actuators

Abstract

An actuator includes an optical window or a fiber optic element; an absorber component configured to absorb optical energy, at least one cavity, and an output component. Optical energy absorbed by the absorber component is transformed into energy that is outputted by the actuator as a perceptible output, a mechanical output, or a pressure wave.

Description

O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 ACTUATORS TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] The subject matter disclosed herein relates to actuators and, in particular, to actuators configured for photomechanical energy conversion to enable localized mechanical actuation. BACKGROUND

[0002] Previous approaches to actuator technology have focused on various mechanisms for converting light energy into mechanical or other forms of output. One common approach has involved the use of piezoelectric materials that deform in response to applied voltage, thereby converting electrical energy into mechanical motion. While effective in certain applications, piezoelectric actuators are limited in their ability to efficiently convert light energy directly into mechanical output without the need for additional energy conversion steps.

[0003] Another approach in the field of actuators has been the use of shape memory alloys (SMAs) that change shape in response to changes in temperature. By incorporating light-absorbing materials into the SMA structure, researchers have attempted to develop actuators that can be activated by light-induced heating. However, these systems often suffer from slow response times and limited output power due to the inherent thermal properties of SMAs.

[0004] Additionally, some prior art discloses actuators based on electromagnetic principles, where light energy is converted into electrical energy through photovoltaic cells, which is then used to drive electromagnetic actuators. While these systems can achieve high efficiency in energy conversion, they are typically complex and bulky, making them unsuitable for certain applications requiring compact and lightweight actuators. However, none of these approaches have provided a comprehensive solution that combines the features described in this disclosure.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 SUMMARY

[0005] According to one aspect, an actuator includes at least one cavity containing a gas; an absorber component configured to absorb optical energy; and an output component configured to generate an output in response to the optical energy absorbed by the absorber component.

[0006] According to another aspect,an actuator includes an optical window; an absorber component configured to absorb optical energy; a cavity containing a gas; and an output component. Optical energy absorbed by the absorber component is transformed into energy that is outputted by the actuator as a perceptible output, a mechanical output, or a pressure wave.

[0007] According to another aspect, an actuator includes a deformable output component; an optically transmissive component; an absorber component positioned between the deformable output component and the optically transmissive component; a cavity containing a gas. The actuator comprises a non-actuated state wherein the gas is at a first temperature and the deformable output component is not deformed; and an actuated state wherein the gas is at a second temperature and the deformable output component is deformed outward.

[0008] According to another aspect, an actuator includes a deformable output component an optically transmissive component; an absorber component positioned between the deformable output component and the optically transmissive component; a cavity containing a gas and positioned between the deformable output component and the absorber component. The actuator includes a non-actuated state wherein a first volume of gas is contained in the cavity; and an actuated state wherein a second volume of gas is contained in the cavity and the deformable output component is deformed outward.

[0009] According to another aspect, a light activated actuator includes an elastomeric component; an optical window; an absorber component positioned between the elastomeric component and the optical window; and a gas filled cavity positionedO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 between the elastomeric component and the absorber component, wherein the elastomeric component reversibly deforms after optical energy is absorbed by the absorber component.

[0010] According to another aspect, an actuator includes an output component configured to reversibly deform following absorption of pulsed light by an internal absorber component.

[0011] According to another aspect, an actuator includes an output component configured to output mechanical work following absorption of pulsed light by an internal absorber component.

[0012] According to another aspect, an actuator includes an optically transmissive component; an absorber component; a cavity; an output component comprising a port; wherein the actuator is configured to generate a pressure wave upon absorption of optical energy transmitted through the optically transmissive component, wherein the pressure wave is configured to exit the actuator by the port.

[0013] According to another aspect, a method of fabricating an actuator includes coupling a first component to a first internal component; coupling the first internal component to an absorber component; coupling the absorber component to a second internal component; and coupling the second internal component to an output component. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0014] FIG.1 is an isometric view of a device comprising an assembly of actuators according to some embodiments.

[0015] FIG.2 are isometric views of an “ON” state (image 201) and an “OFF” state (image 203) of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0016] FIG.3 are time-average images of graphics generated by assemblies according to some embodiments.

[0017] FIG.4 is an isometric view of an assembly of actuators according to some embodiments.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0018] FIG.5 is an isometric view illustrating the scalability of the assembly of actuators, according to some embodiments.

[0019] FIG.6 is an exploded view of an assembly of actuators according to some embodiments.

[0020] FIG.7 are plan views of a layout of an assembly comprising a plurality of actuators according to some embodiments. Image 701 is a plan view of a first component of the assembly. Image 703 is a plan view of an absorber component of the assembly. Image 705 is a plan view of an internal component of the assembly.

[0021] FIG.8 are plan views of a layout of an assembly comprising a single actuator. Image 801 is a plan view of a first component of the assembly. Image 803 is a plan view of an absorber component of the assembly. Image 805 is a plan view of an internal component of the assembly.

[0022] FIG.9 is a plan view of a layout of an absorber component of an assembly according to some embodiments.

[0023] FIG.10 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0024] FIG.11 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0025] FIG.12 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0026] FIG.13 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0027] FIG.14 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0028] FIG.15 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0029] FIG.16 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0030] FIG.17 are cross-sectional views illustrating the response of an actuator to light according to some embodiments. Image 1701 illustrates an initial (rest) configuration (state) of the actuator when no light has been absorbed by the actuator (time t0). Image 1703 and image 1705 illustrate the response of the actuator at two different time points after light 1718 is absorbed by the actuator according to some embodiments. Image 1703 illustrates a first configuration (state) of the actuator at time t1(t1= t0+ ε) of light absorption. Image 1705 illustrates a second configuration (state) of the actuator at time t2(t2 > t1) of light absorption.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0031] FIG.18 is a cross-sectional view illustrating the response of an actuator to light at time t2 (t2 > t1) of light absorption according to some embodiments.

[0032] FIG.19 is a graph of a PV diagram of work that may be done by an actuator, according to some embodiments.

[0033] FIGS.20A-D illustrates the principle of operation for the actuator illustrated in FIG.16.

[0034] FIG.21 is a flowchart of a method to manufacture an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0035] FIG.22 is a flowchart of a method to manufacture an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0036] FIG.23 illustrates thermal images of the heat response over time of an actuator 2304 to the absorption of light, according to some embodiments. Image 2301 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t1 (t1 > t0). Image 2303 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t2(t2> t1). Image 2305 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t3 (t3 > t2).

[0037] FIG.24 illustrates optical images of the deflection response over time of an actuator 2404 to the absorption of light, according to some embodiments. Image 2401 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t1(t1> t0). Image 2403 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t2 (t2 > t1). Image 2405 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t3(t3> t2).

[0038] FIG.25 illustrates optical images of the deflection response over time of an actuator 2504 to the absorption of light, according to some embodiments. Image 2501 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 at time t1 (t1 > t0). Image 2503 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 at time t2(t2> t1). Image 2505 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 at time t3(t3> t2).

[0039] FIG.26 is a graphical comparison 2602 of the performance of two embodiments of an actuator. Graph 2600 illustrates the input signal. Graph 2610 illustrates the thermal responses (absorber component temperature) of the actuator embodiments over time.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 Graph 2630 illustrates the deflection responses (displacement) of the actuator embodiments over time.

[0040] FIG.27 is a graph 2700 illustrating the deflection (displacement) of an actuator in response to light applied to the actuator at different frequencies, according to some embodiments.

[0041] FIG.28 is a graph 2800 illustrating the optical absorption spectrum vs. wavelength for pyrolytic graphite (PGS) and acrylic transmission spectrum vs. wavelength.

[0042] FIG.29 is a table 2900 and a graph 2902 of emissivity measurements of pyrolytic graphite (PGS) for the temperature range of 25-167 °C.

[0043] FIG.30 is a graph 3000 illustrating a tradeoff between the peak displacement and relaxation time τ when changing the geometric design of the optical target.

[0044] FIG.31 is a graph 3100 illustrating parameters of pulse length (tp), pulse gap (tg), and amount of force (mN) generated by different amounts of applied power (PL).

[0045] FIG.32 is a graph 3200 illustrating that varying the input power to an actuator configured to output a perceptible output shows a linear actuator response with both actuator pressure and peak displacement.

[0046] FIG.33 is a graph 3300 illustrating that pulsing the input signal faster than what is required for the pixel to fully cool leads to a thermal buildup in the pixel, represented by constant offset δo, when it reaches a steady state.

[0047] FIG.34 is a graph 3400 illustrating that the normalized offset follows an inverse relationship with tp.

[0048] FIG.35 is a graph 3500 illustrating that the normalized peak-to-peak amplitude in steady-state follows is determined by tgand τ.

[0049] FIG.36 is a graph 3600 illustrate that the actuators are capable of being refreshed faster than indicated by τ. Graph 3600 illustrates amplitudes up to 500 Hz refresh rate.

[0050] FIG.37 is a graph 3700 illustrating the number of actuators N that can be activated per second by a single laser.

[0051] FIG.38 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0052] FIGS.39A and 39B illustrate the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.38 to an applied stimulus. FIG.39A is a cross-sectional view illustrating the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.38 to optical energy. FIG.39B is a cross-sectional view illustrating the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.38 to an applied external force.

[0053] FIG.40 is a graph 4000 illustrating an output force that may be generated by an applied force as shown in FIG.39B.

[0054] FIG.41 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments illustrating the response of the actuator to an applied external force.

[0055] FIG.42 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0056] FIGS.43A and 43B illustrate the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.42 to an applied stimulus. FIG.43A is a cross-sectional view illustrating the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.42 to optical energy. FIG.43B is a cross-sectional view illustrating the response of the actuator illustrated in FIG.42 to an applied external force.

[0057] FIG.44 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments.

[0058] FIG.45 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator according to some embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0059] The present disclosure describes / provides actuators configured for photomechanical energy conversion to enable localized mechanical actuation and / or force sensing. The localized mechanical actuation outputted by the actuator may be a perceptible output (e.g., tactile, visual), a mechanical output, and / or a pressure wave. Advantages of an actuator as described herein include efficient conversion of light energy, size scalability (e.g., may be miniaturized), ease of manufacturing, and / or generating visual and / or mechanical output. For example, because the actuator’s conversion of light energy is efficient, the actuator’s response to the application, or removal, of light energy may be less than a centisecond. As another example, the size scale of the actuator may a millimeter-scale. Additionally, an actuator as described hereinO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 is low in complexity, low in cost, and / or can be mass produced. For example, inexpensive materials may be utilized to manufacture the actuator. Another advantage is that a plurality of actuators may be arranged in a pattern and incorporated into a device. These advantages, alone or in combination, address longstanding unmet needs in a variety of applications, including haptic devices, displays (e.g., touchscreens), virtual reality, augmented reality, robotics, and miniaturized devices (e.g., miniaturized robotic systems, miniature surgical devices, and laser powered micro-UAV aerial drones) to name a few.

[0060] FIGS.1-9 illustrate embodiments and details of arranging and / or incorporating a plurality of actuators into a device according to some embodiments. FIGS.5-16, 38-42, and 44-45 illustrate embodiments and details / features of actuators. In some embodiments, the actuators may be configured for applications including haptic devices, displays (e.g., touchscreen displays), virtual reality, or augmented reality, to name a few. An actuator configured to be utilized for these applications may convert light energy into a perceptible output. Perceptible outputs include visual outputs and / or tactile outputs. To generate a perceptible output the actuator may include a component configured to reversibly change shape, e.g., deflect / deform (see FIGS.5-14, 38-42, and 44-45). For these applications, each actuator may form a pixel, such as a pixel of a display or touchscreen. A display utilizing an actuator as disclosed herein may be described as an optotactile display.

