that at an ambient temperature, the low temperature being colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C), the ambient temperature being of an ambient environment external to the device. In some embodiments, the anode comprises silicon. In some embodiments, the anode is devoid of graphite. In some embodiments, the multimodal size distribution comprises two modes or more, each of the two modes comprising at least one material type in common. In some embodiments, the device comprises the constraint configured to anisotropically constrain the battery cell during traversal of the charge carriers between the anode and the cathode. In some embodiments, the device being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 20 PSI. In some embodiments, the device being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 100 PSI. In some embodiments, the device being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 140 PSI. In some embodiments, the device being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 1000 PSI, or 10000 PSI. In some embodiments, the device being configured for initial buffering of the charge carriers into the battery cell. In some embodiments, the thickness of the anode is at most about 70 micrometers (pm), the thickness being normal to the lateral axis of the anode. In some embodiments, the cathode material layer has the density of at least about 3.5 grams per centimeters cubed (g / cm3). In some embodiments, the device is the secondary battery. In some embodiments, the device comprises the stacked array of cells, with cells of the stacked array of cells being similar to the battery cell, the device being prismatic, the device having (A) the top surface opposing aAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO bottom surface, (B) the first side surface opposing a second side surface, and (C) the third side surface opposing a fourth side surface, the device having a thickness, the length, and the width, the thickness spanning a thickness distance from the top surface to the opposing bottom surface, the length spanning the length distance from the first side surface to the second side surface, the width spanning the distance from the third side surface to the fourth side surface, the stacked array of cells being stacked along the top surface and (i) along the length or (ii) along the width. In some embodiments, the at least one material type in common comprises Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO). In some embodiments, the multimodal size distribution comprises a first set of particulate material having a larger size distribution, and a second set of particulate material having a smaller size distribution, the larger size distribution being measurably discernable from the smaller size distribution. In some embodiments, the first set of particulate material is of the type of material of the second set of particulate material. In some embodiments, in the multimodal size distribution, the first set of particulate material is of at least an amount of the second set of particulate material or a greater amount, the amount being a weight and / or a volume. In some embodiments, in the multimodal size distribution, a proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 1:1, 1.5:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1 , 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, or 9:1, the proportion being a weight per weight ratio, and / or a volume per volume ratio. In some embodiments, the proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 1:1. In some embodiments, the proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 3:1. In some embodiments, the device is configured to operate at the low temperature that is colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C). In some embodiments, the device is configured to operate at the low temperature colder than -10 degrees Celsius (°C). In some embodiments, the device is configured to operate at the low temperature colder than -20 degrees Celsius (°C). In some embodiments, the anode comprises at least about 20% Silicon by volume. In some embodiments, the anode comprises silicon oxide (SiOx), a silicon carbon composite, a silicon carbon mixture, a silicon graphite composite, a silicon graphite mixture, a particle having a carbon center coated by a silicon layer coated by an external carbon layer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anode comprises particulate material type of the particle. In some embodiments, (I) the carbon center is harder (e.g., hard carbon) than the external carbon layer (e.g., soft carbon) and / or (II) the silicon layer extends onto crevices in the carbon center. In some embodiments, the anode comprises silicon oxide (SiOx), a silicon carbon composite, or a silicon carbon mixture. In some embodiments, the device further comprises a separator disposed in the gap, the separator being configured to prevent the cathode from contacting the anode while allowing charge carriers to traverse therethrough, the battery cell comprising the separator. In someAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO embodiments, the device further comprises an electrolyte configured to facilitate traversal of the charge carriers from the anode to the cathode, the electrolyte being a liquid, semisolid, or solid electrolyte, the battery cell comprising the electrolyte.

[0016] In another aspect, a method for energy manipulation (e.g., charge and discharge) in the device, the method comprises: (a) providing any of the above devices, and (b) storing the device, maintaining the device, transporting the device, pre-charging the device, or using the device for the energy manipulation.

[0017] In another aspect, a method for energy manipulation in the energy storage device, the method comprises: (a) providing any of the above devices, and (b) storing the device, maintaining the device, transporting the device, pre-charging the device, or using the device for the energy manipulation such as electrical charge and / or discharge.

[0018] In another aspect, a method of fabricating any of the above devices, the method comprises: executing one or more operations to fabricate the device; and optionally wherein fabrication of the device comprises manufacturing.

[0019] In another aspect, an apparatus for fabricating any of the above devices, the apparatus comprises: at least one controller configured (a) for operatively coupling with at least one component; and (b) executing, or directing the at least one component to execute, one or more operations associated with fabrication of the device. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is configured to operatively couple with a power source and / or with a communication platform.

[0020] In another aspect, one or more non-transitory computer readable media comprises program instruction physically inscribed thereon, the program instructions, when read by one or more processors, are configured to (I) execute, or direct execution of, one or more operations associated with fabrication of any of the above devices, (II) the one or more operations comprising directing at least one component to execute the one or more operations, the one or more processors being configured to operatively coupe with the at least one component, or (III) a combination of (I) and (II).

[0021] In another aspect, an apparatus for energy manipulation in the device, the apparatus comprises: at least one controller configured (a) for operatively coupling with any of the above devices, and (b) executing, at least one component of the device to execute one or more operations associated with the energy manipulation. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is configured to operatively couple with a power source and / or with a communication platform.

[0022] In another aspect, one or more non-transitory computer readable media comprising program instruction physically inscribed thereon, the program instructions, when read by one or more processors operatively coupled with one or more components of any of the aboveAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO devices, are configured to execute, or direct execution of, one or more operations associated with the energy manipulation.

[0023] In another aspect, a method comprises: (a) providing the device; and (b) manufacturing, testing, buffering, storing, shipping, and / or using the device for energy manipulation. In some embodiments, the energy manipulation comprises comprising electrically charging and / or discharging the device.

[0024] In another aspect, a method for fabricating the device for energy manipulation, e.g., for electrically charging and / or discharging.

[0025] In another aspect, an apparatus for energy manipulation in the device, the apparatus comprises: at least one controller configured execution, or directing execution of, one or more operations to effectuate any of the above methods to fabricate (e.g., manufacture) the device. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is configured to operatively couple with a power source and / or with a communication platform.

[0026] In another aspect, one or more non-transitory computer readable media comprising program instruction physically inscribed thereon, the program instructions, when read by one or more processors, are configured to execute, or direct execution of, one or more operations of any of the above methods to fabricate the device.

[0027] In another aspect, a method of selecting an optimal electrolyte for an energy storge device (e.g., battery), the method comprising: (a) using different ratios of the multimodal electrode active material mass of the cell, and (b) changing the electrolyte (e.g., mixture of electrolytes) utilized in the cell to facilitate propagation of charge carriers. In some embodiments, the propagation of the charge carriers comprises (a) propagation between opposing electrodes, e.g., through the gap, (b) propagation of charge carriers within the electrode active material mass, (c) propagation of the charge carriers though an optional insulator of the cell (e.g., alumina), or (d) any combination of (a), (b), and (c). The charge carriers, insulator, gap, electrode active material, cells, and devices may be any of the ones disclosed herein, e.g., above. In some embodiments, the electrode is a cathode.

[0028] In another aspect, a system for effectuating the methods, operations of an apparatus, and / or operations inscribed by non-transitory computer readable program instructions (e.g., inscribed on a media / medium), disclosed herein.

[0029] In another aspect, a system for effectuating the methods, operations of an apparatus, operation of a device, and / or operations inscribed by non-transitory computer readable program instructions (e.g., inscribed on a media / medium), disclosed herein.

[0030] In another aspect, device(s) (e.g., apparatus) for effectuating the methods, operations of an apparatus, and / or operations inscribed by non-transitory computer readable program instructions (e.g., inscribed on a media / medium).Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO

[0031] In other aspects, systems, apparatuses (e.g., controller(s)), and / or non-transitory computer-readable program instructions (e.g., software) that implement any of the methods disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the program instructions are inscribed on at least one medium (e.g., on a medium or on media).

[0032] In other aspects, methods, systems, apparatuses (e.g., controller(s)), and / or non- transitory computer-readable program instructions (e.g., software) that implement any of the devices disclosed herein and / or any operation of these devices. In some embodiments, the program instructions are inscribed on at least one medium (e.g., on a medium or on media).

[0033] In another aspect, an apparatus comprises at least one controller that is configured (e.g., programmed) to direct a mechanism used in a methodology disclosed herein to implement (e.g., effectuate) any of the method and / or operations disclosed herein, wherein the controller(s) is operatively coupled with the mechanism. In some embodiments, the controller(s) implements any of the methods and / or operations disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller comprises, or be operatively coupled with, a hierarchical control system. In some embodiments, the hierarchical control system comprises at least three, four, or five, control levels. In some embodiments, at least two operations are performed, or directed, by the same controller. In some embodiments, at least two operations are each performed, or directed, by a different controller.

[0034] In another aspect, an apparatus comprises at least one controller configured (e.g., programmed) to implement (e.g., effectuate), or direct implementation of the method, process, and / or operation disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller implements any of the methods, processes, and / or operations disclosed herein.

[0035] In another aspect, non-transitory computer readable program instructions, when read by one or more processors, are configured to execute, or direct execution of, the method, process, and / or operation disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller implements any of the methods, processes, and / or operations disclosed herein. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the one or more processors is part of a mechanism, outside of the mechanism, or in a location remote from the mechanism disclosed herein (e.g., in the cloud).

[0036] In another aspect, a system comprises an apparatus and at least one controller configured (e.g., programmed) to direct operation of the apparatus, wherein the at least one controller is operatively coupled with the apparatus. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes any apparatus or device disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller implements, or direct implementation of, any of the methods disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller directs any apparatus (or component thereof) disclosed herein. In some embodiments, at least two operations (e.g., instructions) of the apparatus are directed by the same controller. In some embodiments, at least twoAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO operations (e.g., instructions) of the apparatus are directed by different controllers. In some embodiments, at least two operations (e.g., instructions) are carried out by the same processor and / or by the same sub-computer software product. In some embodiments, at least two of operations (e.g., instructions) are carried out by different processors and / or by different sub-computer software products.

[0037] In another aspect, a computer software product, comprising a (e.g., non-transitory) computer-readable medium / media in which program instructions are stored, which instructions, when read by a computer, cause the computer to direct a mechanism used to implement (e.g., effectuate) any of the method disclosed herein, wherein the non-transitory computer-readable medium is operatively coupled with the mechanism. In some embodiments, the mechanism comprises an apparatus or an apparatus component.

[0038] In another aspect, a computer system comprising one or more computer processors and non-transitory computer-readable medium / media coupled thereto. In some embodiments, the non-transitory computer-readable medium / media comprises machineexecutable code that, upon execution by the one or more computer processors, implements any of the methods and / or operations (e.g., as disclosed herein), and / or effectuates directions of the controller(s) (e.g., as disclosed herein).

[0039] In another aspect, a method comprises executing one or more operations associated with at least one configuration of the mechanism(s) (e.g., device(s)) disclosed herein.

[0040] In another aspect, an apparatus comprises at least one controller is configured (i) operatively couple to the device, and (ii) direct executing one or more operations associated with at least one configuration of the device(s) disclosed herein.

[0041] In another aspect, at least one controller is associated with the methods, devices, and software disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller comprises at least one connector configured to connect to a power source. In some embodiments, the at least one controller being configured to operatively couple with a power source at least in part by (I) having a power socket and / or (II) being configured for wireless power transfer using inductive charging. In some embodiments, the at least one controller comprises a nonvolatile memory, e.g., a solid-state device (SSD) such as a FLASH memory. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is included in, or comprises, a hierarchical control system. In some embodiments, the hierarchical control system comprises at least three hierarchical control levels. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is included in a control system disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is configured to control at least one other component of a mechanism (e.g., system, device, or apparatus) disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the device disclosed herein is a component of a system, and wherein the at least one controller is configured to (i) operatively couple to another component of the system and (ii) direct operation of the otherAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO component. In some embodiments, the at least one controller is configured to direct operation of the other component at least in part for participation of the other component in a method disclosed herein.

[0042] In another aspect, non-transitory computer readable program instructions for a method disclosed herein, the non-transitory computer readable program instructions, when read by one or more processors operatively coupled with the device, cause the one or more processors to direct executing one or more operations associated with at least one configuration of the device(s) disclosed herein.

[0043] In some embodiments, the program instructions are of a computer product.

[0044] The various embodiments in any of the above aspects are combinable (e.g., within an aspect), as appropriate. Individual features (e.g., embodiments) disclosed herein are combinable in any manner requested and / or desired, as applicable.