[0061] Turning to FIG.1, an embodiment of system 100 that may be incorporated into a display and / or haptic device is illustrated. The system 100 comprises an assembly 102 including at least one actuator, collectively actuator 104, and at least one light source 130 configured to generate or emit optical energy, which may also be referred to as light 132. In this example, the assembly 102 has a square shape. However, the assembly 102 may have any shape. Further, the assembly 102 is scalable. For example, the size of the assembly 102 and / or the number of actuators 104 included in the assembly 102 may be scaled to a desired size and / or number of actuators 104.

[0062] In some embodiments, the at least one actuator 104 is a plurality of actuators 104 arranged in a pattern. For example, as shown in FIG.1, the plurality of actuators 104O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 may be arranged in an array. In some embodiments, the actuator 104 is a cylinder. In other embodiments, the actuator 104 is a cuboid or a cube. The actuator 104 may have millimeter scaled dimensions (e.g., length, width, diameter, height). For example, an actuator 104 may have a width of about 0.5 mm to about 20 mm (see FIG.10). Actuators 104 configured for a display (e.g., phone, tablet, or other touchscreen displays) may have a width or diameter of about 1 mm to about 15 mm. In one non-limiting example, the actuator has a diameter of 3 mm.

[0063] In some embodiments, the actuator 104 may transmit a portion of the absorbed light in addition to generating mechanical energy from the absorbed light. For example, visible light emitted by a light source 130 may be transmitted through the actuator 104. In some embodiments, the mechanical energy may generate a change in the actuator 104. For example, as discussed below in greater detail, a portion of the actuator 104 may be displaced / deformed.

[0064] In at least one embodiment, the light source 130 is positioned external to the actuator 104. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG.1, light 132 from the light source 130 is directed through optical component 134 which directs the light to the assembly 102. In some embodiments, light emitted by the optical component 134 is directed towards a mirror array. The mirror array may be digitally controlled. The mirror array may be a micromirror array and / or a galvanometer mirror system. In other embodiments, the light source 130 emits light directly to the assembly 102 (e.g., through the atmosphere). In some embodiments, the light source 130 is configured to scan all or a part of the assembly 102. For example, the system 100 may include a single light source 130 configured to scan all the actuators 104 or multiple light sources 130 with each light source 130 configured to scan a subset of the plurality of actuators 104. Any suitable method may be utilized to scan the plurality of actuators 104. For example, vector scanning may be utilized. In other embodiments, each light source 130 illuminates / directs light to a single actuator. For example, each actuator 104 may have a light source 130 positioned adjacent to and / or configured to direct light into the actuator 104.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0065] The light source 130 for an actuator disclosed herein may be a laser, a light emitting diode (LED), a video projector, a strobed projector, and / or an optical fiber. In one non-limiting example the light source 130 may be a 3W laser. In at least one embodiment, the light source 130 is configured to emit pulses of light 132. A pulse of light 132 may last for 1 ps to 1000 ms. In some embodiments, pulse width modulation may be utilized to modulate the amplitude of the light 132. For example, a longer pulse of light may be composed of a plurality of shorter pulses which may be of ~microsecond scale duration. The light source 130 may be configured to emit visible light, infrared light, and / or ultraviolet light. The wavelength of light 132 emitted by the light source 130 may range from about 10 nm to about 2500 μm, from about 10 nm to about 2150 nm, from about 10 nm to about 1000 nm, from about 680 nm to about 2500 um, from about 2150 nm to about 2500 um, or from about 680 nm to about 2150 nm.

[0066] The light 132 emitted by the light source 130 may be absorbed by one or more of the actuators 104 of the assembly 102. Each actuator 104 is configured to convert the energy from the light 132 (light energy) into mechanical energy. Thus, the absorption of light may be described as activating, or turning “ON”, the actuator 104. When no light is absorbed by the actuator 104 or light is no longer directed to the actuator, the actuator 104 is “OFF” or turns “OFF.” As illustrated in FIG.1, some of the actuators 104a have absorbed the light 132 and are “ON,” while other actuators 104b have not absorbed the light 132 and are “OFF.” Optical images of an actuator 204 in an “ON” state and an “OFF” state are provided in FIG.2 where image 201 illustrates an actuator 204a in an exemplary “ON” state and image 203 illustrates the actuator 204b in an exemplary “OFF” state according to some embodiments. As discussed below in greater detail, the time constant (reaction time) for the actuator 104 to turn “ON” and “OFF” may be less than a centisecond. Further, the amplitude or amount of deformation of an actuator in an “ON” state may vary depending on the properties of the light emitted by the light source, such as the amplitude of the pulse of light and / or length of the pulse, as discussed below.

[0067] FIG.3 are time-average images 301, 303 of exemplary graphics that were generated by scanning light onto an assembly. The assemblies 302a, 302b illustrated inO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 images 301 and 303 each include an array of 1,511 actuators, each including an optical target that absorbs the light and generates heat. For clarity, some components of the assembly positioned over the optical target were removed to obtain image 301 and image 303. As discussed above, the graphic displayed by an assembly is refreshable.

[0068] FIG.4 is an isometric view of an assembly 402 comprising a plurality of actuators 404 according to some embodiments. Like the actuators 104 shown in FIG.1, the plurality of actuators 404 are arranged in an array. In this example, the location of each actuator 404 on an outer surface 406 of the assembly 402 is visible and / or identifiable. In some embodiments, the assembly 402 may be cuttable. For example, a larger assembly may be cut to form a plurality of smaller assemblies. Identifying the locations of the actuators 404 on an outer surface of the assembly 402 may serve as a guide to re-sizing or subdividing an assembly 402. This may prevent inadvertent cutting of an actuator 404. In other embodiments, the location an actuator 404 in an assembly 402 is not identified and / or visible.

[0069] In some embodiments, the assembly 402 is flexible or bendable, as shown in FIG. 4. In other embodiments, the assembly 402 is rigid and / or non-bendable. The assembly 402 may be planar (have a 1D shape) or non-planar (have a 2D or 3D shape). For example, a planar assembly may be utilized for a planar display device while a non- planar assembly may be utilized for a curved display device. The assembly 402 may be located along an outer surface of a device, such as a touchscreen, or located inside a device.

[0070] As mentioned above, the assembly is scalable so that the assembly has a desired number of actuators. FIG.5 shows an assembly 502a with a single actuator 504a, an assembly 502b with sixteen (16) actuators 504b arranged in a 4x4 array, an assembly 502c with 457 actuators 504c arranged in an array, and an assembly 502d with 2,111 actuators 504d arranged in an array. In this example, the assembly 502c has a width 542 of about 8.2 cm. As another example, the assembly may include 1,500 actuators and have a width of 15 cm x 15 cm.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0071] FIG.6 is an exploded view illustrating components that may be utilized for one or more of the actuator embodiments shown in FIGS.10-16 and 38-45. Each actuator embodiment disclosed herein includes a first component, such as first component 608, an output component, such as output component 612, an absorber component positioned between the first component and the output component, such as absorber component 614, and at least one cavity or chamber, such as first cavity 618 or second cavity 622, holding / containing a gas. As discussed below in greater detail, in some embodiments, the cavities 618, 622 are in fluid communication (see e.g., FIG.10) while in other embodiments, the cavities 618, 622 are not in fluid communication (see e.g., FIG.14). Some actuator embodiments further include one or more additional components positioned between the first component 608 and output component 612 (see FIGS.10-13. For example, as illustrated in FIG.6, the actuator 604 may further include a first internal component 616, positioned between the first component 608 and the absorber component 614, and a second internal component 620, positioned between the absorber component 614 and the output component 612. As shown in FIG.6, the components form an assembly 602 comprising a plurality of actuators 604.

[0072] In some embodiments, the first component 608 is configured to define an optical window for each actuator 604 (as shown in FIG.10). In other embodiments, the first component 608 may include a fiber optic element (see e.g., FIG.42). Because the first component 608 is positioned along an outer surface of the actuator 604, the first component 608 may be described as a first outer component. In at least one embodiment, the first component 608 is configured to transmit light. For example, the first component 608 may be optically transparent, transparent, or translucent. An advantage of an optically transparent first component 608 is that most of the light directed towards the actuator 604 may be transmitted to the absorber component 614, which may enhance the efficiency of the actuator 604. In the example shown in FIG.6, the first component 608 is a layer of material. In other embodiments, the first component 608 may be a section of housing component (see FIG.14). The first component 608 may be about 0.1 mm to about 2.0 mm thick. The first component 608 may be flexible or rigid. The firstO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 component 608 of a flexible assembly may be thinner than the first component 608 of a rigid assembly. For example, the first component 608 of a rigid assembly may be 6x thicker than the first component 608 of a flexible assembly. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the first component 608 include acrylic, glass, polycarbonate, poly(methyl methacrylate), and transparent ceramics.

[0073] The absorber component, such as absorber component 614, may absorb light (entirely or partially), be thermally conductive, be thermally stable, and / or low mass. An absorber component as disclosed herein may also be referred to as a photoabsorber. The absorber component may be a sheet / layer. In some embodiments, the absorber component is flexible. The absorber component may be manufactured from an opaque material, a partially opaque material, and / or a translucent material. In some embodiments, the absorber component is configured so that some of the light passes through the absorber component 614. For example, the absorber component may be partially opaque or translucent. As another example, the material may be porous. In other embodiments, the shape of the absorber component does not occlude all the light that has entered the actuator. For example, the absorber component may include at least one hole (shown for example in FIG.9) or the absorber component may be made of a porous material (e.g., formed of graphite felt material or a thin film material). In other embodiments, some of the light may be routed around the absorber component. For example, the actuator may include an optical path parallel to cavity (e.g., simple thin fiber optic vertical via), with light directed to optical via scattering in cavity or by directing a fraction of projected light to a lower aperture for the optical fiber. A benefit of utilizing actuators configured so that some of the light passes through the absorber component is that the assembly may be utilized for a visual-haptic device.

[0074] The absorber component may have a heat capacity of less than 10-6J / K up to a heat capacity of greater than 1 J / K. In some embodiments, the heat capacity of the absorber component is affected by the planar dimensions (area) of the absorber component. For example, an absorber component with a smaller area may have a smaller heat capacity than an absorber component with a larger area. In at least one embodiment,O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 minimizing the thermal mass of the material utilized for the absorber component yields a large increase in gas pressure when light is absorbed.

[0075] The absorber component may be about 0.5 μm to more than 500 μm thick. Examples of materials that may be utilized for the absorber component include carbon materials (e.g., pyrolytic graphite, expanded graphite, carbon aerogels, carbon film, carbon felt, carbon foam, graphite felt, carbon nanomaterials, metal foam, metal alloy film, metal matrix composite, metallic fibrous felt, porous metal foam, silica aerogels, cenospheres, metal nanoparticle or nanostructure enhanced materials, or composites thereof. An advantage of these materials is that they can be engineered to have a low heat capacity Cabs, high temperature stability, and high optical absorbance across visible wavelengths. An advantage of metal nanoparticle or nanostructures is that they can facilitate absorption via plasmon resonance effects. An advantage of felt materials and foams is their reduced mass, and thus reduced heat capacity. In some embodiments, the absorber component may include sections with lower thermal conductivity and sections with higher thermal conductivity. Silica aerogels may have low thermal conductivity. Carbon and metal materials may have high thermal conductivity.

[0076] As discussed above, in at least one embodiment, the actuator is configured to generate an output by converting light energy absorbed by the absorber component into another form of energy (i.e., the output). The output component 612 of actuator 604, illustrated in FIG.6, is an example of an output component 612 configured to generate a perceptible output by reversible deformation, as shown in FIG.2. For example, the output component 612 may be a diaphragm or a bellows structure. In this embodiment, the output component 612 is elastically deformable. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for a deformable output component 612 include elastomeric materials or thin materials which may be formed into a diaphragm or bellows structure. For example, the deformable output component 612 may include silicone. In this example, the deformable output component 612 is a layer that may be 0.01-5 mm thick. In some embodiments, the material forming the deformable output component 612 is tacky. An advantage of utilizing a tacky material for the deformable output componentO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 612 is that adhesive is not required to couple the deformable output component 612 to another component of the actuator.

[0077] In some embodiments, the first internal component 616 defines a cavity / chamber positioned adjacent to the optical window (see e.g., FIG.10). In other embodiments, the first internal component 616 is positioned adjacent to the first component 608 and is configured to transmit light that enters through the first component 608 (see e.g., FIG. 11). For example, the first internal component 616 may be optically transparent, or translucent. The first internal component 616 may also be flexible. An advantage of an optically transparent first internal component 616 is that most of the light transmitted through the first component 608 may be transmitted to the absorber component 614 with minimal reflections of the light, which may enhance the efficiency of the actuator 604. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the first internal component 616 include polydimethylsioxane (PDMS), silicone rubber, aluminum or other metals, acrylic, carbon-based materials (felt, paper), thermally conductive fabric, ceramic composites, aerogels, felts, or other solid materials, coated materials, or other composite materials. The first internal component 616 may be 0.01-100 mm thick.

[0078] In at least one embodiment, the first internal component 616 at least partially defines a first cavity 618. In some embodiments, the first cavity 618 may extend from the first component 608 to absorber component 614, best shown in FIG.10. In other embodiments, the first cavity 618 may extend from the first internal component 616 to the absorber component 614, best shown in FIG.11. In other embodiments, the absorber component 614 may be a volume filling material such as felt, or a dispersed material such as cenosphere particulate. A gas may be held in the first cavity 618. In some embodiments, the gas is atmospheric air. Other examples of gases that may be held in the first cavity 618 include helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, xenon or other noble gases, or mixtures of such gases.

[0079] The second internal component 620 may also be flexible. An advantage of an optically transparent second internal component 620 is that the assembly 602 may be utilized to output light in addition to mechanical energy, as discussed above. Some non-O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the second internal component 620 include polydimethylsioxane (PDMS), silicone rubber, aluminum or other metals, acrylic or other plastics, carbon-based materials (felt, paper, graphite), thermally conductive fabric, inorganic felts, or coated materials. The second internal component 620 may be 0.01-100 mm thick.

[0080] In at least one embodiment, the second internal component 620 defines a second cavity 622 that extends from the output component 612 to the absorber component 614, best shown in FIG.10. A gas may be held in the second cavity 622. In some embodiments, the gas is atmospheric air. Other examples of gases that may be held in the second cavity 622 include helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, xenon or other noble gases, or mixtures of such gases.

[0081] FIG.7 are plan views of layouts for the components of an assembly comprising a plurality of actuators, collectively actuators 704, according to some embodiments. One of the actuators 704a of the plurality of actuators 704 is identified in image 703 and image 705. Image 701 is a plan view of a first component 708 of the assembly. The first component 708 includes a plurality of mounting holes 709. In this example, the assembly has a width, identified by line 742, of 162 mm. Image 703 is a plan view of an absorber component 714 of the assembly. One of the actuators 704, actuator 704a is identified. As discussed below in greater detail, an optical target is defined at each actuator location (see FIG.8 and FIG.9). The absorber component 714 includes a plurality of mounting holes 715. Image 705 is a plan view of a component that may be a first internal component 716 or a second internal component 720 of the assembly. Each internal component 716, 720 defines a cavity, such as cavities 618, 622 shown in FIG.6, at the location of each actuator 704. Each internal component 716, 720 includes a plurality of mounting holes 717. The mounting holes 709, 715, and 717 are configured to secure the assembly to a device. Thus, when the assembly is fabricated, the mounting holes 709, 715, and 717 are aligned. The number and placement of the mounting holes may vary. In this example, each component has ten (10) mounting holes 709, 715, and 717, with aO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 mounting hole located at each corner, and along the sides. In this example, the mounting holes positioned along the sides are positioned partially within the array of actuators 704.

[0082] FIG.8 are plan views of layouts for the components of an assembly comprising a single actuator 804 according to some embodiments. In this example, the assembly has a width 842 of 15 mm. Image 801 is a plan view of a first component 808 of the assembly. The first component 808 includes a plurality of mounting holes 809. In this example, each mounting hole 809 has a diameter 811 of about 3.3 mm. Image 803 is a plan view of an absorber component 814 of the assembly. At the location of the actuator 804 the absorber component 814 defines an optical target 824 with a radius 844. The absorber component 814 further includes a plurality of mounting holes 815. Image 805 is a plan view of a component that may be a first internal component 816 or a second internal component 820 of the assembly. Each internal component 816, 820 defines a cavity 818, 822 at the location of each actuator 704, as discussed above. Each internal component 816, 820 includes a plurality of mounting holes 817. The mounting holes 809, 815, and 817 are configured to secure the assembly to a device. Thus, when the assembly is fabricated, the mounting holes 809, 815, and 817 are aligned. In this example, each component has four (4) mounting holes 809, 815, and 817 located at the corners with the actuator 804 positioned in the middle.

[0083] FIG.9 is a plan view of a layout of an absorber component 914 for an assembly according to some embodiments. In this example, the absorber component 914 includes a 3x3 array of actuators 904. The absorber component 914 is patterned to create arrays of rectangular optical targets 924 (2 mm x 1.5 mm) which are connected to the rest of the absorber component 914 via bridges 928 having a width, w. The pattern includes a plurality of holes, collectively holes 919. In this example, there are two holes, such as hole 919a and hole 919b, defining each optical target 924. In this example, the optical target 924 may include a body 926 and two bridges 928 that have a width 946 less than the width of the body 926. In some embodiments, the holes 919 provide fluid communication between the cavity positioned on one side of the optical target 924, such as first cavity 618, and the cavity positioned on the other side of the optical target 924,O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 such as second cavity 622. As discussed below in greater detail, fluid communication between the cavities may enhance performance of the actuator.

[0084] FIG.10 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 1004 according to some embodiments. In this embodiment, the actuator 1004 has a height 1038 measured from the first outer surface 1006 to the second outer surface 1010, a width / diameter 1044, and includes a first component 1008 defining an optical window 1009, an output component 1012, an absorber component 1014 including an optical target 1024 and positioned between the first component 1008 and the output component 1012, a first internal component 1016 positioned between the first component 1008 and the absorber component 1014, a first cavity 1018 positioned adjacent to a first side of the absorber component 1014, a second internal component 1020 positioned between the absorber component 1014 and the output component 1012, and a second cavity 1022 located adjacent to a second side of the absorber component 1014. In this embodiment, the first cavity 1018 is defined by the first component 1008, the first internal component 1016 (walls 1017a, 1017b), and the absorber component 1014. In this embodiment, the second cavity 1022 is defined by the output component 1012, the second internal component 1020 (walls 1021a, 1021b), and the absorber component 1014. For example, the first internal component 1016 may have a through hole, with a diameter equal to the width of the optical window 1009, positioned at the location of each actuator 1004. In this embodiment, the material forming the first internal component 1016 may be opaque. As discussed above, the optical target 1024 may be defined by holes, such as holes 919, that provide fluid communication between the first cavity 1018 and the second cavity 1022 (not visible in this view).

[0085] FIG.11 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 1104 according to some embodiments. Like, the actuator 1004 illustrated in FIG.10, the actuator 1104 includes a first outer surface 1106, a first component 1108 defining an optical window 1109, an output component 1112, a second outer surface 1110, an absorber component 1114 including an optical target 1124 and positioned between the first component 1108 and the output component 1112, a first internal component 1116 positioned between the firstO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 component 1108 and the absorber component 1114, a first cavity 1118 extending between the first internal component 1116 and the absorber component 1114, a second internal component 1120 positioned between the absorber component 1114 and the output component 1112, and a second cavity 1122 extending between the output component 1112 and the absorber component 1114 and defined by walls 1121a, 1121b. In contrast to the first cavity 1018 illustrated in FIG.10, in this embodiment, the first cavity 1118 is defined by the absorber component 1114 and the first internal component 1116 with the first internal component 1116 forming walls / sides 1117a, 1117b of the first cavity 1118. The first internal component 1116 may include one or more indentations or areas where the thickness of the first internal component 1116 is less than the thickness adjacent to the indentation / area. The surface(s) of the indentation may be curved (not shown) or straight, as shown in FIG.11. In this embodiment, the first internal component 1116 may be configured to transmit light. As discussed above, the optical target 1124 may be defined by holes, such as holes 919, that provide fluid communication between the first cavity 1118 and the second cavity 1122 (not visible in this view).

[0086] FIG.12 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 1204 according to some embodiments. The actuator 1204 is a ported design configured to exchange heat with the environment via stimulated air flow. Like the actuator 1004 illustrated in FIG.10, the actuator 1204 has a height 1238, a width 1244, and includes a first outer surface 1206, a first component 1208 defining an optical window 1209, an output component 1212, a second outer surface 1210, an absorber component 1214 including an optical target 1224 and positioned between the first component 1208 and the output component 1212, a first internal component 1216 positioned between the first component 1208 and the absorber component 1214, a first cavity 1218 extending between the first internal component 1216 and the absorber component 1214, a second internal component 1220 positioned between the absorber component 1214 and the output component 1212, and a second cavity 1222 extending between the output component 1212 and the absorber component 1214. The first cavity 1218 is defined by the first component 1208, the first internal component 1216 (walls 1217a, 1217b), and the absorber component 1214. In this embodiment, theO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 second cavity 1222 is defined by the output component 1212, the second internal component 1220 (walls 1221a, 1221b), and the absorber component 1214. Unlike the actuator embodiments described above, the actuator 1204 includes a space / open passageway 1240 positioned between the output component 1212 and the second internal component 1220 and in fluid communication with the second cavity 1222. As discussed below, the passageway 1240 is configured so that gas and heat in the second cavity 1222 may be exchanged with the environment (see FIG.18). In some embodiments, the open passageway 1240 is defined by the second internal component 1220.

[0087] FIG.13 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 1304 according to some embodiments. Like, the actuator 1004 illustrated in FIG.10, the actuator 1304 includes a first outer surface 1306, a first component 1308 defining an optical window 1309, an output component 1312, a second outer surface 1310, an absorber component 1314 including an optical target 1324 and positioned between the first component 1308 and the output component 1312, a first internal component 1316 positioned between the first component 1308 and the absorber component 1314, and a first cavity 1318 extending between the first component 1308 and the absorber component 1314 (partially defined by walls 1317a, 1317b formed by the first internal component 1316). Unlike the actuators 1004, 1104 discussed above, this embodiment lacks a second internal component, such as second internal component 1120 and lacks second cavity, such as second cavity 1122. Rather, the absorber component 1314 is immediately adjacent to the output component 1312.

[0088] FIG.14 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 1404 according to some embodiments. The actuator 1404 has a different configuration to convert light energy into a perceptible output by a deformable component. Actuator 1404 is configured as a two- chamber photo-thermo-mechanical actuator. In theory, the actuator 1404 may attain thethermodynamic Carnot efficiency bound of ^^ ≤ 1 − ^^^^^^^^^^⁄ ^^ℎ^^^^ . Like the actuator 1004shown in FIG.10, the actuator 1404 in FIG.14 includes a first outer surface 1406, a first component 1408 forming an optical window 1409 configured to transmit light 1432, a second outer surface 1410, an output component 1412, an absorber component 1414, aO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 first cavity 1418, and a second cavity 1422. In contrast to the actuator 1004 shown in FIG.10, the actuator 1404 in FIG.14 further includes a first housing component 1450 containing the first component 1408, a regeneration component 1452 with a heat absorbing section 1453 and a thermally insulating section 1454, a first deformable member 1411 extending between the first housing component 1450 and the regeneration component 1452, and a third cavity 1426 defined by the first deformable member 1411 and the absorber component 1414. Another difference is that the first cavity 1418 and the second cavity 1422 are gas filled cavities that are in fluid communication via the regeneration component 1452. In other words, the regeneration component 1452 fluidically couples the first cavity 1418 and the second cavity 1422 in contrast to fluid communication via holes in the absorber component as discussed above. The area between the output component 1412 and the first deformable member 1411 forms a part of the second cavity 1422 which contains a gas. In this embodiment, the second cavity 1422 is utilized as a “cool” cavity.