[0045] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0046] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

[0047] It should be appreciated that any patent, publication, or other disclosure material, in whole or in part, which is said to be incorporated by reference herein is incorporated herein only to the extent that the incorporated material does not conflict with existing definitions, statements, or other disclosure material set forth in this disclosure. As such, and to the extent necessary, the disclosure as explicitly set forth herein supersedes any conflicting material incorporated herein by reference. Any material, or portion thereof, that is said to be incorporated by reference herein, but which conflicts with existing definitions, statements, or other disclosure material set forth herein will only be incorporated to the extent that no conflict arises between that incorporated material and the existing disclosure material.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0048] The present disclosure, in accordance with one or more various implementations, is described in detail with reference to the following drawings. The drawings are provided for purposes of illustration only and merely depict typical or example implementations. TheseAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO drawings are provided to facilitate an understanding of the concepts disclosed herein and should not be considered limiting of the breadth, scope, or applicability of these concepts. It should be noted that for clarity and ease of illustration, these drawings are not necessarily made to scale.

[0049] The novel features of the present disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. Each of the figures disclosed herein is shown in accordance with some implementations of the subject matter of the disclosure. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the present disclosure are utilized, and the accompanying drawings or figures (also “Fig.” and “Figs.” herein), of which:

[0050] Fig. 1 schematically shows components batteries;

[0051] Fig. 2 schematically shows folding schemes, and a current collector;

[0052] Fig. 3 schematically shows energy storage devices (e.g., batteries);

[0053] Fig. 4 schematically shows arrangement of cells;

[0054] Fig. 5 schematically shows arrangement of a set of cells and constraints;

[0055] Fig. 6 schematically shows arrangement of a set of cells and constraints;

[0056] Fig. 7 schematically shows components of energy storage devices (e.g., batteries);

[0057] Fig. 8 schematically shows components of energy storage devices (e.g., batteries);

[0058] Fig. 9 shows a microscopic view of a cathode microstructure having (also some small and) large particles;

[0059] Fig. 10 shows a microscopic view of a cathode microstructure having small particles;

[0060] Fig. 11 shows a microscopic view of a cathode blend microstructure having small and large particles;

[0061] Fig. 12 shows a graph illustrating cell performance based on cathode formulation;

[0062] Fig. 13 shows a graph illustrating cell performance based on cathode formulation;

[0063] Fig. 14 shows a graph illustrating cell performance based on cathode formulation and temperature;

[0064] Fig. 15 shows a graph illustrating cell performance based on cathode formulation and temperature;

[0065] Fig. 16 shows an exploded view of a half-cell;

[0066] Fig. 17 schematically shows a control system; and

[0067] Fig. 18 schematically shows a processing system.

[0068] The figures and components therein may not be drawn to scale. Various components of the figures described herein may not be drawn to scale.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WODETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0069] While various embodiments of the inventions have been shown, and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein might be employed. The various embodiments disclosed herein are combinable, as appropriate.

[0070] Reference throughout the specification to “various embodiments,” “some embodiments,” “one embodiment,” “some example embodiments,” “one example embodiment,” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with any embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, appearances of the phrases “in various embodiments,” “in some embodiments,” “in one embodiment,” “some example embodiments,” “one example embodiment,” or “in an embodiment” in places throughout the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

[0071] Terms such as “a,” “an” and “the” are not intended to refer to only a singular entity but include the general class of which a specific example may be used for illustration. The terminology herein is used to describe specific embodiments in the present disclosure, but their usage does not delimit to the specific embodiments of the present disclosure. The term “includes” means includes but not limited to, the term “including” means including but not limited to, and the term “based on” means based at least in part on.

[0072] An immediately consecutive second feature to a first feature is devoid of another feature disposed therebetween, the features being of the same type. The feature can be a real-life feature, a calculated feature, or any other virtual feature.

[0073] When ranges are mentioned, the ranges are meant to be inclusive, unless otherwise specified. For example, a range between value 1 and value 2 is meant to be inclusive and include value 1 and value 2. The inclusive range will span any value from about value 1 to about value 2. The term “adjacent” or “adjacent to,” as used herein, includes “next to,” “adjoining,” “in contact with,” and “in proximity to.” When ranges are mentioned (e.g., between, at least, at most, and the like) the endpoint(s) of the range is / are also claimed. For example, when the range is from X to Y, the values of X and Y are also claimed. For example, when the range is at most Z, the value of Z is also claimed. For example, when the range is at least W, the value of W is also claimed.

[0074] The conjunction “and / or” as used herein in “X and / or Y” - including in the specification and claims - is meant to include the options (i) X, (ii) Y, and (iii) X and Y, as applicable. TheAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO phrase “including X, and / or Y” is meant to have the same meaning as the phrase “comprising X or Y” under currently prevailing US law.

[0075] The term “operatively coupled,” “operatively configured,” or “operatively connected” refers to a first mechanism that is coupled (or connected) to a second mechanism to allow the intended operation of the second and / or first mechanism. The coupling may comprise physical or non-physical coupling. The non-physical coupling may comprise signal-induced coupling (e.g., wireless coupling).

[0076] The phrase “is / are structured” or “is / are configured,” when modifying an article, refers to a structure of the article that can bring about the referred result.

[0077] The symbol “*” designates the mathematical operation of multiplication, e.g., “times.”

[0078] Fundamental length scale (abbreviated herein as “FLS”) comprises any suitable scale (e.g., dimension) of an object. For example, an FLS of an object may comprise a length, a width, a height, a diameter, a spherical equivalent diameter, a diameter of a bounding circle, a diameter equivalent of a bounding sphere.

[0079] Performing a reversible first operation is understood herein to mean performing the first operation and being capable of performing the opposite operation to that first operation (e.g., which is a second operation). For example, when a controller directs reversibly opening a shutter, that shutter can also close, and the controller can optionally direct a closure of that shutter. For example, when an attractor reversibly binds to a charge carrier, that attractor can also release that charge carrier after its binding.

[0080] While the disclosure refers to a cathode as an electrode, the electrode may be an anode, as applicable.

[0081] While various portions herein may refer for simplicity to a battery as an energy storage device, that disclosure is extended to any another energy storage device, as applicable.

[0082] The conversion factor between PSI and Pascal is as follows, 1 PSI=6894.757 Pascal.

[0083] As noted above, implementations of the present disclosure relate to (e.g., secondary) batteries, the structures that make up the batteries, and the methods and processes for manufacturing the structures and batteries. As used herein, the term “anode” used in the context of a battery may refer to the negative electrode in a battery. “Anode material” or “anodically active” as used herein may refer to a material or materials suitable for use as the negative electrode of a battery. The term “cathode” as used herein in the context of a battery may refer to the positive electrode in a battery. “Cathode material” or “cathodically active” as used herein may refer to a material or materials suitable for use as the positive electrode of a battery.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO

[0084] In some implementations described herein, the term “electrode” may be used to refer to either the anode or the cathode, and the term “counter-electrode” may refer to the other or opposite. For the sake of explanation, implementations may be described in terms of “electrode” and “counter-electrode.” It should be appreciated that in these implementations, the term electrode may be replaced by the term anode while the term counter-electrode may be replaced by the term cathode. Alternatively, in these implementations, the term electrode may be replaced by the term cathode while the term counter-electrode may be replaced by the term anode.

[0085] In some embodiments, a battery cell comprises an electrode (e.g., reference electrode), a counter electrode, separated from each other by a gap, also referred to herein as “a separation space.” The separation space may comprise a separator, e.g., having a material comprising conduits or pores, e.g., micro conduits, or micropores. The pores and / or conduits may be configured to facilitate charge carriers (e.g., ions) to propagate through the separator. The conduits may be channels. Pores of the separator may form the conduit. The battery cell may comprise, or may be coupled with, an insulator such as a dynamic insulator. The battery cell may comprise, or may be coupled with, a dividing space. At least one component may be electrically insulating, e.g., the separator body, the insulator, or at least one component of the dividing space. The dividing space and the separating space may or may not have the same material content.

[0086] The battery includes cathodically active material, e.g., a lithium-ion battery. The cathodically active material may include a cathodically active material including transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, lithium-transition metal oxides, lithium-transition metal sulfides, lithium-transition metal nitrides, any plurality thereof, and / or any combination thereof. The cathodically active material may include transition metal elements of the transition metal oxides, transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, any plurality thereof, and / or any combination thereof. The cathodically active material may include metal elements having a d-shell or f-shell. The cathodically active material may comprise metal element including Sc, Y, lanthanoids, actinoids, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Tc, Re, Fe, Ru, Os, Co, Rh, Ir, Ni, Pb, Pt, Cu, Ag, Au, any plurality thereof, and / or any combination thereof. The cathodically active material may include lithium cobalt oxide (UCOO2), LiNio.5Mn1.5O4, Li(NixCoyAlz)O2, lithium metal phosphate (e.g., lithium iron phosphate, LiFePO4), Li2MnO4, V2O5, molybdenum oxysulfides, phosphates, silicates, vanadates, sulfur, sulfur compounds, oxygen (air), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (Li(NixMnyCoz)O2), any combinations thereof, and / or any plurality thereof.

[0087] The battery includes anodically active material, e.g., a lithium-ion battery. The anodically active material may include silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi), zinc (Zn), aluminum (Al), titanium (Ti), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO cadmium (Cd), any combination thereof, and / or any plurality thereof. The anodically active material may include alloys or intermetallic compounds including Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Ni, Co, Cd, any combination thereof, and / or any plurality thereof. The anodically active material may include alloys, intermetallic compounds. The anodically active material may include oxides, carbides, nitrides, sulfides, phosphides, selenides, tellurides of Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Zn, Al, Ti, Fe, Ni, Co, V, or Cd, any combination thereof, or any plurality thereof. The anodically active material may include mixtures (e.g., containing Lithium), composites (e.g., containing Lithium), any combination thereof, and / or any plurality thereof. The anodically active material may include salts (e.g., of Sn), hydroxides (e.g., of Sn), lithium titanate, lithium manganate, lithium aluminate, lithium-containing titanium oxide, lithium transition metal oxide, ZnCo2O4, particles of graphite, particles of carbon, metal form of the charge carriers (e.g., lithium metal), any combinations thereof, and / or any plurality thereof. The anodically active material may be coated. The coating may comprise stabilized metal form of the charge carrier material (e.g., lithium metal particles). The particulate material may include lithium carbonate-stabilized lithium metal powder, lithium silicate stabilized lithium metal powder, other source of stabilized lithium metal powder or ink, any combination thereof, and / or any plurality thereof.

[0088] Fig. 1 shows in example 100 a schematic representation of a battery cell, the battery cell comprising an electrode 102a - “C” (e.g., a cathode), and an opposing electrode which is a counter electrode 105a - “A” (e.g., an anode). A separator is disposed in separator space 103 - “B.” The battery cell is disposed in a battery having housing 109. The housing can be rigid, or flexible. The housing may include a rigid portion and / or a flexible portion. The battery can optionally have an insulator 104. The insulator may comprise one or more materials comprising a ceramic, a polymer, or a resin. The battery may comprise one or more insulator types. In an example, a polymer may fill a cathode gap, and alumina fills a cathode gap, the gap being from the edge of the cell to its immediately adjacent edge of the case (also herein “casing”). In some embodiments, insulator may comprise a non-electrically conductive material. The ceramic may comprise alumina (AI2O3), zirconia (ZnO2), magnesium oxide (MgO), boron nitride (BN), mullite, boehmite, or silicon carbide (SiC, e.g., in pure form). Under normal conditions during use of the battery, the main current is a load current 106 passing from one electrode to its opposing electrode, and through separation space 103. When volume 104 comprises the insulator, the insulator contacts at least at opposing sides 102b and 102c of electrode 102a and at opposing sides 105b and 105c of counter-electrode 105a.

[0089] Fig. 1 shows in example 110 a schematic representation of a battery cell, the battery cell comprising an electrode 112 - “C” (e.g., a cathode), and an opposing electrode which is a counter electrode 115 - “A” (e.g., an anode). A separator is disposed in separator spaceAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WOThe battery cell is disposed in a battery having housing 111. The separation space extends 121 beyond electrode 112, and extends 122 beyond counter electrode 115, the extension being along a long axis of each of the electrode, the long axis depicted in Fig. 1. The extension can extend longer in the lateral direction. The extension can form the tab. The battery has an insulator 114. Under the normal conditions, load current 116 may be passing through separation space 113.

[0090] In some embodiments, the different extension distances of the components of the cell in the lateral direction form a corrugated (e.g., misaligned) face of the cell, and thus a set of the cells, e.g., as depicted in Fig. 1, 120 for a cell. The cell can comprise at least one uneven side, e.g., as is depicted in Fig. 1 , 120. The uneven (e.g., misaligned) side can create a wavy side of a set of cells.