[0089] With regard to the common components, as shown in FIG.14, the first component 1408 may have the same thickness as the thickness of the first housing component 1450. This may reduce reflections of light so that more of the light is directed to the absorber component 1414. The output component 1412 extends over an opening in the second housing component 1456. like output component 612, the output component 1412 may be elastically deformable. Other attributes, characteristics, suitable materials, etc. of these shared components are discussed above with reference to FIG.6.

[0090] Turning to the additional components, in addition to forming the first outer surface 1406, the first housing component 1450 may form a first section of the sides of the actuator 1404. In some embodiments, the first housing component 1450 may be thermally insulating. The first housing component 1450 may also be rigid. Materials that may be utilized for the first housing component 1450 include ceramics, ceramic composites, glass, glass composites, to name a few.

[0091] In addition to forming the second outer surface 1410, the second housing component 1456 may form a second section of the sides of the actuator 1404. As shownO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 in FIG.14, the sides of the actuator 1404 are formed by the first housing component 1450 and the second housing component 1456. In some embodiments, the second housing component 1456 may be thermally conductive. The second housing component 1456 may also be rigid. Materials that may be utilized for the second housing component 1456 include metal, carbon materials, to name a few.

[0092] The regeneration component 1452 extends from the first housing component 1450. The regeneration component 1452 may include a heat absorbing section 1453 extending from the first housing component 1450 and a thermally insulating section 1454 extending from the heat absorbing section 1453. A portion of the regeneration component 1452 may be porous. For example, the heat absorbing section 1453 may be porous. Materials that may be utilized for the heat absorbing section 1453 of the regeneration component 1452 include metal mesh, metal fiber composite, carbon felt, or other porous thermally conductive materials. Material that may be utilized for the thermally insulating section 1454 include ceramics, ceramic composites, glass, glass composites, aerogels, glass fiber, or silica composites, to name a few.

[0093] The first deformable member 1411 may be elastically deformable. Some non- limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the first deformable member 1411 include elastomeric materials or thin materials which may be formed into a diaphragm or bellows structure. For example, the first deformable member 1411 may include silicone. The area between the first deformable member 1411 and the absorber component 1414 forms a part of the third cavity 1426 which contains a gas. In this example, the third cavity 1426 is a “hot cavity.” As shown in FIG.14, heat energy generated by the absorption of light by the absorber component 1414 is transferred to the gas contained in the third cavity 1426, the “hot cavity.” causing an increase in the pressure and volume of the gas contained in third (hot) cavity 1426 which deflects the first deformable member 1411. Deflection of the first deformable member 1411 increases the pressure in the gas in the second cavity 1422, the “cold cavity.” The increased pressure in the third (hot) cavity 1426 also causes gas to be expelled through the regeneration component 1452 into the second (cold) cavity 1422. The gas in the second (cold) cavity 1422 continues to increaseO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 in pressure, and thus volume, deflecting the output component 1412. Heat in the gas reaching the second (cold) cavity 1422 subsequently escapes through the walls formed by the second housing component 1456, which is thermally conductive. The regeneration component 1452 retains heat from the gas, returning heat back to the gas as the gas cools, thus recycling energy.

[0094] As discussed above, in some embodiments, the actuator is configured to convert light energy into a mechanical output. FIG.15 illustrates an example of an actuator 1404configured to generate a mechanical output. The configuration of actuator 1504 is similar to the actuator 1404 shown in FIG.14. For example, the actuator 1504 includes a first outer surface 1506, a first component 1508 defining an optical window 1509 configured to transmit light 1532, a second outer surface 1510, an absorber component 1514, a regeneration component 1552 with a heat absorbing section 1553 and a thermally insulating section 1554, a first deformable member 1511, a first cavity 1518, a second cavity 1522, a third cavity 1526, and a housing component 1551 defining an interior space where the absorber component 1514, the first deformable member 1511, and the regeneration component 1552 are located. However, instead of the output component 1412 shown in FIG.14, the output component 1512 is a mechanical assembly – a piston 1570 and crank shaft 1572 in this example. Other non-limiting examples of mechanical assemblies that can be utilized for the output component 1512 include flexure mechanisms, mechanical linkages, rolling diaphragm pistons, bellows mechanisms, or other mechanical couplings. In this example the housing component 1551 may include a second upper housing component 1456 that is thermally conductive. In some embodiments, the housing component 1551 is thermally insulating. In other embodiments, the housing component 1551 may include a second upper housing component that is thermally conductive, like the second housing component 1456 discussed above. The housing component 1551 may further be rigid. Materials that may be utilized for the housing component 1551 include ceramics, ceramic composites, glass, glass composites, aerogels, glass fiber, or silica composites, to name a few.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0095] As discussed above, in some embodiments, the actuator is configured to convert light energy into a pressure wave. FIG.16 illustrates an example of an actuator 1604 configured to convert light energy into a pressure wave that is expelled via the port 1684. The actuator 1604 may be described as an optofluidic impulse actuator. Like the previously discussed embodiments, the actuator 1604 includes a first component 1608 forming an optical window 1609, an absorber component 1614 defining an optical target 1624, an output component 1612, a first cavity 1618 containing a gas, and a second cavity 1622 containing a gas. Unlike the previously discussed embodiments, the actuator 1604 lacks a deformable component. Rather, in this embodiment, the output component 1612 includes a passageway 1682 in fluid communication with the second cavity 1622 and a port 1684 through which the pressure wave exits the actuator 1604. The port 1684 may be described as an acoustic port. The size of the entrance to the passageway 1682 from the second cavity 1622 and / or the size of the passageway 1682 may be configured to compress the gas flowing therethrough. Optionally the actuator 1604 further includes a barometric pressure sensor 1686. In this example, the barometric pressure sensor 1686 is positioned in the passageway 1682. The actuator 1604 further includes a housing 1651 defining the first cavity 1618 and the second cavity 1622. In this example, an optional reflective coating 1680 lines the interior surface of the housing 1651 defining the first cavity 1618 and / or the second cavity 1622. The reflective coating 1680 may increase the efficiency of the actuator 1604 by reflecting light back to the optical target 1624 / absorber component 1614 (see FIG.20A). Thus, the first cavity 1618 and / or the second cavity 1622 may be described as optical cavities.

[0096] The actuator embodiments discussed above have similar modes of operation. The images 1701, 1703, 1705 provided in FIG.17 are cross-sectional illustrating the reversible response of an actuator 1704 to light 1730 according to some embodiments. The configuration of actuator 1704 is the same as the actuator 1004 illustrated in FIG.10 – there is an absorber component positioned between two cavities. Actuator 1104 also includes an absorber component positioned between two cavities. Image 1701 illustrates an initial configuration (state) at time t0 of the actuator 1704. At time t0, no light isO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 directed to the actuator 1704 and the pressure in the cavities 1718, 1722 is an initial pressure P0 and the temperature is an initial temperature T0. This initial configuration may be described as a rest state or a non-actuated state where the actuator 1704 is “OFF.”

[0097] Image 1703 illustrates a first configuration (state) of the actuator 1704 at time t1(t1 = t0 + ε) when light 1730 has been absorbed for a time period (ε). As illustrated in image 1703, the light 1730 is transmitted through the first component 1708, the first cavity 1718 and is being absorbed by the absorber component 1714. At time t1, the temperature T in the cavities 1718, 1722 is greater than the initial temperature T0while the pressure P of the cavities 1718, 1722 is approximately the same as the pressure P0 (T > T0and P ~ P0).

[0098] Image 1705 illustrates a second configuration (state) of the actuator at time t2(t2> t1) of light absorption. Image 1705 illustrates the response to light 1730 that has been transmitted for a period of time t2 (t2 > t1). The light 1730 continued to be absorbed by the absorber component 1714 and the temperature T in the cavities 1718, 1722 is much greater than the initial temperature T0 and the pressure P of the cavities 1718, 1722 is much greater than the initial pressure P0 (T >> T0 and P >> P0). Due to the increased pressure P and temperature T in the cavities 1718, 1722, the gas expands according to the ideal gas law, PV = nRT (P is pressure of the gas, V is volume of the gas, n is the number of moles of gas, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is temperature of the gas). Due to the expansion of the gas, the output component 1712 expands / deforms outward. As discussed above, the cavities 1718, 1722 may be in fluid communication via holes 919 cut in the absorber component, as shown in FIG.9 discussed above. Fluid communication between the cavities 1718, 1722 may enhance the performance of the actuator 1704 because all the heat transferred from the absorber component to the gas in the cavities 1718, 1722 may be utilized to generate a force.

[0099] An actuator with a single cavity, such as actuator 1304 illustrated in FIG.13, has a similar mode of operation. At time t0, no light is directed to the actuator 1304 and the pressure in the cavity 1318, is an initial pressure P0and the temperature is an initial temperature T0. This initial configuration may be described as a rest state where theO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 actuator 1304 is “OFF.” At time t1(t1= t0+ ε) when light has been absorbed for a time period (ε). The light is transmitted through the first component 1308, the first cavity 1318 and absorbed by the absorber component 1314. At time t1, the temperature T in the cavity 1318 is greater than the initial temperature T0while the pressure P of the cavity 1318 is approximately the same as the pressure P0 (T > T0 and P ~ P0). At time t2 (t2 > t1), light has continued to be absorbed by the absorber component 1314 and the temperature T in the first cavity 1318 is much greater than the initial temperature T0and the pressure P of the first cavity 1318 is much greater than the initial pressure P0(T >> T0and P >> P0). Due to the increased pressure P and temperature T in the first cavity 1318, the gas expands according to the ideal gas law, PV = nRT. The holes in the absorber component 1314 provide paths for the expanded gas in the first cavity 1318 to apply a force to the output component 1312 which results in the expansion / deformation of the output component 1312.

[0100] An actuator with a passageway, such as actuator 1204 illustrated in FIG. 12, has a similar mode of operation as actuators without a passageway, such as actuator 1704 discussed above. The actuator 1204 has an initial configuration (state) at time t0 of the actuator (not shown). At time t0, no light is directed to the actuator 1204 and the pressure in the cavities is an initial pressure P0and the temperature is an initial temperature T0. This initial configuration may be described as a rest state where the actuator 1204 is “OFF.” The actuator 1204 has a first configuration (state) of the actuator 1704 at time t1(t1= t0+ ε) when light 1830 has been absorbed for a time period (ε) (not shown). The light 1830 is transmitted through the first component 1208, the first cavity 1218 and is being absorbed by the absorber component 1214. At time t1, the temperature T in the cavities 1218, 1222 is greater than the initial temperature T0while the pressure P of the cavities 1218, 1222 is approximately the same as the pressure P0(T > T0and P ~ P0). The actuator 1204 has a second configuration (state) at time t2 (t2 > t1) of light absorption. Image 1805, provided in FIG.18, illustrates the response to light 1830 that has been transmitted for a period of time t2(t2> t1). The light 1830 continues to be absorbed by the absorber component 1714 and, when the pressure P in the cavitiesO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 1218,1222 exceeds a threshhold pressure Pth,an aperture to the environment is opened, enabling gas exchange. Due to the increased pressure P and temperature T in the cavities 1718, 1722, the gas expands according to the ideal gas law, PV = nRT. Due to the expansion of the gas, the output component 1712 expands / deforms outward. As discussed above, the cavities 1718, 1722 may be in fluid communication via holes 919 cut in the absorber component, as shown in FIG.9 discussed above. Fluid communication between the cavities 1718, 1722 may enhance the performance of the actuator 1704 because all the heat transferred from the absorber component to the gas in the cavities 1718, 1722 may be utilized to generate a force.

[0101] As discussed above, activation of the actuator is a reversible operation. The reversible response of the actuator is illustrated graphically in FIG.19 by graph 1900 of a PV diagram 1902 of work that may be done by an actuator, such as actuator 1704, according to some embodiments. As illustrated in the PV diagram 1902, a closed loop is formed by the lines 1904, 1906, 1908, and 1910. Line 1904 indicates an increase in pressure P at a constant volume V. Line 1906 indicates an increase in volume V, a decrease in pressure P, and an increase in temperature T. Line 1908 indicates a decrease in pressure P at a constant volume V. Line 1910 indicates a decrease in volume V, an increase in pressure P, and a decrease in temperature T. For the actuator 1704 illustrated in FIG.17, when the light stops being absorbed by the absorber component the configuration of the actuator reverses – from the second configuration as illustrated in image 1705 to the first configuration illustrated in image 1703, and then to the rest state configuration illustrated in image 1701. In this way, refreshable tactile graphics may be outputted by a system, like system 100 shown in FIG.1.

[0102] FIGS.20A-D illustrates the principle of operation for the actuator 1604 illustrated in FIG.16. In this example, light 1632 emitted from a light source 2030 is directed to the optical window 1609 by an optical component 2034. However, as discussed above, the light source 2030 may direct the light 1632 through free space (no optical component) or the light source 2030 may be an optical fiber. Light transmitted into the first cavity 1618 is absorbed by the absorber component 1614. FIG.20AO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 illustrates a light pulse with energy E delivered to the actuator 1604 heating the absorber component 1614 to Tabs which may be represented by Tabs ≈ E / (CVρ). In some embodiments Tabs is about 103K, although significantly higher or lower temperatures may be attained. As shown in FIG.20A, some of the light 1632 that enters the actuator 1604 may be reflected off the reflective coating 1680 lining the first cavity 1618 and / or second cavity 1622 and the reflected light 1633 may also be absorbed by the absorber component 1614. As shown in FIG.20B, heat (arrows) generated by the absorption of light 1632, 1633 by the absorber component 1614 begins to heat the gas held in the second cavity 1622. Rapid heat transfer to the gas drives supersonic gas expansion. As shown in FIG.20C and FIG.20D, the heated gas 2090 moves (indicated by arrows) from the second cavity 1622, through the passageway 1682, and an air pressure pulse exits the actuator 1604 via the port 1684. Fig.20C illustrates that strong shock formation in the gas causes a high amplitude propagating pressure pulse. As discussed above, the size of the entrance to the passageway 1682 from the second cavity 1622 and / or the size of the passageway 1682 may be configured to compress the heated gas 2090 flowing therethrough.

[0103] FIG.21 and FIG.22 are flowcharts of exemplary methods for manufacturing an actuator. FIG.21 is a flowchart of a method 2100 that may be utilized to manufacture an actuator 1004, 1104 comprising a first component 1008, 1108, an output component 1012, 1112, an absorber component 1014, 1114, a first internal component 1016, 1116, and a second internal component 1020, 1120, as shown in FIG. 10 and FIG.11. In some embodiments, the manufacture of the assembly begins with the first component and ends with the component. In other embodiments, the manufacture of the assembly begins with the second component and ends with the component.

[0104] At step 2110, a first component is coupled to a second component. In at least one embodiment, an adhesive is utilized to couple the first component to the second component. In some embodiments, the adhesive is double-sided silicone tape. Before step 2110, the first component and / or the second component may be preprocessed. Pre- processing of the first component may include cutting the first component to a desiredO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 size and / or cutting a plurality of mounting holes. Pre-processing the second component may include cutting the first component to a desired size, cutting a plurality of mounting holes, and / or cutting a hole at each location an actuator is to be positioned. As discussed above, the actuators may be arranged in an array or another pattern. Also, as discussed above, the mounting holes in the first and second component should align. A laser may be utilized to cut holes in the first component and / or the second component.

[0105] In one implementation, the first component is a first component 1008, 1108 and the second component is a first internal component 1016, 1116. The first component may be optically transparent, transparent, or translucent. The first component may be flexible or rigid. Materials that may be utilized for the first component include acrylic, glass, polycarbonate, poly(methyl methacrylate), and transparent ceramics. In this implementation, the second component may be optically transparent, transparent, or translucent. The second component may also be flexible. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the second component include polydimethylsioxane (PDMS) or silicone rubber. In this implementation, a hole cut into the second component at each actuator location may be a through hole as shown in FIG.10 or a blind hole as shown in FIG.11.

[0106] In another implementation, the first component is an output component 1012, 1112 and the second component is a second internal component 1020, 1120. The first component may be elastically deformable. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the first component include elastomeric materials. For example, the first component may include silicone. In some embodiments, the first component is tacky so that no adhesive is required to couple the first component to the second component. The second component may be optically transparent, transparent, or translucent. The second component may also be flexible. Some non-limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the second component include polydimethylsioxane (PDMS) or silicone rubber. In this implementation, a hole cut into the second component at each actuator location is a through hole.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0107] At step 2120, an absorber component 1014, 1114 is coupled to the second component. In at least one embodiment, the absorber component is a pyrolytic graphic sheet. Before step 2120, the absorber component 1014, 1114 may be pre-processed. Pre- processing the absorber component may include cutting the absorber component to a desired size, cutting a plurality of mounting holes, and / or removing any adhesive on the absorber component. Pre-processing the absorber component may further include cutting a pair of holes, such as holes 919 shown in FIG.9, at each location an actuator is to be positioned. A vinyl cutter may be utilized to cut holes in the absorber component.

[0108] At step 2130, the absorber component 1014, 1114 is coupled to a third component. In one implementation, the third component is a second internal component 1020, 1120, discussed above. In another implementation, the third component is a first internal component 1016, 1116, discussed above.

[0109] At step 2140 the third component is coupled to a fourth component. In one implementation, the fourth component is an output component 1012, 1112 as discussed above. In another implementation, the fourth component is a first component 1008, 1108.

[0110] FIG.22 is a flowchart of a method 2200 to manufacture an actuator according to some embodiments. For example, the method 2200 may be utilized to manufacture the actuator 1304 comprising a first component 1308, an output component 1312, an absorber component 1314, and a first internal component 1316, as illustrated in FIG.13.

[0111] At step 2210, the first component 1308 is coupled to the first internal component 1316. In at least one embodiment, an adhesive is utilized to couple the first component 1308 to the first internal component 1316. In some embodiments, the adhesive is double-sided silicone tape. Before step 2210, the first component 1308 and / or the first internal component 1316 may be preprocessed. Pre-processing of the first component 1308 may include cutting the first component 1308 to a desired size and / or cutting a plurality of mounting holes. Pre-processing the first internal component 1316 may include cutting the first internal component 1316 to a desired size, cutting a plurality of mounting holes, and / or cutting a hole at each location an actuator is to be positioned.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 As discussed above, the actuators may be arranged in an array or another pattern. Also, as discussed above, the mounting holes in the first component 1308 and the first internal component 1316 should align. A laser may be utilized to cut holes in the first component 1308 and / or the first internal component 1316.

[0112] At step 2220, the absorber component 1314 is coupled to the first internal component 1316. In at least one embodiment, the absorber component 1314 is a pyrolytic graphic sheet. Before step 2220, the absorber component 1314 may be pre-processed. Pre-processing the absorber component 1314 may include cutting the absorber component 1314 to a desired size, cutting a plurality of mounting holes, and / or removing any adhesive on the absorber component 1314. As discussed above, the mounting holes in the absorber component 1314 are configured to align with the mounting holes of the first internal component 1316. Pre-processing the absorber component 1314 may further include cutting a pair of cutouts, such as holes 919 shown in FIG.9, at each location an actuator is to be positioned. A vinyl cutter may be utilized to cut holes in the absorber component 1314.

[0113] At step 2230, the output component 1312 is coupled to the absorber component 1314. The output component 1312 may be elastically deformable. Some non- limiting examples of materials that may be utilized for the output component 1312 include elastomeric materials. For example, the output component 1312 may include silicone. In some embodiments, the output component 1312 is tacky so that no adhesive is required to couple the output component 1312 to the absorber component 1314. As discussed above, the output component 1312 includes mounting holes configured to align with the mounting holes of the absorber component 1314.

[0114] FIG.38 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 3804 according to some embodiments. The actuator 3804 may be utilized as either an actuator or a force sensor, or as an actuator and a force sensor simultaneously. The actuator 3804 includes an output component 3812, a first wall 3821a, a second wall 3821b, an optical window 3809, and a photoabsorber 3824 suspended within a cavity 3818 by a suspension structure 3826. The walls, collectively 3821, extend between the output component 3812 and the opticalO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 window 3809. The cavity 3818 is defined by the walls 3821, the output component 3812, and the optical window 3809. A gas, with an initial temperature T0, may be held in the cavity 3818. In some embodiments, the gas is atmospheric air. Other examples of gases include helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, xenon or other noble gases, or mixtures of such gases.

[0115] Like the output components discussed above, the output component 3812 is flexible and / or deformable and may be fabricated from elastomeric materials or thin materials which may be formed into a flexible membrane, a diaphragm or bellows structure. For example, the output component 3812 may include silicone. In one embodiment, the output component 3812 is fabricated from a platinum-catalyzed silicone, such as EcoFlex™ 00-10 rubbers available from Smooth-On, Inc. The output component 3812 may be 0.01-5 mm thick. In some embodiments, the material forming the output component 3812 is tacky. An advantage of utilizing a tacky material for the output component 3812 is that adhesive is not required to couple the output component 3812 to another component of the actuator.

[0116] In one embodiment, the photoabsorber 3824 is an opaque film, with thickness 10 to 20 micrometers, suspended via a high gauge (for example, AWG 32) metal wire suspension structure 3826 fastened, clamped, or bonded to the cavity wall or to the output component and attached, bonded, or piercing the photoabsorber 3824. For example, the photoabsorber 3824 may be a portion of pyrolytic graphite sheet with thickness 15 micrometers. In other embodiments, the suspension structure 3826 may be comprised of solid fins, pillars, or other supports extending from the wall and positioning the photoabsorber in the optical path. The suspension structure 3826 may be tunable. For example, the thermal mass and / or the thermal resistance and / or the stiffness of the suspension structure 3826 may be selected. Examples of materials that may be thermally or mechanically tuned include ceramic wire, metal alloy wire, or silica aerogel, which may be tuned by selection of the material composition, dimensions, cross-sectional geometry, porosity and / or cell structure, adjusting density and / or pore structure, or nanostructure of a composite of metal, ceramic, or other material.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0117] The response of the actuator 3804 to an applied stimulus is illustrated in FIG.39A (optical energy 3930) and FIG.39B (external force 3940). In some embodiments, the addition of optical energy 3930 through the optical window 3809, onto the photoabsorber 3824 leads to heating of the cavity 3818 to a temperature, Thot> T0. The increase in temperature increases the pressure, and the output component 3812 and photoabsorber 3824 may be displaced outwards (shown as a vertical displacement), thereby creating an output force due to the increased pressure. In one non-limiting example, a cavity 3818 with a radius of 5mm was determined to create an output force greater than 300 mN, as illustrated in the graph 4000 illustrated in FIG.40.