[0091] Fig. 2 shows in example 250, a schematic vertical cross section of various batteries, showing arrangement and / or folding of battery cells with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system. In example 251, battery cells are arranged parallel to each other. Examples 252-255 show various folding of a sheet comprising one or more battery cells, with 252 showing a zigzag fold, 253 showing a top hat fold, 254 showing a sinusoidal type fold, 255 showing a spiral (e.g., rolling) fold, and 256 an oval or oblong spiral (e.g., rolling) fold. The battery may comprise a battery cell folded in a wound (e.g., jelly roll) configuration having an oblong or cylindrical configuration.

[0092] Fig. 2 shows a schematic example 200 of a current collector in the form of a film or strip. The electrode active material may contact (e.g., be deposited onto) a conductive sheet, e.g., having a thickness of at most about 6 millimeters (mm), 5mm, 2.5mm, 1mm, or 0.5mm. The conductive sheet may be a foil, e.g., having a thickness of at most about 0.4mm, 0.2 mm, or 0.1mm. The current collector may comprise an internal portion, e.g., when assembled in the battery. The internal portion of the current collector contacts the active material of the electrode. The tab may be (e.g., substantially) devoid of the electrode active material. The current collector has a length axis and a width, and a height. The current collector has a face type having a largest surface area, the face type including sections 201, and 202. The current collector has a length 203, a width 204, and a height 205. Section 202 designates the tab of the current collector that will bend upon assembly of the energy storage device - the tab being (e.g., substantially) devoid of an electrode active material, and section 201 designates the planar section of the current collector contacting the electrode active material.

[0093] In some embodiments, one or more cells are disposed within a housing to form the battery. The housing may insulate the battery from one or more reactive agents in the ambient environment external to the battery. The reactive agent(s) may comprise oxygen, water, alcohol, thiol, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, carboxylic acid, or hydrogen sulfide. TheAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO reactive agent(s) may be oxygen based, sulfur based, and / or phosphorous based. The reactive agent(s) may comprise water or oxygen. In an example, the reactive agent(s) comprise water in a liquid and / or vapor form. The water may be in a droplet form. The housing may be configured to insulate the cell(s) from the reactive agent(s) present in the ambient environment external to the battery, e.g., to curtail (e.g., hinder, or prevent) reactive agent(s) from reaching the cell such as including reaching the electrode(s).

[0094] In some embodiments, the battery is a prismatic battery. The prismatic battery may have a height (e.g., Fig. 3, 351) of at least about 1mm, 2mm, 3mm, 5mm, 6mm, or 8 millimeters (mm). The prismatic battery may have a length (e.g., Fig. 3, 352) of at least about 10mm, 50mm, or 100 millimeters (mm).

[0095] Fig. 3 shows schematic perspective view examples of batteries and battery cell architecture therein relative to a Cartesian coordinate system. Example 300 shows a cylindrical battery housing having a length 302 and height 301, which is a diameter. The battery may comprise cell(s) that form a rolled sheet. In example 300, each of the bottom and top faces of the cylinder has a smaller surface area as compared to the side surface of the cylinder - to the curved surface of the cylinder. Example 330 shows a prismatic battery housing that is a rectangular prism, or a cuboid. The battery has length 332, height 331 , and width 333. Battery cells 335 are stacked in the battery along height 331 , and along the Z direction. In example 330, face XY has a larger surface area than face XZ, and face XY has a larger surface area than face YZ. Example 350 shows a prismatic battery housing that is a rectangular prism, or a cuboid. The battery has length 352, height 351, and width 353. Battery cells 355 are stacked in the battery along length 352, and along the X direction. In example 350, face XY has a larger surface area than face XZ, and face XY has a larger surface area than face YZ.

[0096] In some embodiments, the cell is arranged (e.g., substantially) perpendicular to the face of a prismatic (e.g., cuboid) battery having the largest surface area. At times, the largest surface area face of the anode, the separation space, the separator, the cathode, and / or the dividing space, is disposed (e.g., substantially) normal to the face of the battery having the largest surface area. Fig. 3, 350 shows an example of battery cells, disposed normal to the XY face of the battery, which XY face has the largest surface area among the battery’s faces. The surface area of the cell, in example 350, is at most the surface area of YZ face of the battery, or smaller. Cells arranged normal to the largest surface area face of the battery in which they are disposed (e.g., Fig. 3, 350), have a larger combined cell side (e.g., edge) surface area, as compared to (a) cells arranged parallel to the largest surface area face of the battery in which they are disposed (e.g., Fig. 3, 330) and / or to (b) cylindrical battery such as a wound cell (e.g., jelly roll) battery (e.g., Fig. 3, 300). In some embodiments, the greater the combined side (e.g., edge) surface area of the cells, the greater the residual current roleAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO is in the total current of the battery. When the cell comprises at least one uneven side, e.g., as is depicted in Fig. 1, 120, the uneven (e.g., misaligned) side creates a wavy side of a set of cells. The wavy side may or may not contribute to the amount of residual current passing between an anode and a cathode of a cell, e.g., through the insulator.

[0097] In some embodiments, the battery comprises battery cells. The battery cells may be stacked along an axis. A dividing space may be disposed between every two immediately adjacent cells such that a first cell contacts the first face of the dividing space, and a second cell contacts a second face of the dividing space opposing its first space. The dividing space may comprise an insulator, e.g., any insulator disclosed herein. The insulator may or may not comprise the dynamic insulator. The dividing space may be configured to electrically separate one cell from another. The battery stacks may follow a pattern, the pattern may comprise a sequence. The sequence may comprise an arrangement of components of the battery cell with respect to each other. The sequence may comprise an anode, a separation space, a cathode, and a dividing space. The sequence may follow a CBAS pattern, or a CBASABCS pattern, with “C” designating a cathode, “B” designating a separation space, “A” designating an anode, “S” designating the dividing space, and “E” designates an end plate, e.g., see Fig. 4. The battery cells may be stacked in one or more groups. The separation space may comprise two opposing faces. A face of the separation space contacting the anode, and an opposing face contacting the cathode. The cell may comprise components comprising an anode, a cathode, a separation space, and an optional dividing space. The dividing space may comprise the same type of material as the separation space. The dividing space and the separation space may be (e.g., substantially) the same. The components of the cell may be disposed along an axis. The components of the cell may be (e.g., substantially) symmetrically arranged along the axis, e.g., in mirror symmetry, the mirror plane running along the axis, and / or in a rotational symmetry, the rotational axis running along the cell stacking axis (e.g., parallel to axis 490 in Fig. 4). At least two components of the cell may extend in a direction (e.g., substantially) perpendicular to the cell stacking axis at a (e.g., substantially) same distance. At least two components of the cell may extend in a direction (e.g., substantially) perpendicular to the cell stacking axis (e.g., laterally) at a different distance from that axis. The different distance extension of the components can form a corrugated (e.g., misaligned) face of the cell, and of the set of cells, e.g., as depicted in Fig. 1 , 120. See also sides (e.g., edges) of cell sets in Fig. 4, 400, and 450. In an example, the cathode extends less than the anode, the extension being in a direction perpendicular to the cell stacking axis. In an example, the separation space extends more than the anode and / or more than the cathode, the extension being in a direction perpendicular to the cell stacking axis.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO

[0098] Fig. 4 shows a schematic cross-sectional example 400 of a battery comprising cathode 402, anode 405, separation space 406, and dividing space 407. The battery cells are disposed in volume 404 of the battery that can include an insulator such as a dynamic insulator. The battery cells are stacked along an axis (e.g., substantially) parallel to 490, in a repeating CBAS arrangement. Each anode “A” in the battery is operatively coupled (e.g., connected) with a current collector such as 413, the anode current collectors being coupled in parallel to a main anode current collector 414, ending with cathode contact 411. Each cathode “C” in the battery is operatively coupled (e.g., connected) with a current collector such as 416, the anode current collectors being coupled in parallel to a main cathode current collector 417, ending with anode contact 412.

[0099] Fig. 4 shows a schematic cross-sectional example 450 of a battery comprising cathode 452, anode 455, separation space 456, and dividing space 457. The battery cells are disposed in volume 454 of the battery that can include an insulator such as a dynamic insulator. The battery cells are stacked along an axis parallel to 490, in a repeating CBASABCS arrangement. Each anode “A” in the battery is operatively coupled (e.g., connected) with a current collector such as 463, the anode current collectors being coupled in parallel to a main anode current collector 464, ending with cathode contact 461. Each cathode “C” in the battery is operatively coupled (e.g., connected) with a current collector such as 466, the anode current collectors being coupled in parallel to a main cathode current collector 467, ending with anode contact 462. In Fig. 4, the main cathode current collector is disposed on a different face of the set of cells as the main anode current collector, which is the opposing face.

[0100] In some embodiments, the battery comprises main current collectors, e.g., as disclosed herein. The main current collectors may or may not contact the insulator covering the edges of the cells. In the example shown in Fig. 4, 400, the main current collectors 417 and 414, are separated from the insulator 404 by a gap. In the example shown in 400, the main current collectors 417 and 414 contact the insulator 404.

[0101] In some embodiments, an end plate is disposed at a distal end of a cell set, e.g., at opposing distal ends of the set of cells and along the cell’s stacking axis (e.g., parallel to Fig. 4, 490). Fig. 4, 400 shows an example of two opposing end plates disposed at both distal ends of a set of stacked cells, the end plates designed by “E,” the end plate 420 contacting the insulator at its opposing lateral ends. Fig. 4, 450 shows an example of two opposing end plates disposed at both distal ends of a set of stacked cells, the end plates designed by “E,” the end plate is devoid of the insulator at its two opposing lateral ends - normal to stacking axis parallel to 490.

[0102] In some embodiments, electrode active material mass (e.g., layer) is disposed on the electrode’s current collector. The mass active material mass may contact a surface of at oneAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO side (e.g., planar side and / or lateral side) the current collector facing a respective counter electrode to the electrode. The mass active material mass may contact surfaces of opposing sides of the current collector, at least one of the surfaces facing its respective counter electrode to the electrode. Each of the opposing surfaces of the current collector may face its respective counter electrode.

[0103] In some embodiments, an energy storage device such as a battery, comprises a plurality of cells. Each of the cells comprises an anode separated by a gap from a cathode. The gap may comprise a separator. The cell may comprise one or more electrolyte types. Each of the electrodes (e.g., anode and cathode) comprises a current collector, e.g., a strip, a foil, or a film, of conductive material on which the active electrode material is disposed of. The conductive material may comprise an elemental metal, a metal alloy, or an allotrope of elemental metal. The current collector may comprise aluminum, nickel, cobalt, titanium, or tungsten. The current collector may comprise porosity, or may be (e.g., substantially) devoid of porosity. The current collector may comprise a flexible material, e.g., including a polymer and / or a resin. In an example, the elemental metal comprises aluminum or copper. In an example, the metal alloy may comprise stainless steel. In an example, the allotrope of elemental metal may comprise carbon nanotubes, or carbon fibers. The tubular structures (e.g., nanotubes) may comprise nestled tubes, e.g., at least about 2, 3, 4, or more nestled tubes. The carbon fibers may be weaved, randomly dispersed, or any combination thereof. The strip of conductive material may or may not comprise a composite material. At least two cells in the energy storage device (e.g., battery) may be stacked in a direction (e.g., substantially) normal to their face having the largest surface area. The electrode has an electrode face having the largest surface area, and the counter-electrode has a counterelectrode face having the largest surface area. In some embodiments, there is a difference in a volume of the cell between a state of charge and a state of discharge of an electrode of the cell. The volume of the cell may repeatedly and / or reversibly alter between the state of charge and the state of discharge repeatedly. The reversible discharge may not be completely reversible, e.g., there may be an attrition in the properties of one or more components of the cell during a cycle of charge / discharge. The repeated cycling between the state of charge / discharge may comprise at least about 200 cycles, 500 cycles, 800 cycles, 1000 cycles, 1200 cycles, or 1500 cycles. In some embodiments, there is a difference in a volume of the cell between a state of charge and a state of discharge of an electrode of the cell. The change in volume may comprise a change in at most about 20*, 25*, 50*, 100*, 200*, 300*, or 400* of an initial volume of the cell. The change in volume may comprise a change in at least about 10*, 25*, 50*, 100*, 200*, or 300* of an initial volume of the cell. The change in volume may comprise a change in any of the forementioned values, e.g., from about 10* to about 400*, from about 100* to about 400*, or from about 20* toAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO about 200*. The change in volume may be spatially anisotropic, and / or may cause spatially anisotropic expansion of the cell(s).