[0118] In other embodiments, the addition of an applied external force 3940 to the output component 3812 may displace the output component 3812, and the photoabsorber 3824 coupled thereto, inwards. Displacement of the output component 3812 and photoabsorber 3824, by an applied external force 3940 may be independent from the temperature (T0or Thot) in the cavity 3818. As discussed above, if the actuator 3804 is incorporated into a tactile device, the applied external force may be a finger pressing the actuator 3804.

[0119] FIG.41 illustrates the actuator 3804 with an applied external force, as shown in FIG.39B, coupled to an optical source 4128, and a sensing unit 4150. The optical source 4128 may be configured to provide low power optical energy. Low-power optical energy may be less than 400 millijoules per optical pulse, or less than 100 millijoules per pulse at even lower energies. For example, as shown in FIG.41, the optical source 4128 may be a laser unit configured to supply optical energy 4130 via shorter duration (0.1 to 20 millisecond duration) pulses of light with higher instantaneous optical or longer duration (20 to 500 milliseconds) with lower instantaneous optical. Depending on the embodiment, instantaneous power may be any value selected from a wide range, such as 0.1W to 20W, as needed to achieve the desired forces or displacements via the output member. Optical energy 4130 delivered to the photoabsorber and may or may not change the temperature T0of the cavity 3818. The sensing unit may be configured to detect light reflected off the photoabsorber of anO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 actuator. For example, as shown in FIG.41, the sensing unit 4150 is configured to detect optical energy 4152 reflected off the photoabsorber 3824 through the optical window 3809. The detected optical energy 4152 may be utilized to determine an amount of the external force applied to the actuator and / or determine a position of the photoabsorber. In some embodiments, the sensing unit 4150 is configured to detect low-power light reflected off the photoabsorber. A sensing unit as shown and described for FIG.41 may be coupled to any actuator disclosed herein in order to detect light reflected off the photoabsorber so that an amount of the external force applied to the actuator and / or a position of the photoabsorber may be determined.

[0120] FIG.42 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 4204 according to some embodiments. The actuator 4204 may be cylindrical, cuboid, or a cube. The actuator 4204 includes at least one wall 4221a, 4221b (collectively, “wall 4221”), a fiber optic element 4230, a photoabsorber 4214 suspended in the cavity 4218, and an output component 4212. The output component 4212 may be a membrane that includes a stiff section 4222 and an elastic section 4224 configured to reversibly expand and contract. The output component 4212 may be coupled to the wall 4221 by the elastic section 4224. The stiff section 4222 may be non-deformable. The stiff section 4222 may be described as a stiff tip of the actuator 4204. The elastic section 4224 has a first length L1when no force is applied, as shown in FIG.42. The cavity 4218 has a first volume and is defined by a first wall 4221a, a second wall 4221b, the fiber optic element 4230, and the output component 4212. Depending on the shape of the actuator 4204, the first wall 4221a and the second wall 4221b may be sections of a single wall 4221. As shown in FIG.42, each end of the photoabsorber 4214 may be coupled to the stiff section 4222 of the output component 4212. In some embodiments, the photoabsorber 4214 is coupled to the stiff section 4222 by bridges, such as bridges 928 discussed above. The output component 4212 may be curved or rounded. For example, as shown in FIG.42, the output component 4212 forms a domed surface of the actuator 4204.

[0121] In some embodiments, the fiber optic element 4230 includes a sealed fiber optic port, at least one optical fiber, and at least one fiber conduit. A fiber conduit mayO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 house a single optical fiber (a single-fiber feed arrangement) or a plurality of optical fibers (a multi-fiber feed arrangement). A laser unit may be coupled to the fiber optic element 4230 (e.g., laser unit 4350 shown in FIG.43B). A sealed fiber optic port may be utilized for systems requiring remote or constrained geometry light delivery. For actuators with a fiber optic port, the photoabsorber may be a low thermal inertia absorber. The fiber conduit may be coupled to an external pulsed laser, diode source, or strobe, and may terminate inside a cavity with a temperature above room temperature, e.g., a hot chamber so that each light pulse impinges on and heats the photoabsorber. The optical fiber may deliver focused or diffuse pulses.

[0122] The response of the actuator 4204 to an applied stimulus is illustrated in FIG.43A (optical energy 4330) and FIG.43B (external force 4340). The addition of optical energy to the photoabsorber 4214 may raise the temperature of the cavity 4218 such that the output component 4212 is displaced in a first direction, thereby increasing the length of the elastic section 4224 from the first length L1to a second length L2(L2> L1), as shown in FIG.43A. More of the applied force may be transmitted to the elastic section 4224A when a stiff section 4222 that is non-deformable is utilized. The increase in the length of the elastic section 4224 may be described as the output of the actuator 4204. The displacement of the output component 4212 in the first direction may cause the volume of the cavity 4218 to increase to a second volume. Likewise, application of an external force 4340 to the output component 4212 may displace the output component 4212 in a second direction, opposite to the first direction, thereby decreasing the length of the elastic section 4224 from the second length L2 to a third length L3, as shown in FIG. 43B. The third length L3 may be less than the first length L1 (L1 > L3). The displacement of the output component 4214 in the second direction may cause the elastic section 4224 to assume a third length L3and may cause the volume of the cavity 4218 to decrease to a third volume. The third length L3 may be less than, or equal to, the second length L2 (L2 ≥ L3). As shown in FIGS.42, 43A and 43B, the shape of the output component 4212 may remain substantially the same when a force (e.g., optical energy, or an applied external force) is applied to the actuator 4204. As shown in FIG.43B, a sensing unit 4352 may beO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 coupled to the actuator 4204. The sensing unit 4352 may be configured to determine the amount of the applied external force 4340. The amount of the external force 4340 may be utilized to determine if the actuator has been depressed, such as for example when a finger presses down on an actuator.

[0123] FIG.44 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 4404 according to some embodiments. The actuator 4404 includes some features described above. For example, the actuator 4404 includes an optical window 4420, a photoabsorber 4426 configured to absorb light 4430, a first chamber 4410, and a second chamber 4414. The actuator 4404, may be cylindrical, cuboid, or a cube.

[0124] The actuator 4404 further includes the feature that the housing 4406 includes with one housing component at least partially positioned inside the other housing component. For example, as shown in FIG.44, a portion of a first housing component 4408 may be positioned inside a second housing component 4412. In this example, the width of the first housing component 4408 is less than the width of the second housing component 4412 so that first housing component 4408 may be inserted into an open side of the second housing component 4412. A wall of the first housing component 4408 may include the optical window 4420. As discussed above, a light source, not shown in FIG.44, may be configured to emit light 4430 through the optical window 4420 to a photoabsorber 4426 suspended in the first chamber 4410.

[0125] In this example, the first chamber 4410 is defined by the first housing component 4408 and a wall 4422 and the second chamber 4414 is defined by the second housing component 4412 and the wall 4422. The wall 4422 may be substantially rigid. As shown in FIG.44, the wall 4422 is positioned inside the first housing component 4408 so that the first housing component 4408 also includes an open side. However, in other embodiments, the wall 4422 may be a side of the first housing component 4408 so that the first housing component 4408 does not have an open side. A gas may be held in both the first chamber 4410 and the second chamber 4414. The volume of the second chamber 4414 may be greater than the volume of the first chamber 4410. As discussed above, theO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 gas may be atmospheric air, helium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, xenon or other noble gases, or mixtures of such gases.

[0126] The housing components 4408, 4412 may be configured to move. For example, as illustrated in FIG.44, the second housing component 4412 may be configured to move relative to the first housing component 4408. A sealed interface between the first and second housing components 4408, 4412 may be provided by at least one seal 4416. The seal 4416 may be configured to prevent gas held inside the housing 4406 from escaping. At least one elastic element 4418, configured to expand and contract, may be coupled to the first and second housing components 4408, 4412 with one end of the elastic element 4418 coupled to the first housing component 4408 and the other end coupled to the second housing component 4412. As shown in FIG.44, the elastic element 4418 is positioned outside of the housing 4406. The elastic element 4418 may be a spring or an elastomeric material.

[0127] The gas in the first chamber 4410 may be at a first temperature TAand a first pressure PA and the gas in the second chamber 4414 may be at a second temperature TB and second pressure TB. In some embodiments, the first temperature TA and the second temperature TBare substantially the same. For example, TAand TBmay be room temperature. In some embodiments, gas may move between the first chamber 4410 and the second chamber 4414 via at least one valve, collectively valve 4424, positioned in the wall 4422. The valve 4424 may be a passive valve, a check valve, and / or an asymmetric or pressure-relief type valve. As illustrated in FIG.44, the first valve 4424a controls flow from the first chamber 4410 to the second chamber 4414 and the second valve 4424b controls flow from the second chamber 4414 to the first chamber 4410. The first and second valves 4424a, 4424b may control flow based on pressure differentials between the first chamber 4410 and the second chamber 4414, thereby driving gas circulation. In some embodiments, the valve 4424 cooperates with a wall 4422 configured as an insulated partition to direct gas between the first chamber first chamber 4410 and the second chamber 4414.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0128] The expansion and contraction of the gas may alternately push and pull second housing component 4412, thereby generating either discrete (one-time) or cyclical mechanical output 4428, e.g., a displacement and / or force. In some embodiments, the first chamber 4410 is “hot chamber A” and the second chamber 4414 is “cool chamber B” (TA >TB). Light energy 4430 is pulsed into the first chamber 4410, causing rapid heating and expansion of the gas. Mechanical work is extracted when the differential pressure causes displacement or actuation of at least one movable boundary, or forces the gas to flow into the second chamber 4414. The second chamber 4414 then facilitates heat extraction and returns the gas to somewhat lower temperatures before it reenters the first chamber 4410. The wall 4422 may be a thermally insulated barrier. The first and second chambers 4410, 4414 may be fluidically coupled via a heat exchanger or flow channels (shown in FIG.45) to achieve a regenerative cycle, thereby enabling closed-cycle photothermally driven actuation with enhanced efficiency.

[0129] To enhance heat rejection in chamber 4414, one or more thermally conductive walls, fins, or fluid-cooled jackets may form a heat exchanger structure. The heat exchanger structure may be placed in thermal communication with the cooler external environment or a dedicated cooling sink. In certain embodiments, portions of the second housing component 4412 are insulated to direct heat preferentially to these exchanger surfaces, thereby improving the thermal efficiency of the closed-cycle operation.

[0130] FIG.45 is a cross-sectional view of an actuator 4504 with similar features as described above for the actuator 4404 illustrated in FIG.44. For example, the actuator 4504 includes a housing 4506 comprising a first housing component 4508 and a second housing component 4512, a first chamber 4510, a second chamber 4514, an optical window 4520, a photoabsorber 4526 positioned within the first chamber 4510 and configured to absorb optical energy 4530, a wall 4522, at least one seal 4516, and at least one elastic element 4518. In contrast to the wall 4422 of actuator 4404, the wall 4522 lacks valves. Rather, the actuator 4504 includes a valve positioned within a gas flow channel to regulate gas flow between the first chamber 4510 and the second chamberO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 4514. In some embodiments, the gas flow channel may be formed within the cavity walls. For example, the gas flow channel may be positioned within the wall of a housing component. For example, for the arrangement illustrated in FIG.45, a gas flow channel may be positioned within the wall of the first housing component 4508 with one opening to the first chamber 4510 and a second opening to the second chamber 4514. In other embodiments, the gas flow channel may be formed as a discrete pipe positioned exterior to the housing 4506, for example, as illustrated in FIG.45. In some embodiments, the gas flow channel 4540 has a bifurcated section that includes a first channel with a first valve 4524a and a second channel with a second valve 4524b, with each end of the bifurcated section being in fluid communication with a single channel. In other embodiments, the gas flow channel 4540 includes two separate gas flow channels each extending between the first chamber 4510 and the gas flow channel 4540 and each includes a valve 4524.

[0131] The gas flow channel is configured to permit gas to flow from the first chamber 4510 to the second chamber 4514 after optical energy causes a heating and pressure increase in the gas contained in the first chamber 4510, and to permit gas to flow from the first chamber 4514 to the second chamber 4510 due to a pressure difference produced by the action of the load on the gas contained in 4514 or to the expansion of gas contained in 4510. When present, the valve 4524a may be a check valve admitting gas flow only from the first chamber 4510 to the second chamber 4514 or may be a pressure relief valve admitting the same flow only when the pressure in the first chamber 4510 exceeds a threshold. Similarly, valve 4524b may be of check valve type or pressure relief type, in both cases admitting flow solely from the second chamber 4514 to the first chamber 4510. Like the actuator 4404 discussed above, expansion and contraction of the gas may alternately push and pull second housing component 4512, thereby generating either discrete (one-time) or cyclical mechanical output 4528, e.g., a displacement and / or force.

[0132] ANALYSIS / EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

[0133] THEORY OF OPERATIONO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0134] The energetics governing the mode of operation of one or more of the actuator embodiments described herein may be captured by a standard thermal circuit model describing light-stimulated heat transfer to the absorber, and heat transfer between the absorber, gas, and walls of the cavity. At time t = 0, an incident light pulse of powerPL supplies heat at rate ^̇^^^ = ^^^^^^, where ^^ is the absorption efficiency.^^^^^^^^^^^̇^ ^^ −^^ =^^^^^^^^^^−^^^^^^ ^^^^ −^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^−^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^(1)(2)

[0135] where Tabs is the absorber temperature, Tg is the gas temperature, Rg is the effective thermal resistance from the absorber component to the gas, Cabs is heat capacity of the absorber component, and Cgis the heat capacity of the gas.

[0136] The heating of the gas drives an increase in gas pressure described by the ideal gas law, ^^(^^)^^(^^) = ^^^^^^^^(^^) (3)

[0137] of the gas and the walls are maintained at ambient temperature, Tenv. In this case, the time-dependent absorber temperature Tabs(t) can be described by a thermal circuit model whose solution for t ≥ 0 is given by the time-dependent absorber temperature Tabs(t) can be described by a thermal circuit model whose solution for t ≥ 0 is given by equation 1. ^^ ^^ ^^−^^^^−^^^^^^^^(^^) = ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ − ^^ + (^^^^^^^^(0) − ^^^^^^^^)^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + ^^^^^^^^ (4)^^^^^^^^ = 1⁄ (^^−1^^ + ^^−1^^ ) , Rw is the effective thermal resistance from the absorbercavity, Cabs is the heat capacity, or thermal mass, of the absorber component.

[0139] The first term on the right is due to optical heating of the absorber component, while the second describes cooling via heat transfer to the gas and surround. The temperature variations of the absorber component occur with the time constant τ = ReffCabs. A fraction of the heat then diffuses into the air, leading to a temperature increaseO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 in the cavity, and thus an increase in the gas pressure, P(t) = Patm+ p(t), described by the ideal gas law, P(t)V(t) = nR∆Tgas(t), where Tgas(t) and V(t) are the gas temperature and volume. In some embodiments, the pressure increase produces a deflection d(t) of the membrane, such as an output component (e.g., output component 1012), or a deformable member (e.g., first deformable member 1411). When the membrane is not loaded by a finger, the relationship between p(t) and the membrane deflection d(t) is approximately linear within the driving range employed here, and may be described by ^^(^^) =^^(^^)^^(^^) ^^ (5)

[0140] ofthe

[0141] FIG.23 illustrates thermal images of the heat response over time of an actuator 2304 to the absorption of light, according to some embodiments. In this example, the absorber component of the actuator 2304 has a first width (scale w = 0.6 mm). Images 2301, 2303, and 2305 are top views of the actuator 2304. Image 2301 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t1 (t1 > t0). Image 2303 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t2(t2> t1). Image 2305 illustrates the thermal response of the actuator 2304 at time t3 (t3 > t2).

[0142] Varying the width of the bridge can be utilized to change the thermal resistance of the system, since R ∝ 1 / w. FIG.24 and FIG.25 respectively illustrate a comparison of the amount of deflection over time for an actuator 2404 with an optical target having a wider bridge (scale w = 0.6 mm) and an actuator 2504 with an optical target having a narrower bridge (scale w = 0.3 mm) (see FIG.9). Turning to FIG.24, images 2401, 2403, and 2405 illustrate that the amount of deflection increases over time. Image 2401 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t1after light has been absorbed for 5 ms. Image 2403 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t2 after light has been absorbed for 25 ms. Image 2405 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2404 at time t3after light has been absorbed for 50 ms. Turning to FIG.25 images 2501, 2503, and 2505 illustrate that the amount of deflection increases over time. Image 2501 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 atO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 time t1after light has been absorbed for 5 ms. Image 2503 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 at time t2 after light has been absorbed for 25 ms. Image 2505 illustrates the deflection response of the actuator 2504 at time t3 after light has been absorbed for 50 ms. A comparison of FIG.24 and FIG.25 illustrates that with an optical target having a narrower bridge generates more deformation than an optical target having a wider bridge.

[0143] FIG.26 is a graphical comparison 2602 of the performance of actuators with optical targets having bridges with different widths. Graph 2600 illustrates the input signal. Graph 2610 illustrates the thermal responses (absorber component temperature) of the actuator embodiments over time. Lines 2612, 2614, 2616, 2618, 2620 respectively illustrate the performance of a 0.2 mm bridge, a 0.25 mm bridge, a 0.4 mm bridge, a 0.55 mm bridge, and a 0.75 mm bridge. As shown in graph 2610, the average absorbing temperature is greatest with the 0.2 mm bridge (525 °C) and smallest temperature with the 0.75 mm bridge (162 °C). Graph 2630 illustrates the deflection responses (displacement) of the actuator embodiments over time. As shown in graph 2630, the surface displacement was greatest with the 0.2 mm bridge (0.95 mm) and smallest with the 0.75 mm bridge (0.33 mm).

[0144] FIG.27 is a graph 2700 illustrating the deflection (displacement) of an actuator in response to light applied to the actuator at frequencies suitable for tactile output, according to some embodiments. Line 2702 shows the displacement at 5 Hz, line 2704 shows the displacement at 10 Hz, line 2706 shows the displacement at 20 Hz, line 2708 shows the displacement at 50 Hz, line 2710 shows the displacement at 60 Hz, line 2712 shows the displacement at 80 Hz, and line 2714 shows the displacement at 100 Hz. It has been observed that an actuator as disclosed herein is capable of operating at refresh rates up to 500 Hz and thus can operate within the range of frequencies most important to human touch.

[0145] FIG.28 is a graph 2800 illustrating the optical absorption spectrum vs. wavelength for pyrolytic graphite (PGS), represented by line 2802, and acrylic transmission spectrum vs. wavelength, represented by line 2804.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0146] FIG.29 is a table 2900 and a graph 2902 of emissivity measurements of pyrolytic graphite (PGS) for the temperature range of 25 °C to 167 °C. The emissivity was determined to be 0.39 in the temperature range 25 °C to 167 °C.

[0147] FIG.30 is a graph 3000 illustrating a tradeoff between the peak displacement and relaxation time τ when changing the geometric design of the optical target. Points 3002 represent values measured for peak displacement (point 3002a identified) and points 3004 represent values measured for relaxation time (point 3004a identified). As predicted by Equation (1), increasing w monotonically decreases the surface displacement and relaxation time.

[0148] Important parameters for the light (signal) include pulse length, tp, pulse gap, tg, and power. FIG.31 is a graph 3100 illustrating parameters of pulse length (laser on for tp), pulse gap (laser off 192 for tg), and amount of force (nM) generated by different amounts of applied power (PL, total energy added is PLtp).

[0149] FIG.32 is a graph 3200 illustrating that varying the input power to an actuator configured to output a perceptible output shows a linear actuator response with both actuator pressure and peak displacement. In other words, both the peak displacement and peak force / pressure during each pulse correlate linearly with power. Line 3202 represents the peak displacement and line 3204 represents peak pressure.

[0150] Pulse gap is important when delivering a train of pulses. As the pulse gap approaches the relaxation time (tg→ τ), it inevitably leads to reinflation prior to full relaxation. This leads to the buildup of a constant offset, δo, as the actuator approaches steady state. This is shown in FIG.33 by a graph 3300 illustrating that pulsing the input signal faster than what is required for the pixel to fully cool leads to a thermal buildup in the pixel, represented by constant offset, δowhen it reaches a steady state.

[0151] Additionally, the peak-to-peak amplitude, δpp, in steady state is lower than the initial peak, δ1, despite the pulse length and power being constant in each pulse. More specifically, the normalized offset, δo / δ1, follows an inverse relationship with the pulse gap, with a rate dictated by the relaxation time of the system, such that δo / δ1= τ / tp. This is illustrated in FIG.34 by a graph 3400 illustrating that the normalized offset follows anO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 inverse relationship with tp. As illustrated by graph 3400, the tp values of 1 ms, 5 ms, and 10 ms, lie on the curve 3402. The normalized peak-to-peak amplitude, δpp / δ1, follows a similar trend, with the effect becoming most prominent as tg < τ. This is shown in FIG. 35 by a graph 3500 with a curve 3502 illustrating that the normalized peak-to-peak amplitude in steady-state follows is determined by tg and τ. However, the actuators are capable of being refreshed faster than indicated by τ. Graph 3600 provided in FIG.36 illustrates refreshing rates of up to 500 Hz.

[0152] FIG.37 is a graph 3700 illustrating the number of actuators N that can be activated per second by a single laser. The curves 3702, 3704, 3706 illustrate the number of actuators N as a function of the membrane displacement for different power levels, 2.5 W, 1.5 W and 1.0W respectively, for an optical target having a bridge width of 0.6 mm. As illustrated by graph 3700, N increases with optical power PL and decreases as the target displacement, δ, increases. The feasible rate N reached its highest value, N = 217 actuators per second for δ = 50µm, declining to N = 26.5 actuators per second at δ = 400µm, both at power PL = 2.5 W. The maximum value of N is effectively independent of the laser scanning speed, due to the high scanning speeds that can be achieved using commodity hardware.

[0153] Embodiments of the present disclosure describe:

[0154] A method of fabricating an actuator may include coupling a first component (1008, 1108, 1208, 1408), to a first internal component (1016, 1116, 1216); coupling the first internal component to an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214); coupling the absorber component to a second internal component (1020, 1120, 1220); and coupling the second internal component to an output component (1012, 1112, 1212).

[0155] The first component (1008, 1108, 1208) may be optically transparent and the output component (1012, 1112, 1212) may be elastically deformable.

[0156] An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404) may include a deformable output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412); an optically transmissive component (1008, 1108, 1208, 1308, 1408); an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414)O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 positioned between the deformable output component and the optically transmissive component; and a cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1318, 1422) containing a gas.

[0157] The actuator may include a non-actuated state wherein the gas is at a first temperature and the deformable output component is not deformed; and an actuated state wherein the gas is at a second temperature and the deformable output component is deformed outward.

[0158] An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404) may include a deformable output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412); an optically transmissive component (1008, 1108, 1208, 1308, 1408); an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414) positioned between the deformable output component and the optically transmissive component; and a cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1318, 1422) containing a gas, the cavity positioned between the deformable output component and the absorber component.

[0159] The actuator may include a non-actuated state wherein a first volume of gas is contained in the cavity; and an actuated state wherein a second volume of gas is contained in the cavity and the deformable output component is deformed outward.

[0160] A light activated actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404) may include an elastomeric component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412); an optical window (1008, 1108, 1208, 1308, 1408); an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414) positioned between the elastomeric component and the optical window; and a gas filled cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1318, 1422) positioned between the elastomeric component and the absorber component.

[0161] The elastomeric component may reversibly deform after light is absorbed by the absorber component.