[0104] The energy storage device may comprise at least one constraint (e.g., a brace, or a harness). The constraint may be configured to (e.g., substantially) maintain constant dimensions and / or volume of the device during the charge / discharge operations. The constraint may be configured to maintain internal pressure in the device, e.g., during the charge / discharge operations. The internal overpressure in the device may be at most about 100PSI, 150PSI, 200PSI, 500PSI, 1000 PSI, 1300 PSI, 1400 PSI, 1500 PSI, 2000 PSI, 3000 PSI, 5000PSI, or 10000PSI. The internal overpressure in the device may be at most about 50 PSI, 100PSI, 150PSI, 200PSI, 500PSI, 1000 PSI, 1300 PSI, 1400 PSI, 1500 PSI, 2000 PSI, 3000 PSI, or 5000PSI. The internal overpressure in the device may be between the above referenced pressures, e.g., from about 50PSI to about 10000 PSI, from about 50PSI to about 500PSI, or from about 50PSI to about 2000PSI, from about 1000 PSI to about 1500 PSI, or from about 100PSI to about 3000PSI. The maximal pressure in the battery may depend at least in part on the chemistry processes occurring in the battery, e.g., during forming (e.g., manufacturing), buffering, storing, shipping, maintaining, testing, using the device at its normal operation conditions (e.g., per specification), or any combination thereof. The internal overpressure in the device may be greater than the ambient pressure external to the device, e.g., above 14.6 PSI. The device (e.g., battery) can withstand a pressure difference of at most about 20PSI, 50PSI, 70PSI, 100 PSI, or 150 PSI. The device can withstand a pressure difference between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 20 PSI to about 150 PSI. In some embodiments, the energy storage device has a face type having the largest surface area among its face types. The face a face type having the largest surface area may deform (e.g., bend) during the, or as a consequence of, the overpressure phase. The face type having the largest surface area may (e.g., substantially) reversibly deform during the life of the device. Substantial reversal of the face’s deformation may be within the specification and / or intended use of the device. In some embodiments, the device (e.g., battery) undergoes pre-loading with charge carriers (also referred to herein as “buffering”), e.g., pre-lithiation. The pressure in the battery may increase more in the buffering process, as compared to normal use following the buffering process. Normal use may be according to the specification and / or request of the user, as pertaining to the energy storage device, to the cell, to the battery, or to any combination thereof. The higher pressure in the battery during the pre-loading process, may be higher by at least about 2*, 5*, 10*, 50*, 100*, 200*, 300*, or 500*, as compared to a pressure during normal operation of the battery. During pre-loading process, the pressure in the device (e.g., battery) may be at least about 50PSI, 100PSI, or 150 PSI. During pre-loading process, the pressure in the deviceAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO may be at most about 70PSI, 100PSI, 150 PSI, or 200 PSI. In an example, during pre- loading process, the pressure in the device is about 100 PSI.

[0105] In some embodiments, cycling of the cell may cause deterioration in one or more properties of the cell. The property / ties may include (a) cracking such as in the electrode active material mass, (b) separation (e.g., peeling) such as of the electrode active material mass from its respective current collector, (c) separation of the separator from one or more of its otherwise contacting electrode active material mass, (d) separation of the insulator from the cell, (e) deformation of any constraint, (e) exposure of the interior content of the energy storage device (e.g., battery) to the ambient environment such as due damaging its insulation such as pouch, (f) any plurality thereof, or (g) any combination thereof. The energy storage device disclosed herein is configured to curtain, minimize and / or prevent, deterioration of the above property / ies. In an example, materials such as binder(s), components, and / or architecture, is selected to curtail the possible deteriorations disclosed herein.

[0106] Fig. 5 shows in example 500 an exploded view of a pair of constraints 501a and 501 b encasing a set (e.g., a population) of stacked battery cells 502. Example 550 shows an exploded view in which the two constraints 501 a-b are closer to the stacked cell set 502. Fig. 5 is shown with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system. Each of the constraints may curb expansion of the battery cells during charge and / or discharge. Curbing the expansion may or may not be anisotropic. In the example shown in Fig. 5, the constraint can deter expansion of the cells anisotropically along the Y axis.

[0107] Fig. 6 shows in example 600 a lateral portion of three cells, each comprising an electrode such as 601 , a counter electrode such as 603, and a separator 602 disposed between each immediately adjacent pair of electrode and counter electrode. In example 600, the electrode (e.g., 601) extends less than the counter electrode 603 to the lateral edge 604 of the stacked cells, with the separator extending more towards the edge than the electrode, and then the counter-electrode, e.g., thus forming a corrugated, or wavey, lateral edge 604. Example 630 shows a stack of cells, e.g., in which the cells are horizontally stacked. The stacking axis of the cells may be parallel to a face of the cell having the largest surface area, e.g., of a prismatic battery.

[0108] Example 650 shows a set of stacked cells 651 enclosed by two opposing casings 652a and 652b. Current collectors of the stacked cells are coupled with connectors 653a and 653b. 653a connect to the electrodes of the set of cells, and 653b connects to the counterelectrodes of the set of cells. The cells enclosed by the casings (e.g., housing or case), are further secured by a flexible material 655, e.g., a band. The flexible material may comprise a polymer or a resin. The flexible material may be an electrical insulator. The casing may comprise one or more openings. In the example of Fig. 6, casing 652a includes oblongAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO openings, e.g., that are evenly spaced along the X direction. Fig. 6 is shown with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system.

[0109] As discussed herein, the inventions (e.g., systems and / or methods) are disclosed herein for a (e.g., secondary) battery, e.g., (a) that maintains low temperature performance with reduced cathode loading and / or (b) a modified cathode particle size composition. A lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) cathode structure having a mixture of particle sizes can (using smaller particles mixed with larger particles) allow for acceptable low temperature performance (e.g., as disclosed herein) and / or high-rate performance at room temperature and enable fast charging. The fast charging may be at least about 3C in at most about 5 minutes, e.g., to at least about 25% state of charge (SOC). The cathode may include an electronic conductive material (e.g., LCO), amorphous carbon, and / or a binder, or a plurality of any thereof. The amorphous carbon may be carbon black, e.g., acetylene black, furnace black, lamp black, thermal black, aerosol black, or any other amorphous carbon suitable for use in the energy storage device, e.g., compatible with its chemistry and / or intended normal use. The binder may comprise a polymer or a resin. The binder may be configured to resist acids, bases, solvents and / or hydrocarbons, the binder may have a melting point above 150C. The binder may have low water absorption. The material utilized in the energy storage device may be configured for its normal operation. The binder may comprise polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), siloxane- based binder, fluoroelastomers such as fluonox FKM, other fluoropolymers (e.g., NEOFLON PFA), or any combination thereof.

[0110] Fig. 7 shows an example of cross sections of various batteries with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system. Example 700 shows battery cells such as cell 702 stacked in a direction normal to the z axis, the battery having housing 701. During a charge and discharge cycle, the battery expands and contracts. The expansion creates a force in the battery in a direction perpendicular to the stacking direction of the cells and towards the edges of the battery, e.g., along arrows 703. One or more constraints may be added to the battery to curb such expansion, e.g., anisotropic constraint configured to deter expansion in the direction of 703. The contraction and expansion may cause pressure buildup on the battery. Heat may be exerted during the charge and discharge cycles, e.g., in interior of stack 704. The heat may be dissipated from the battery along arrows 703, e.g., thus increasing the safety of the battery such as by curtailing a runaway reaction. The pressure may be exerted on the housing of the battery (e.g., also) along arrows 703, e.g., thus increasing the pressure (e.g., anisotropically) on the casing.

[0111] Example 750 shows battery cell 752 rolled upon itself about an axis normal to the drawing page, e.g., in a wound cell (e.g., jelly roll) type configuration. Battery cell 752 is disposed (e.g. located) in battery housing 751. During a charge and discharge cycle, theAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO battery expands and contracts. The expansion creates a force in the battery in a direction perpendicular to the stacking direction of the cells and towards the edges of the battery, e.g., along arrows 753. One or more constraints may be added to the battery to curb such expansion, e.g., constraint configured to anisotropically deter expansion in the direction of 753. The contraction and expansion may cause pressure buildup on the battery. Heat may be exerted during the charge and discharge cycles, e.g., in interior of stack 754. The heat may be dissipated from the battery along arrows 753, e.g., thus increasing the safety of the battery such as by curtailing a runaway reaction. The stacked cell arrangement shown in example 700 may have a better thermal conductivity as compared to the rolled battery configuration shown in 750. The pressure may be exerted on the housing of the battery (e.g., also) along arrows 753, e.g., thus increasing the pressure (e.g., anisotropically) on the casing.

[0112] In some embodiments, the contraction and expansion of the cell may cause irreversible damage to the cell, e.g., mechanical and / or chemical change.

[0113] Fig. 8 schematically shows a cause for the expansion and contraction of a cell during charge and discharge states. Example 800 shows an anode discharge state. Anode active material such as 801 is separated from cathode active material such as 802 by a gap in which separator 803 is disposed. The separator has a perforation (e.g., conduit such as a pinhole) through which charge carriers can transverse from one electrode to its counter electrode. Example 830 shows an anode charged state. Anode active material such as 831 is separated from cathode active material such as 832 by a gap in which separator 833 is disposed. As compared to the anode discharged state shown in example 800, the anode active material is inflated, e.g., expanded. The cathode active material is depicted as occupying (e.g., substantially) the same volume between the charged and discharged state.

[0114] An anode may comprise a material intercalating the charge carriers. The material of the anode may include silicon and / or an allotrope of elemental carbon. The allotrope of elemental carbon may be any of the ones disclosed herein, e.g., active carbon, graphite, carbon fiber, carbon nanotube, amorphous carbon, and / or a fullerene. The tubular structures may comprise nested tubes, e.g., at least 2, or 3 nested tubes. The carbon fibers may be weaved, aligned (e.g., in parallel and / or at an angle relative to each other), randomly situated, or any combination thereof, as applicable. The anode may be a 100% silicon - carbon anode. The anode may comprise particulate material. The anode may comprise a carbon scaffold on which silicon is deposited (e.g., layer of silicon). An exposed surface of the silicon may be coated by the, or by at least one other, of the allotropes of elemental carbon. The carbon may comprise black carbon. The carbon may include hard carbon and / or soft carbon. The carbon-silicon structure may comprise successive layers and / or scaffold. The carbon may comprise a particulate material. The particulate material may serveAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO as a base for deposition of the one or mor layers. The particulate material may or may not include crevices. The one or more layers may be deposited onto an exposed surface of the crevices. A silicon anode may hold more charge carriers (e.g., lithium) per mass as compared to graphite, e.g., at least about 5*, 10*, or 15* more charge carriers, e.g., for a traditional battery such as in Fig. 7, 750. A silicon anode may have a higher charge rate as compared to graphite, e.g., at least about 1.25*, 1.5*, 2*, or 5* higher charge rate, e.g., for a traditional battery such as in Fig. 7, 750. Per kilowatt hour, silicon may be cheaper than graphite. The silicon anode may expand more than graphite during (e.g., normal) charging. Using a traditional graphite anode (e.g., jelly roll battery such as in Fig. 7, 750), a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may comprise a change in at most about 20%, or 25%. Using the traditional graphite anode, a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may comprise a change in at least about 5%, 10%, or 20%. Using the traditional graphite anode, a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may be between any of the forementioned percentage values, e.g., from about 5% to about 25%, or from about 5% to about 20%. Using a traditional silicon anode (e.g., jelly roll battery such as in Fig. 7, 750), a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may comprise a change in at most about 70%, 100%, 200%, 300%, 400%, or 500%. Using the traditional silicon anode, a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may comprise a change in at least about 50%, 100%, 200%, or 250% of an initial volume of the cell. Using a silicon anode, a change in volume of the anode from a discharged state to a charged state, may be between any of the forementioned percentage values, e.g., from about 50% to about 400%, or from about 200% to about 500%. In some embodiments, the battery cell set is disposed in an orthogonal stacked configuration, e.g., Fig. 3, 350. In some embodiments, when the anode comprises silicon, in the orthogonally stacked battery cell architecture (e.g., Figs. 5-6), the expansion of the cells in the battery is smaller as compared to a traditional battery (e.g., Fig. 7, 750)

[0115] In some embodiments, the battery is capable of charging. The charging may be at most about 3C, 2C, 1 C, 0.5C, 0.25C, 0.2C, 0.15C, or 0.1C. The charging may be between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 3C to about 0.5C, or from about 1C to about 0.1C. The battery may be configured for (e.g., high energy and / or consumer) electronic applications comprising mobile devices, electrical vehicles, or a guided device. The vehicles may comprise a car, a truck, a plane, or a drone. The mobile device may comprise controllable devices. The mobile device may comprise a wearable, cellular phone, remote controller, console, laptop, tablet, pen, military device, or a medical device. The medical device may comprise an electric shocker. The electric shocker may comprise a defibrillator, electroconvulsive therapy device, or electrical stimulation device. The guidedAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO device may comprise a robot, or a propelled vehicle such as a drone. The guided device may be guided in the atmosphere, in the water, and / or on the ground. The guided device may be guided to cross of one or more layers of earth’s atmosphere. The guided device may be guided to propel in one or more layers of earth’s atmosphere. The battery may include the charging capability (e.g., of 3C) for at least about 5min., or 10min. The battery may include the charging capability may be at least about 25%, or 35% state of charge (SOC). As compared to a graphite anode containing battery, a silicon anode containing battery may maintain at least about twice the open circuit voltage (OCV) headroom - the voltage margin between the battery’s OCV at a given SOC, and its maximum allowable voltage.

[0116] In some examples, the battery is disposed in a pouch. The pouch may insulate the battery content (e.g., the cell therein) from one or more reactive agent in the ambient environment external to the pouch. The pouch may enclosure the battery case, and the cell(s) housed therein. The pouch may comprise one or more layers. The one or more layers may include a material comprising a polymer, a resin, an elemental metal (e.g., strip, film, foil, and / or powder thereof), or a metal alloy (e.g., strip, film, foil, and / or powder thereof). The one or more layers may include one or more of these materials. The pouch may have an external surface having a color comprising black, silver, or white.

[0117] In some embodiments, the anode comprising silicon is thinner than an anode comprising graphite, e.g., has a smaller height. The anode height may be at most about 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 65%, 75%, or 80%, height (i.e. , thickness) of a graphite anode for a for a given loading of anode active material. The anode height may be at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 65%, or 70%, height (i.e., thickness) of a graphite anode for a for a given loading of anode active material. As compared to a graphite anode for a for a given loading of anode active material, the anode height may be between any of the aforementioned percentages, e.g., from about 10%, to about 70%, or from about 30% to about 70%. In an example, the height difference in graphite anode vs. silicon anode when discharged is 35%. In an example, the height difference in graphite anode vs. silicon anode is anode is 65% of the size of the graphite anode for a given loading, when each of the anodes is fully formed. A thinner anode may allow for better current distribution through the electrode and / or lower likelihood of charge carrier plating such as lithium plating.

[0118] In some embodiments, the cell undergoes pre-loading with charge carriers, e.g., before regular use. The pre-loading may comprise “pre-lithiation.” The pre-loading (e.g., buffering) may be performed during manufacturing and / or before providing the battery for its intended use. The pre-loading may facilitate insertion of additional charge carriers for a charge carrier source such as a lithium source, into the electrode(s) of the battery such as into the anode(s). The electrode may be a vertically short electrode. The pre-loading may replenish (e.g., irreversible) loss of the charge carriers during formation of the battery, e.g.,Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO to increase (a) efficiency of the first cycle and / or (b) cell capacity. The pre-loading may result in a reservoir of the charge carriers within the cell, and / or smaller cycled voltage window. The pre-loading may improve current distribution, e.g., during fast charge. The pre-loading may improve the cycle life of the battery.

[0119] Fig. 8 shows in example 860, charge carrier (e.g., Lithium) source 801 located immediately adjacent to an edge of a set of cells in battery 802. Due to the cell’s arrangement having their stacking direction along the Y axis, and their edges pointing towards opposing sides along the X direction, it may be impractical to diffuse the charge carriers along the stacking axis, e.g., due to longer and / or inhomogeneous diffusion. In this cell set configuration, it may be more beneficial to allow the charge carriers to diffuse from one or both opposing side along the X axis. The example in Fig. 8 is depicted with respect to a Cartesian coordinate system. The stacked cells may span tenths of millimeters in the stacking direction, e.g., at least about 10, 50, or 100 millimeters. The cells may span a length along the X axis of at least about 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, or 8 millimeters. The cells may span a length along the X axis of at most about 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, or 10 millimeters.

[0120] In some embodiments, the energy storage device is configured for an increased energy density, increased rate capability, and reduced internal resistance. For a given particle size distribution of active electrode material, the thinner the electrode’s (e.g., cathode’s) thickness, (a) the lower the energy density, (b) the higher the rate capability, (c) the lower the resistance, or (d) any combination thereof. The higher energy density combined with high-rate capability, may be achieved utilizing multimodal (e.g., bimodal) size distribution of electrode (e.g., cathode), with higher being relative to a respective electrode having an active material of a single size distribution particles.

[0121] In some embodiments, a mass of electrode active material may contact a current collector of the electrode. In some embodiments, it is beneficial to maximize the energy density (ED) of a cell. For this purpose, it may be beneficial to keep the cathode as thick as possible. Such thickness may be constrained, e.g., by the architecture of the battery, and / or by the fabrication process of the cell and / or by the fabrication of the cell. The fabrication may comprise one or more coating processes comprising size limitations imposed on the mass of active material. It may be beneficial to maximize the conduction rate of the cell. These limitations and requests may limit the size of the mass of active material contacting its current collector. The current collector may be configured to conduct electricity, e.g., may be a good electrical conductor. The current collector may comprise an elemental metal, or metal alloy. In an example, the electrode current collector may comprise copper or aluminum. The current collector may comprise a sheet, a foil, film, leaf, layer, or a strip. The current collector may have a thickness of at most about 8 pm, 10 pm, 15 pm, 20 pm, or 30 pm. The current collector may have a thickness between any of the aforementioned thicknesses, e.g., fromAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO about 8 m to about 30 pm, or from about 10 pm to about 20 pm. The electrode (e.g., anode) active material mass may have a thickness of at most 20 pm, 30 pm, 45 pm, 50 pm, 80 pm, or 100 pm. The electrode active material mass may have a thickness between any of the aforementioned thicknesses, e.g., from about 20 pm to about 100 pm, from about 40 pm to about 50 pm, or from about 30 pm to about 60 pm. The counter-electrode (e.g., cathode) active material mass may have a thickness of at most 30 pm, 45 pm, 50 pm, 55 pm, 80 pm, or 100 pm. The charge carrier may have a thickness between any of the aforementioned thicknesses, e.g., from about 30 pm to about 100 pm, from about 60 pm to about 80 pm, or from about 50 pm to about 70 pm. A proportion between a thickness of the electrode active material mass and the counter-electrode active material mass may be at most about 1:1, 1.1 :1, 1.2:1, 1.3:1, 1.5:1, or 2:1. A proportion between a thickness of the electrode active material mass and the counter-electrode active material mass may be between any of the aforementioned ratio, e.g., from about 1:1 to about 2:1, or from about 1:1 to about 1.5:1. The proportion may be in non-expanded state of the anode, or in an expanded state of the anode.

[0122] In some embodiments, an electrode active material mass contacts a current collector of a cell. The active material comprises particulate material. The particulate material has a packing density. When the particulate material has one FLS size distribution - one FLS mode, a packing of the particulate material may form an inter particle space not fillable by the particulate material in a given space. When the particles are non-flexible under normal use conditions, the larger the particles, the worse their packing density will be, and the larger their inter-particle space will be. The thickness of the electrode layer should be at least about 2*, 2.5*, 3*, or 4* the FLS of the larger particles. A denser packing of the particulate material in the given space may be achieved at least in part by using several FLS sized distributions of particles - multimode FLS such as bimodal FLS. In an example, in addition to the one FLS mode, another FLS mode having a smaller average FLS, may be configured to occupy a portion of the inter-particle space of the one FLS mode, leaving a spaller portion of unoccupied space. A multimodal FLS approach beyond the two modes may further reduce the space not occupied by the electrode active material. The multimode approach may be configured to (a) minimize the absence of electrode active material in the inter particle space, (b) increase the surface area of the electrode active material for the charge carries to bind to, (c) enhance the energy density of the cell, (d) keep the rate capacity of the cell high, (e) (e.g., substantially) maintain or increase the life cycle of the cell, or (f) any combination thereof.

[0123] In some embodiments, an electrode active material mass contacts a current collector of a cell. The electrode active material mass comprises at least one particulate material having a FLS. The electrode active material mass may comprise particulate material havingAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO markedly different FLSs, the FLSs having distinctly (e.g., measurably) median size distributions. The median size distribution of FLS is abbreviated herein as “FLS Dso”, e.g., including a first FLS Dso and a second FLS Dso. The first FLS Dso can be at least about 9 micrometers (pm), 10 pm, 12 pm, 15 pm, 20 pm, 40 pm, 50 pm, 60 pm, or 70 pm. The first FLS Dso can be at most about 30 pm, 40 pm, 50 pm, 60 pm, or 80 pm. The first FLS Dso can be between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 9 pm to about 80 pm, from about 10 pm to about 15 pm, or from about 40 pm to about 70 pm. The second FLS Dso can be at least about 0.5 micrometers (pm), 2.5 pm, 5 pm, 8 pm, 9 pm, 10 pm, 12 pm, 15 pm, or 17 pm. The second FLS Dso can be at most about 5 pm, 8 pm, 10 pm, 12 pm, 15 pm, or 19 pm. The second FLS Dso can be between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 0.5 pm to about 19 pm, from about 0.5 pm to about 2 pm, from about 2 pm to about 8 pm, or from about 5 pm to about 10 pm. The FLS D50 of the first size distribution can be in the micrometer range, and below 1 pm. The FLS D50 of the second size distribution can be in the nanoscale (nm) range, and below 1 nm. A size proportion of one FLS Dso to an immediately consecutive smaller FLS Dso can be at least about 1.5: 1 , 2: 1 , 3: 1 , 4: 1 , 5: 1 , 8: 1 , or 10:1. A size proportion of the one FLS Dso to its immediately consecutive FLS Dso can be between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 1.5:1 to about 10:1 , from about 3:1 to about 8:1 , or from about 4:1 to about 5:1. In an example, the one FLS Dso is of the first size distribution, and the immediately consecutive FLS Dso is of the second size distribution. The first size distribution and the second size distribution can be of (e.g., substantially) the same material type and / or mixture. The first size distribution and the second size distribution can be of different material type and / or mixture. The material type and / or the mixture of material types, may comprise at least one electrode active material such as any of the ones disclosed herein. A relative amount of one FLS Dso to an immediately consecutive smaller FLS Dso can be at least about 1 :1 , 1.5:1 , 2:1 , 3:1 , 4:1 , 5:1 , 8:1 , or 10:1. An amount ratio of the one FLS Dso to its immediately consecutive FLS Dso can be between any of the aforementioned values, e.g., from about 1 :1 to about 10:1 , from about 1 :1 to about 4:1 , or from about 1 :1 to about 8:1. In an example, the one Dso is of the first size distribution, and the immediately consecutive Dso is of the second size distribution. The amount may be measured by weight or by volume. The one (e.g., first) FLS Dso material can be at most about 95%, 90%, 80%, 75%, 60%, 50%, 25%, or 20% of the immediately consecutive (e.g., second) FLS Dso material. The one (e.g., first) FLS Dso material can be at least about 90%, 80%, 75%, 60%, 50%, 25%, 20, 15%, 10%, or 5%, of the immediately consecutive (e.g., second) FLS Dso material. Relative to the immediately consecutive (e.g., second) FLS Dso material, the one (e.g., first) FLS Dso material can be between any of the aforementioned percentages, e.g., from about 95% to about 5%, from about 60% to about 25 %, from about 50% to about 15 %, from about 60% to about 5 %, from about 70% to about 10 %, or fromAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO about 80% to about 20%. There may be a plurality of FLS Dso groups, e.g., at least about 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups of discernable (e.g., measurable) size distributions. In a FLS mode, the particle FLS distribution can be a gaussian distribution. The average particle size (Dso) may be measured using a laser diffraction method.