[0162] An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404) may include an output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412) configured to reversibly deform following absorption of pulsed light by an internal absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414).

[0163] A time constant of the reversible deformation may be less than a centisecond.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0164] An actuator (1504) may include an output component (1512) configured to output mechanical work following absorption of pulsed light by an internal absorber component (1514).

[0165] The output component (1512) may include a piston (1570) and a crank shaft (1572).

[0166] An actuator (1604) may include an optically transmissive component (1609); an absorber component (1614); a cavity (1622); and an output component (1612) comprising a port (1684).

[0167] The actuator may be configured to generate a pressure wave upon absorption of light transmitted through the optically transmissive component, wherein the pressure wave is configured to exit the actuator by the port.

[0168] An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404, 1504, 1604) may include an optical window; an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414, 1514, 1614) configured to absorb light; a cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1318, 1422, 1522, 1622) containing a gas; and an output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412, 1512, 1612).

[0169] Light absorbed by the absorber component may be transformed into energy that is outputted by the actuator as a perceptible output, a mechanical output, or a pressure wave.

[0170] The output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412) may be deformable and generate the perceptible output.

[0171] The output component (1612) may include a port (1684) for the pressure wave to exit the actuator (1604).

[0172] The output component (1512) may include a piston (1570) and a crank shaft (1572).

[0173] An actuator apparatus may include a first chamber configured as a hot chamber containing a working gas and a photothermal absorber adapted to receive pulsed light energy; a second chamber in fluid communication with the first chamber, configured as a cool chamber where the working gas is cooled; a thermally insulating partition or flow channel defining distinct hot and cool regions; and at least one movableO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 boundary element coupled to the first or second chamber so that periodic heating and expansion of the working gas in the hot chamber produces mechanical motion or work output, wherein the working gas is recycled between the hot and cool chambers in a closed-cycle manner.

[0174] The movable boundary element may include a rigid sliding wall in sealed contact with the hot chamber, the rigid wall being biased by at least one elastic or spring member but free to move along a linear or guided path in response to gas pressure variations.

[0175] The apparatus may further include at least one passive valve or pressure- relief valve disposed between said hot and cool chambers, arranged to facilitate directional or intermittent gas flow that enhances convective heat transfer.

[0176] The apparatus may further include a heat exchanger positioned in or adjacent to the cool chamber, the heat exchanger including a thermally conductive interface or fin structure adapted to remove heat from the working gas, wherein at least one wall of the cool chamber is insulated to direct heat flow toward the heat exchanger.

[0177] The apparatus may further include a sealed port configured to admit a fiber optic conduit connected to a pulsed light source, wherein light pulses are transmitted through the fiber and terminate within the hot chamber to illuminate the photothermal absorber.

[0178] An actuator may include a rigid upper surface forming a cool chamber, said surface being in sealed, slidable contact with a lower chamber configured to receive pulsed photothermal energy; a compression or extension spring element mechanically coupling the upper and lower chambers; and a working gas disposed in at least one of said chambers such that, upon absorption of pulsed light in the lower chamber, gas pressure in the lower chamber forces the rigid upper surface to move, thereby generating mechanical output without requiring an elastomeric membrane.

[0179] An actuator may include: a photothermal absorber disposed in a gas-filled cavity; at least one fiber optic conduit terminating in said cavity for delivering pulsed light to the absorber; a movable boundary in fluid communication with the cavity forO / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 converting pulsed heating of the working gas into mechanical displacement; and a thermally conductive or partially insulated region configured to facilitate discrete (one- time) or cyclical cooling of the gas, wherein the actuator operates as a closed-cycle or semi-closed-cycle photothermal heat engine upon repeated pulsed illumination through the fiber.

[0180] The working gas may be selected from the group consisting of one or more noble gases, diatomic gases, or mixtures thereof, with thermal properties chosen to optimize cycle efficiency or operating speed.

[0181] An actuator may include a closed gas-filled cavity in which a photoabsorber is connected to a flexible membrane via a suspension structure of tunable thermal mass and thermal resistance.

[0182] The addition of optical energy through the optical window, onto the photoabsorber may heat the cavity, thereby increasing the pressure, and displacing the flexible membrane and photoabsorber.

[0183] The displacement may be a vertical displacement.

[0184] An applied external force may displace the flexible membrane and photoabsorber, regardless of the temperature in the cavity.

[0185] The optical energy may be a low-power optical energy that may or may not change the temperature of the cavity.

[0186] A sensing unit may be added to detect the low-power light reflected off the photoabsorber.

[0187] Data analysis may be used to determine the position of the photoabsorber, and the external force applied to the flexible membrane.

[0188] The photoabsorber may be a high gauge titanium wired that penetrated a pyrolytic graphite sheet and / or the flexible membrane may be a silicone EcoFlex 00-10 rubber.

[0189] The cavity may have a radius of 5 mm.

[0190] The actuator may create an output force greater than 300 mN.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0191] The actuator may include a wall unit, a stiff tip connected to the wall unit via an elastic connector having an initial length L1; a photoabsorber suspended from, and connected to, the stiff tip, wherein the photoabsorber is positioned in a cavity.

[0192] The elastic connector may be a spring or elastic material.

[0193] The addition of optical energy to the photoabsorber may raise the temperature of the cavity such that the tip displaces, resulting in an increase in the length of the elastic connector L2>L1.

[0194] The displacement may be vertical.

[0195] A force applied to the tip may displace the tip, resulting in a decrease in the length of the elastic connector. The decreased length may be less than the initial length (L3<L1).

[0196] The optical energy may be transmitted by a fiber optic filament.

[0197] The fiber optic filament may be connected to both a laser unit and a sensing unit to allow for the dual function as both an actuator and a force sensor.

[0198] An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404, 1504, 1604, 1704, 3804, 4204, 4404, 4504) may include: at least one cavity (1018, 1022, 1118, 1122, 1218, 1222, 1318, 1418, 1422, 1426, 1518, 1522, 1526, 1618, 1622, 1718, 1722, 3818, 4218) containing a gas; an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414, 1514, 1614, 1714, 3824, 4214, 4426, 4526) configured to absorb optical energy; and an output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412, 1512, 1612, 1712, 3812, 4212, 4213, 4418) configured to generate an output (2090, 4428, 4528, L) in response to the light energy absorbed by the absorber component.

[0199] The output may be a perceptible output, a mechanical output, or a pressure wave.

[0200] The output component may: be a deformable membrane (1312, 3812); comprises a piston (1570); comprises a port configured to emit heated gas; be a membrane comprising a stiff section (4222) and an elastic section (4224); or be a movable housing component (4412).

[0201] The at least one cavity is a single cavity (1318).O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0202] The absorber component (1314) is adjacent to the output component (1312) and the output component is a deformable membrane.

[0203] The absorber component is suspended from the output component (3812, 4212, 4213).

[0204] The output component may be either: a deformable membrane (3812); or a membrane comprising a stiff section (4222) and an elastic section (4224).

[0205] The at least one cavity may include a first cavity (1018, 1118, 1218, 1418, 1518, 1618, 4410) and a second cavity (1022, 1122, 1422, 1522, 1622, 4414).

[0206] The absorber component (1014, 1124, 1224) may be positioned between the first cavity (1018, 1118, 1218, 1618) and the second cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1622).

[0207] The output component may be a deformable membrane (1012, 1112, 1212).

[0208] An open passageway (1240) may be in fluid communication with the second cavity (1222).

[0209] A passageway (1682) with a port (1684) may be in fluid communication with the second cavity (1622).

[0210] The absorber component (1414, 1514) may be positioned in the first cavity (1418, 1518).

[0211] The actuator may include a third cavity (1426, 1526) separated from the second cavity (1422, 1522) by a first deformable member (1411, 1511).

[0212] A wall (4422, 4522) may separate the first cavity (4410, 4510) and the second cavity (4412, 4512).

[0213] The absorber component (4426, 4526) may be positioned in the first cavity.

[0214] At least one valve may regulate a flow of gas between the first cavity and the second cavity.

[0215] At least one valve (4424) may be positioned in the wall (4422).

[0216] The actuator may include a first gas flow channel (4540) may be in communication with the first cavity and the second cavity.O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2

[0217] The first gas flow channel may include a first valve (4524) of the at least one valve positioned within the first gas flow channel.

[0218] While the invention has been described with reference to an exemplary embodiment(s), it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope thereof. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment(s) disclosed, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the appended claims.

Claims

O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 CLAIMS:

1. An actuator (1004, 1104, 1204, 1304, 1404, 1504, 1604, 1704, 3804, 4204, 4404, 4504) comprising: at least one cavity (1018, 1022, 1118, 1122, 1218, 1222, 1318, 1418, 1422, 1426, 1518, 1522, 1526, 1618, 1622, 1718, 1722, 3818, 4218) containing a gas; an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214, 1314, 1414, 1514, 1614, 1714, 3824, 4214, 4426, 4526) configured to absorb optical energy; and an output component (1012, 1112, 1212, 1312, 1412, 1512, 1612, 1712, 3812, 4212, 4213, 4418) configured to generate an output (2090, 4428, 4528, L) in response to the optical energy absorbed by the absorber component.

2. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the output is a perceptible output, a mechanical output, or a pressure wave.

3. The actuator of claims 1 or 2, wherein the at least one cavity is a single cavity (1318).

4. The actuator of any one of claims 1-3, wherein the absorber component (1314) is adjacent to the output component (1312) and the output component is a deformable membrane.

5. The actuator of claims 1 or 2, wherein the absorber component is suspended from the output component (3812, 4212, 4213).

6. The actuator of claim 5, wherein the output component is either: a deformable membrane (3812); or a stiff membrane (4222) comprising an elastic section (4224).

7. The actuator of claims 1 or 2, wherein the at least one cavity comprises a first cavity (1018, 1118, 1218, 1418, 1518, 1618, 4410) and a second cavity (1022, 1122, 1422, 1522, 1622, 4414).O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 8. The actuator of claim 7, wherein the absorber component (1014, 1124, 1224) is positioned between the first cavity (1018, 1118, 1218, 1618) and the second cavity (1022, 1122, 1222, 1622).

9. The actuator of claim 8, wherein the output component is a deformable membrane (1012, 1112, 1212).

10. The actuator of claim 8 or 9, wherein an open passageway (1240) is in fluid communication with the second cavity (1222).

11. The actuator of claim 8, wherein a passageway (1682) with a port (1684) is in fluid communication with the second cavity (1622).

12. The actuator of claim 7, wherein the absorber component (1414, 1514) is positioned in the first cavity (1418, 1518).

13. The actuator of claim 12, further comprising a third cavity (1426, 1526) separated from the second cavity (1422, 1522) by a first deformable member (1411, 1511).

14. The actuator of claim 7, wherein a wall (4422, 4522) separates the first cavity (4410, 4510) and the second cavity (4412, 4512), the absorber component (4426, 4526) is positioned in the first cavity, and at least one valve regulates flow of gas between the first cavity and the second cavity.

15. The actuator of claim 14, wherein the at least one valve (4424) is positioned in the wall (4422).

16. The actuator of claim 14, further comprising a first gas flow channel (4540) with a first valve (4524) of the at least one valve positioned within the first gas flow channel.

17. A method of fabricating an actuator comprising: coupling a first component (1008, 1108, 1208, 1408), to a first internal component (1016, 1116, 1216); coupling the first internal component to an absorber component (1014, 1114, 1214);O / R Docket No.4059.067PCT1 Client Docket No.2024-890-2 coupling the absorber component to a second internal component (1020, 1120, 1220); and coupling the second internal component to an output component (1012, 1112, 1212).

18. The method of claim 17, wherein the first component (1008, 1108, 1208) is optically transparent and the output component (1012, 1112, 1212) is elastically deformable.

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