[0124] Examples Figs. 9-11 illustrate microscopic views of various cathode microstructures having varying particle sizes. For example, Fig. 9 illustrates a cathode microstructure having small, or fine FLS (e.g., having a FLS of at most about 5 pm) and large FLS (e.g., having a FLS of at least about 20 pm) particles of LCO. While the sample shown in Fig. 9 contains small particles, they may be of a monomodal size distribution (e.g., having a gaussian shape) in which some small particles are included as part of the size distribution. Fig. 10 illustrates a cathode microstructure having monotonic particle size of at most about 5 pm of LCO. The systems and methods described herein allow for mixing small particles with large ones during slurry making to provide a homogeneous mixture of multi-modal particle size distribution in the cathode structure. For example, Fig. 11 illustrates a cathode blend microstructure having (A) small - fine (e.g., having a FLS of at most about 5 pm) and (B) large (e.g., having a FLS of at least about 20 pm) particles of LCO, the blend created by blending 75% of sample from Fig. 9 for the larger FLS population with 25% of sample of Fig. 10 for the smaller FLS population. In some embodiments, the cathode blend microstructure of Fig. 11 is comprised of more fine particles than the cathode microstructure of Fig. 9, but less than the cathode microstructure of Fig. 10. For example, in some embodiments, the cathode blend microstructure is comprised of around 90% the smaller FLS (fine) particles (e.g., having a FLS of at most about 5 pm).

[0125] The graphs shown in Figs. 12-16 depict relative percentages of larger FLS vs. smaller FLS. The percentage value of the smaller particle FLS particle population being of Fig. 10, and the percentage value of the larger FLS particle population being of Fig. 9.

[0126] Fig. 12 shows an example graph illustrating cell performance based on a bimodal FLS cathode formulation vs. monomodal FLS cathode formulation. The data pertaining to the monomodal FLS electrode formulation is shown in 1201 a-c, and the data re multimodal (here, bimodal) FLS electrode formulation is shown in 1202a-c. The monomodal FLS sample and the bimodal FLS sample comprised LCO. The bimodal formulation comprised 75% larger FLS of Fig. 9 and 25% smaller FLS of Fig. 10, the percentage being weight by weight. The cell types included the same electrolyte type (E1), and the same charge carrier type - lithium cation. Electrolyte E1 comprised about 1.3M lithium hexaphosphate (LiPFs), about 0.1M lithium tetrafluoroborate (UBF4), about 4 wt% ethyl propionate (EC), about 20 wt% propyl Carbonate (PC), about 60 wt% ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), about 10 wt% fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), about 1 wt% vinylene carbonate (VC), and about 1 wt% adiponitrile (AN). For example, a cell performance is illustrated for a cell having cathodeAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO microstructure particles shown in Fig. 11, and another cell having cathode microstructure particles similar to Fig. 9.

[0127] As shown in the example of Fig. 12, (a), at room temperature of 25°C, there were minimal (e.g., substantially no) observable difference in discharge rate performance. However, as shown in the example of Fig. 12, (b) and (c), at -20 °C, the performance of the blended cathode microstructure surpassed the performance of the monomodal (e.g., baseline) cathode microstructure. As shown in Fig. 12, (b) at -20 °C, the discharge rate of the bimodal cathode microstructure was lower than the discharge rate performance of the monomodal cathode microstructure. As shown in Fig. 12, (c) at -20 °C, the retained capacity fraction of the bimodal cathode microstructure was lower than the discharge rate performance of the monomodal cathode microstructure.

[0128] More specifically, Fig. 12(a) shows the cells capacity increases by increasing the cathode loading at 25°C for both pure and mixed cathodes. No significant capacity increase is observed by 25 wt% small cathode particle size addition at 25°C, suggesting that the addition of 25 wt% high-rate small particles may not significantly impact the room temperature performance of the cells. As shown in Fig. 12(b), by reducing the operating temperature to -20°C, the constant power discharge capacity of the mixed cathode is significantly higher than that of the pure cathode. The results confirm that the addition of 25 wt% high-rate small particle 10 size LCO, would significantly improve the low temperature performance of cells. Fig. 12(c) is showing the retained capacity fraction at -20°C, which is obtained by constant power discharge capacity at -20°C divided by the obtained constant power discharge capacity at 25°C. Fig. 12(c) suggests that even the cathode with the loading as high as 4.6 mAh / cm2can show above 50% retained capacity fraction, e.g., just by the addition of high-rate, small particle size LCO population. Without wishing to be bound to theory, this phenomenon could be due to the lower charge transfer impedance of small particles compared to that of large ones.

[0129] be observed in FIG. 13, a graph illustrating the impact to cell performance for a range of ratios of smaller FLS particles population to larger (e.g., normal) cathode microstructure population, the ratios (e.g., as weight per weight percentage) ranging from 0% to 75%.

[0130] Fig. 13 shows example graphs of cathodes utilizing different electrolytes, and different blends of larger to smaller FLS populations. The graphs of example Fig. 13 illustrate cell performance at a range of percentages of larger particle FLS (e.g., microstructures) to smaller particle FLS of cathodes, the range of percentages of the smaller particle FLS being from 0% to 75%, the percentages being weight per weight percentages, the percentages being relative to the larger FLS population. The cathode active material includes LCO. All cell types having the same charge carrier type - lithium cation. Cathodes 1301a-c have electrolyte E1 , and Cathodes 1302a-c have another type of electrolyte - electrolyte E2,Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO comprised about 1.3M lithium hexaphosphate (LiPFe), about 0.1 M lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4), about 5 wt% Propyl Carbonate (PC), about 30 wt% Ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), about 51 wt% dimethyl carbonate (DMC), about 10 wt% Fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), and about 1 wt% adiponitrile (AN).

[0131] Figs. 14 and 15 illustrate the effect of small particle on cell performance on different temperatures from -20°C to 70°C.

[0132] Fig. 14 shows examples of cathodes performing at different temperatures, the temperatures being 25°C, -20°C, -10°C, and 70°C. The graphs of example Fig. 14 illustrate cell performance at a range of percentages of larger particle FLS (e.g., microstructures) to smaller particle FLS of cathodes, the range of relative percentages being from 0% to 75%, the percentages being weight per weight percentages. The cathode active material includes LCO. Samples of graph 1421 utilize electrolyte E1 , and the samples of graph 1422 utilize electrolyte E2. Numerals 1401 and 1411 designate 100% larger particle FLS population.Numerals 1402 and 1412 designate 75% large particle FLS population to 25% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1403 and 1413 designate 50% larger particle FLS population to 50% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1404 and 1414 designate 25% larger particle FLS population to 75% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1401 and 1411 have 3.71 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1402 and 1412 have 3.54 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1403 and 1413 have 3.37 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1404 and 1414 have 3.27 mAh / cm2cathode capacity.

[0133] Fig. 15 shows examples of cathodes performing at different temperatures, the temperatures being 25°C, -20°C, -10°C, and 70°C. The graphs of example Fig. 15 illustrate cell performance at a range of percentages of larger particle FLS (e.g., microstructures) to smaller particle FLS of cathodes, the range of relative percentages being from 0% to 75%, the percentages being weight per weight percentages. The cathode active material includes LCO. Samples of graph 1521 utilize electrolyte E1 , and the samples of graph 1522 utilize electrolyte E2. Numerals 1501 and 1511 designate 100% larger particle FLS population.Numerals 1502 and 1512 designate 75% large particle FLS population to 25% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1503 and 1513 designate 50% larger particle FLS population to 50% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1504 and 1514 designate 25% larger particle FLS population to 75% small particle FLS population. Numerals 1501 and 1511 have 3.71 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1502 and 1512 have 3.54 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1503 and 1513 have 3.37 mAh / cm2cathode capacity. Numerals 1504 and 1514 have 3.27 mAh / cm2cathode capacity.

[0134] FIGS. 14 and 15 illustrate the effect of small particle on cell performance on different temperatures from -20°C to 70°C. The constant power (CP) discharge capacity values shown in Fig. 14 follow the temperature: the higher the temperature, the higher the constantAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO power discharge capacity. Of note are the capacity values at -20°C: although the loading of the cathodes decreases by small particle population addition to the cathode active material, the absolute values of constant power discharge capacity are higher for the cathodes with higher content of small particle cathode. These results confirm the significant impact of the addition of small FLS particle population to the high-rate. FIG. 15 illustrates the constant power discharge capacity at different temperatures as a fraction of constant power discharge capacity at 25°C. In the other words, the constant power discharge capacity at different temperatures was divided by constant power discharge capacity at 25°C. This plot once again confirms the significant impact of high-rate small LCO particles addition to enhancing the low temperature performance of the cells. The lower the temperature, the higher the small particles’ addition impact. It means that at -20°C the addition of small FLS particle population (of LCO) shows more significant impact on cells performance as compared to that at -10°C; and at -10°C addition of small FLS particle population (of LCO) shows more significant impact on cells performance compared to that at 0°C.

[0135] In some embodiments, a method of selecting an optimal electrolyte is disclosed. The method may comprise (a) using different ratios of a multimodal (e.g., bimodal) electrode active material mass of the cell such as a cathode active material mass, and (b) changing the electrolyte (e.g., mixture of electrolytes) utilized in the cell to facilitate propagation of charge carriers. The propagation of the charge carriers comprises (a) propagation between opposing electrodes, e.g., through the gap, (b) propagation of charge carriers within the electrode active material mass, (c) propagation of the charge carriers though an optional insulator of the cell (e.g., alumina), or (d) any combination of (a), (b), and (c).

[0136] The inventions (e.g., systems and / or methods) discussed herein can be modified, e.g., by adjusting the ratio of small to large particle size distribution, as well as the particle sizes themselves. In addition, the inventions (e.g., systems and / or methods) discussed herein can be modified by the optimum amount of conductive carbon material (e.g., allotrope of elemental carbon), the optimum amount of binder, and / or the optimum porosity value. The porosity value can be of the electrode active material mass contacting (e.g., deposited on) the respective electrode current collector. Use of a multimodal (e.g., bimodal) size distribution of the particulate material of the active electrode material, may require additional binders as compared to a respective single mode size distribution. The more binders may include more in quantity relative to the active material (e.g., mass and / or volume), more in material type, or any combination thereof.

[0137] The inventions (e.g., systems and / or methods) discussed herein can be applied to the anode structure as well, such as using graphite particles, or silicon containing, e.g., as well as for other thermal applications such as densifying sintered ceramics.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO

[0138] The inventions discussed herein can be applied to either electrode or counterelectrode. While disclosure may be described in terms of one electrode (e.g., cathode), the disclosure may be adjusted to the counter electrode (e.g., anode), as applicable.

[0139] In some embodiments, the energy storage device (e.g., any components therein) is configured to operate at a range of temperatures. The range of temperature may comprise a range of temperature during forming (e.g., manufacturing), buffering, storing, shipping, maintaining, testing, using the device at its normal operation conditions (e.g., per specification), or any combination thereof. The range of temperatures may comprise higher than ambient temperatures, ambient temperatures, and / or lower than ambient temperatures. The ambient temperature may be a temperature of the ambient environment external to the device, e.g., 20°C or 25°C degrees. At low temperatures, currently available energy storage devices (e.g., batteries) may have a reduced capacity, reduced chemical reaction, reduced charge carrier mobility, increased resistance, charge carrier (e.g., lithium) plating, and charging issues, and / or reduced cell capacity. In an example, a battery may have an 80% reduced capacity in extreme cold. The cell may experience cell damage in the low temperatures. While at extreme temperatures, the cell disclosed herein may have a performance similar to the one it exhibits in room temperature (R.T., e.g., +20°C or +25°C). The similar performance may be within acceptable requested performance, specification, and / or tolerance. The extreme temperatures may include the low temperatures and / or the high (e.g., elevated) temperatures. The cell performance may comprise attributes comprising (a) energy density, (b) rate capacity, (c) life cycle, or (d) any combination thereof. The low temperature may be at most about 0°C, -5°C, -10°C, -20°C, -30°C, or a lower temperature. The high temperature may be at least about +30°C, +40°C, +50°C, +60°C, +70°C, or a higher temperature. Degradation of particles having a smaller FLS may be greater as compared to larger particles, e.g., without wishing to be bound to theory, this may be since the smaller particles have a larger surface area. For a given particle FLS, the degradation may be enhanced in the high temperatures as compared to R.T. The cell may be configured to curtail (e.g., prevent) a runaway reaction at the high temperatures, e.g., of at least +60°C or at least +70°C. Some FLS multimodal configurations may have a better performance than others. In an example, a bimodal mixture of particles may have a better performance at 20% small particle FLS to large particle FLS, as compared to a mixture of 50% small particle FLS to large particle FLS. While a 50% mixture may give a compromised cycle life as compared to ratios having less than 50% small particle FLS relative to the large particle FLS group may provide a better overall performance of the cell (e.g., and of the device), e.g., a ratio of from 20% to 25% of small particle FLS population. The better overall performance may be in terms of attribute(s) comprising capacity, energy density, rate capability, a comparable cycleAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO life to a cathode having only the largest FLS population of particles, or any combination thereof.

[0140] In some embodiments, the energy storage device (e.g., battery) is formed, e.g., fabricated such as manufactured. During at least one fabrication operation, the environment may or may not be an ambient environment. The environment may comprise one or more environmental characteristics different than those of the ambient environment. The one or more characteristics may include a lower concentration of reactive agent, a higher temperature, and / or a higher pressure. The reactive agent may react with one or more components of the device, e.g., during its use, storage, shipping, maintenance, testing, buffering, and / or fabrication. The cells may be fabricated according to any configuration disclosed herein, and using any material disclosed herein, as appropriate. The current collector of an electrode may be generated from a roll of current collector (e.g., sheet, or foil) that has been cut or otherwise separated. The cutting may include a mechanical, otherwise physical, and / or a chemical. Separating the roll can utilize a knife, a laser beam, any plurality thereof, or any combination thereof. The laser may comprise a pulsing laser, or a continuous wave laser. The layer may comprise a picosecond laser or a nanosecond laser. The laser may have a gaussian, or top hat beam profile. Separating of the roll may utilize breaking, dicing, ablating. The fabrication process may comprise generating the electrode active material mass, e.g., mixing with any other ingredient including solvent, binder, filler, any plurality thereof, and / or any combination thereof. The fabrication process may comprise depositing the electrode active material mass. The fabrication process (e.g., of any component disclosed herein) may comprise printing, stenciling, heat application, heat transfer, any combination thereof, or any plurality thereof, as applicable. The application may comprise deposition, e.g., of a slurry that includes any of the electrode active material mass. The electrode active material mass may comprise a solvent, a binder, a filler, an electrode active material, or any combination thereof. The printing may comprise stencil printing, direct printing, or sublimation printing. The direct printing may comprise additive manufacturing. One or more operations of the manufacturing may be controlled by a control system, e.g., comprising at least one controller such as any control system disclosed herein. The fabrication process may comprise buffering with charge carriers, e.g., as disclosed herein. The fabrication process may include heating, cooling, and / or aging, e.g., of the cell, of the cell set, of the energy storage device such as battery, or any combination thereof. The fabrication process may include testing for normal operation, and / or for operation at extreme (e.g., edge) conditions. The fabrication process may include testing for issues impacting safety, e.g., conditions in which a runaway reaction may occur. In some embodiments, the electrode active material comprises a particulate material. The particulate material may be applied (e.g., to the charge carrier) by spraying, loading, or otherwise disposing theAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO particulate material onto the charge carriers, or to the previously formed portion of the active material mass on the charge carrier. The particulate material may be added at a loading amount of from about 0.05 milligrams per centimeter squared (mg / cm2) to about 5 mg / cm2, from about 0.1 mg / cm2to about 4 mg / cm2, or from about 0.5 mg / cm2to about 3 mg / cm2. A control system may at least in part control one or more operations to form the device. At least one operation of device formation may be done manually at least in part.

[0141] In some embodiments, the system, device, and / or apparatus disclosed herein comprises a control system. The control system may comprise one or more controllers. The control system may comprise, or be operatively coupled with, one or more devices, apparatuses, and / or systems of the mechanism (e.g., system, device, or apparatus) disclosed herein, including any component of the device(s), apparatuses(s), and / or system(s). The controller(s) may comprise, or be operatively coupled with, a hierarchical control system. The hierarchical control system may comprise at least three, four, or five, control levels. In some embodiments, at least two operations are performed, or directed, by the same controller. In some embodiments, at least two operations are each performed, or directed, by a different controller. A control system may comprise a control system. A control system may comprise a laser control system. The controller may comprise a feedback control scheme. The feedback control scheme may comprise an open feedback loop control scheme. The feedback loop control scheme may comprise a closed feedback loop control scheme. The feedback control scheme may comprise hardware compensation. The feedback control scheme may comprise software compensation. The control system may comprise, or be operatively coupled with, a metrological detection system and configured to receive measurement data from the metrological detection system. The control system may be configured to generate control signals responsive to the measurement data collected by the metrological detection system.

[0142] In some embodiments, the systems, apparatuses, devices, and / or components thereof disclosed herein comprise one or more controllers. The one or more controllers can comprise one or more central processing unit (CPU), input / output (I / O) and / or communications module. The CPU can comprise electronic circuitry that carries out instructions of a computer program by performing arithmetic, logical, control and I / O operations specified by the instructions. The controller can comprise a suitable software (e.g., operating system). The control system may optionally include a feedback control loop and / or feed-forward control loop. The controllers may be shared between one or more systems or apparatuses. Each apparatus or system may have its own controller. Two or more systems and / or their components may share a controller. Two or more apparatuses and / or its components may share a controller. The controller may monitor and / or direct (e.g., physical) alteration of the operating conditions of the apparatuses, software, and / or methodsAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO described herein. The controller may be a manual or a non-manual controller. The controller may be an automatic controller. The controller may operate upon request. The controller may be a programmable controller. The controller may be programed. The controller may comprise a processing unit (e.g., CPU or GPU). The controller may receive an input (e.g., from a sensor). The controller may deliver an output. The controller may comprise multiple controllers. The controller may receive multiple inputs. The controller may generate multiple outputs. The controller system may comprise a single input single output controller (SISO) or a multiple input multiple output controller (MIMO). The controller may interpret the input signal received. The controller may acquire data from one or more sensors. Acquiring may comprise receive or extract. The data may comprise measurement, estimation, determination, generation, or any combination thereof. The controller may comprise feedback control. The controller may comprise feed-forward control. The control may comprise on-off control, proportional control, proportional-integral (PI) control, or proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control. The control may comprise open loop control, or closed loop control. The controller may comprise closed loop control. The controller may comprise open loop control. The controller may comprise a user interface. The user interface may comprise a keyboard, keypad, mouse, touch screen, microphone, speech recognition package, camera, imaging system, or any combination thereof. The outputs may include a display (e.g., screen), speaker, or printer.

[0143] Fig. 17 shows a schematic example of process 1720 controlled using a control system in a feedback loop control scheme, e.g., in a closed loop control scheme. The control system receives set point 1705 to comparator 1706 that generates an error signal, which is fed 1745 into controller 1740. In other control systems, the comparator can be part of the controller. Controller 1740 generates a control signal that is fed into controlling element 1730. The controlling element may comprise a mechanism utilized for its control function to control process 1720. Controlling element 1730 provides an input to process 1720. The mechanism may effectuate a physical and / or a chemical change, which change is the input to process 1720. The physical change may comprise mechanical change, magnetic change, electromagnetic change, piezoelectric change, electrical change, pressure change, or temperature change. The chemical change may comprise a change in a chemical gradient, or in a chemical entity. Process 1720 can be any process disclosed herein, e.g., any method such as a fabrication (e.g., manufacturing) method. Process 1720 generates an output detected by measuring element 1710, e.g., using its sensor(s). The output provided by process 1720 may be a reaction of the process to the input provided by control element 1730. Measuring element 1710 generates a variable amplitude signal that is fed back into comparator 1706 and is again compared with the setpoint. Measuring element 1710 optionally also generates a controlled variable 1781. Control element 1730 optionally alsoAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO receives a manipulated variable 1782, e.g., from an external source such as a processor and / or a communication system. Sensor(s) can be used by measuring element 1710 for the measurement of parameters of the process, e.g., 1720. The sensor measurement can be a determination of an amplitude of a parameter such as of a material, e.g., as disclosed herein. In an example, the value of the measurement is consistent and repeatable. The sensor(s) can convert the physical parameters (e.g., repeatedly, and reliably) into a usable form by the control system, e.g., into an electrical signal such as in a digital form. The comparator can perform an error detection, e.g., by determining a difference between the amplitude of the measured variable and a requested set reference point (e.g., set point 1705), which difference is the error signal. The error signal can be amplified and / or conditioned such as filtered. The signal amplification and / or conditioning may be performed by an external component to the controller (e.g., 1740), or within the controller. The reference point (e.g., set point) can be stored in the memory of the controller, or of a memory operatively coupled with the controller. The controller can be a (e.g., micro-) processorbased system that can determine the next operation to be taken in a process. The process may be sequential. The controller may evaluate the error signal in a continuous process control system, e.g., to determine what action is to be taken. The controller (e.g., 1740) can condition the signal, or be operatively coupled with a unit conditioning the system. Conditioning the signal may comprise noise filtering. Conditioning the signal may comprise correcting the signal for a non-linearity in the sensor. The controller may include the parameters of the process input control element. The controller may condition the error signal to direct the control element, e.g., 1730. The controller can monitor input signal(s). The input signals may be interrelated. The controller may be configured to direct at least two control elements in concert. The controller may be configured to direct at least two control elements simultaneously. The controller may be configured to direct at least two control elements sequentially. The control element (e.g., 1730) can be a device that controls an incoming material to the process, or any other attribute of the process comprising physical attribute or chemical attribute. The physical attribute may comprise mechanical, magnetic, piezoelectric, electromagnetic, electrical, pressure, or temperature attribute. The chemical attribute may comprise a chemical gradient, or in a chemical entity. The control element can be a flow control element. The control element can be a temperature control element. The control element can have toggle (e.g., On / Off) characteristics. The control element can provide linear, or non-linear, control of the control element. The control element can be used to adjust the input to the process, e.g., bringing the output variable to the value of the set point. The measuring element (e.g., 1710) can consist of sensor(s) to measure the physical property of a variable, a transducer to convert the sensor signal into an electrical signal, and / or a transmitter to amplify the electrical signal. The amplification of the signal can beAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO transmitted with minimal (e.g., without measurable) loss. The control element may comprise an actuator which changes the electrical signal from the controller into a signal to operate and / or control a physical device such as a valve. The controller may comprise a memory or be operatively coupled with a memory. The control system may comprise a summing circuit, e.g., to compare the set point to the sensed signal, so that it can generate the error signal. The summing circuit may be part of the comparator. The controller may use the error signal to generate a correctional signal to control the control element. In an example, the controller controls a valve via an actuator and the input variable. The sensors of the measuring element may comprise optical sensors, temperature sensors, pressure sensors, chemical sensors, proximity sensors, viscosity sensors, chemical sensors, or any other sensor disclosed herein. The chemical sensors may sense a material comprising oxygen, water, or any other reactive agent(s) herein. The sensors may be configured to sense one or more attributes of the methods disclosed herein such as the fabrication methods.

[0144] Control may comprise regulate, modulate, adjust, maintain, alter, change, govern, manage, restrain, restrict, direct, guide, oversee, manage, preserve, sustain, restrain, temper, or vary.

[0145] In some embodiments, the device, system, and / or apparatus disclosed herein comprises a processor. The processor may be a processing unit. The controller may comprise a processing unit. The processing unit may be central. The processing unit may comprise a central processing unit (herein “CPU”). The controllers or control mechanisms (e.g., comprising a computer system) may be programmed to implement methods of the disclosure. The processor may be programmed to implement methods of the disclosure. The controller may control at least one component of the systems and / or apparatuses disclosed herein. Fig. 18 shows a schematic example of a computer system 1800 that is programmed or otherwise configured to facilitate execution any of the methods provided herein.The computer system 1800 can control (e.g., direct, monitor, and / or regulate) various features of the methods, apparatuses, devices, and / or systems of the present disclosure. The computer system 1800 can be part of, or be in communication with, the device, system and / or apparatus disclosed herein. The computer may be coupled with one or more mechanisms disclosed herein, and / or any parts thereof. The computer system 1800 can include a processing unit 1806 (also “processor,” “computer” and “computer processor” used herein). The computer system may include memory or memory location 1802 (e.g., randomaccess memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit 1804 (e.g., hard disk), communication interface 1803 (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 1805, such as cache, other memory, data storage and / or electronic display adapters. The memory 1802, data storage unit 1804, interface 1803, and peripheral devices 1805 are in communication with the processingAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO unit 1806 through a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit can comprise a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. The computer system can be operatively coupled with a computer network (“network”) 1801, e.g., with the aid of the communication interface. The network can be the Internet, an internet and / or extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. In some cases, the network is a telecommunication and / or data network. The network can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network, in some cases with the aid of the computer system, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled with the computer system to behave as a client or a server. The processing unit can execute a sequence of machine- readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, e.g., memory 1802. The instructions can be directed to the processing unit, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the processing unit to implement methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the processing unit can include fetch, decode, execute, and write back. The processing unit may interpret and / or execute instructions. The processor may include a microprocessor, a data processor, a central processing unit (CPU), a graphical processing unit (GPU), a system-on-chip (SOC), a co-processor, a network processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), an application specific instruction-set processor (ASIPs), a controller, a programmable logic device (PLD), a chipset, a field programmable gate array (FPGA), or any combination thereof. The processing unit can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the system (e.g., 1800) can be included in the circuit.

[0146] In some embodiments, the storage unit (e.g., 1804) stores files, such as drivers, libraries, and saved programs. The storage unit can store user data (e.g., user preferences and user programs). In some cases, the computer system can include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system, such as located on a remote server that is in communication with the computer system through an intranet or the Internet. The processor may be configured to process control protocols, e.g., communicate with one or more components of the mechanism (e.g., device, apparatus, and / or system) disclosed herein using the control protocols. Control protocols can be one or more of the internet protocol suites, e.g., transmission control protocol (TCP) or transmission control protocol / internet protocol (TCP / IP). Control protocols can be one or more serial communication protocols. Control protocols can be one or more of controller area networks or another message-based protocol, e.g., for communication with microcontrollers and devices. Control protocols can interface with one or more serial bus interfaces forAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO communication with the mechanism disclosed herein, e.g., with any of its components. The control protocol can be any control protocol disclosed herein.

[0147] In some embodiments, the system, device, and / or apparatus disclosed herein comprises communicating through a network. The computer system can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through a network. For instance, the computer system can communicate with a remote computer system of a user (e.g., operator).Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC's (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. A user (e.g., client) can access the computer system via the network.

[0148] In some embodiments, the computer system utilizes program instructions to execute, or direct execution of, operation(s). The program instructions can be inscribed in a machine executable code. Methods described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of the computer system, such as, for example, on the memory 1802 or electronic (e.g., data) storage unit 1804. The machine executable or machine-readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the processor (e.g., 1806) can execute the code. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit and stored on the memory for ready access by the processor. In some situations, the electronic storage unit can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory. The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine that has a processer adapted to execute the code or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a pre-compiled or as-compiled fashion.

[0149] In some embodiments, the computer system utilizes a machine-readable medium / media to execute, or direct execution of, operation(s). The program instructions can be inscribed in a machine executable code. A machine-readable medium / media, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium / media, a carrier wave medium, or physical transmission medium. Nonvolatile storage media / medium include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the processor related storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, such as may be used to implement the databases. Volatile storage media / medium can include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media can include coaxial cables, wire (e.g., copper wire), and / or fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexibleAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium / media with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH- EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and / or data, or any combination thereof. The memory and / or data storage may comprise a storing device external to and / or removable from device, such as a Universal Serial Bus (USB) memory stick, and / or a hard disk. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0150] In some embodiments, the device, system, and / or apparatus disclosed herein comprises, or is operatively coupled with, a communication technology, e.g., in addition to the optical fiber disclosed herein. The communication may comprise wired or wireless communication. For example, the systems, apparatuses, and / or parts thereof may comprise Bluetooth, wi-fi, global positioning system (GPS), or radiofrequency (RF) technology. The RF technology may comprise ultrawideband (UWB) technology. Systems, apparatuses, and / or parts thereof may comprise a communication port. The communication port may be a serial port or a parallel port. The communication port may be a Universal Serial Bus port (i.e. , USB). The systems, apparatuses, and / or parts thereof may comprise USB ports. The USB can be micro- or mini-USB. The surface identification mechanism may comprise a plug and / or a socket, e.g., electrical, AC power, DC power. The systems, apparatuses, and / or parts thereof may comprise an electrical adapter (e.g., AC and / or DC power adapter). The systems, apparatuses, and / or parts thereof may comprise a power connector. The power connector can be an electrical power connector. The power connector may comprise a magnetically attached power connector. The power connector can be a dock connector. The connector can be a data and power connector. The connector may comprise pins. The connector may comprise at least about 10, 15, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 40, 42, 45, 50, 55, 80, or 100 pins.

[0151] Example 1

[0152] Batteries in half cell coin format (e.g., Fig. 16) were used, the anode comprising 200pm lithium metal, the charging rate was 0.2C, the temperature was adjusted to 70°C, 25°C, 0°C, -10°C, and -20°C, as depicted in figures 14-15. At 25°C, the battery was formed, charged, discharged, charged, rested for 30 minutes to adjust to the requested temperature, and then discharged at the requested temperature. Cathodes at different particle formulations were evaluated, as depicted in Table 1, including 100%, and 75%. The larger particle population (LRG) included LCO particles of size distribution having Dso of 15 pm. The smaller particle population (SML) included LCO particles of size distribution having DsoAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO of 5 m similar to that depicted in Fig. 10 (SML). The percentage values of the small particle population (SML) being 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%. Results were obtained as shown in Figs. 12-15. The half cells included electrolyte types E1 and E2. Electrolyte E1 comprised about 1.3M lithium hexaphosphate (LiPFe), about 0.1M lithium tetrafluoroborate (UBF4), about 4 wt% ethyl propionate (EC), about 20 wt% propyl Carbonate (PC), about 60 wt% ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), about 10 wt% fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), about 1 wt% vinylene carbonate (VC), and about 1 wt% adiponitrile (AN). Electrolyte E2, comprised about 1.3M lithium hexaphosphate (LiPFe), about 0.1M lithium tetrafluoroborate (UBF4), about 5 wt% Propyl Carbonate (PC), about 30 wt% Ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), about 51 wt% dimethyl carbonate (DMC), about 10 wt% Fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC), and about 1 wt% adiponitrile (AN). The cake designates the mass of active electrode material fabricated to contact a respective current collector of the battery. The electrodes evaluated had the following properties as depicted in Table 1:

[0153] The processes discussed above are intended to be illustrative and not limiting. One skilled in the art would appreciate that the steps of the processes discussed herein may be omitted, modified, combined, and / or rearranged, and any additional steps may be performed without departing from the scope of the invention. More generally, the above disclosure is meant to be exemplary and not limiting. Furthermore, it should be noted that the features and limitations described in any one embodiment may be applied to any other embodiment herein, and flowcharts or examples relating to one embodiment may be combined with any other embodiment in a suitable manner, done in different orders, or done in parallel. In addition, the systems and methods described herein may be performed in real time. It should also be noted that the systems and / or methods described above may be applied to, or used in accordance with, other systems and / or methods.

[0154] While preferred embodiments of the present inventions have been shown, and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the present disclosure be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the present disclosure has been described with reference to the afore-mentioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WONumerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the present disclosure. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the present disclosure are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations, or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein might be employed in practicing the present disclosure. It is therefore contemplated that the present disclosure shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present disclosure and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WOCLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A battery, comprising: a cathode current collector coupled with a cathode material layer, the cathode material layer comprising a multimodal size distribution, the multimodal size distribution being measurably discernable; and an anode comprising an anode electrode current collector coupled with a counter electrode material layer, the anode being separated from the cathode by a gap, a battery cell of the battery comprising the cathode, and the anode, wherein:(a) the battery is configured to operate at a low temperature below room temperature (R.T.) with a performance similar to that at an ambient temperature, the low temperature being colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C);(b) the anode comprises silicon;(c) the anode is devoid of graphite;(d) the battery comprises a constraint configured to anisotropically constraint the battery cell during traversal of charge carriers between the anode and the cathode;(e) the battery is configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of an ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 20 PSI;(f) the battery is configured to withstand pressure fluctuations of at least about 20 PS;(g) the battery is configured for initial buffering of the charge carriers into the battery cell;(h) a thickness of the anode is at most about 70 micrometers (pm), the thickness being normal to a lateral axis of the anode;(i) the cathode material layer has a density of at least about 3.5 grams per centimeters cubed (g / cm3);(j) the battery comprises a stacked array of cells, with cells of the stacked array of cells being similar to the battery cell, the battery being prismatic, the battery having (A) a top surface opposing a bottom surface, (B) a first side surface opposing a second side surface, and (C) a third side surface opposing a fourth side surface, the battery having a thickness, a length, and a width, the thickness spanning a thickness distance from the top surface to the opposing bottom surface, the length spanning a length distance from the first side surface to the second side surface, the width spanning a distance from the third side surface to the fourth side surface, the stackedAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO array of cells being stacked along the top surface and (i) along the length or (ii) along the width; or(k) any combination of (a) to (j).

2. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery is configured to operate at the low temperature below an ambient temperature with the performance similar to that at an ambient temperature, the low temperature being colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C), the ambient temperature being of an ambient environment external to the battery.

3. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the anode comprises silicon.

4. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the anode is devoid of graphite.

5. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery comprises the constraint configured to anisotropically constrain the battery cell during traversal of the charge carriers between the anode and the cathode.

6. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery is configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 20 PSI; optionally wherein the battery being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 100 PSI; optionally wherein the battery being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 140 PSI; and optionally wherein the battery being configured to withstand an internal pressure above an ambient pressure of the ambient environment, the internal pressure being at least about 1000 PSI, or at least about 10000 PSI.

7. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 20 PSI; optionally wherein the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 100 PSI; optionally wherein the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 140 PSI; and optionally wherein the wherein the battery is configured to withstand the internal pressure fluctuations of at least about 1000 PSI, or 10000 PSI.

8. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery being configured for initial buffering of the charge carriers into the battery cell.

9. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the thickness of the anode is at most about 70 micrometers (pm), the thickness being normal to the lateral axis of the anode.

10. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the cathode material layer has the density of at least about 3.5 grams per centimeters cubed (g / cm3).

11. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery is the secondary battery.Attorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO12. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery comprises the stacked array of cells, with cells of the stacked array of cells being similar to the battery cell, the battery being prismatic, the battery having (A) the top surface opposing a bottom surface, (B) the first side surface opposing a second side surface, and (C) the third side surface opposing a fourth side surface, the battery having a thickness, the length, and the width, the thickness spanning a thickness distance from the top surface to the opposing bottom surface, the length spanning the length distance from the first side surface to the second side surface, the width spanning the distance from the third side surface to the fourth side surface, the stacked array of cells being stacked along the top surface and (i) along the length or (ii) along the width.

13. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the multimodal size distribution comprises a first set of particulate material having a larger size distribution, and a second set of particulate material having a smaller size distribution, the larger size distribution being measurably discernable from the smaller size distribution.

14. The battery of claim 13, wherein the first set of particulate material is of the type of material of the second set of particulate material.

15. The battery of claim 13, wherein in the multimodal size distribution, the first set of particulate material is of at least an amount of the second set of particulate material or a greater amount, the amount being a weight and / or a volume.

16. The battery of claim 13, wherein in the multimodal size distribution, a proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 1:1, 1.5:1 , 2:1, 3:1, 4:1 , 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, or 9:1, the proportion being a weight per weight ratio, and / or a volume per volume ratio; optionally wherein the proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 1:1; and optionally wherein the proportion between the first set of particulate material and the second set of particulate material, is at least about 3:1.

17. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the battery is configured to operate at the low temperature that is colder than -5 degrees Celsius (°C); optionally wherein the battery is configured to operate at the low temperature colder than -10 degrees Celsius (°C); and optionally wherein the battery is configured to operate at the low temperature colder than -20 degrees Celsius (°C).

18. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the anode comprises at least about 20% Silicon by volume.

19. The battery of claim 1 , wherein the anode comprises silicon oxide (SiOx), a silicon carbon composite, a silicon carbon mixture, a silicon graphite composite, a silicon graphite mixture, a particle having a carbon center coated by a silicon layer coatedAttorney Docket No. ENX-0105.WO by an external carbon layer, or any combination thereof; and optionally wherein (A) the anode comprises particulate material type of the particle; and optionally wherein (I) the carbon center is harder than the external carbon layer and / or (II) the silicon layer extends onto crevices in the carbon center and / or (B) wherein the anode comprises silicon oxide (SiOx), a silicon carbon composite, or a silicon carbon mixture.

20. A method comprises: (a) providing the device of any of claims 1 to 19; and (b) manufacturing, testing, buffering, storing, transporting, and / or using the device for energy manipulation; and optionally wherein the energy manipulation comprises comprising electrically charging and / or discharging the device.

21. A method of fabricating the device of any of claims 1 to 19, the method comprises: executing one or more operations to fabricate the device; and optionally wherein fabrication of the device comprises manufacturing.

22. An apparatus for fabricating the device of any of claims 1 to 19, the apparatus comprises: at least one controller configured (a) for operatively coupling with at least one component; and (b) executing, or directing the at least one component to execute, one or more operations associated with fabrication of the device; and optionally wherein the at least one controller is configured to operatively couple with a power source and / or with a communication platform.

23. One or more non-transitory computer readable media comprising program instruction physically inscribed thereon, the program instructions, when read by one or more processors, are configured to (I) execute, or direct execution of, one or more operations associated with fabrication of the device of any of claims 1 to 19, (II) the one or more operations comprising directing at least one component to execute the one or more operations, the one or more processors being configured to operatively coupe with the at least one component, or (III) a combination of (I) and (II).

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